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Nutrition of Tree-dwelling Squirrels

Article in Veterinary Clinics of North America Exotic Animal Practice · June 2009
DOI: 10.1016/j.cvex.2009.01.015 · Source: PubMed

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Nutrition of Tree-dwelling Squirrels

Kerrin Grant, M.S.

Wildlife Care Director, Nutritionist

Keywords: tree squirrels, flying squirrels, nutrition, hand-rearing

Corresponding author for proofs and reprints:

Kerrin Grant

The Wildlife Center

PO Box 246

Espanola, NM 87532

(505) 753-9505

Kerrin@thewildlifecenter.org

zoonutrition@msn.com

North American squirrels are categorized into one of three main

groups, based on physical characteristics, ecological niche (including diet and

food-hording strategies) and social structures.

Animals designated as “tree squirrels” are divided into one of two genera:

Sciurus means “shade tail” and includes the larger tree squirrels with large,

bushy tails, such as the eastern gray (Sciurus carolinensis), western gray

(Sciurus griseus), Abert’s (Sciurus aberti), fox (Sciurus niger) and Arizona

gray squirrel (Sciurus arizonensis). The genus Tamiasciurus includes two

smaller tree squirrels, the Douglas (Tamiasciurus douglasii), native to areas west of the Rockies, and the

eastern U.S. analog, red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus). These small squirrels are commonly called

“chickarees” referring to the chattering call they emit. Another group of tree-dwelling squirrels are the

flying squirrels (Glaucomys sabrinus and G. volans). The third main group is the ground-dwelling
 2

squirrels, which includes members of the genus Spermophilus (e.g. California ground squirrel),

chipmunks (Eutamias spp.), prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.) and marmots (Marmota spp.), which will only be

mentioned briefly in this paper.

Wild diets of squirrels

Tree squirrels

Tree squirrels are primarily native to forest environments, with the larger species found in

deciduous and mixed forests and the chickarees in coniferous forests, although the eastern gray and fox

squirrels are more utopian and have evolved to exploit other habitats, including parks and suburban

neighborhoods [1].

The diet of tree squirrels is predominantly seeds (including nuts), fruit, buds, leaves, bark and

fungi growing on trees, although they also consume invertebrates such as beetles, caterpillars and larvae

of various insects (see Table 1). Additionally, they have been known to gnaw on bones and eat soil

(geophagy), presumably to consume minerals such as sodium, calcium and magnesium, which are

somewhat deficient in seeds and nuts [2].

Eastern gray and fox squirrels are the most recognizable squirrel species in suburban and urban

communities as they raid bird feeders and harvest food from nut-producing trees. Burying acorns in the

autumn months is a common sight in much of the country. While being an important energy source to

squirrels in cold winter months, acorns contain a secondary plant compound known as tannins. Tannins

are a plant defense to ward off predator attack by animals and have some deleterious effects on the

animals consuming them [3]. The bitter taste associated with tannins acts as a deterrent as the

concentration of the compound increases. Additionally, tannins are known to bind with dietary protein and

iron, reducing the bioavailability of those nutrients in the animals [3]. Many species, such as deer, have

adaptations to neutralize tannins (e.g. tannin-binding salivary proteins) and reduce the plant compound’s

adverse effects [3]. It is unclear as to whether squirrels have physiological adaptations to bind tannins,

but they have demonstrated adaptations in foraging behavior to minimize the negative effects of these

secondary plant compounds. Studies indicate fox squirrels preferentially collect and eat acorns from white

oak trees early in the autumn rather than burying them [2]. This is because the tannin content of white
 3

oak acorns is relatively low (> 2%) and therefore provide a good energy source as squirrels begin to store

additional body fat. White oak acorns that are buried are first “modified” by the squirrels as they bite off

the endocarp to prevent germination, which allows the seeds to be harvested at a later date by the

squirrels. Acorns of the black oak group are also harvested by squirrels, but contain higher concentrations

of tannins (≥ 6% by weight), which affects the taste and has a greater effect on binding important nutrients

[4]. Acorns from black oaks are harvested and buried by fox squirrels for later use, after the tannins have

leached out of the nut.

Red squirrels prefer hazel nuts/filberts (Corylus spp.) over other seeds, followed by beech nuts

(Fagus spp.), spruce cones (Picea spp.) and pine cones (Pinus spp.) [2]. Douglas squirrels prefer the

cones from Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis), followed by Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), then

spruce and Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) [2], as well as hypogeous fungi [5]. Abert’s squirrel

feed on the inner bark of the Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) twigs during winter [6].

Flying squirrels

Flying Squirrels preferentially consume hypogeous mycorrhizal fungi (truffles) over other food

items [7, 8], which have moderate nutritional value compared to seeds [9, 10]. Additionally, they readily

consume all mast-crop nuts, tree sap, insects, carrion, bird eggs and nestlings, buds and flowers [11].

Ground squirrels

The natural diet of ground squirrels is varied, depending on subgroup, but is typically more

herbivorous than the tree squirrels. Grasses, forbs, flowers and buds form the bulk of the diet, with nuts,

seeds and invertebrates taken more opportunistically [1].

Captive Diet

Captive squirrels must be fed a diet that provides adequate protein, and supplies all the essential

amino acids. Because squirrels commonly raid bird feeders it is a common assumption that sunflower

seeds are a normal part of their diet. This is not the case. Sunflower seeds are the equivalent to “junk

food” and are deficient in the essential amino acid lysine, which prevents absorption of calcium [12].

Additionally, sunflower seeds contain 8.5 times more phosphorus than calcium [13]. When squirrels fill up

on these seeds, they are unable to obtain the proper ratio of calcium to phosphorus (1:1 to 2:1) needed to
 4

maintain proper bone growth, which increases the likelihood of metabolic bone disease in young

squirrels. Peanuts are another inappropriate food for squirrels and are deficient in methionine. In the wild,

squirrels have access to flowers, buds, stems, other nuts, etc., so are able to balance their diet as

needed. Unfortunately, when captive squirrels consume a high proportion of sunflower seeds and

peanuts they can develop health problems associated with obesity, alopecia and other maladies related

to poor nutrition [12]. The recommended captive squirrel diet consists of 60% rodent lab chow or primate

chow (do not offer rabbit or guinea pig chow, hamster or rat/mouse seed mixture), 30% fruit and

vegetables and 10% nuts and seeds. Examples of appropriate food items are provided in Table 2.

Sunflower seeds and peanuts should be restricted to occasional treats and training vehicles only.

Weight ranges for adult tree squirrels are: Eastern gray: 410 -710g; fox: 504-1062g; Western

gray: 340-964g; chickarees: 140-300g [1].

Table 1: Natural food items of various species of squirrels

Douglas Red squirrel Eastern gray Fox squirrel Townsend’s Flying

squirrel squirrel chipmunk squirrel

Seeds from: Hazelnuts Acorns Walnut Common Snowberry Truffles

Pine (filberts) Pine Maple Black hawthorn Mushrooms
Ash Beech nuts, Hickory Serviceberry (berries) Lichen
Mountain ash Spruce Dogwood Elm Himalayan blackberries Vegetation
Pacific silver fir cones Beech Chokecherry Purple peavine (flowers, Invertebrates
Douglas fir Pine cones Mushrooms Ash peapods) Tree sap
Spruce Spruce Cherry Springbank clover Birds’ eggs
Western Blackberry Corn (flowers)
hemlock Cherry Blackberry Queen Anne’s lace
Salal Caterpillars Acorns (flowers)
Filberts Beetles Hickory Dandelion (flowers)
Caterpillars Larvae Huckleberry Smooth hawksbeard
Beetles Beech (flowers)
Larvae Blueberry Pumpkin seeds
Grape Wheat grass (seeds)
Mulberry Mushrooms
Willow Bent grass (seeds)
Raspberry Serviceberry
Beetles Canary grass (seeds)
Butterflies Perennial fescue
Caterpillars Sumac
Gooseberry
Brome grass (seeds)
 5

Table 2: Appropriate captive diet items for tree squirrels and chipmunks

Fruit Vegetables Nuts and Seeds

Sciurus spp. Tamiasciurus spp.
Apples Yam, raw Pumpkin seeds Beech nuts
Grapes Carrots + leafy tops Acorns Scotch pine cones
Watermelon + Celery tops Hazelnuts/filberts Norway spruce
seeds Corn English walnuts Lodgepole pine
Berries Peas cones
Greens (collards, Western hemlock
dandelion, mustard Douglas fir cones
greens)
Broccoli
Mushrooms

Hand-rearing Infant squirrels:

Many times the public find themselves with an orphaned squirrel pup. This typically occurs when

the nest is destroyed during storms/destruction of the habitat, or from cat/dog attacks. It is preferable that

concerned citizens contact an appropriate wildlife rehab center and release the infant to them for proper

care. Additionally, rehab centers/home rehabbers are more likely to have other squirrel pups, thus

allowing squirrels to be raised with their own kind. This reduces the incidence of imprinting onto human

care givers and provides better preparation (through socialization) to squirrel life once they are released.

While cute and enjoyable when young, imprinted squirrels kept as pets tend to be destructive and

aggressive when they reach puberty, and generally do not adapt well to long-term captivity.

In the event an appropriate rehab facility is not available and hand-rearing is required, the

following diet information should be incorporated into the hand-rearing protocol. See Table 3 for the

preferred substitute milk formula and recipe. It is imperative that squirrels (and most other wild animals)

NOT be fed cow’s milk, even on an emergency, short-term basis. The nutritional composition of cow’s

milk only provides ~35% of the protein and 27% of the fat requirement for squirrels and contains ~1.5

times more lactose than squirrel milk [13]. Protein is the limiting nutrient for growth, so a milk formula

deficient in it will result in retarded growth during the phase when organ/muscle development is still

occurring. Lactose is also a limiting nutrient in that excess amounts will cause an overgrowth of

pathogenic intestinal bacteria, resulting in chronic diarrhea, and potentially death from enteritis.
 6

Additionally, cow’s milk contains twice as much water as squirrel milk, so does not provide adequate

energy from an equivalent volume fed.

Condensed or evaporated milk should also not be fed to squirrels since these products are cow’s

milk in a different form (i.e. water removed and sugar added). Sweetened condensed milk contains 18

times more sugar than squirrel milk [13]. Additionally, homemade recipes for infant mammals that contain

sugar in any form (refined sugar, honey, corn syrup, etc.) should never be fed to squirrels as they

increase the already excessive levels of sugar in the diet and will result in enteritis and death of the

infants.

In order to reduce the carbohydrate content of milk formulas made with cow or goat milk they

would have to be diluted significantly to provide a lactose level appropriate for squirrels. However, by

diluting the lactose component, fat and protein are also diluted to levels that are insufficient for proper

growth and development, resulting in death from chronic starvation. Therefore, a milk formula must be

constructed using commercial products that provide appropriate percentages and absolute values of fat

and protein, while limiting the amount of lactose.

TM
The Pet Ag (261 Keyes Ave., Hampshire, IL. 60140) formula for canine pups (Esbilac powder)

is used as the base formula for squirrel milk. Esbilac alone is insufficient in protein and fat, and therefore

is inadequate for long-term nutrition, although it may be used initially until the preferred diet components

are obtained. The author has successfully used the recommended milk formula listed in Table 3 for tree

squirrels (eastern gray, western gray, fox), ground squirrels (California, Washington and Belding’s)

Northern flying squirrels and Townsend’s chipmunk. Douglas squirrels have been successfully reared on

a slightly modified version of this diet, which is addressed below.

Table 3: Comparison of gray squirrel maternal milk composition and appropriate substitute milk
formulas (as fed basis):

Dry matter % Crude Protein % Fat % Milk sugar % Kcal/ml

Maternal milk [14] 25.4 9.0 12.1 3.0 1.57
Recommended 26.68 9.40 13.38 2.58 1.67
Substitute Formula
for squirrels
Esbilac liquid 18.1 6.2 7.9 2.5 0.98
 7

Substitute milk formula recipe for squirrels

® ®
1 part Esbilac or Milk Matrix 33/40
® ®
1 part Multi-Milk or Milk Matrix 30/55
2 parts water

Prior to 1993, Pet Ag used coconut oil as the fat source in their KMR, Esbilac and Multi-Milk

recipes. In 1993, the ingredients were changed, with coconut oil being replaced by butterfat. The change

was due to research indicating butterfat was more digestible in domestic dogs and cats. However, wildlife

rehabilitators and zoo facilities, which hand-raised infants, noticed various species were developing

digestive problems. Coconut oil has a high concentration of medium-chain fatty acids, which are generally

more digestible than the long-chain fatty acids present in butterfat [3]. Pet Ag responded to the situation
®
by marketing the Zoologic Milk Matrix line of milk formulas. It is essentially the pre-1993 version of their

milk formulas, and contains coconut oil instead of butterfat as the fat source. The Milk Matrix line uses

formula numbers, which refer to the concentration of protein and fat, as the product names. Multi-milk =

Milk Matrix 30/55; Esbilac = Milk Matrix 33/40. The Milk-Matrix version of Esbilac and Multi-Milk are the

preferred products to use in rodent hand-rearing formulas.

The Milk Matrix line is easy to mix when the powder is added to cold water in equal parts and

stirred in a “whisking” fashion. Then the additional water is added to the slurry and mixed completely.

There are usually a lot of air bubbles right after mixing, but they dissipate within a few hours. The
o
consistency is much thicker when the formula is cold, and thins out significantly when heated to 100 F.

The formula must be refrigerated between feedings.

Feeding Regime
o
At intake, it is important to ensure squirrel pups are warm, with a normal body temp of 101-103 F
o
(98.7 F for flying squirrels) prior to giving anything by mouth. Subcutaneous fluids, preferably sterile

saline (NaCl) or Normosol-R, may be administered to dehydrated squirrels, as needed. Healthy pups may

be give electrolytes orally to hydrate, as well as clear the stomach of maternal milk prior to introducing the
o o
substitute formula. All fluids given orally should be warmed to approximately 100 - 102 F (should feel

slightly warm when tested on the back of the wrist) and fed at a volume equivalent to the stomach

capacity, which is 5% body weight (in grams), per feeding. After 2 feedings of electrolytes, given 2 hours
 8

apart, the substitute milk formula may be introduced in a diluted format. This allows introduction of the

new diet gradually to decrease the incidence of digestive upset. To accomplish this, the following

schedule is recommended:
st nd
 1 – 2 feedings: Pedialyte (Ross Consumer Relations, 625 Cleveland Ave., Columbus, OH

43215) or other electrolyte solution (e.g. NaCl, Normosol-R with or without 2.5% dextrose).
rd th
 3 –4 feedings: (2 − 3 hours apart, depending on age and condition): 1 part stock milk formula:

3 part water
th th
 4 − 5 feedings: 1 part stock milk formula : 1 part water
th
 6 feeding: straight stock milk formula if stool is normal. Douglas squirrels tend to develop

diarrhea on the straight stock solution and do better when fed a formula equivalent to 2 parts

stock solution to 1 part water as their final milk concentration.

 Note: Some individuals of any squirrel species develop diarrhea 1-2 feedings after they are

started on the full concentration stock solution. If this happens, give 1-2 feedings of electrolyte
th th
solution, 2 hours apart, and then go back to the dilution described for the 4 -5 feedings. After

stool becomes firm again, feed a concentration of 2 parts stock milk formula: 1 part water as their

final concentration. Growth rates may be retarded slightly in these animals, but they will

compensate when they start consuming the solid diet and typically reach normal weight before

they are weaned.

 The author typically puts walnut or filbert pieces (equivalent to ½ nut) into the milk formula when

mixing, thus allowing the nut flavor to infuse the milk. This seems to mimic the taste of maternal

milk more closely, and is effective in transitioning pups onto solid foods (i.e. they start consuming

nuts sooner when they recognize the taste from the milk).

The volume of formula offered at each feeding should be ~5% of the squirrel pup’s body weight (in

grams). This value is equivalent to the stomach capacity; therefore volumes exceeding this amount may

overextend the stomach, prevent proper absorption of nutrients and provide an environment for

pathogenic bacteria to grow. While on milk formula pups are typically fed 4-5 times per day, which

provides a total daily formula volume of 20-25% of the pup’s body weight. The exception to this concerns
 9

squirrel pups less than one week of age. They typically consume far less than the stomach capacity

volume per feeding so must be fed more often (1-2 hours apart, 10-12 times per day) in order to reach the

daily volume requirement. All pups consuming milk formula, regardless of age, need to be weighed every

few days so the volume of formula offered can be increased accordingly (see Table 4).

Table 4: Body weight ranges for hand-reared fox squirrels from birth to 8 weeks of age [15].

Age Body Weight Physical characteristics

Birth 14-18 g Looks like pink fetus. Skin of eastern grays is grayish-white.

0-1 weeks 18-25 g Looks like pink fetus. Skin of eastern grays is grayish-white.

1-2 weeks 25-35 g Dark fuzz on body appears.

2-3 weeks 35-50 g Body hair coming in. Eyelids develop.

3-4 weeks 50-85 g Short hair present. Looks like miniature squirrel. Eyes still
closed. Lower incisors erupting.
4 weeks 90-120 g Eyes start to open.

5 weeks 120-150 g Eyes open and are focusing. Upper incisors present.

6 weeks 150-180 g Ear flaps stand up.

7 weeks 180-200 g Squirrels are fully developed. Begin digging caching, nest-
building, climbing, self/social grooming
8 weeks 200-230+ g Continue development of behaviors present at 7 weeks.

Milk Additives

Many mammalian species lack the enzyme lactase, which breaks down milk sugar (lactose) into

glucose for absorption into the cells. Gas build-up in the gastrointestinal tract and diarrhea can result as

the undigested sugar ferments in the small intestine. Species that have low carbohydrate levels in the

maternal milk are generally considered lactose-sensitive or lactose-intolerant. Because commercial milk

formulas made for domestic dogs and cats are generally higher in carbohydrates than the maternal milk

of wild species, modifications to the diet are required to prevent digestive distress. Including

Milk Matrix 30/55 in the recipe to increase protein and fat, while limiting the carbohydrate (lactose)

content is essential for providing an appropriate nutrient composition. Additionally, adding the lactase
 10

enzyme and/or lactose-eating bacteria (e.g. Lactobacillus) to the formula helps reduce the incidence of

gas-build-up and overgrowth of pathogenic bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract.

®
Lact-aid (McNeil Nutritionals, Ft. Washington, PA) is a product that contains the enzyme lactase. The

dose is one drop to a day’s worth of formula (up to 50 mL). Lactase breaks down the milk sugar in the

formula for 24 hours, at which time the formula may be offered to the pups. The main drawback of Lactaid

is that it must be added to the milk formula 24 hours in advance of feeding and refrigerated in order to be

effective. However, when used, it appears to be helpful in preventing the signs associated with lactose-

intolerance.

Lactobacillus spp. is a group of bacteria that produce lactase and digest lactose. It is marketed as
®
“Acidophilus” for humans and Probios (Valley Vet1118 Pony Express Hwy., Marysville, KS 66508)
®
or Bene-bac (Pet Ag, 261 Keyes Ave., Hampshire, IL. 60140) for animals. These bacteria live naturally in

the gastrointestinal tract of mammals, and help maintain a healthy gut. They also help prevent the

proliferation of pathogenic bacteria, such as E.coli.

Acidophilus or probiotic must be provided until the squirrels are completely weaned off milk formula.

Although somewhat controversial as to the benefits, they do seem to help reduce the incidence of

diarrhea. A daily dose until the pup is on the full-strength stock milk formula is advisable, and then every

2-3 days after that until the pup is consuming solid food. All of the probiotics may be discontinued during

the weaning process, but given as needed if loose stool/diarrhea occurs.

Acidophilus comes in tablet form and may be crushed and added to the milk formula. The author has

given small mammals (rodents and rabbits) acidophilus at the rate of ½ - 1 tablet in a batch of formula

which lasts 2-3 days and have had no ill effects from that dose. As a general guideline, ½ tablet/ pup per

day may be adequate. Yogurt contains acidophilus in much lower doses so may be used initially or on an
®
emergency basis until a more concentrated form is obtained. Dannon’s (White Plains, NY) Activia (plain

or vanilla flavor, no sugar added) is the preferred brand.

 11

Weaning diet

Addition of solid foods to the squirrel diet may begin after 4 weeks of age, and are initially

comprised of pureed items, such as vegetable baby foods, oatmeal, etc. Continue offering normal milk

formula volumes as solid food items are introduced to pups. As they consume solids on a regular basis,

greens (dandelion, kale, mustard greens, parsley, etc) may also be provided. Start decreasing milk

formula feedings, one per day, each week as you increase the amount of solid foods. At 6 weeks of age,

pieces of nuts (walnuts, pine nuts, filberts) may be offered as treats. Weaning off milk formula may be

completed by 8-12 weeks of age. Solid foods offered at that time are the same as for adults, and based

on species (Tables 1 and 2).

Health problems commonly associated with squirrels:

Diarrhea: commonly seen in infant squirrels and is caused by any combination of the following:

Improper feeding technique --- feeding too much (overextending the stomach) and/or too fast.

Limit milk intake to 5% of the squirrel’s body weight (when calculated in grams) per feeding and

20-25% body weight per day.

Feeding a diet that lacks the proper percentage of dry matter (total solids) and carbohydrates. It is

essential that the milk formula closely mimics the natural milk composition, and not exceed the

percent of carbohydrates, or be deficient in protein and fat.

Bacterial/parasitic infections: enteritis can occur within 5-7 days of consuming an improper milk

formula diet. White diarrhea, accompanied by hypothermia, dehydration (≥10%) and emaciation

has a poor prognosis. Animals in good to fair condition may be given SQ fluids (Normosol-R or

NaCl + 2.5% dextrose) and antibiotics. Do not use LRS in these cases. Oral antibiotics should be

limited to enrofloxacin (Baytril) and sulfonamides (Bactrim).

o Coccidiosis (Eimeria spp.) can occur in squirrels ≥8 days of age. Most squirrels harbor

Eimeria oocysts, but is self-limiting in healthy adults, and does not require treatment if

asymptomatic [16, 17]. However, in young squirrels and injured adults exhibiting diarrhea

and heavy loads of oocysts, sulfadimethoxine (Albon) is the treatment of choice and is

given at the dose for coccidiosis for companion animals.

 12

o Ascariasis from Baylisascaris procyonis: Rodents are the intermediate host for the

raccoon roundworm. Infestation typically present with neurological signs, as the larvae

migrate to the brain and CNS [18]. Torticollis, nystagmus and incoordination are typical.

The differential diagnosis is head trauma. It can also mimic signs of rabies and tetanus

[19]. Because the larvae migrate to the CNS, ova are not expelled in the feces. The only

way to definitively diagnose this parasite is to necropsy and take brain tissue for analysis.

The likelihood of this condition is regional and is more typical in animals from wooded

areas inhabited by large populations of raccoons, since contact with raccoon feces is the

mode of transmission.

Side effects of antibiotic therapy: with the exception of enrofloxacin (Baytril) and sulfonamides

(Bactrim, Albon), oral antibiotics are not recommended. As they pass through the gastrointestinal

tract, beneficial bacteria required to break down plant material are also killed by the drugs. The

following modifications to antibiotic treatment protocols should include:

o Add probiotics to the diet (on a daily basis) while on oral antibiotics to provide an influx of

beneficial bacteria while the GI tract is stressed by bactericidal medications.

o Limit antibiotic therapy to 2-3 days. With the exception of severe bacterial infections, this

time frame is typically adequate. Squirrels have a strong constitution and recover quickly

from wounds and bacterial infection, so 7-10 days of antibiotic therapy is generally not

warranted and tends to have deleterious effects.

o Baytril is the drug of choice for wound management. A suspension may be formulated

and flavored with fruit baby food to utilize it as an oral medication. Penicillin-G and

analogs (e.g. amoxicillin) should never be used in rodents.

Other health issues:

Mange: can be caused by Sarcoptes scabiei or Notoedres cati mites. Sarcoptic mange most

commonly occurs in the extremities, groin and face, whereas Notoedres more typically localizes

in the head and neck region, although other areas may be affected from grooming. Diagnosis is

by microscopic identification of the mites. Notoedres resembles Sarcoptes, but the slit-like anus is

subterminal on the dorsal abdomen rather than terminal, as it is in Sarcoptes [Richard Haveman,
 13

DVM, Portland, OR, personal communication, 1988]. Treatment is similar for both species of

mange. Ivermectin (Ivomec .27% injectible) is the treatment of choice. Administer 0.10 mL/kg

body wt SQ and repeat dose in 2 weeks.

Abscesses: Puncture wounds from tree branches, as well as cat bites result in localized

abscesses. Treatment includes antibiotic therapy, with enrofloxacin as the treatment of choice.

Seizures: Tremors and seizures can result from several physiological abnormalities including

nutritional imbalances and head trauma. Diets deficient in absolute amounts of calcium or ones

that have a skewed Ca:P ratio can result in seizure-like activity, especially in young, growing

squirrels. The proper Ca:P ratio in growing squirrels is 2:1; in adults, 1:1. Nuts and seeds are

highly skewed toward phosphorus and may have deleterious effects in maintaining a proper Ca:P

ratio unless balanced with other foods such as rodent chow and greens. In the wild, squirrels are

able to access bones and soil that contain high levels of minerals that are deficient in their

seasonal diet. In captivity, they are at the mercy of the diet they are offered and are generally

unable to access other nutrients they need to maintain proper health.

Head/spinal trauma: Seizure activity not associated with nutritional imbalances and/or parasitism

is an indication of brain trauma. Spinal trauma commonly occurs in squirrels that have been hit by

cars. Dragging the hind limbs, with or without deep pain reflex, is indicative of spinal trauma.

Supportive care, antibiotics such as enrofloxacin and steroid therapy has limited success and

these cases typically have a poor prognosis.

Summary Points

1. The diet of tree squirrels is predominantly seeds, nuts, fruit, buds, leaves, bark and fungi growing on

trees, although they also consume invertebrates such as beetles, caterpillars and larvae of various

insects. Flying Squirrels preferentially consume hypogeous mycorrhizal fungi (truffles) over other food

items, but also consume mast-crop nuts, tree sap, insects, carrion, bird eggs and nestlings, buds and

flowers.

2. The recommended captive squirrel diet consists of 60% rodent lab chow or primate chow, 30% fruit

and vegetables and 10% nuts and seeds.

 14

® ®
3. The appropriate hand-rearing formula for infant squirrels consists of 1 part Esbilac or Milk Matrix
® ®
33/40, 1 part Multi-Milk or Milk Matrix 30/55 and 2 parts water.

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Alfred A. Knopf; 1985. p. 370-424.

2. Gurnell J. Natural History of Squirrels. New York: Christopher Helm Publ. Ltd. 1987. 224 p.
nd
3. Robbins CT. Wildlife Feeding and Nutrition, 2 Edition. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 1993. 352 p.

4. Thorington RW, Ferrell K. Food and feeding. In: Squirrels: The Animal Answer Guide. Baltimore MD:
Johns Hopkins Univ Press; 2006. p. 102-113.

5. Pyare S, Longland WS. Patterns of ectomycorrhizal fungi consumption by small mammals in remnant
old-growth forests of the Sierra Nevada. J. Mammal 2001; 82:681-689.

6. Snyder MA. Abert’s squirrel in ponderosa pine: the relationship between selective herbivory and plant
host fitness. Am Nat 1993; 141:866-879.

7. Hall DS. Diet of the northern flying squirrel at Sagehen Creek, California. J Mammal 1991; 72:615–617.

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63:1084–1088.

9. Claridge A., Trappe JM, Cork SJ, et al.. Mycophagy by small mammals in the coniferous forests of
North America: nutritional value of sporocarps of Rhizopogon vinicolor, a common hypogeous fungus. J
Comp Physio, B. Biochem, System, Physio 1999; 169:172–178.

10. Cork SJ, Kenagy GJ. Rates of gut passage and retention of hypogeous fungal spores in two forest
dwelling rodents. J Mammal 1989; 70:512–519.

11. Mitchell D. Spring and fall diet of the endangered West Virginia northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys
sabrinus fuscus). Am Midl Nat 2001; 146: 439-443.

12. Sheldon WG. Alopecia of flying squirrels. J. Wild. Dis. 1971; 7:111-114.

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