History of Modern India 1858-1947

DRAFT
SUHS 301
UNDERGRADUATE COURSE
B.A - HISTORICAL STUDIES
THIRD YEAR
FIFTH SEMESTER
CORE PAPER - IX
HISTORY OF MODERN INDIA

(A.D. 1858 - 1947)
INSTITUTE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF MADRAS
B.A.- HISTORICAL STUDIES CORE PAPER-IX
THIRD YEAR- FIFTH SEMESTER HISTORY OF MODERN INDIA
(A.D. 1858 - 1947)
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(i)
B.A.- HISTORICAL STUDIES CORE PAPER-IX
THIRD YEAR- FIFTH SEMESTER HISTORY OF MODERN INDIA
(A.D. 1858 - 1947)
COURSE WRITER
Dr. P. GOWRI
Assistant Professor
Department of Historical Studies
Bharathi Women’s College (A)
Chennai – 600 108.
COORDINATION & EDITING
Dr. S.S. SUNDARAM

Professor and Head
Department of Indian History
University of Madras
Chepauk, Chennai – 600 005
© UNIVERSITY OF MADRAS, CHENNAI 600 005.
(ii)
B.A. - HISTORICAL STUDIES
THIRD YEAR
FIFTH SEMESTER
CORE PAPER - IX
HISTORY OF MODERN INDIA (A.D. 1858 - 1947)
SYLLABUS
UNIT I : India under the Crown – Queen Victoria’s Proclamation – Government of

India Act, 1858 – Indian Council Act, 1861 – Lord Lytton’s Viceroyalty – Lord
Ripon – Reforms – Local-self Government.
UNIT II : Renaissance and Socio-Religious Movements in the Nineteenth Century –

Brahmo Samaj – Prarthana Samaj – Arya Samaj – The Ramakrishna
Movement – The Theosophical Movement – Muslim Reform Movements –
Depressed Class Movements: Narayana Guru and SNDP – Jyothirao Phule
and Satya Shodhak Samaj.
UNIT III: The Growth of National Movement in India – Causes – Aims and Objectives
of Indian National Congress – Achievements of Moderates – Indian Council
Act of 1892.
UNIT IV: Rise of Radical and Militant Nationalism – Objectives and Methods – Tilak,
B.C. Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai – Birth of Muslim League – Swadeshi and Home
Rule Movements – Indian Council Act of 1909 and 1919.
UNIT V : National Movement and Gandhian Era: Non Co-operation Movement – Civil
Disobedience Movement – Round Table Conferences – Government of India
Act of 1935 – Quit India Movement – Indian Independence Act of 1947.
(iii)
BOOKS FOR REFERENCE
1.Percival Spear : The Oxford History of Modern India
2. Bipan Chandra : India’s Struggle for Independence
3. Sumit Sarkar : Modern India 1885 – 1947
4. R.C. Majumdar : History of Freedom Movement in India
5. G.S. Chhabra : Advanced Study in the History of Modern India
6. Jyoti Prasad & Satish Kumar : The Indian National Movement
7. B.L. Grover and S. Grover : Evolution of Indian Constitution and

Freedom Struggle
8. A.C. Kapur : Indian Constitutional Development
9. V.D. Mahajan : Indian Freedom Struggle
10. S.N. Sen : History of Freedom Movement in India
11. Prakash Chandra : The History of the Indian National Movement
(iv)
THIRD YEAR - FIFTH SEMESTER
CORE PAPER - IX
SCHEME OF LESSONS
Sl. No. Title Page No.
1 India Under the Crown 001
2 Lord Lytton (1876 – 1880) 011
3 Lord Ripon (1880 – 84) 017
4 The Indian Renaissance and Social and Religious Reform

Movements in the 19th century 026
5 Muslim Reform Movement 040
6 Depressed Class Movements 050
7 The Growth of National Movement in India 061
8 The Moderates 072
9 Indian Councils Act of 1892 081
10 Rise of Radical and Militant Nationalism 089
11 Birth of Swadeshi, muslim league and home rule Movement 099
12 Indian Council act of 1909 (or) Minto-Morley Reforms act of 1909 111
13 Indian Councils act,1919 (or) Montague-Chelmsford Reforms 1919 118
14 National Movement and Gandhian era 128
15 Government of India Act of 1935 145
16 National Movement towards Independence (1937-1947) 155
(v)
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LESSON – 1
INDIA UNDER THE CROWN
Learning objectives
After reading this lesson you will be able to –
 Analyse the causes leading to the passing of the Government of India Act of 1858.
 Understand the end of colonial rule of East India Company.
 Discuss the main provisions of the Government of India Act of 1858.
 Evaluate the Queen’s Proclamation.
 Narrate the implications of the Indian Councils Act of 1861.
Structure
1.1. Introduction – Government of India Act of 1858
1.2. Proclamation of Queen Victoria.
1.3. Indian Council Act of 1861.
1.4. Summary.
1.5. Review Questions.
1.6. Answers to check review questions.
1.1. Introduction
The war of independence of 1857 was an event of great importance in the history of the
Indian sub-continent. After this war the British policy towards India changed drastically especially
as far as constitutional development was concerned. For the purpose of addressing the
grievances of the Indian population a new Act was introduced in India by the Crown in 1858.
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1.2. Government of India Act of 1858

The Government of India Act was passed by the British Parliament on 2nd August 1858.
The rule of the English East India Company came to an end in 1858 by the Government of
India Act of 1858.There were several factors responsible for the passing of the Act.
1.2.1. Circumstances leading to the passing of the Act of Government of

India Act
1. The dual system of Government established by the Pitt’s India Act of 1784 was defective.
There were frequent bickering between the Board of Control and the Court of Directors.
These caused delay in arriving at decisions and hampered efficiency. In July 1857 even
Lord Palmerston had represented to the Queen about inconvenience caused by double-
Government.
2. A feeling had developed among the British people and British Parliament that it was an
anarchronism to leave India in the hands of a trading company.
3. The Charter Act had also been preparing the ground for the change. The Parliament in
these Acts had been laying emphasis on the Company’s position as a trustee for the Crown.
This was clearly stressed by the Charter Act of 1853 which stated that the Company was to
hold Indian territories as a trust for Her Majesty until the Parliament should direct otherwise.
4. The Mutiny of 1857 totally discredited the Company. So the Act of 1858 was passed by the
British Parliament.
1.2.2. End of East India Company
England went to the Polls in 1857 and voted Lord Palmerston to the Office of the Prime
Minister. Lord Palmerston during his Premiership introduced the Bill in the House of Commons
on February 12th, 1858, which proposed the transfer of Government of India to the Crown, the
liquidation of the Court of Directors and proprietors and setting up of an Executive Council
headed by a Cabinet Minister to conduct the affairs of India on behalf of the Crown. The
Company protested against the Bill and submitted a ‘Grand Petition’ praying for the continuation
of its rule. The Company strongly pleaded for status quo on the ground that the Cabinet
Ministers being party men would vitiate the India administrative machinery by working on party
lines.
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Lord Palmerston refuted the misgivings of the Company and said the system of Indian
administration which the Company prided upon had been evolved and shaped by the Act of the
Parliament. He assured the supporters of the Company a clean and unbiased administration
of India under the change of a Cabinet Minister. The Bill first introduced by Palmerston and
then by Derby and Disraeli in a modified form was passed by the Parliament in 1858.
1.2.3. Main Provisions of the Act of 1858
1. Taking over the Indian Administration by the British Crown:The Act provided that India
henceforth was to be governed by and in the name of Her Majesty. It changed the designation
of the Governor-General to the Viceroy of India. It also provided for the transfer of military and
naval forces of the Company to the Crown.
2. Appointments: The Act empowered the Crown to appoint the Viceroy of India and the
Governors of the Presidencies. It vested in the Viceroy the power to appoint Lieutenant
Governors with the approval of Her Majesty. The power of appointing the members of the
Council both at the Centre and the Provinces was given to the Secretary of State in Council.
3. Secretary of State for India and his Council: The Act provided that the powers and duties
relating to the Government and the revenues of India which till then used to be exercised by
the Court of Directors and Board of Control, were to be exercised by the Secretary of State for
India. The Secretary of State was to be a member of the British Cabinet and responsible to the
British Parliament. He was to be assisted by a council of fifteen members, eight of them to be
nominated by the Crown and the remaining to be elected by the Directors.
4. Vacancy: Any vacancy caused amongst persons appointed by the Directors was to be filled
by persons approved by the Crown.
5. Role of the Council: The Council of India was to be an advisory body and its concurrence
was not to be obligatory for the Secretary of State. All the meetings of the Council were
presided over by the Secretary of State. The Council was to meet once every week in which
the Secretary of State was to place all his orders to be sent to India.
6. Powers of Secretary of State for India: The Secretary of the State for India, who presided
over the Council meetings was also empowered to override the view of the majority. He also
possessed a casting vote to be exercised in the event of equal divisions in the Council on any
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issues. He was however, bound by the decisions of the council in matters like, appropriation of
revenues and property, using of securities of money, and sale or mortgage of property, contracts,
etc.
The Secretary of State for India could even send his secret orders, concerning the
making of war, peace of negotiations to Government of India without taking the Council into
confidence.
Secretary of State for India was also given power to frame rules and regulations for
recruitment to Indian Civil Services.
7. Control of British Parliament over the Secretary of State for India: The Act required the
Secretary of State for India to lay annually before Parliament a financial Statement of expenditure
and revenue of India. The Parliament could also ask him questions relating to India, criticize
him on the charge of inefficiency.
8. The Salary of the Secretary of State for India and his Establishment: The Secretary of State
for India was a member of British Cabinet and was to sit inthe parliament. He was to be
assisted by the Parliamentary under Secretary. If the Secretary of State for India attended the
meeting of the House of commons, then he was represented by his Parliamentary Under
Secretary in the other House. Besides that, the unfortunate practice of paying the salary of the
Secretary of State for India and his Establishments out of the Indian revenueswas started in
1858. This practice with all its evils continued up till 1919.
9. Abolition of the Board of control and the Directors: The Board of Control and the Court of
Directors were abolished because their functions had been transferred to the Secretary of
State for India and Council.
10. Report Regarding the Moral and material Progress of the Indians:The Secretary of State
for India was requested to lay a report regarding the moral and material progress of the Indians
before British Parliament. The British Parliament after hearing this report could issue any
direction to the Secretary of State for the betterment of the Indian people.
11. Approval of the Rules and Regulations: Whatever rules and regulations were made by
Secretary of State under the delegated authority of the British Parliament were to be placed on
the table of the House for approval. The British Parliament had the final powers of approving
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and rejecting them.
12. Appointments to the Councils of Governor General and Governors: The Indian Council was
empowered to make appointments to the Council of the Governor General and the Governor.
It could also exercise control over the civil and military servants of the Crown.
13. Rules Regarding the Guidance of the India Governor: The Secretary of State for India and
his Council were empowered to frame certain rules regarding the guidance of the Indian
Government in all its dealings with the British Crown and Government. The Secretary of State
for India henceforth was to control all the Legislative and financial measures, various projects
concerning the railways and construction of the public works, creation for new jobs and policy
matters of the Indian Government.
14. The Secretary of State as a Corporate Body: This Act made the Secretary of State for India
as a Corporate body, so that he could sue and be sued in England and India.
15. Patronage: The Act divided the Patronage between the Crown, Secretary of State in Council
and the authorities in India. Recruitment to the covenanted Civil Service was to be made by an
open competition according to the rules of the Secretary of State in Council and the
recommendations of the Civil Service Commissioners. All the dispatches of the British
Government to the Indian Government was to be signed by the Secretary of State. Similarly,
all the dispatches of the Indian Government to the British Government were to be addressed to
the Secretary of State for India.
16. All the treaties, agreements, engagements, contracts and liabilities of the Company were
to be binding on the Crown.
17. The assumption of the administration of India directly by the Crown was to be announced
to the princes and people of India.
1.2.4. Defects of the Act of 1858
1. Indians were not much benefited from the transfer of the Government and revenues of
India from the Company to the Crown.
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2. The keenness of the British Parliament to know about India was greater during the
Company’s rule, but it subsided with the appointment of the Secretary to run the
administration of India.
3. The Parliament had full faith in the Secretary for India and the Viceroy of India. It began to
approve and justify all their actions.
4. The provision regarding the payment of the salary of the Secretary of State for India and
his establishment out of the Indian revenues was solely in the British interest so it was
greatly resented by the Indians.
1.2.5. Significance of the Act of 1858
1. One great significance of the Act was that it closed one great period of Indian history and
ushered in another great era – the direct rule of the Crown.
2. The abolition of Double Government in England, i.e., the Court of Directors and
Parliamentary Board of Control had also some salutary effect.
3. The Governor General was now to obey the orders of only the Secretary of State. The post
of the Secretary of State for India became more dignified and responsible.
4. The establishment of India Council was a unique measure because it provided the Secretary
of State for India with expert advice.
5. The Act enabled the Indian Princes to have direct contact and correspondence with the
Crown. The Indian rulers henceforth became more loyal to the Crown than ever before.
1.3. Proclamation of Queen Victoria

In order to celebrate the occasion of the taking over of the Government of India by the
Crown, a Darbar was held at Allahabad where Lord Canning read out the Queen’s Proclamation
to the Princes and people of India. The Proclamation was important in many respects because
it laid the foundation of a new policy in India. The right of adoption was given to the Princes
and the policy of the annexation of their States was ended. Thus, they were assured of the
territorial integrity of their States. As general amnesty had been declared, so the proclamation
went a long way in pacifying the people and it became easier for Canning to restore law and
order.
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The Queen’s Proclamation of 1858 is a great landmark in the Constitutional history of

India. It tried to remove the fear of the Indian Princes by guaranteeing to them their position.
Further it gave and assurance to the Indians that the Englishmen will not interfere in the religious
affairs.
1.4. Indian Councils Act of 1861

The Indian Councils Act of 1861 was the first Act which made Constitutional changes in
India after the transference of territory from the Company to the Crown.
1.4.1. Circumstances Leading to the Passing of the Act
1. Need of Associating Indians: The great uprising of 1857 served as an eye opener to the
British Government. The British Government realized it for certain that the only cause responsible
for the revolt was hundred years misrule of the Company. After the war of Independence, Sir
Syed Ahmed Khan advised the British Government to take Indian nationals into the administration
of India.
2. Defective System of Law Making in India: The Legislative Council of the Governor-General
did not work satisfactorily. It observed all the formalities of a Parliamentary procedure, hence
caused delay in the enactment of laws. Moreover, it had no representative of the people on it.
It consisted of only official members who had no sympathies with the people.
3. Difficulties in Making Laws for the Provinces: The Act of 1833 had brought about the
centralisation of legislative powers. It was done with a view to securing uniformity of laws in
the whole country but this system proved defective. Although it had one representative each of
the four provinces, it failed to make laws which could suit the local conditions of a province.
Hence the need was felt for allowing the Presidencies to frame rule for themselves.
4. Question of Defining the Powers of the Legislative Council: The Legislative council of
the Governor General in due course widened its scope of work and began to work as a Parliament
in miniature. At times it refused to comply with the wishes of the Home Government. The
independent attitude of the council created difficulties both for the Governor-General and the
Board of Control.
Lord Canning, the Governor General of India forwarded some suggestions to the Secretary of
State for setting things right. The new proposals made by the Government of India in their
8
Despatch on January 1861. The recommendations of Lord Canning formed the basis of a Bill
which Sir Charles Wood moved in the House of Commons on June 6, 1861 and which after its
enactment came to be known as Indian Councils Act, 1861. It received royal assent on August
1, 1861. It came into force at the close of the year.
1.3.2. Main Provisions of the Act of 1861
1. The new Act provided for the addition of a fifth member to the Executive Council of the
Viceroy. The member was required to be a lawyer.
2. The Governor General was authorized to nominate a President who was to preside over the
meetings of the Executive Council in his absence.
3. The Governor General was given the power of making rules and regulations for the conduct
of business of the Executive Council.
4. The Governor General had the right of increasing the strength of the Council by adding not
less than 6 and not more than 12 members. They were to be nominated by him for purposes
of legislation.
5. Half of the additional members were to be non-officials. They were to hold office for two
years.
6. The functions of the Council were strictly limited to legislation. The Act forbade the
transactions of any other business.
7. The right to disallow the Act was reserved for the Crown.
8. The Governments of Bombay and Madras were given the power of nominating the Advocate
General and not less than 4 and not more than 8 additional members were to hold office
for two years.
9. There was no distinction between the Central and Provincial subjects. The Central
Government dealt with the subjects, i.e., public department, finance, currency, post office,
telegraph, religion, patents and copyrights.
10. New provinces were to be created by the Governor General. The power for the same was
given to him.
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11. The Governor General was also given the power to appoint Lieutenant Governors.
12. The Governor General was also authorized to divide or alter the limits of any Presidency,
Province or Territory.
1.3.3. Evaluation of the Act of 1861
The Indian Councils Act of 1861 marked an important step in the Constitutional history
of India. It greatly helped the Governor General in bringing legislation. The Act of 1861 had
been considered to be a retrograde measure. The Indian Councils Act of 1861 is important in
the constitutional history of India for two reasons. Firstly, it enabled the Governor General to
associate the people of the land with work of legislation and secondly by vesting legislative
powers in the Governments of Bombay and Madras.
The Act of 1861 made the Governor General omnipotent. It brought the whole of India
under his conrol.
1.4. Summary
 India came directly under the British Crown.
 The Act of 1858 abolished the Board of Control and Court of Directors.
 Control of British Parliament over the Secretary of State for India.
 Queen’s Proclamation called as the Magna Carta of India.
 Indian Council Act of 1861 was the first act which made Constitutional changes in India.
1.5 Review Questions
1. Describe the causes for passing the Government of India Act of 1858.
2. Analyse the main provisions of the Act of 1858.
3. Write a short note on Queen’s Proclamation.
4. Narrate the provisions of the Act of 1861.

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1.6 Answers to Check Review Questions

1. See the sub-section 1.2.1
3. See the section 1.3

11
LESSON - 2
LORD LYTTON (1876 – 1880)
Learning Objective
 List out the reforms of Lord Lytton.
 Understand the importance of the Acts passed by Lord Lytton.
 Know the significance of the Scheme of Statutory Civil Service
 Explain the Foreign Policy of Lord Lytton
Structure
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Financial Reforms
2.3. Famine (1876 – 78)
2.4. The Royal Titles Act, 1876
2.5. Free Trade
2.6. The Vernacular Press Act, 1878
2.7. The Arms Act, 1878.
2.8. The Statutory Civil Service
2.9. Foreign Policy
2.10. Estimate
2.11. Summary
2.12. Review Questions
2.13. Answers to Check Review Questions.

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2.1. Introduction
Lord Lytton was a nominee of the conservative Government. Lord Lytton was specifically
chosen by Disraeli, the Prime Minister of England to stem the tide of growing influence of
Russia in Central Asia. Lytton took over the charge from Lord North Brook at Calcutta in April
1876. Lytton was a diplomat by profession and had served the British Foreign Office in many
capacities. Hence Disraeli considered him to be fit enough for the post of Viceroy in India. He
was a poet, a novelist and an essayist.
Lytton carried out several administrative changes in India. All were meant to serve the
interests of Britain and the Government of India. They were as follows.
2.2. Financial Reforms
In 1870, Lord Mayo took the initiative of separating Central and Provincial finances.
The Provincial Governments were granted fixed sums out of Central revenues for administering
certain services like police, jails, education etc., as they liked. Lytton took further steps in the
direction of this policy of financial devolution. The Provincial Governments were authorized to
meet out the expenditure on certain heads like land revenue, excise, stamps, law and justice
etc., as it suited them. For this purpose, the Provinces were assigned certain sources of
revenue like excise, license fee etc. IT was expected that the new system would induce the
Provincial Governments to develop their revenue resources.
The right of the native rulers to manufacture salt was taken away from them. Its monopoly
was taken over by the Central Government. Besides this to check the smuggling of salt from
one province to another, a uniform salt duty was imposed in all the British provinces so that the
salt cost the same in every province.
2.3. Famine (1876 – 78)
A serious famine occurred in India between the period 1876 to 1878. The worst affected
areas were Madras, Bombay, Mysore, Hyderabad and parts of Central Madhya Bharat and
Punjab. Lakhs of people died, many villages were depopulated and large tracts of territory
were left without cultivation. The Government failed to provide adequate help to the famine
stricken people which added further to their miseries. In 1878, therefore the Government
appointed a Famine Commission under the Chairmanship of Richard Strachey, the then Finance
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Member of the Council of the Governor-General. The Commission recommended that Railways
should be constructed and canals be dug up in different parts of the country which would
minimize the chances of famine. It suggested that a Famine Fund should be created in every
province. Thus the Commission laid down the principles which formed the basis of the
subsequent famine policy of the Government of India.
2.4. The Royal Titles Act, 1876

The British Government passed the Royal Titles Act. Disraeli was primarily responsible
for it because he desired to please Queen Victoria who was invested with the title of Kaiser-i-
Hind or Queen Empress of India by it. Lord Lytton held a Darbar at Delhi on 1st January 1877
to proclaim the tile of the Queen. He spent huge amount of money on pomp and show of the
Darbar. At the time, India was in the grip of famine. Therefore, the Indians felt very bitter about
it. LalaLajpatRai and SurendraNath Banerjee were inspired to start People’s Movement from
that very time.
2.5. Free Trade
At that time, Britain was at the top of the world in industrial progress and foreign trade
because of its Industrial Revolution. Foreign trade suited her economic interests. It needed
raw materials and also wide market for its manufactures. India provided both facilities to it.
The acceptance of free trade policy by the Indian Government could provide it cheap raw
materials and extensive market by reducing the market value of its manufactures. The House
of Commons passed a resolution on 11th July 1877 which recommended abolition or reduction
of import and export duties to the Government of India. The Secretary of State, Lord Salisbury,
forwarded the resolution to Lord Lytton. He accepted the spirit of the resolution and, inspite of
poor financial condition of India caused by the famine abolished import duties on twenty-nine
articles. But it failed to satisfy the British cloth manufacturers. Therefore, Indian economic
interest was further sacrificed and in 1879 the duties on the coarser kinds of imported cotton
was removed. Thus, Lytton became an easy instrument of enhancing economic exploitation of
India by Britain.
2.6. The Vernacular Press Act, 1878
Newspapers were published in India in several local languages by that time. Most of
them expressed the grievances of the people against the British rule and particularly against
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the measures taken by Lytton. Lytton therefore, restricted the liberty of the Indian press by the
Vernacular Press Act. By it, magistrates were empowered to secure undertaking, not to publish
anything likely to create any feeling of disaffection against the Government or differences
among the people from the publishers or vernacular newspapers. The measure, thus curbed
the liberty of the Indian Press which was helpful in forming public opinion against the British
rule. The Indian’s therefore resented it.
2.7. The Arms Act, 1878

Another repressive measure of Lord Lytton was the Indian Arms Act. By it the Indians
were asked to seek license or permission to keep, sell or purchase arms. The offenders were
to be punished both with fine and imprisonment for a maximum period of seven years. The
English, the Anglo Indians and Government servants of certain categories were exempted
from this Act. The Act itself and the discrimination which it made between the Indians and
others on the basis of race was bitterly resented by the Indian people.
2.8. The Statutory Civil Service

Lytton introduced the scheme of statutory Civil Service in India. It was meant to permit
entry only those of Indians in the services who could be loyal to the Government. The Charter
Act of 1833 had declared that all Indians would be entitled to get Government jobs on merit.
The Charter Act of 1853 had made the provision of holding a competitive examination in London
for recruitment to high services under the Company. The Indians were allowed to compete in
the examination. Thus, the right of the Indians to get even highest jobs in Civil Services on
merit was accepted by the Government. But in practice every possible effort was made to
check their entry into them.
Lord Lytton straight forwardly proposed to debar the Indians from the Covenanted
Services. But this proposal was not accepted by the British Government. He then introduced
the Statutory Civil Service in India. It was decided in 1879 that on the recommendation of
Provincial Governments the Government of India could employ some Indians of good social
standing in the services though confirmation of their jobs was to be sought from the Secretary
of State for India. This members of the Statutory Civil Service were to enjoy equal status with
the members of the Covenanted service. Their number, however could not exceed one sixth of
the total number of members appointed to the Covenanted service in a year. The British
Government accepted this scheme.
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The statutory Civil Service Scheme was a temptation for the Indians with a view to
dampen their spirit to compete for covenanted service. Besides, it gave positions of influence
only to those Indians who were loyal to the British. Therefore, the Indians did not like it. It was
dropped by the British Government after eight years.
2.9. Foreign Policy

Britishers were following a policy of “Masterly inactivity” in foreign affairs from the times
of John Lawrence. But Lytton wanted to follow a forward policy towards Afghan war. He
wanted to keep the North Western Frontier region under the Control of the Central Government.
Curtailing the growing influence of Russians in that region and enslaving the Afghans to
Englishmen were his main criteria.
2.9.1. Second Afghan War
In order to secure a firm hold on Afghanistan, he readily agreed to fulfill all the demands
of the Amir Sher Ali including the recognition of Abdullah Jan as his heir. At the same time
Lytton insisted that the Amir should receive a British Agent, agree not to have negotiations with
any other power and permit the British officers to go to Kabul and other places, whenever the
British should consider it necessary. Sher Ali rejected the demand saying that the Afghans
would not tolerate the presence of a British resident in their country. So, the efforts of Lytton for
a treaty with the Amir ended in failure.
In the meanwhile, Russia set an envoy named stolietoffto Kabulinspite of the protest
from Sher Ali. When Lytton came to be aware of this he informed Amir of the coming of a
British envoy to Kabul.Nevitte Chamberlain, the British Agent to Kabul was prevented from
passing through the Khyber pass by the Afghan guards. Hence, Lord Lytton ordered the army
to move to Afghanistan and the Second Afghan war started.
Afghanistan was attacked, Sher Ali fled to Russian Turkistan where he died. The British
made the treat of Gandamak with his eldest son, Yakulo Khan. Its clauses were the following-
1. There was to be a resident at Kabul
2. Kurram Pass, with Pishin and Sibi districts were to be given to the British.
The pleasure of victory for the Britishers did not last long. The patriotic Afghan could not
tolerate a foreign agent staying in their capital. They rose in rebellion and murdered Major
Cavagrari, the British Agent in September 1879. The murder gave a death blow to the treaty of
16
Gandamak and the war once again started. The British troops occupied Kabil and Yakub Khan
was deported to India as State prisoner. Lytton thought of disintegrating Afghanistan. But he
was called back to England as there was a change of Government at home in 1880.
2.10. Estimate
Thus, most of the administrative measures of Lord Lytton were against the interests of
the Indians. Lord Lytton was concerned only with the security of the Empire. Therefore, he
cared least for the interests of those over whom he ruled for nearly four years.
2.11. Summary
 Lord Lytton was a diplomat by profession and served the British foreign office in many
capacities.
 Lord Lytton carried out several administrative changes in India.
 Free trade suited the economic interest of the British.
 Vernacular Press Act was passed to restrict the liberty of the Indian Press.
 Brithsers were following a policy of Masterly inactivity in foreign affairs form the time of
John Lawrance.

1. Explain the Financial Reforms of Lord Lytton
2. Write a short note about the Vernacular Press Act.
3. Discuss the Statutory Civil Service Scheme introduced by Lord Lytton.
4. Give an account of the Second Afghan War.
2.13. Answers to Check Review Questions

1. See the Section 2.2
4. See the Section 2.9.1

17
LESSON - 3
LORD RIPON (1880 – 84)
Learning Objectives
 List out the beneficent measures of Lord Ripon.
 Criticise the Financial decentralization.
 Analyse the Resolution on Local Self Government.
 Examine the Ilbert Bill Controversy.
 Discuss the Foreign Policy of Lord Ripon.
Structure
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Repeal of the Vernacular Press Act, 1882.
3.3. The First Factory Act,1881.
3.4. Financial Decentralization, 1882.
3.5. Resolution on Local Self Government, 1882.
3.6. Land Revenue Policy
3.7. Educational Reforms, 1882
3.8. Ilbert Bill Controversy (1883-1994)
3.9. Lord Ripon’s Foreign Policy
3.10. Resignation of Lord Ripon
3.11. Estimate
18
3.12. Summary
3.1. Introduction
Lord Ripon was born in 1827. He began his public career in 1849 at the Brussels
Legation. In 1852 he entered the House of Commons on the Liberal party ticket and in 1859
became Under Secretary for India. From 1861 to 1863 he was Under Secretary for India and
then was Secretary of State for India during 1866-68. In 1874 he accepted the Roman Catholic
religion. During 1868-74 Ripon was a member of Gladstone’s Cabinet and was responsible for
such legislation as the Irish Church Act, the Education Act and the Ballot Act. In 1880 he was
appointed as the Viceroy of India.
In 1890, the Liberal Party came to power in England under the leadership of Gladstone.
He was inspired with a sense of mission and duty towards India. His principal measures bear
the stamp of humanitarianism. He took some steps towards liberalizing the administration in
India.
India was in a State of fermentation – political, social and religious – when Lord Ripon
came to India. Besides the administrative measures of Lord Lytton had injured the sentiments
of Indians and these erupted disturbances at several places. Ripon, therefore, attempted to
purify Indian public opinion. He, therefore, abolished some repressive measures of Lytton and
took steps towards liberalizing the administration in India.
3.2. Repeal of the Vernacular Press Act, 1882
The obnoxious Press Act of 1878 was repealed by the Act of 1882, and the newspapers
published in Vernacular languages were provided equal freedom with newspapers published
in English. The Indians welcomed this measure.
3.3. The First Factory Act, 1881
To improve the lot of factory Labourers, the Government of Ripon passed the First
Factory Act which sought to regulate and improve the condition of labour in Indian factories.
19
The Act was applicable in case of factories employing 100 or more hands. The Act prohibited
the employment of children under the age of seven, limited the number of working hours for
children below the age of twelve and required that dangerous machinery should be fenced.
Inspectors were appointed to supervise the implementation of these measures. The Act though
limited in its scope opened a new phase in the industrial history of India.
3.4. Financial Decentralization, 1882
Lord Ripon continued the policy of financial devolution inaugurated under Lord Mayo.
As the first experiments in financial decentralization Lord Ripon decided to increase further
financial responsibilities of the provinces. The sources of revenue were divided into three
clauses viz., Imperial, Provincial ad Divided.
3.4.1. Imperial Heads
Revenue from customs, posts, and telegraphs, railways, opium, salt, mint, military
receipts, land revenue etc., went wholly to the Central Government and the Central expenditure
was to be met out of this income.
3.4.2. Provincial Heads
Income from subjects of local nature like jails, medical service, printing, roads, general
administration etc., was to go entirely to provincial governments. As the income from the
transferred heads was not ordinarily sufficient for provincial requirements, the Central
Government made good the deficiency in Provincial income by a grant of fixed percentage of
the land revenue which otherwise remained on Imperial subject.
3.4.3. Divided Heads
Income from Excise, Stamps, Forest, Legislation etc., was divided in equal proportion
among the Central and Provincial Governments. The division of expenditure of these heads
generally followed the incidence of the Corresponding heads of receipts.
The purpose of allocating separate heads as source of income to the Provinces was
that theywould keep control over their expenditures. It was also decided that the financial
arrangements between the Centre and the Provinces were to be reviewed every five years.
20
Financial settlements with the provinces were revised in 1887,1892 and 1897.The system of
divided heads begun by Ripon remained operative till it was modified by the Reforms of 1919.
3.5. Resolution on Local Self-Government (1882)
The most notable measure during the period of Viceroyalty of Ripon was the Resolution
on Local Self-Government which formed the basis of establishing Local Self-Government in
provinces. By this resolution, the Central Government advised provincial Governments to
establish local boards at different Units of administration. In the rural areas Governor General
desired that smallest administrative unit – the sub division, the taluka or the tehsil, should form
the maximum area under Local Board. In towns the Municipal Committees and city bodies to
form the Local Board.
Local bodies were to be charged with definite duties and entrusted with suitable sources
of revenue. It was suggested that as far as could be possible, the members of these local
boards should be elected, the majority should comprise of non-officials in every board and the
Chairman of every board should be a non-official. The Boards were to perform local civic
functions. Provincial governments were expected to guide and advise them but not to interfere
in their routine matters. The Boards were to be given certain financial powers as well. They,
however, were required to seek permission of their respective provincial governments in certain
matters, viz., fresh taxation, taking of loans, selling of the property of the Board etc. The
purpose of Ripon was to create mostly self-depended and elected local bodies with a view to
train the Indians in the art of self-government.
In pursuance of this resolution Local Self-Government Acts were passed in different

provinces during 1883-85. In Madras, the local bodies were given the right to manage the
working of lighting, cleaning, education, water supply, medical aid etc. Afterwards, similar Acts
were passed in Punjab and Bengal, and gradually in other provinces also. The efforts and
intentions of Lord Ripon in this field were highly appreciated by the Indians. Because of his
deep devotion towards the upliftment of the Indians in the art of administration, Ripon is rightly
called the father of Local Self-Government in India.
3.6. Land Revenue Policy
Ripon opposed the proposal of establishing a revenue system on the model of the
Permanent Settlement of Bengal in India. He, rather desired to change that. He suggested
21
that the Peasants should be assured of their tenancy rights and the Government should give a
commitment not to raise the revenue unless there was a rise in prices. The Zamindars of
Bengal opposed the measure, the peasants of Bengal did not support it, for they feared that
the Anglo Indian bureaucracy would be worst than the Zamindars. Ripon’s proposals did not
find favour with the Secretary of State.
3.7. Educational Reforms (1882)
In 1854, Sir Charles Wood, the then President of the Board of control had given direction
for educational reforms in India by his famous Dispatch. Lord Dalhousie had attempted to
implement his suggestions. No further effort was made in the educational field after that. In
1882, an Education Commission was appointed under the Chairmanship of Sir William Hunter
to review the progress of education and suggest measures for its improvement. The Commission
assigned the responsibility of Primary education to the Provincial Governments and suggested
that they should get it managed by Local bodies under their supervision and control.
The Secondary education was to be divided into two distinct categories – one literary
and scientific and the other vocational. It was recommended that the Government should
withdraw from the direct management of Secondary schools. The Commission recommended
that the Government should pay more attention towards the female education because it was
not properly attended to by them. Lord Ripon accepted most of the recommendations of the
Commission and attempted to implement them. It resulted in the growth of secondary education
in India.
3.8. The Ilbert Bill Controversy (1883-1884)
Sir. C.P. Ilbert was the law member of the executive Council of the Governor-General.
He introduced a bill, popularly known as Ilbert Bill in February 1883. Infact, Lord Ripon had
desired it with a view to abolish the distinction between the rights of the Indian and the judges
which were based simply on race distinction.
The Code of Criminal Procedure of 1873 debarred the Indian Magistrates from trying
criminal cases involving European British Subjects. The Bill was meant to abolish this distinction
and permit the Indian Judges to try the cases of European as well. The Bill offended the
22
sentiments of the European community in India. They felt that it was a dishonour to their race.
They could not tolerate the idea that a member of the Subject - race would sit as a Judge to
pass judgement on their actions. Therefore, the Europeans in India protested against the
passing of the Bill. They organized a Defence Association, collected a fund of rupees one lakh
fifty thousand to propagate their view and sent representations against the Bill to the government
of British and the Queen. The newspapers in Britain made direct attack on Ripon, public
opinion was created against the Bill and the British Government was convinced of the arguments
of those who protested against the Bill.
Ripon, therefore was forced to compromise. An amendment was made in the Bill and
it was passed in January 1884 in its new form. It was provided that a European, when brought
to trail before a Judge, whether European or Indian, would have the right to claim trail by Jury
of twelve members, among whom at least seven would be European or Americans. The
amended bill, thus lost the spirit and also its utility which the original bill possessed.
But the controversy over the bill provided two good lessons to the Indians. One, the
English regarded the Indians as of inferior race and, in no way were prepared to give them
equal status. Second, the Indians learnt the methods of organizing a movement and also the
effectiveness of an organized protest. But helped them in their national struggle against the
British.
3.9. Lord Ripon’s Foreign Policy
The British Indian Government fought war with Afghanistan before its relations with the
Government of Afghanistan was stabilized. Lord Lytton proposed to affect the gradual
disintegration and weakening of the Afghan power. But Lord Ripon reversed Lytton’s aggressive
policy and went back to the policy of non-interference in the internal affairs of a strong and
friendly Afghanistan.
3.9.1. Afghan Policy
Lord Ripon assumed office after Lord Lytton whose Afghan policy ended in a disaster.
Hence Ripon wanted to foster friendship with them. In 1879, the Afghans murdered the British
resident in their capital, Kabul. Lord Ripon realized that the Afghans could not tolerate a
23
foreign resident in their capital. So, Ripon approved Abdul Rahman as Amir of Kabul and
brought about a settlement. The idea of a British resident was dropped and the Amir was
sanctioned a subsidy of Rs. 12 Lakhs. Thus, the friendship revived continue for a long time.
3.9.2. Rendition of Mysore
On the charge of misgovernment Lord William Bentinck had annexed the State of Mysore
in 1831. Later on, it came to the knowledge of the Government that the reports of oppression
in Mysore were greatly exaggerated. However, the Company’s authorities refused to reverse
the decision. Ripon decided to correct the wrong done in 1831 and restored the administration
of the State to the adopted son of the deposed Raja who died in 1866. The Instrument of
Transfer which laid down conditions on which Mysore was restored to the Maharaja indicated
the changed nature of relations between the Paramount power and the Indian Princes.
3.9.3. Kolhapur
When the ruler of Kolhapur became mentally deranged in 1882, a Regent under the
British control was appointed for running the administration. When the ruler expired, the widow’s
adopted son was given the power of administration.
3.9.4. Hyderabad
The Sultan of Hyderabad Salar Jung Nizam expired in 1883. A protectorate Council
was empowered to rule the State. But by the next year, the son of the deceased Nizam was
declared to be royal heir and was allowed to assume the throne.
3.10. Resignation of Lord Ripon
In the summer of 1882 Gladstone had willingly sanctioned the occupation of Egypt. A
contingent of Indian troops was sent to Egypt and the burden of the Imperial war fell partly on
the Indian Exchequer. Ripon launched a strong protest against this gross injustice. Ripon felt
that his mission in India had failed. The Ilbert Bill greatly disillusioned him. He resigned before
the term of his Viceroyalty was over and returned to England as a defeated man.
24
3.11. Estimate
Ripon was regarded as a liberal and well-meaning Viceroy by the Indians and they
praised him for his generosity and liberal policies. Pt. Madan Mohan Malviya, a noted nationalist,
expressed “Ripon was the greatest and the most beloved Viceroy whom India has known”.
3.12. Summary
 India was in a state of fermentation - Political, Social and Religious when Lord Ripon came
to India.
 By the Act of 1882 newspapers published in Vernacular languages were allowed equal
freedom with the rest of the Indian Press.
 First Factory Act was passed to improve the condition of labours in Indian factories.
 For financial decentralization Lord Ripon decided to increase further financial responsibilities
of the provinces.
 The most notable measure during the period of Viceroyalty of Lord Ripon was the Resolution
of Local Self-Government.
 Secondary education was to be divided into two distinct categories.
 To abolish the distinction between the rights of the Indian and the Judges Ilbert bill was
introduced.
1. Estimate the importance of the administrative measures of Lord Ripon.
2. Explain the Financial Decentralization policy of Lord Ripon.
3. Describe the Resolution on Local Self-Government.
4. Write a short note about Educational Reforms of Lord Ripon.
5. Critically analyse the Ilbert Bill controversy.
6. Discuss the foreign policy of Lord Ripon.

25
3.14. Answers to check Review Questions
1. See the section from 3.1 to 3.8
2. See the section and sub-section 3.4 & 3,4,1, 3.4.2, 3.4.3
6. See the section and sub-sections 3.9 & 3.9.1, 3.9.2, 3.9.3, 3.9.4
26
LESSON – 4
THE INDIAN RENAISSANCE AND

SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS
IN THE 19th CENTURY
Learning Objectives
 List out the causes for the Indian Renaissance.
 Elaborate the socio-religious reform movements.
 Analyse the various activities of the movements.
 Explain the contribution of the BrahmoSamaj, PrarthanaSamaj and AryaSamaj towards

Indian Society and Religion
 Understand the impact of Ramakrishna Mission on Indian society and religion.
 Discuss the objects and principles of the theosophical society.
Structure
4.1. Introduction
4.2. The causes of the Indian Renaissance
4.3. Reformatic, Revivalist and Rationalistic Movement
4.4. Socio-Religious Reform Movement
4.5. PrarthanaSamaj (1897)
4.6. AryaSamaj (1875)
4.7. The Ramakrishna Movement (1887)
4.8. Theosophical Movement (1882)

27
4.9. Summary
4.1. Introduction
The Indian Renaissance is a remarkable feature of India in the nineteenth century. By

the beginning of the 19th century the Indian culture stood completely demoralized against the
western culture. The educated Indians left the confidence in their own culture and regarded
western culture as their ideal.They blindly imitated western dress, western manners, western
literature, western thought and every thing else which belonged to the West. But at the same
time, a new thought came to the minds of the Indians. It inspired the Indians in every walk of
their life viz., society, religion, literature, fine arts, politics etc. The new thought wave, the
inspiration and emotions which it created and its resultant effects have been called the Indian
Renaissance.
The Indians felt that the Indian culture is great and it can grow and can face the challenge
of Western Culture. Therefore, they tried to revive the glory of the Indian culture, reform Indian
society and religion and bring improvement in every field of life.
4.2. The Causes of the Indian Renaissance
1. Political Unity: The British once more united India politically and administratively. It provided
peace, order, security and leisure to Indians to think about themselves. Besides, the nature of
the British role provoked them to find out the causes of their misery and degradation.
2. Foreign Accounts: India came in contact with different European and Asian countries like
England, America, Russia, China, Japan etc. These countries were progressing fast in industrial,
social and political fields. The Indians were impressed by it and therefore, desired to develop
their own country.
3. Reaction Against the Propaganda of Christian Missionaries: The missionaries started

coming to India in large numbers from 1813. They attacked both the Hindu and Muslim religions,
particularly Hinduism was their target. The devised all possible means to get converts to
Christianity. Therefore, both the Hindus and the Muslims made efforts to protect their respective
religions. It resulted into several social and religious movements in India.
28
4. Contribution of Foreign Scholars: Many Western scholars like Maxmullar and William
Jones were attracted towards oriental learning. They studied the scholarly works of the Hindus
and declared that India had a rich cultural heritage which was even superior to the Western
one. When the Indians felt that their culture was being appreciated even by the Western
scholars, they developed faith in it and tried to revive it. All that gave them moral strength and
the desire to establish the superiority of the Indian culture against the Western culture.
5. Indian Press: The press was established in India during this time and a large number of
newspapers, magazines and books were published in different Indian languages. Mostly their
subject matter was anti-British and Pro-Indian. It certainly helped in restoring national respect
and glory and thus protected Indian culture and society.
6. Western Education: The Western education and English language were introduced in
India by Christian Missionaries. Then many liberal Indians took it up and received education in
that pattern. Finally, in 1835, it was formally accepted by the Government and English was
declared as the medium of instruction. The Indians thereby, came in contact with the Western
concepts of democracy, liberty, equality, nationalism etc.
7. Western Culture: The Indians came in contact with the Western culture when intellectualism
and individualism were its dominant features. Western culture, its dress, manners, society,
religion and ideas became the ideals of the English educated Indians. It seemed that the
Indians would forget their own culture and would initiate and accept the Western culture
completely. But his mad race towards Westernization was checked by educated Indians
themselves. They protested against it, revived the glory of their own culture and attempted to
reform it.
4.3. Reformistic, Revivalistic and Rationalistic Movement

The teachings of various religious leaders and social reformers provided the
intellectual, spiritual and emotional foundations of Indian nationalism during this period.
4.3.1. Reformism
The Religious leaders and social reformers disapproved of caste system, child marriage,
infanticide, social discrimination, secularism of widows, sati etc., and demanded radical reforms
to eradicate social evil. This is known as Reformism.
29
4.3.2. Revivalism
The awakening of national consciousness manifested itself first in the realms of religion,
philosophy, culture and society and then in the political sphere. Some of the religious leaders
ardently advocated a deliberate moulding of life on the basis of past wisdom. They even
traced the origin of modern scientific conceptions and inventions to the Vedic scriptures. This
is called Revivalism.
4.3.3. The Rationalism
Indian revivlistic movement was a reaction against the challenge of western culture and
religions conversion. It gave rise to national consciousness in India. A new national, humanistic
and cosmopolitan interpretation was given to ancient scriptures. Stress was laid on self-
confidence, self-reliance and self-assertion. Indian intelligentsia introduced Scientific approach
to human problems. This is called as Rationalism. Thus, the socio religious movements
founded by these leaders promoted social awareness and political awakening in the 19th century.
Indian reformers well understood the close interrelation between different aspects of
human activities and they believed that religious reform must proceed demand for social reform
or political rights.
4.4. Socio-Religious Reform Movement

The socio-religious reform movement was against the backward element of traditional
culture in terms of both religions and social evils. The main reason of emergence of the reform
movements was spread of Western education and liberal ideas. These reforms as we all know
started in Bengal and soon spread in all parts of India.
The social and religious reform movements arose among all communities of the Indian
people. They attacked bigotry, superstition and the hold of the priestly class. They worked for
abolition of castes and untouchability, purdah system, sati, child marriage, social inequalities
and illiteracy. Raja Ram Mohan Roy is considered as the pioneer of modern Indian Renaissance
for the remarkable reforms he brought in the 18th and the 19th century India.
4.4.1. Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1774 – 1833)
Raja Ram Mohan Roy was born in 174 at Radha Nagar, a small village in Bengal in an
orthodox rich Brahmin family. Even when he was 15 years old, he published a pamphlet
30
criticizing idolatry. It caused great alarm in the minds of the people. He was expelled from his
family. His life of exile constituted the formative period of his Universal religion and its various
doctrine. He learnt many languages like Arabic, Persian, English, French, Latin, Greek, Hebrew
etc. He also studied several religious philosophies like those of Hinduism, Islam, Christianity,
Sufism etc. He was deeply influenced by English language and Western cultures.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy was employed in East India Company of Bengal for 9 years. He
considered the British rule benevolent for the progress of the country. He advocated liberal
education through Western learning. He helped in the foundation of the Hindu college which
developed into a best modern institution later on. He fought for the freedom of the press. He
founded and edited a Bengali journal called the “SamvadKaumudi” which was the earliest
Indian edited newspaper.
He stood for the abolition of sati. He used both the press and platform for his propaganda
against sati. Only with his active co-operation William Bentinck was able to impose ban on sati
in 1829. This humanitarian service made him one of the renowned persons of social reformers.
He went to England in 1831 on a special mission to plead the cause of the Mughal
Emperor of Delhi. While he was busy in that work, he died at Bristol on 27th September 1833.
4.4.2. The BrahmoSamaj (1828)
The BrahmoSamaj was established by Raja Ram Mohan Roy on August 20, 1828, at
Calcutta, and was formally inaugurated on 23rd January 1830. It was also known as the
BrahmoSabha or the ‘One God Society’.The members of the BrahmoSamaj were known as
Brahmos. His primary aim was to reform Hindu society and religion. He believed in the Unity
of God and was against idol worship, ritualism and blind faith. He gave his message to the
people through his talks, discussions, articles and books. Followers of all religions were invited
to come and worship in the same temple. Brahma Samaj also opposed idolatry. After the
demise of Raja Ram Mohan Roy in England, the Samaj also began to wane slowly.
After the death of Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1833, the BrahmoSamaj gradually came to
be divided into several sects. Maharishi Devendranath Tagore established the AdiBrahmoSamaj,
Keshava Chandra Sen established the BharatiyaBrahmoSamaj, and yet another one was
established by the name of SadharanaBrahmoSamaj.
31
It interpreted religion with reason and logic and was the first in India to do so. The
SadharanaBrahmoSamaj refused to accept even the Vedas as the last word of God. It also
attacked the ritualism of Christianity and refused to accept Christ as the incarnation of god.
Both Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Keshab Chandra Sen debated with Christian Missionaries on
these points. This succeeded in checking the mad race of people in Bengal towards conversion
to Christianity. The BrahmoSamaj led a crusade against the practice of sati, polygamy, child
marriage, marriages of minor girls, caste system, purdah system, untouchability and use of
intoxicants. It adopted intercaste marriages, education of women, widow remarriages etc., as
practical measures for removing the social evils. It succeeded in creating a general awakening
against these social evils in Bengal.
The TatvaBodhiniSabha and Indian Reform Society established by Keshab Chandra

Sen served as associated societies of the BrahmoSamaj. All these institutions contributed in
enlightening and modernizing Indians. The BrahmoSamaj did not participate in the building up
of national feeling directly but certainly inspired many Indians towards it.
Thus, the BrahmoSamaj helped in social and religious reforms in India. It also helped
in modernizing India and generated an intellectual awakening among them. That is why Raja
Ram Mohan Roy has been regarded as the pioneer of Modern India. He and his BrahmoSamaj
did a lot towards rousing social, religious and political awakening in India.
4.4.3. The Young Bengal Movement
The reform zeal of Raja Ram Mohan roy was carried forward by several intellecturals of
Bengal which resulted in the young Bengal Movement. The leader of this movement was a
young Anglo Indian, Henry Vivian Derozio. Derozio was born in 1809 and was taught at Hindu
College. He became a teacher in that very College and inspired his students to think rationally
and freely and to love and struggle for liberty, equality and freedom in society and politics. His
followers were called the Derozians who led the Young Bengal Movement.
This movement represented the sentiments of the educated Bengalis and tried to carry
forward the message of Raja Ram Mohan Roy concerning social, religious and economic
reforms through newspapers, pamphlets and public associations. The Derozians enlightened
the people in Bengal concerning many questions of public interests like the freedom of the
press, trial by Jury, protection of cultivator from the oppression of the land lords, employment
of Indians in higher services etc.
32
4.4.4. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
Next to Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar appeared on the Indian
scene as a great social reformer.
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar dedicated his life to the cause of Social reform, particularly
to the upliftment of Indian women. He raised his voice in favour of marriages of widows and a
movement emerged in its favour under his leadership. In 1855 representations were sent to
the Government from all important cities of India requesting it to legalize the marriage of widows.
It resulted in the Widow Remarriage Act in 1856 which legalized the marriage of a Hindu
widow. The marriage of a widow and the first one among the upper caste was celebrated in
Calcutta on December 7, 1856 under the Supervision of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar.
He also protested against polygamy and child marriages. He did a lot for the education
of females and organized nearly 35 girl schools, many of which were run at his expense. Thus,
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar helped a lot in reforming the Hindu society in Bengal.
4.5. Prarthana Samaj (1867)

PrarthanaSamaj or Prayer society, was a movement for religions and social reform in
Bombay, based on earlier reform movements. PrarthanSamaj was founded by Dadoba
Pandurang and his brother AtmaramPandurang in 1867 when Keshab Chandra Sen visited
Maharashtra, with an aim to make people believe in one God and worship only one God. It
became popular after Mahadev Govind Ranade joined. The main reformers were the
intellecturals who advocated reforms of the social system of the Hindus.
PrarthanaSamaj embarked on a determined fight against the social and moral evils
that had crept into the Indian society. It run a network of Primary and Secondary Schools,
Night Schools, Orphanages, MahilaSamaj and Depressed Classes Muslim Society of India.
The abolition of Child Marriage, remarriage of widows, inter-caste dinning and inter-caste
marriage were the other social reforms undertaken by the PrarthanaSamaj. The leaders of
PrarthanaSamaj worked on an All India perspective. M.G. Ranade was the first to conceive a
plan for an All India Reform Movement. The PrarthanaSamaj successfully carried the reformist
message of the BrahmoSamaj in Western India. It played a salutary role in the socio-religious
regeneration of India.
33
4.6. Arya Samaj (1875)

AryaSamaj, “Noble Society” is a monotheistic Indian Hindu Reform Movement that
promote values and practices based on the belief in the infallible authority of the Vedas. The
AryaSamaj was founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswathi on April 10, 1875. Members of the
AryaSamaj believe in one god and reject the worship of idols.
4.6.1. Swami Dayananda Saraswathi (1824 – 1883)
Swami Dayananda Saraswathi was born in an orthodox Gujarathibrahmin family in

1824 in a small town. His childhood name was Mool Shankar. He lost hisfaith an idol worship
at an early age.He left his home in 1845 and travelled all over India as a Sanyasee till1861. In
1861, he met an ascetic, Swami Vrajanand at Mathura and became his disciple. There he
studied the Vedas. He left his teacher after completing his education and took up the mission
of spreading true Hindu religion and culture all over India. Swami Dayanand Saraswathi was
an aggressive champion of militant Hindu nationalism. He insisted on the moral purification of
the nation.
4.6.2. Principles of Arya Samaj
Swami Dayanand Saraswathi established the AryaSamaj first at Bombay in 1875 and
then at Lahore. He travelled throughout the country to propogate his views and established
Arya Samaj organizations at different places for the same purpose. The AryaSamaj pursued
the following principles.
1. The Vedas are the only source of truth. Therefore, the study of the Vedas is absolutely
necessary.
2. Recitation of the Mantras of the Vedas and performance of Havan.
3. Opposition to idol worship.
4. Opposition to the theory of God incarnation and religious pilgrimages.
5. Faith in the theory of Karma and transmigration of soul.
6. Faith in one God who has no concrete existence.
7. Belief in Female education.

34
8. Opposition to child marriage and polygamy.
9. Support to widow remarriage in certain circumstances.
10. Propagation of Hindi and Sanskrit language.
Working on these principles, the AryaSamaj did remarkably useful work for reforming
theHindu society and religion. Two basic concepts of the AryaSamaj largely contributed to its
success. One, it provided equal status to all its members. There remained no place for
casteism in the AryaSamaj.
Shuddhi Movement:AryaSamaj did one more extra ordinary work. It started to take back the
converted Muslims and Christians into the Hindu fold after purifying them. It was called the
Shuddhi Movement. Many Hindus were converted to Christianity in ignorance. The Christian
Missionaries had drawn a large number of converts from among the uneducated, poor and
depressed clauses of the Hindus. They could not be taken back within the fold of Hinduism
even if they desired it. The AryaSamaj opened the gates of Hindusim to them and defended its
action on the basis of the Dharma of Vedas. By its efforts a large number of people were
restored to the Hindu fold.
4.6.3. Social Reforms
The AryaSamaj was well known for its social service and reform activities. IT provided
useful service to Hindu society as well by carrying out an onslaught on its social evils. It
opposed child marriages, polygamy, purdah, casteism, the practice of sati etc. Itnecessantly
worked for the education of the females, abolition of casteism and uplift of the depressed
clauses. Inter-caste marriages and inter dining were practiced by the members of the AryaSamaj
in their routine life. It also helped in the educational advancement of the Indians.
The AryaSamaj has established a large number of educational institutions in India,

particularly in the north. Gurukulas, KanyaGurukulas and D.A.V. Schools and Colleges have
been established by the AryaSamaj for the education of both males and females. It also helped
in the educational advancement of Indians and had its impact on national movement as well.
The AryaSamaj also contributed towards rousing the national consciousness. Many
Indian leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lajpat Rai and Gopal Krishna Gokhale were deeply
influenced by the philosophy and principles of AryaSamaj. The rise of extremism within the All
35
India Congress was certainly because of the militant spirit of Hinduism and there is no doubt
that the AryaSamaj played an active role in it. Thus, Swami Dayananda and the AryaSamaj
have made a remarkable contribution towards Indian religion, society, education and national
consciousness.
4.7. The Ramakrishna Movement

The first Ramakrishna math was established by the disciple of Ramakrishna
Paramabamsa, Swami Vivekananda at Baranagar in1887.In1899 another math was started at
belur which became the central math or the chief organizational centre of all the maths of
Ramakrishna Mission. In1909 Ramakrishna mission a sisterly organization was started.The
math at Belur prepares the sanyasis of the mission,while the mission does works of social
welfare.
4.7.1. RamakrishnaParamahamsa;(1834 – 1886)
Ramakrishna Paramahamsawas born in a poor Brahmin family in 1834 at a village

Kamarmukar in Hoogly District. He got very little education and came to Calcutta at the age of
17. He was appointed as the Priest of a Kali temple in the Suburbs of Calcutta at the age of
twenty, there he lived till his death.
His primary contribution towards the Indian people was the message of spirituality. He
expressed the difficult knowledge of the Vedas and Upanishads to te Indian people through his
simple teachings and saintly life and, thus revived their faith in their religion and culture.
His second message was his message of the Unity of all religions. He explained that
all religions are simply different paths to attain Niryana. The third valuable contribution of
Ramakrishna was his message of serving the humanity. He preached that every individual
was part of God. Therefore, service to an individual meant service to God and that was the
way for one’s salvation. The credit of propagating these ideals of Ramakrishna goes to his
disciple, Swami Vivekananda.
4.7.2. Swami Vivekananda (1863 – 1902)
The childhood name of Vivekananda was NarendraNath. He was born in a rich Kshatriya
family at Calcutta in1863. He was educated in an English School and graduated himself. He
came in contact with Ramakrishna, who before his death, gave him the responsibility of delivering
36
his message to the people. Vivekananda travelled all over India, and by his own efforts went to
Chicago in 1893. He participated in “All World Religions Conference”, there he established his
‘Vedanta Samaj’ there. He then visited London and Paris as well. He then came back to India
and established the Central Math at Belur in 1899. Once again, he visited U.S.A and Europe
and established Vedanta Samajas at different places. He returned to India and died shortly in
1902 at the young age of thirty-nine.
Vivekananda believed in the fundamental Unity of all religions. He, therefore preached
tolerance, equality and cooperation among the people of all faiths. Service to humanity occupied
a very important place in the teaching of Vivekananda. He, therefore vehemently attacked
ignorance, poverty blind faith and conservation which existed among the Indians and wanted
freedom from them. He participated in building up of the Indian nationalism. The way he
established the superiority of Hindu religion and spiritualism, certainly providedconfidence,
self-glorification and patriotism among the Hindus and that helped in the nation building.
Thus, Swami Vivekananda made a sold contribution towards Hindu religion, culture,
society and Indian nationalism. The Ramakrishna Mission, therefore became a strong movement
within the Indian Renaissance and is still doing useful service to the Indian society.
4.8. Theosophical Movement (1882)

The word theosophy has been constituted by combining two Greek words i.e., Theo
which means God and Sophia which means wisdom. Therefore, theosophy means knowledge
of God. In Sanskrit it is called Brahma Gyan. The Greek scholar Iambechus was the first man
who used the word theosophy for the knowledge of God in the third century. In modern time,
the word has been used by Theosophical Society.
4.8.1. Founders of the Theosophical Society
The Theosophical Society was originally founded in 1875 in New York by Madam H.P.
Blavatsky, a Russian and Colonel H.S. Olcott, an American to promote psychic Phenomena
and Spiritualism. They came to India in 1879. They were inspired by Indian thought and
culture. Madam Balavatsky believed that the Hindus were, “Spiritually immensely higher” than
the Europeans. She identified herself with Hindusim. Colonel Olcott believed in the ancient
greatness of India. With the help of Swami Dayanand Saraswathi, they transferred the Head
Quarters of the Theosophical society to Adyar, Madras in 1882.
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4.8.2. Objects of the Theosophical Society
The main objects of the Theosophical Society were –
1. To form a Universal Brotherhood of Man.
2. To protect the study of ancient Aryan religions, literature, philosophy and sciences, and
3. To investigate the laws of nature and development of divine powers in man.
4.8.3. Principles of the Theosophical Society
Besides the philosophy of the theosophical society adhered to following principles or

beliefs also:
(a) God creates different races with a view to develop different virtues in mankind.
(b) The ultimate goal of an individual is to attain salvation, but salvation does not mean end
of Karma (deeds) but self-realization.
(c) Male and female are equal because soul had no discrimination of sex.
(d) Every person should listen to the teachings of Saints and Philosophers because they
guide individuals in attaining salvation.
(e) Whatever happens in this world, happens according to the wishes of god.
(f) Man should be kind towards animals.
(g) All religions are important because each of them tell us the path leading to salvation.
(h) An individual should not attempt only for his salvation but should also help others in
getting salvation.
In the beginning, the theosophical society influenced the educated Indians in large
numbers. Mrs. Anne Besant who, later on, became the President of this Society and started
the Home Rule Movement as well popularized it further.
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4.8.4. Mrs. Annie Besant (1847 – 1933)
In India the Theosophical Movement became somewhat popular with the election of
Mrs. Annie Besant as its President after the death of Olcott in 1907. Mrs. Annie Besant, an
Irish lady came to India in 1893. She joined the Theosophical Society and infused new vigour
and life into it and worked for four decades till her death at Adyar in 1933.
Early in her life Mrs. Besant lost all faith in Christianity, divorced her husband, an Anglican
Clergyman and came in contact with Theosophy in 1882, and she formally joined the
Theosophical Society in 1889. She wore Hindu dress, adopted the Hindu way of life and work
tirelessly for the upliftment of the Indian people. She was known for her highly trained intellectual
powers and extraordinary gift of eloquence. She translated the Bhagavad Gita in English. She
became a pillar of Hindu Revivalism. She however, condemned early marriage and forced
widowhood. She was associated with the founding of the Central Hindu College at Banaras in
1898. She also played a conspicuous role in the organization of the Industrial Exhibition, in the
awakening of the Indian National Congress, in organizing the HomeRule League, in elevating
the depressed classes and in propagating Swadeshism.
Annie Besant helped Indians to shed their inferiority complex an in rousing them to a
sense of their national greatness. The Theosophical Society proved to be a source of inspiration
to Indian nationalism. It was indeed a precursor towards starting a national organization for
the whole country.
4.9. Summary
 By the beginning of the 19th century, the Indian culture stood completely demoralized
before the Western Culture.
 However, a new thought wave also swept the minds of the Indians which led to Indian
Renaissance.
 All religious Communities in India attempted to modernize and simplify their religion.
 Raja Ram Mohan Roy established Brahma Samaj, Swami Dayanand Saraswathi
established Arya Samaj and Swami Vivekananda established Ramakrishna Mission.
 Theosophical movement did more useful work in awakening Indian nationalism under
the guidance of Mrs. Annie Besant.
39

1. Describe the causes for the Indian Renaissance in the 19th century.
2. Examine the part played by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in the socio-religious awakening in thefirst
half of the 19th century.
3. Write a short note about the Young Bengal Movement.
4. Discuss the social and religious reforms of Swami Dayanand Saraswathi.
5. Explain about Ramakrishna Mission and its impact on Indian Society and Religion.
6. Give an account of the objects and principles of the Theosophical Society.

2. See the Sub-Section 4.4.1 and 4.4.2
3. See the Sub-Section 4.4.3
and Sub-Sections 4.6.1, 4.6.2, 4.6.3
and Sub-Section 4.7.1, 4.7.2
and Sub-Section 4.8.1, 4.8.2, 4.8.3, 4.8.4

40
LESSON – 5
MUSLIM REFORM MOVEMENT
Learning Objectives
 Explain Indian Islam.
 Describe the role of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan in bringing reform among the Indian Muslims.
 Discuss the Aligarh Movement,
 Mention the objectives and functions of the Deoband School.
 List out the work of the Ahamadiya Movement.
 Outline the impact of these Movements.
Structure
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Indian Islam
5.3. Rise of Muslim Reform Movement
5.4. Aligarh Movement
5.5. Deoband School
5.6. MaulviChirag Ali
5.7. Ahamadiya Movement.
5.8. Impact of these Reform Movement.
5.9. Estimate.
5.10. Summary.
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5.1. Introduction
Nineteenth century India had seen the birth of socio-religious reform movements. The
Muslims of nineteenth century India stood aloof and did not show interest in the social,
educational and constitutional changes introduced by the British. This self-isolation was felt
not good by some Muslim Reformers like Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and there appeared the Aligarh
Movement, the Deoband School, Maulri Chirag Ali and the Ahamadiya Movement to bring
some changes in the social customs and traditions of Muslims.
5.2. Indian Islam

Even before the advent of Islam, the Arabs were carrying on their trade activities with
India, in the Malabar Coast. With the rise of Islam and the Unification of Arab tribes, a new
movement of expansion was followed by the orthodox Caliphs and Umayyad Caliphs. Thus,
from the eighth century onwards, the Muslim armies began to appear in the outskirts of India.
Islam began to influence the Hindu religion and the Hindu society. In doing so, it had
also to receive the social customs and traditions of Hindu India. In the meanwhile, the coming
in of Europeans in general and British in particular brought too many confrontations to both
Hindu and Muslim societies. It resulted in the rise of socio religious reform movement by the
Hindu reformers.
The Muslims too responded but little later, to the need for social and religious reforms.
Their response produced a number of Muslim reformers like Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Chirag Ali
and others. The reform movement initiated and put forth by them was known as the Muslim
reform movement.
5.3. Rise of Muslim Reform Movement
Nineteenth century, which is also told as the century of Reform Movements, saw a
series of muslim reformers also coming to reform the muslims social and behavioural outlook.
With the advent of the British, the Indian society degenerated much. Drawing inspiration
from reform movements of Raja Rammohan Roy, Swami DayanandSaraswathi and others,
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some Muslims also paid attention to reform their society, to which they form a part. Western
education and progressive ideas also contributed to the development of the reform movement
among Muslims.
5.3.1. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (1817 – 1898)
The most important personality who played an important role in bringing about a change
in the outlook of the Muslims was Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. For this propagation of progressive
ideas, he was considered as “one of the Builders of Modern India”.
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was born at Delhi in April 1817, in a well-established family had
his education at Lahore. He joined the Government service at the age of twenty. He provided
useful service to the British during the period of the revolt of 1857 and gained their favour
which he fruitfully utilized for the service of the Muslim community. By that time, the Muslims
had kept themselves aloof from English Education and Western Culture. Their relations with
the British were also not harmonious. Rather, the relations between the two became bitter due
to the revolt because the British felt that the Muslims were the active participants in it. Sir Syed
Ahmad Khan felt that these very factors were responsible for their backwardness.
He therefore, fixed two goals which he pursued throughout his life. They were:
(a). To attempt for better relations between the Muslims and the English.
(b). To provide modern education to the Muslims.
5.3.2. Relations Between the Muslims and the English
On the one hand, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan attempted to convince the muslims that their
interest lay in being loyal to the British, and, on the other hand, pleaded with the English that
the Muslims were not against the rule of the English and, if shown a little favour, would become
perfectly loyal to them. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan started his efforts in favourable circumstances.
By that time the Hindus had developed national consciousness after getting English
education and imbibing western ideas and the English were becoming suspicious of their political
activities. The English, therefore became inclined to favour the Muslims with a view to utilize
their communal sentiment against the growing spirit of nationalism among the Hindus. This
gave easy success to Sir Syed Ahmad Khan in his mission of bringing the English and the
muslims closer to each other.
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5.3.3. Modern Education to the Muslims
In 1864, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan started a school at Ghazipur to provide modern education
to the muslims with a view to fulfil his second objective. After a year, a ‘scientific society was
established to translate standard works of English language in the Urdu language. In 1869, he
visited London. In 1877, he started the Anglo oriental college at Aligarh which, later on grew up
as the University of Aligarh in 1920 and became the nerve centre of the Aligarh Movement. He
also organized a ‘Mohammadan Education Conference” which served as a common platform
for meeting and spreading western education among the Muslims.
5.5.4. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan as a Reformer
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan made valuable contribution towards the educational, social and
economic progress of Muslims in India. Gradually, the Muslims moved towards modernization
and progress. By impressing upon the muslims the need for modern education, his educational
activities met with some success. With this aim in mind he turned to reform the Muslim society
also. He tried to build the Indian society on strong foundations of love and brotherhood.
He exhorted the Muslims to abandon medieval thinking and customs. He wrote in

favour of liberating women and stressed the need for educating women. He also advocated
the abolition of purdah. He tried to reform the social abuses prevalent among muslims and
described the institution of slavery as un-Islamic.
To spread his ideas on social awareness and on education, he started publishing a

Journal, TahdhibulAkhalaq in 1870. As he met with some opposition from muslims for his
journal, he stopped its publication in 1878.
5.4. Aligarh Movement

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, the prime Muslim reformer felt the necessity of British rule and
was the view that the nation was not mature for self-rule. He was of the opinion that the Indian
National Congress was too aggressive. So, the Aligarh movement mostly remained opposed
to Indian nationalism. It also remained antagonistic to the Hindus and the Indian National
Congress.
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The movement initiated by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was continued by his juniors with
Aligarh as their center of activity in reforming the Muslims and making awareness among them
towards education. Thus Aligarh movement attempted to caution the Muslims that they would
forgo their rightful share in the administrative service, if they shut themselves to education and
modern ideas.
5.4.1. Aims of the Aligarh Movement
Aligarh movement was neither a political nor an economic movement. It was essentially
a social and cultural movement. It was launched with the objective of bringing liberal values in
literature, social life, education and religion. Its main aims were popularization of education
and rationalization of muslims opinion about religion.
5.4.2. Factors Responsible for the Movement
Several factors were responsible for the Aligarh movement.
Firstly, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and his Aligarh movement depended on the favour of the
English from the very beginning and therefore it became necessary for them to support the
English in their policy of dividing the Hindus and the Muslims.
Secondly, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was more deeply impressed by western culture and
education than the Hindu reformists and therefore, became more favourably inclined towards
the British in every field. Thirdly, as the Muslims were in minority in India, he felt that the
Muslims could never stand on an equal footing with the Hindus and therefore, it was necessary
for the Muslims to remain loyal to the English and always attempt to win their support.
5.4.3 Principles of Aligarh Movement
The Aligarh movement grew mostly on the following principles.
1. The Hindus and Muslims constitute two distinct political entities and they differ from
each other in their attitudes and interests.
2. The establishment of representative bodies and holding of Civil Service Examination in

India would be against the interest of the Muslims because they would give power to
the Hindus which would be worst then the rule of the English.
45
3. The Muslims should feel secure only under the British rule. Therefore, they should
attempt to make it secure in India and should not participate in any political movement
against it.
4. The interest of the Muslims was perfectly secure under the British rule. Therefore, they
should remain aloof from every political agitation and devote their energy towards their
cultural progress. By that they would not only draw advantages to themselves but also
weaken the political movement of the Hindus.
5.4.4. Working of the Movement
In 1893, he founded the ‘Mohammadan Anglo oriented Defence Association of India’

for the same purpose. The membership of the Association was open only to the Muslims and
its primary objective was to keep the Muslims aloof from politics. The next Principal, Mr.
Morrison also adopted the policy of instigating Muslim communalism against the Hindus and
the All India Congress.
By that time, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan also became a strong opponent of the All India
Congress and he did not hide his views in this respect. When the All India Congress arranged
its session at Madras, he addressed the Muslims and said: “If you accept that the country
should grow under the yoke of Bengali rule and its people lick the Bengali shoes then, in the
name of God, jump into the train, sit down, and be off to Madras”.
As the Hindu social and religious reform movement helped in improving the Hindu
religion and society the Aligarh movement did the same service to Muslim society. It modernized
the Muslims, helped them in their education, and enlightenment and improved their economic
and social status. Therefore, the service of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and Aligarh movement to
the Muslims in India is certainly creditable.
5.4.5. Disappearance of the Movement
The movement’s activities influenced the Muslims in north India, Hyderabad, Lahore,
Karachi and Dacca. But its activities had effect on upper class Muslims alone and it did not
reach the lower section of society.
With the death of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan in 1898 and with the appointment of
NawabMohsin-Ul-Mulk as the Secretary of Muhammadan Anglo – Oriental college, the Aligarh
46
movement began to fade. With the death of Mohsin-Ul-Mulk and the resignation of NawabViqar-
Ul-Mulk as Secretary of the Muhammadan Anglo – oriental College in 1912, the movement
petered out. The movement came to an end in 1920 with the assent of Lord Chelmsford (the
Viceroy) to the Aligarh Muslim University.
5.5. Deoband School

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan’s views on education and religion were opposed by the Muslim
Ulemas (those who advocated traditional learning of Islamic principles) and nationalist Muslims.
The orthodox section among the Muslim Ulema who were the standard bearers of traditional
Islamic learning organized the Deoband movement. It was a revivalist movement whose twin
objectives were, (i) to propagate among the Muslims the pure teachings of the Koran and the
Hadis, and (ii) to keep alive the spirit of jihad against the foreign rulers.
5.5.1. Establishment of Deoband School
With the failure of the event of 1857, the Ulemas felt that the British could not be driven
out by jihad (holy war) and so some of them joined together and established a school. The
Ulema under the leadership of Muhammad QasimWanotavi (1832-80) and Rashid Ahmad
Gangohi (1828 – 1905) founded the school at Deoband in the Saharanpur district of the UP in
1866.
5.5.2. Objectives of the School
The school of Deoband, which was known as Dar-Ul-Uloom, was opened with the
following objectives.
1. To train the religious leaders for the Muslim community.
2. To exalt the word of Allah, unaffected by any pressure of favour.
3. To make contacts with the Muslims to live according to Islamic principles.
4. Not to get any co-operation from the government for the school.
5. The school curricula shout out English Education and Western culture, and
6. To strictly follow the teachings of Shah WaliUllah.

47
Thus, there was a wide gulf between Deoband and Aligarh. Inspite of the attempts of
Kushsin-Ul-Mulk it was not possible to bring the two schools together.
5.5.3. Functioning of the School
In politics, the Deobandschool welcomed the formation of the Indian National Congress
in 1885. In 1858 the DeobandUlema issued a religious decree (fatwa) against Syed Ahmed
Khan’s organisations, ‘the United Patriotic Association’, and ‘The Mohammaden Anglo-oriental
Association. Some critics observe that the DeobandUlemas support did not stem from any
positive political philosophy or any opposition to British Government but was mainly influenced
by their determination to oppose Sir Syed Ahmad Khan’s activities.
The new Deoband leader Mahmud-Ul-Hasan (1851-1920) sought to impart a political

and intellectual content to the religious ideas of the school. He woked out a synthesis of
Islamic principles and national aspirations. The Jamiat-Ul-Ulema gave a concrete shape to
Hasan’s ideas of protection of the religious and political rights of the Muslims in the over all
context of Indian unity and national objectives.
5.6. Maulvi Chirag Ali

Another Muslim reformer of the late 19th century was MaulviChirag Ali. He was an
employee of the British East India Company and later that of the Government of India under
British Crown. He showed keen interest to modernize the Muslim society. Of all the Indian
Muslim reformers, he was the only one who had pleaded for monogamy (one man having one
wife) and better status for women. He conveyed his ideas through his speeches. Through his
writing also in Urdu journals, he tried to reform the Muslim society.
5.7. Ahamadiya Movement

Towards the close of the 19th century another Muslim reform movement known as
Ahmadiya movement made its appearance. This movement was started by MirzaGhulam
Ahmed of Gurdaspur district in UP. This movement was of highly conservative in nature and
defied the practices of purdah, polygamy and divorce.
Ahamadiya movement strongly opposed the missionary activities of AryaSamaj and

Christian missionaries. It also opposed the idea of adopting Western education and culture.
However, the Ahamadiya movement did a commendable job in the social work and defied the
48
practices of Muslims which were not suitable to Indian atmosphere. It also worked for the
spread of education among Muslims. Besides these Anjuman-i-Himaayat-i-Islam (at Lahore in
1885), Navakul-Ul-Ulema (at Lucknow in 1894)KhudaiKhidmatgar set up by Abdul jaffar khan,
the frontier Gandhi and Khaksar movement started by Inayatuallh Khan worked to reform the
Muslim society.
5.8. Impact of these Reform Movement

Though the reform movements did not last long the effect of these movements were
impressive in creating social and education awareness among the Muslims.
1. The Muslims who had lost their power to British began to feel that they had lost nothing
except power. Thereby it began to infuse confidence among the Muslims.
2. The Muslims also began to feel that they also formed part of Indian society.
3. Syed Ahmed Khan’s initiative of founding schools and colleges for Muslim students,
was continued by many other philanthropists. And the early twentieth century saw the
rise of many Muslim educational instttutions.
4. Muslim women’s education, an aspect, which was neglected so far, received the attention
of the Indian Government and Muslim Philanthropists.
5. Abolition of purdah (veil) for women was followed by a few high-class Muslim families.
Abolition of purah was not liked by the Muslims, as it had religious section. Hence,social
changes brought forth by the movement were very less.
5.9. Estimate
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan’s Aligarh movement initiated a transforjatory transition in
modernizing the Indian Muslim community. Religious reformation, educational transformation
and institutional formation were the triple thrusts of the movement. The movement substantially
contributed to the multi-sided development of Muslims. It created an awakening, awareness
and consciousness among them. As a result, the Muslims started moving towards modernization.
In other words, the Aligarh movement modernized the Muslims, helped them to help themselves
and improved their social status.
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5.10. Summary
 The coming of Europeans to India and the establishment of English rule affected the
way of life of both the Hindu and Muslim societies. It resulted in the birth of reform
movements.
 Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and Chirag Ali advocated reforms. The Aligarh movement tried
to bring benefits to the Muslims by supporting the British and the Deoband school stood
for the development of nationalism in India.
 The Ahamadiya movement was against purdah, polygamy and divorce among the
Muslims.
 These reform movements created social, educational and political awareness among
the Indian Muslims.
1. Examine the services of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan to Indian Muslims.
2. Give an account of the Aligarh movement.
3. Explain the objectives and functions of the Deobandschool.
4. Discuss the work of the Ahamadiya Movement.
5. Describe the impact of the Muslim Reform Movements.

1. See the section and Sub-Section 5.3 to 5.3.4.
2. See the Section and Sub-Section 5.4. to 5.4.5.
3. See the Section and Sub-Section 5.5 to 5.5.3.
4. See the Section 5.7.
5. See the Section 5.8.

50
LESSON - 6
DEPRESSED CLASS MOVEMENTS
Learning Objectives
After reading this lesson, you will be able to –
 Discuss about the Depressed Class Movements.
 Analyse the movements against casteism and untouchability.
 Explain the Social reform activities of Narayana Guru.
 Narrate the Religious Reform Movement of SNDP Yogam.
 Understand the Reform Movements of JyothiraoPhule.
 Describe the activities of SatyaShadhokSamaj.
Structure
6.1. Introduction.
6.2. Movements against Castesim and Untouchability.
6.3. Narayana Guru (1855 – 1928)
6.4. Narayana Guru and the SNDP (1903)
6.5. JoythiraoGovindraoPhule (1827 – 1890)
6.6. SatyaShodhakSamaj (1873)
6.7. Summary.

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6.1. Introduction
In medieval times the Indian religious reformers mostly attracted their followers from
the lower castes. In contrast to this the socio-religious reform movements of the 19th century
was mostly pioneered by the upper caste Hindus who condemned the caste system and
untouchability. Unfortunately, both these challenges though conceived in the spirit of enlightened
social regeneration achieved, marginal success.
6.2. Movements against Casteism and Untouchability
Hindu society was divided into numerable castes. The caste system largely determined
the life of the people. For centuries the untouchable were treated as outcastes. It is natural
that such an atrocious social phenomenon became one of the main planks of all social platforms.
The All India Depressed Class Association and the All Indian Depressed Class Federation
were the two important organisations. Apart from these there were local organisations. The
depressed classes also became aware of their rights and there was a general opposition to the
dominance of a minority group, the Brahmins.
The 19th century socio-reformers without exception, fought against religious polytheism
and social inequality, leaders like Raja Rammohan Roy, Keshab Chandra Sen,
DayanandSaraswathi and Swamy Vivekananda either advocated reform or demanded abolition
of post vedic development of the caste system. All of them attempted, social reform without
restructuring the basic Hindu social system. Narayana Guru and JyothibaPhule, questioned
the very rationale of the caste system.
6.3. Narayana Guru (1855 to 1928)
Narayana Guru was a spiritual leader and social reformer in India. He was born on 28th
August 1855 in a family of the Ezava caste, MadanAsan and his wife futtiyamma, in the village
of Champazhanthy near Thriuvanandhapuram, in the erstwhile state of Travancore in British
India. His early education was in the Gurukula way under ChempazhanthiMoothaPillai during
which time his mother died, when he was 15. At the age of 21, he went to Central Travancore
to learn from Raman PillaiAsan, a Sanskrit Scholar who taught him Vedas, Upanishads and
the literature and logical rhetoric of Sanskrit. He returned to his village in 1881 when his father
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was seriously ill and started a village school where he taught local children which earned him
the name NanuAsan. A year later he married Kaliamma but soon disassociated himself from
the marriage to commence his public life as a social reformer.
6.3.1. Social Reformer
Narayana Guru after leaving from home travelled through Kerala and Tamil Nadu, and
it was during these journeys, he met ChattampiSwamikal, a social and religious reformer, who
introduced Guru to AyyavuSwamikal from whom he learned meditation and Yoga. In 1888, he
visited Aravipuram where he set up an hermitage and practiced meditation and set up an
hermitage, and practiced meditation and yoga. During his stay there he consecrated a piece of
rock taken from the river, as the idol of Shiva, which has since become the Aruvipuram Shiva
Temple. It was here, the SreeNarayana Dharma Parriplalanayogam (SNDP Yogam) was founded
on May 1903 by the efforts of PadmanabhanPalpu, better known as Dr. Palpu, with Narayana
Guru as its founder President.
6.3.2. Fight against Casteism
Casteism was practiced in Kerala during the 19th and early 20th centuries and the lower
caste people such as Ezhavas and the untouchable cases like Paraiyar, tribals and Pulayars
had to suffer discrimination from the upper caste people such as Brahmins. It was against this
discrimination that Guru performed his first major public act, the Consecration of Siva idol at
Aravippuram in 1888. Overall, he consecrated forty five temples across Kerala and Tamil
Nadu. His consecrations were not necessarily conventional deities, a slab inscribed with the
Words Truth, Ethics, Comparison, Love, a vegetarian Shia, a mirror and a sculpture were
among the various consecrations made by him.
6.3.3. Vaikom Satyagraha
The social protest of Vaikom Satyagraha was an agitation by the lower caste against
untouchability in Hindu society of Travancore. It was reported that the trigger for the protest
was an incident when Narayana Guru was stopped from passing through a road leading to
Vaikom Temple by an upper caste person. It prompted KumaranAsan and Muloor S.
PadmanabhaPanicker, both disciples of Guru, to compose poems in protest of the incident.
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T.K. Madhavan, another disciple, petitioned the SreeMoolam Popular Assembly in 1918
for tights to enter the temple and worship, regardless of the castes. A host of people including
K. Kelappan and K.P. KesavaMenon, formed a Committee and announced Kerala Paryatanam
movement and with the support of Mahatma Gandhi, the agitation developed into a mass
movement which resulted in the opening of the temple as well as three roads leading to it to
people of all castes. The protest also influenced the temple entry proclamation of 1936.
6.3.4. Sivagiri Pilgrimage
Sivagiri Pilgrimage was conceived by three of the disciples of Guru viz.

VallabhaiseriGovindanVaidyar. T.K. Kittan writer and Muloor S. PadmanabhaPanicker which
Guru approved in 1928, with his own recommendations. He suggested that the goals of the
pilgrimage should be the promotion of education, cleanliness, devotion of God, organization,
agriculture, trade, handicrafts, and technical training and advised vaidyar and writer to organize
a series of lectures on these themes to stress the need for the practice of these ideals stating
this to be the core purpose of Sivagiri pilgrimage. However, his death soon after delayed the
project until 1932 when the first pilgrimage was undertaken from Elavumithitta in Pathanamthitta
District.
6.3.5. Writings and Philosophy
Guru published 45 works in Malayalam, Sanskrit and Tamil languages which include
AtmopadesaSatakam, a hundred verse spiritual poem and DaivaDasakam, a Universal prayer
in ten verses. He also translated three major texts. Thirukkural of Valluvar, Ishavarya Upanishad
and OzhivilOdukkam of KannudaiyaVallalar. It was he who propagated the motto, one caste,
one religion, on God for all (OruJathi, OruMatham, OruDeivam, Manushyanu) which has become
popular as a saying in Kerala. He furthered the non-dualistic philosophy of AdiSankara by
bringing it into practice by adding the concepts of social equality and Universal brotherhood.
6.3.6. All Religion’s Conference
Guru organized an All Regime’s Conference in 1923 at AlwayeAdvaita Ashram, which

was reported to be first such event in India. It was an effort to counter the religious conversions.
Ezhava community was susceptible to and at the entrance of the Conference, he arranged for
a message to be displayed which read, we meet here not to argue and win, but to know and be
known. The conference has since become an annual event, organized every year at the Ashram.
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6.4. Narayana Guru and the SNDP (1903)

The SreeNarayana Dharma ParipalanaYogam also known as SNDP was founded by
Dr. PadmanabhanPalpu called as Dr. Palpu in 1903 with the guidance and blessings of
SreeNarayana Guru to uplifeEzhava community in a spiritual way. Among the socio-religious
reformers of modern India who clamored for social justice, the name of SreeNarayana Guru
occupies a permanent place. The impact of the activities of SreeNarayana Guru are so varied
that it has reflected the whole Kerala in the field of education, society, religion, economy, politics
and culture.
6.4.1. Social Reform Activities of SNDP Yogam
SreeNarayana Guru dedicated himself to the cause of social and moral regeneration of
the backward communities in Kerala. The achievement of the SNDP Yogam in the direction of
social reform is noteworthy. The yogam against superstitions, irrational customs and caste
system etc. The reforms of the Guru under the auspices of the SNDP Yogam not only raised
the social position of the ezhavas, but also brought many economic advantages to the community.
Narayana Guru and the leaders of SNDP Yogam were much concerned about the upliftment of
women, as it would naturally bring about improvement in social life. With this purpose the
Women’s Association was set up, and its conference became a regular feature of the annual
general meetings of the Yogam. Considering the importance of the youth in the society, the
youth Association was also reformed.
6.4.2. SNDP Yogam and the Religious Reform Movement
One of the important attempts of the yogan was to remove the disabilities of the Exhavas
in the religious field. The programme of activities that concerned the leaders of the yogam
included building of new temples and ashramas, demotion of tradition temples, creation of the
worship of lower deities and spirits discontinuance it animal sacrifice, abolition of sniging of
obscene songs in some temples and promotion of brotherhood between ezhavas and other
low castes. Thus the temple movement helped to increase co-operation and love among people
and feeling of equality and self-respect. Narayana Guru wanted Ezhavas to admit all classes
of people in the temple consecrated by him. He believed in the oneness of mankind and
disregarded the difference between castes. The denial of admission of non-caste Hindu to
temples, and the injustices and inequalities in the name of religion, promoted him to consecrate
temples.
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6.4.3. SNDP Yogam Concern for the Economic Prosperity of the Ezhavas
The yogam gave great importance to the economic prosperity of the community. As the
majority of the Ezhavas were engaged in agriculture and industrial activities, the yogam did its
best to improve and encourage the agricultural and industrial pursuits of the community. In 1904
the yogam announced that its second annual general meeting would be held in conjunction with
an industrial and agricultural exhibition at Quilon, 1914 some mills, factories and minor industrial
concerns, had been established by the members of the Ezhava community in different parts of
Kerala especially in Travancore. To promote trade and commerce, a company named “Malabar
Economic Union” was formed and registered on the model of “Mysore Economic Union”. To
make people more self-relevant in financial matters, chit fund institutions were made popular. All
these activities of the yogam brought about economic progress to the community.
6.4.4. SNDP Yogam and Political Activities
The SNDP Yogam fought for establishing equality and social justice in the legislative
assembly and the Council. In the second year of the establishment of SreeMoolam popular
Assembly, the Ezhava community was given representation in the assembly. The later activities
of the Yogam proved that they used the legislative as a forum to present their grievances
before the authorities and seek redress. At the 8th annual general meeting of the Yogam, a
resolution was passed requesting the Maharaja to extend to the SNDP Yogam the same privilege
of sending a representation every year to the assembly, as was granted to other registered
organisations, and the government granted the demand as contributed a great deal to the
removal of the educational and other disabilities of the ezhava community.
6.4.5. SNDP Yogam and Educational Activities
The SNDP Yogam has done service for the educational progress of the Ezhava
community. Most of the government schools were places, where Ezhava were not admitted.
So, the yogam concentrated attention to the removal of the obstacles in the way of education
and employment. The first attempt to the yogam in the educational field was to prepare the
way for admitting Ezhava to government and government aided schools. The Yogam was
much concerned about the education of Ezhava women. The yogam pointed out that it
impossible to achieve social progress without educating women. So, through the representatives
of the yogam in the assembly, they requested the government to open government schools for
girls to Ezhava and other backward communities.
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6.5. JyothiraoGovindraoPhule (1827 – 1890)

JyothiraoGovindraoPhule was an India Social activist, thinker, anti-caste social reformer
and writer from Maharashtra. His work extended to many fields, including eradication of
untouchability and the caste system and women’s emancipation. He is mostly known for his
efforts in educating women and lower caste people. He and his wife SavitribaiPhule were
pioneers of women education in India. Phule started his first school for girls in 1848 in Pune.
On 24th September 1873, he along with his followers formed the SatyaShodhakSamaj (Society
of Truth Seekers) to attain equal rights for people from lower castes. People from all religions
and castes could become a part of this association which worked for the upliftment of the
depressed classes. Phule is regarded as an important figure in the social reform movement in
Maharashtra.
6.5.1. Early Life
JyothiraoGobindraoPhule was born on 11th April 1827 into a family that belonged to the
Mali caste, traditionally occupied as gardeners, vegetable vendors and florists. After attending
primary school to learn the basics of reading, writing and arithmetic, Joythirao withdrawn from
school. He joined the menfolk of his family at work, both in the shop and the farm.
However, Christian convert from the same Mali caste as Phule recognized his intelligence
and persuaded Phule’s father to allow Phule to attend the local Scottish Mission high School.
Phule completed his English schooling in 1847. As was customary, he was married young, at
the age of 13 to a girl of his own community, chosen by his father. The turning point in his life
was in 1848, when he attended the wedding of a Brahmin friend. Phule participated in the
customary marriage procession but was later rebuked and insulted by his friend’s parents for
doing that. They told him that he, being from a lower caste should have had the sense to keep
away from that ceremony. This incident profoundly affected Phule on the injustice of the caste
system.
6.5.2. Social Activism
Phule’s social activism included many fields including eradication of untouchability and
the caste system, education of women and the Dalits and welfare of downtrodden women.
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6.5.3. Education
In 1848, aged 21, Phule visited the first girls school in Ahmad Nagar, run by Christian
missionaries. It was also in 1848 that he read Thomas Paine’s book Rights of Man and developed
a keen sense of social justice. He realized that lower castes and women were at a disadvantage
in Indian society, and also that education of these sections was vital to their emancipation. To
this end and in the same year, Phule first taught reading and writing to his wife, Savithribai, and
then the couple started the first indigenously- run school for girls in Pune. In his book Gulamgiri,
Phule says that the first school was for Brahmin and upper caste girls, however Phule’s
biographer says it was for low caste girls. The conservative upper caste society of Pune didn’t
approve his work. But many Indians and Europeans helped him.
6.5.4. Women’s Welfare
He championed widow remarriage and started a home for high caste pregnant widows
to give birth in a safe and secure place in 1863. His orphanage was established in an attempt
to reduce the rate of infanticide. In 1863 Phule, along with his long-time friend Sadashic Ballal
Govande and Savitribai he started an infanticide prevention centre. Pamphlets were stuck
around Pune advertising the centre in the following words – “Widows, come here and deliver
your baby safely and secretly. It is upto your discretion whether you want to keep the baby in
the centre or take it with you. This orphanage will take care of the children. The Phule couple
ran the infanticide prevention centre till the mid 1880s. Phule tried to eliminate the stigma of
social untouchability surrounding the lower castes by opening his house and the use of his
water-well to the members of the lower castes.
6.5.5. Views on Religion and Caste
Phule recast the prevailing Aryan invasion theory of history, he believed that they had
instituted the caste system as a frame-work of subjugation and social division tha ensured the
pre-eminence of their Brahmin successors. In his book, Gulamgiri, he thanked Christian
missionaries and the British colonists for making the lower castes realise that they are worthy
of all human rights. His critique of the caste system began with an attack on the Vedas, the
most fundamental texts of Upper caste Hindus. He considered them to be a form of false
consciousness.
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6.6. SatyaShodhakSamaj (1873)

SatyaShodhakSamaj was a social reform society founded by JyothiraoPhule in Pune,
Maharashtra, on 24th September 1873. It espoused a mission of education and increased
social rights and political access for underprivileged groups, focused especially on women
shudras and Dalits, in Maharashtra. Jyothirao’s wife Savithribai was the head of women’s
section of the society. The Samaj disbanded during the 1930s as leaders left to join the Indian
National Congress party under Mahatma Gandhi.
6.6.1. Ideology of the Samaj
The Satyashodhak movement espoused a framework that could be called religious. It

emphasized the equality inherent in all men, as bestowed upon them by a divine creator. It
maintained faith in one God, rejected any kind of intermediary between God and man and
rejected the caste system. The Samaj also developed arguments against Brahman social and
political superiority. The samaj argues that Brahman dominance is not an inherent trait, rather,
the varnas were manufactured in a strategic movemeant to establish and protect Brahman
social standing.
6.6.2. Social Activities of the Samaj
The Samaj also advocated for social changes that went against Brahminic traditions,
including less expensive weddings, inter-caste marriages, the end of child marriage, and the
right of the widow to remarry. The Samaj’s original commitment to education and charitable
activities was combined with the espousal of this anti-brahman rhetoric as the organization
spread across Maharashtra. The organization attracted individuals of all castes, religions and
professions, untouchables and government officials. In order to spread their ideas more
effectively, the Samaj published the Deenabandhu newspaper from 1877 to 1897. Phule also
believed that an English education might open opportunities for employment with the British
government.
6.6.3. Influence on the Peasant Revolts and the Non-Brahman
The process of rebellion in other cities in Maharashtra took a similar shape – the
SatyashodhakSamaj arrived with its ideology and its tamashas that mocked Brahman superiority.
Peasants stopped relying on Brahmans for religious ceremonies, interrupted Brahman
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ceremonies, violated temples and broke idols. These Peasant revolts in Maharashtra showed
that the SatyashodhakSamaj’s ideology was salient to common people and capable of stimulating
group action.
6.6.4. Critics of the Samaj
While the Samaj found great allies in low caste groups, Brahmans found Phule’s efforts
to be sacrilegious and anti-nationalist. They fought back against the idea of brahmans as
opportunistic invaders and greedy elites. One particular critic VishnushashtriChiplunkar, argued
that brahmans had always respected lower caste individuals. He argued that the Samaj was
simply trying to expose Brahmans in an attempt to gain favor with the British colonial government
and gain some small rights.
6.6.5. The Impact of the Samaj
The doctrine of the Samaj left a major impact on India’s intellectual and political spheres,
especially in relation to non-brahman and Dalit politics. The non-brahmin movement owed a
great deal to the Satyashodhak doctrines of Universal rights and equality and the Samaj’s
arguments against Brahman domination of social, religious, and political life. The Dalit political
movement, which was separate from the non-Brahman one continued to be affected by Phule’s
teachings into the early 20th century.
6.7. Summary
 The 19th century socio-religious reformers, without exception fought against religious
polytheism and social inequality.
 All the social reformers attempted social reform without restructuring the basic Hindu
social system. Jyothiba Phule and Narayana Guru questioned the very rationale of the
caste system.
 For centuries the untouchable were treated as outcastes. The depressed classes also
became aware of their rights and there was a general opposition to the dominance of a
minority group, the Brahmins.
 The untouchable Ezhavas of Kerala clustered around the religious leader Shri Narayana
Guru who formed Sri Narayana Dharma ParipalanaYogam (SNDPY). It organized some
temple entry rights movements.
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 The lower caste movement founded in Maharashtra in 1870’s by Jyothiba Phule. He

made no distinction between non-Brahmins and untouchables.

1. Examine the movements against casteism and untouchability.
2. Critically analyse the social reform activities of Narayana Guru.
3. Write a note on All Religion’s Conference.
4. Describe the Socio-Religious Reform activities of SNDP.
5. Explain the economic, political and educational reforms of SNDP.
6. Analyse the views of Phule on religion and caste.
7. Discuss the ideology and social activities of Satya Shodak Samaj.
8. Narrate the critics and the impact of the Samaj.
6.9. Answer to Check Review Questions

2. See the section and sub-sections 6.3, & 6.3.1 to 6.3.4
3. See the sub-section 6.3.5 and 6.3.6
4. See the section and sub-section 6.4 & 6.4.1, 6.4.2.
5. See the sub-sections 6.4.3 to 6.4.5.
7. See the sections and sub-sections 6.6. and 6.6.1 to 6.6.3.
8. See the sub-sections 6.6.4 and 6.6.5.

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LESSON – 7
THE GROWTH OF NATIONAL MOVEMENT IN INDIA
Learning Objectives
 Analyse the causes for the rise of Nationalism in India.
 Understand the growth of political ideas and political associations.
 Explain the formation of All India National Congress.
 Know about the aims and resolutions of the All India National Congress.
Structure
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Causes for the rise of nationalism in India.
7.3. Growth of Modern Political Ideas and Political Associations.
7.4. Formation of All India National Congress.
7.5. Congress – A National Organization.
7.6. Aims of the Indian National Congress.
7.7. Resolutions of the Congress.
7.8. Summary.
7.10. Answer to Check Review Questions.
7.1. Introduction
Prior to the revolt of 1857, the British treated India as one nation and one State. They
were attempting to conquer India and therefore, they pleaded that the conquest of the entire
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sub-continent would alone provide administrative and political unity to this country. But behind
all this variety in its culture, religions of the people, manners, customs etc., there has always
existed a basic unity among Indian people. Thus all those factors which contribute towards the
formation of nationalism were already existing in India, yet it is accepted that nationalism in the
modern sense developed in India only during the British rule in the later half of the 19th century.
7.2. Causes for the Rise of Nationalism in India
1. Impact of British Rule: British colonial rulers followed modern methods, political, economic
and intellectual – to establish and continue their stranglehold over India and for further economic
exploitation of India’s resources. A dose of modernization was an essential concomitant of the
colonial scheme of administration and this modernization distorted though it was generated
some developments and one of these was growth of Indian nationalism.
2. Political Unity of India: While Indian provinces were under “direct” British rule, Indian
states were under “Indirect” British rule. The British sword imposed political unity in India.
Common subjection, common institutions, common laws began to shape India in a common
mould. Despite imperial efforts to sow communal, regional and linguistic dimensions. Pan-
Indianism grew. The establishment of political unity fostered the spirit of one mindedness.
3. Economic Exploitation by the British: The one particular feature of the British rule in
India was the economic exploitation of the Indian people of all classes. They came as traders
and always remained traders in India whose primary motive was always financial gain. The
revenue policy of the British destroyed even Indian agriculture. The trade policy particularly
that of free trade created most unfavourable balance of trade. The educated Indians failed to
get useful employment because of the doors of all higher services were closed to them. It was
bound to react and was one of the most important causes of Indian nationalism seeking
independence.
4. English Language and Western Ideas: The English language was made medium of
instruction of education in 1835. It became the language of the educated people of India
irrespective of difference in religion and region. It provided the best means of understanding
and developing close contact with each other among them. The educated Indians, came in
contact with the western ideas and culture through the medium of English language.
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The ideas of liberty, equality, democracy, socialism etc., could infiltrate among them
only because the English language became their best medium. Many Indians went abroad
and came in direct contact with the western world. It is these English educated Indians who led
the national movement developed the Indian Nationalism and organized it.
5. Social and Religious Movements of the 19th Century: The social and religious reform
movements of the 19th century contributed most to Indian nationalism indirectly. Raja Ram
Mohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda and Mrs. Annie Besant were all patriots. They revived the
glory of ancient India created faith among the people in their religion and culture and thus gave
the message to love to their motherland and to the people of India. Swamy Dayanand was the
first who used the word Swaraj and declared Hindi as the national language of India. Many
AryaSamajist leaders were in the forefront of the national movement and were primarily
responsible for the rise of Extremism in the Congress.
6. Development of the Means of Communication and Transport: Railways, telegraph,

wireless, postal services, construction of roads and canals facilitated communication among
the people. All these brought them nearer to each other and provided the facility to organize
the national movement on all India basis.
7. Contact with Foreign Countries: Indians came in contact not only with Britain but with
other foreign countries as well. The movements in other countries, their economic developments,
their problems and conflicts, affected the Indians. Contact with the foreign countries inspired
Indian nationalism in several ways.
8. Press and Newspapers: The establishment of printing press helped in wide circulation of
ideas. A large number of news papers were published in different regional languages of India.
All these newspapers were mostly anti-British and gave publicity to racial arrogance, economic
exploitation, personal mis-behaviour etc., of the British towards Indians. These created anti-
British feeling among common people of India and united them against common oppressor.
9. Administration of Lord Lytton (1876-1880): The Afghan War (1879 – 1881) during the
period of Lord Lytton adversely affected the economic resources of India. He passed the
Vernacular Press Act (March 1878) which curbed the liberty of Indian press. His Arms Act was
meant to prevent the Indians from keeping arms. All these measures created widespread
discontentment among the Indians.
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10. The Ilbert Bill Controversy: The Ilbert Bill was presented in the legislature during the
Viceroyalty of Lord Ripon (1880-1884). It was proposed in it that the Indian judges would have
the right to try Europeans as well. It was opposed by the British residents in India. They
collected fund for this purpose, organized a systematic movement against the Bill both in
England and India and ultimately succeeded in getting the Bill amended so that it lost its very
spirit. The opposition to the bill antagonized the Indian public opinion. It made them clear the
policy of racial discrimination of the British. They utilized them for strengthening nationalism.
11. Administration of Lord Curzon (1899- 1905): The anti-India activities of Lord Curzon
also contributed to the rise of national spirit. He hated the people of India from the core of his
heart. He removed most of the Indians from important posts in the administration and also
behaved crudely with them. The Calcutta University Act and Local Bodies Act are the clear
proofs of his anti0Indian policies.
The partition of Bengal created a wide spread stir among the Indians to oppose it. His
partition of Bengal in A.D. 1905 also made it clear that he was a past master in the policy of
‘Divide and Rule’. His policies created sch a wide gulf between the Hindus and the Muslims as
could never be bridged in future.
More over his atrocities gave birth to the Swadeshi movement. The use of Swadeshi
(India Made) goods and boycott of foreign goods were adopted as measures to exhibit their
resentment by the Indians for the first time. Surendra Nath Banerjee toured all over India to
gain support of the Indians in other provinces against this partition. Thus it helped in
strengthening Indian nationalism.
12. The Abusive Behaviour of the British against the Indians: One unfortunate legacy of
the rebellion of 1857 was the feeling of racial bitterness between the rulers and the ruled. The
Anglo-Indian bureaucracy developed an attitude of arrogance and contempt towards the Indians.
The revolt of 1857 left permanent bitterness between the British and the Indians.
13. Russo-Japanese War: The spirit of nationalism received a boost due to Russo-Japanese
war when a powerful and big country like Russia was defeated by Japan, a small country. It
made the people of India confident that if they also made efforts, they could also force the
English sto leave their country for good.
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National consciousness had awakened among the Indians and several associations
were formed. The harsh policies of the English Government were fully responsible for the
development of National movement and the rise of National Congress.
7.3. Growth of Modern Political Ideas and Political Associations
Western domination of India generated certain forces, some as a result of its impact
and some as a reaction to it, which ultimately challenged western imperialism. One important
effect of the introduction of Western culture in India was the growth of modern political concepts
like nationalism, nationality, political rights etc.
The growth of the spirit of nationalism contributed to the establishment of the political
organizations and soon various political organizations such as British Indian Association, Indian
League, Indian Association, Bombay Association, Public Council of Poona and National
Assembly were formed. These organizations which were active in India, earlier ultimately
helped in the formation of the National Congress.
7.3.1. British India Association
This was the most popular institution which was active before the establishment of All
India National Congress. Through this organization Rajendra Lal Mishra and Raj GopalDass,
sent reminders to the British parliament for the fulfilment of their political demands. This
organization attained tremendous success in helping to create political consciousness among
the people of India.
7.3.2. Indian League
After the failure of the British India Association some progressives of Bengal who did
not see eye to eye to the policies of the British formed a new organization known as Indian
League. The chief aim of this organization was to help to develop the feeling of organizations
among the people and to make them shake off their slumber.
7.3.3. Indian Association
A political meeting of this organization was summoned on 26th July A.D. 1876 in the
Ilbert Hall of Calcutta. Surendranath Banerjee was the founder of this organization. He
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enumerated its aim as following; (i) to prepare a powerful public opinion (ii) to organize all the
castes in a political unit (iii) to include the feeling of unity among the people of India, and (iv)
include the people in the public movement of the organization.
After the establishment of the organization by Surendranath Banerjee, the Indian League
had become almost a weak and dead organization. In fact before the establishment of the
National congress, Indian Association was the only political organization that worked on a
national basis and opposed the oppressive and harsh policies of Lord Lytton. This organization
also opposed the amendments made in the Ilbert bill. In fact all the political activities undertaken
by the All India Congress which had already started by the Indian Association.
7.3.4. Bombay Presidency Association
In the 19th century an organization known as Bombay Presidency Association was

established in Bombay. The credit for the formation of this organization goes to
KanishNathTrimbak, Feroz Shah Mehta and BudruddhinTayyabji, but owing to the formation of
the National Congress this organization came to an end without playing any active role. However,
it carried out some notable activities in the sphere of rousing the national awakening among
the pople of India.
7.3.5. Poona Public Assembly
MahadeoGovindRanade established Poona Public Assembly in Poona in A.D. 1876.

He was a great social reformer of Maharashtra. The chief aim of this organization was to
reform the society and to create political awareness among the people. The institution continued
to work for a pretty long time. In 1881, a parallel organization Mahajan Sabha was also
established in Madras.
7.3.6. National Political Organization
In 1882 there was a plan for a national meeting. The Indian Association of Calcutta had
plans to hold a National Conference. In 1883 Telang went from Bombay to Calcutta to arrange
for ‘more political concert’ between Calcutta and Bombay. There was a plan to form a Federation
of the Native Press, a scheme to start a National Newspaper, a plan to set up an Indian
Constitutional Reform Association.
67
During 1853-84, the various local association in the Presidency towens were fighting
towards unity. In Calcuttal the Indian Association, the British Indian Association, the National
Mohammedan Association and the Indian Union had worked together to call the National
Conference. During November – December 1884 there were spontaneous demonstrations
throughout India to mark Ripon’s departure from India.
7.4. Formation of All India National Congress

All these institutions worked whole heartedly for the rise and development of political
awakening in different provinces. After 1875 the irresponsible actions of Lord Lytton and the
controversy of Ilbert Bill during the regime of Lord Ripon made it quite clear to the pople of
India that they badly needed India level organization in their own interest. Hence, a new era in
the political life of Indians began.
A.O. Hume, a retired British officer helped tremendously in this regard. Though the
idea of the formation of an All India organization was there in the minds of the people of India
for a long time, they could not execute it. It was A.O. Hume who brought about the formation
of All India National Congress. Hence, he is also known as the father of All India National
Congress.
In March 1883, he wrote to the graduates of Calcutta University, in one of his letters
and inspired them to involve themselves in work for the progress and development of the
country. He referred to point in this letter that it was essential for the youth to indulge in this
task for renaissance in intellectual, social and political spheres and a disciplined and armed
force be prepared for the good of the Indians.
He also talked with the contemporary Governor General Lord Dufferin in this regard
and the latter advised Hume to organize a political body which would act in much the same way
as the position party did in Britain. Hume made some significant changes in the structure of
the National Congress as per suggestions of the contemporary Viceroy. After consulting the
dignitaries of England before returning to India he organized an Indian Parliamentary Committee
in England. The main aim of this Committee was to help to develop interest among the members
of the Parliament in the affairs of India. After Hume’s coming back to India in A.D. 1885, a
Conference of the All India National Congress was summoned in Poona but owing to the out
break of Cholea there, the venue of the Congress was shifted to Bombay.
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7.5. Congress – A National Organization

The All India National Congress established in A.D. 1885, was a national organization
very much Indian in nature. Its aim was to represent the Indians without differences of caste
and creed. Its first President Vomesh Chandra Banerjee was an Indian Christian.
The Second, DadabhaiNaoroji was a Parsi and the third BadruddinTayyabji was a Muslim,
and the fourth and fifth, George Mul and Sir William Wadburg, respectively were Englishmen.
The First Session of the Indian National Congress was held in Bombay in 28th December 1855.
W.c.Bannerji presided over the Session in which 72 delegates from all over the country
participated in it.
7.6. Aims of the Indian National Congress

The Congress however made a humble beginning. Its early aims were as follows:
(a) To seek the co-operation of all Indians in its efforts.
(b) The eradication of race, creed and provincial prejudices and consolidation of national
unity.
(c) To discuss and take decisions concerning social problems of the country.
(d) To request the Government to associate Indians in the working od administration.
(e) To fix up the programme of the next year.
Thus, the early aims of the Congress were limited only to create national consciousness
and seek wider chances of employed in the services.
7.7. Resolutions of the Congress

The aspiration of the Congress was expressed in the resolutions adopted by it in its
annual conventions from 1885 to 1908. They may be summarized as follows:
1. The Legislative Council of Viceroys and Governors should be extended and the
representations of the Indians should be enhanced in them, so that the elected persons
could sit with them in the place of the Government offices.
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2. The expenditure on the army should be reduced and the number of the English soldiers
be reduced.
3. The Indian Council of the Secretary of State for India should be abolished.
4. Local bodies should be strengthened and the Governments control over them be
loosened.
5. The judiciary should be separated from the Executive.
6. Salt tax be reduced so tat the pressure on the agriculture be lessened and the
unemployment be mitigated.
7. The interests of the Indian living abroad be safeguarded.
8. The Civil Service Examination for the Indian be held in India.
9. The peasants should be saved from the exploitation of the landlords.
10. The land revenue should be reduced.
11. Freedom should be granted to the newspapers and control over press should be
removed.
12. Agriculture Banks be opened so that the farmers could get loans on lower interests.
13. The Indians should not be deprived of high posts in the administration.
14. The causes of the poverty of the Indians be looked into and attempts made to remove
them.
15. Commercial and technical schools should be opened.
16. Schools for imparting modern education should also be opened.
Although none of the programmes of the Congress was of a militant nature in the early
stage, because the leaders of this phase believed that the English Government would surely
adopt a sympathetic attitude towards them sooner or later. But the conditions began to change
after 1888 A.D. and the British Government withdrew all their sympathy from this organization.
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For the sake of convenience, the Indian National Movement is divided into following
phases.
1. The Period of Moderated (1885-1905)
2. The Period of Extremists (1905-1919)
3. Gandhian Era (1919-1947)
The credit for the Independence was taken primarily by the All India Congress.
7.8. Summary
 Nationalism in the modern sense developed in India only during the British rule in the
later half of the 19th century.
 National consciousness had awakened among the Indians and several associations
were formed.
 The harsh policies of the English Government were fully responsible for the development
of National Movement and the rise of the National Congress.
 A.O. Hume who brought about the formation of all Indian National Congress. Hence,
he is also known as the father of All India National Congress.
 The credit for Indian Independence was taken primarily by the all India Congress.

1. Describe the causes for the rise of Nationalism in India.
2. Explain the contribution of various political organizations for the formation of Indian National
Congress.
3. Write a short note about the Indian Association.
4. Discuss about the formation of Indian National Congress and its aims
5. Give an account of the resolutions of the Indian National Congress.

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7.10. Answers to Check the Review Questions

2. See the section and sub-sections 7.3, 7.3.1 to 7.3.6
3. See the sub-section 7.3.3.
4. See the section 7.4 to 7.7
5. See the section 7.8.

72
LESSON – 8
THE MODERATES
Learning Objectives
After reading this lesson you will be able to
 Know about the moderates and their contributions towards the Indian National Movement.
 Understand how the moderates as the loyal supporters.
 Explain the demands of the Moderates
 Discuss the objectives, strategy and social base of the Moderates.
 Describe the achievements of the Moderates.
Structure
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Moderates
8.3. The Period of Moderates (1885 – 1905)
8.4. The Moderates as the loyal supporters.
8.5. Objective, Strategy and Social Base.
8.6. Demands or Programmes of the Moderates
8.7. Moderates Phase
8.8. Contribution of the Moderates
8.9. Achievements of the Moderates
8.10. Criticism
8.11. Summary
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8.1. Introduction
Moderates were the earlier Congress leaders who believed in peaceful means of agitation
and they sent petitions to the Government. Moderates were the one’s who were very liberal on
their objectives and methods. They critizied British rule by making demands through speeches
and articles. Radicals were the ones who believed in the importance of self-reliance and
constructive work and not relised on the good intentions of the British Government.
8.2. Moderates
During the first twenty years of its life, the Congress was completely controlled by
liberal leaders or the so-called Moderates. It started with modest objectives having faith in the
honest and sincerity of the British Government. The leaders of the Congress like PanditMadan
Mohan Malviya and Gopala Krishna Gokhalecontinued to be hopeful of winning the favour of
the English.
The moderate leaders of the Congress were united with Mr. Hume regarding this belief.
Having faith in the sincerity of the British government, they remained loyal to it and kept
themselves and the Congress well within Constitutional limits.
8.2.1. Nationalists
From the beginning the moderates were ardent nationalists. They made no distinction
between classes, castes, creeds and communities. There were Hindus, Muslims, Christians
and Sikhs, Parsees, Anglo-Indians among the Moderates. Their aim was to impart political
education to the people, to unite all classes and communities to wrest Constitutional concessions
and to secure more political and economic reforms from the British. Their demands were
national, modest and moderate.
8.3. The Period of Moderates (1885 – 1905)

The first 20 years of the congress was the period of early moderates. The prominent
leaders of the period were A.O. Hume, DadabhaiNaoroji, GopalakrishnaGokhale and
SurendranathBannerji. The leaders professed loyalty to the British Crown. They believed in
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the British sense of justice and fair play and were sure to get their grievances redressed from
them. They did not believe in agitation or unconstitutional means. They carried on their work
by means of public debates, propaganda, petitions, demonstrations and deputations. They
published a journal called “India from London to bring the Indian problems to the notice of the
Englishmen.
Till then the Congress was dominated by the moderates. The moderates were reformers
not revolutionaries. They voiced the aspirations of the English educated nationalists. Broadly
speaking the leaders and the like-minded Congressmen who controlled the Congress during
the initial period of two decades came to be known as the moderates.
8.4. The Moderates as the Loyal Supporters

The moderates were the loyal supporters of the British rule in India.They were the
wellwishers of the Britishers.They were loyal to the British because the latter promoted English
education,establishedlaw,order,peace and security,granted civil liberties,extended and expanded
representative institutions and conferred several concessions and privileges to Indians.In short
the utility of the british rule was the basis of the activities of the moderates.
8.4.1.Practical People
The moderates were a practical people. They were not idealists or visionaries but were
hard headed realists.They believed in orderly progress.The moderates relied on the British
sense of justice,fairplay and liberalism.They aspired after the possible and worked for the
realization of immediate goals. They believed in natural growth and not in unnatural change.
They exuded a spirit of compromise and conciliation and avoided confrontation.
8.4.2. Outspoken Critics
Though the moderates were the outstanding supporters of the British Governments
they were the out spoken critics of the British rule. They condemned the total exclusion of
Indians from higher posts in their own country. They blamed the Government for the economic
disaster of India. They never hesitated to describe the British bureaucracy as arrogant, ignorant,
exclusive and remote. Similarly, the British judiciary was foundby them to be exotic,
incomprehensible, cumbersome and expensive. The Moderates ere consistent in their
condemnation of excessive Government expenditure of the high service, civil and military.
They squarely blamed the British for Indian poverty and economic backwardness. The
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moderates, therefore, demanded wider employment opportunities for Indians in the public
service, administrative reforms, expansion of Legislative Councils, simultaneous holding of the
ICS examination in England and India, separation of judiciary from executive, reduction of
military expenditure, revenue reforms etc.
8.4.3. Constitutional Agitators
The Moderates were all Constitutional agitators. They not merely rest content with
prayers, petitions and pleadings but also pursued the path of Constitutional agitation. For
instance, the all India agitation against the imposition of cotton excise duties in 1894 and 1896
was constitutional in character. Similarly, the Congressmen carried on a persistent agitation
for the reduction of land revenue payment and for improvement in the condition of the work of
the plantation workers. They hastened slowly.
8.5. Objective, Strategy and Social Base

The Moderates were the founders, participants and promoters of the Congress. They
wanted to balance the demands of the British Government and the redressal of people’s
grievances. They were clear in their objectives, strategies and their social base. The moderates
believed in orderly progress, compromise and conciliation evolution, not revolution. They strived
to promote unity in diversity. They wanted to achieve political power, economic control and
self-Government with the goodwill and cooperation of the British people.
The Moderatesendeavoured to achieve their objectives through Constitutional agitation.

In other words, they wanted to bring out changes through Constitutional authorities. They
eschewed violence and the path of revolt, prayers, appeals to justice and passive resistance
were their strategies. They early congress leaders were educated patriots. Since they were
class leaders they had a narrow mass base. They therefor, did not have wide appeal. Their
political influence was limited to urban communities. Their intention was not to mobilize the
mass and confront the Government but to champion the cause of all sections of people and
their moral and political upliftment.
8.6. Demands or Programme of the Moderates
1. Civil Rights: The moderates realized the value of the freedom of press and speech, the
right to organize processions and public meetings and therefore, protested against those
76
measures of the Government which curtailed them. That is why they asked for the separation
of judiciary and executive and removal of Vernacular Press Act.
2. Administrative Rights: The Congress, under the leadership of the Moderates, year by
year urged the Government to remove certain administrative abuses and run public welfare
schemes. It opposed the passing of the Calcutta Corporation Act by Lord Curzon and asked
for more representative local-self Governments with wider powers. It asked the Government
to undertake public welfare schemes, develop agricultural banks, increase facilities for irrigation,
health facilities, improve police system and better primary higher and technical education. It
demanded trial by Jury. It asked for the removal of Arms Act passed during the Viceroyalty of
Lord Lytton. It also raised its voice against the exploitation of Indian Labour working in plantations
in India as well as those who had gone in different foreign countries.
3. Constitutional Rights: The moderates did not contemplate complete independence for
India. They simply demanded larger number of elected representatives in legislatures both at
the Centre and in provinces and enhancement of their powers particularly concerning financial
matters. In 1904 it demanded representation in the British House of Commons as well. The
congress under their leadership, asked for Indian representation in the Indian Council at London
and also in the Executive Councils at the Centre and in the provinces of Bombay and Madras.
However, when the moderates felt dissatisfied with the reform of 1892 and realized that the
Government was not keen on further reforms, they demanded Swarajya or Self-Government
within the British empire on the model of Self-Governing colonies like Australia and Canada.
This demand was made from the congress platform by Gopala Krishna Gokhale in 1905 and
by dadabhaiNaoroji in 1906.
4. Economic Rights: The demands of the Moderates were moderate in respect of other reforms
but were revolutionary in the economic sphere. DadabhaiNaoraji propounded the theory of
Drain of wealth viz, the wealth of India was systematically drained out of India by several
means. MahadevaGovindaRanade, Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Romesh Chandra Dutta also
elaborated the causes and the results of the British economic policies in India, and thus charged
the British as well as the Indian Government with being responsible for the poverty of India.
8.7. Moderates Phase

During the period of 1885-1905, some of the leaders of the Moderates within the
Congress were DadabhaiNaoroji, Pheroz Shah Mehta, SurendraNath Banerjee,
77
Badruddintayabji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, MahadevaGovindaRanade, Romesh Chandra Duttta,

MotilalGhosh, Madan Mohan Malviya etc. Most of these leaders believed in Constitutional
methods to achieve their aims and those who did not believe in them preferred to accept them
as a matter of expediency. Therefore, the Congress under their leadership pursued only limited
objectives and for, achieving them, its techniques remined well within the Constitutional limits.
It therefore sent several deputations to Britain and attempted to convert British pubic opinion
infavour of its demands. It limited its activities to holding meetings, passing resolutions and its
annual sessions and sending petitions to the Government of India and the British Parliament or
Crown. It never protested against the government and limited its activities within the existing
laws whether just or unjust.
8.7.1. Legislative Work
The early Congressmen, known as Moderates were staunch believers in constitutional

agitation within the four corners of law. They submitted petitions to the Government of India
and also to the British Parliament. Even before the advent of Indian National congress, the
Indian Councils Act of 1861 had introduced for the first time the Legislative Council of the
Governor-General. Though its membership was strictly limited to Government officials, provision
was made for the inclusion of a few nominated non-officials to the council. This was followed
by the establishment of similar Councils in the Presidencies of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.
After the formation of the congress, the Indian members in the Legislative Council,
though not representatives of the people, represented national views. The Indian Councils Act
of 1892 was passed by the British Parliament, made some salutary changes in the legislative
functioning.
8.8. Contributions of the Moderates

The contributions of Moderates to the cause of the national movement are many.
They are as follows:
1. They played a positive role in Indian politics during the formative years of the Indian
National Congress. The Age of Moderates (1885-1905) was indeed a seed-time in the
struggle for India’s freedom. They sowed the seeds of moderation, conciliation,
compromise, orderly progress, stead fasters and Constitutional progress well and deep.
The result was the creation of a common feeling that the people of India belonged to
one nation and welded them into one common nationality.
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2. The moderates popularized among the people, the ideas of secularism, liberalism, civil
liberty and democracy. Indians were made conscious of the bonds of common political,
economic and cultural interests. They adopted the Constitutional methods of progressive
political change.
3. The moderates often restored to prayers, petitions and pleadings. They stood and strived
for the best, the possible and the practical in politics.
4. The moderates were the pioneers of Indian political reform. They laboured hard and
made many sacrifices in their attempts to wrest Constitutional concession from the
British rulers. They truly laid the foundation on which was built the superstructure,
storey by storey, of Self-Government, Home Rule, Swaraj and complete independence.
5. The moderates succeeded in having Parliamentary enquiries into Indian administration.

The passing of the Indian Councils Act of 1892 by the Tory diehards added a feather in
the Moderate’s cap. In 1890, the Moderates secured the cancellation of the Bengal
Government’s notification directing its officers not to attend the Congress conventions
even as visitors. In 1894, they countered the reactionary measure of the Government
against the independence of the legal profession when members were taking a leading
role in the nationalist agitation.
6. The moderates exposed true character of the British imperialism in India. They brought
to the lime light that India was being ruled by an alien country for political and economic
exploitation. Their Constitutional agitations carried on to correct political distortions,
economic balances and bureaucratic tyranny under mined the moral foundations of the
British rule in India. In short, the moderates were the relentless critics of the drawbacks
and deficiencies of the British Raj in India.
8.9. Achievements of the Moderates
From 1885 to 1905, the Congress was controlled by the Moderates. They wanted to
prepare the people before they deserve freedom and self-government. They decided to achieve
this limited objective within the corners of Constitutional frame-work. They were for reforms,
79
not revolution. As nationalists they rose above sectarian interest and were strictly secular in
their attitudes and approach. The major achievements of the moderatesmay be summarized
as follows:
1. They stood steadfast for the Constitutional development of India leading to Self-
Government.
2. They were responsible for the passing of the Indian Council’s Amendment Act of 1892,
which provided limited expansion of Legislative councils, both at the Centre and the
Presidencies.
3. The budget was to be discussed in the legislature.
4. They were instrumental for the appointment of the Public Service Commission, under
Charles Aitchison.
5. The House of Commons passed a resolution in 1892-93 in favour of simultaneous ICS

Examination in England and India,
6. The British Government agreed to share part of the military expenditure.
The Moderates effected a decisive shift in Indian politics. They succeeded in creating
political awakening among the people. They popularized the ideas of democracy, Civil, liberty
and nationalism. They laid the foundation for subsequent development of national movement.
The era of Moderates may be described as “seed time of Indian Nationalism.
8.10. Criticism
The early nationalists or the moderates have been criticized by many scholars. The
moderates were English educated middle-class doves, incapable of strong political action.
The early Congress men were lawyers, landlords, industrialists, bankers, princes, zamindars,
professionals etc. By their very nature they were incapable of creating enthusiasm among the
people. As a result, the Congress remained essentially a middle-class movement.
The national movement as conceived and carried out by the moderates lacked the
essentials of such a movement. It was halting, half-hearted and teethless political movement,
80
more to appease the British masters than to struggle for the legitimate right of the people.
That was the reason why the moderates after two decades of persuasive politics forfeited their
leadership of the national movement. The faith of the moderates in the British sense of justice
and fair play was proved to be wrong by the later developments.
8.11. Summary
 During the period 1885-1905 the Congress was led by the moderates.
 The moderates had complete faith in the British sense of justice, therefore functioned
within Constitutional limits.
 Dadabhai Naoroji, Pheroz Shah Mehta, S.N. Banerjee, Gopala Krishna Gokhale, M.G.
Ranade, R.C. Dutt, Madan Mohan Malaviya were some of the prominent leaders of the
moderates.
 The moderates were the pioneers of the Indian political reform.

1. Write a short note about moderates.
2. Discuss the objective, strategy and social base of the moderates.
3. Give an account of the demands of the moderates.
4. Describe the contributions of Moderates to the Indian National movement.
5. Examine the achievements of the moderates.

1. See the section and sub-section 8.2, 8.2.1

81
LESSON – 9
INDIAN COUNCILS ACT OF 1892
Learning Objectives
 Explain the circumstances leading to the Act of 1892.
 Know about the main provisions of the Act of 1892.
 Point out the importance of the Act of 1892.
 Analyse the criticism of the Act of 1892.
Structure
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Circumstances leading to the Act of 1892.
9.3. Main Provisions of the Act of 1892.
9.4. Importance of the Act of 1892.
9.5. Criticism of the Act of 1892.
9.6. Summary.
9.1. Introduction
The growth of the Indian Constitution after the Act of 1861 is largely the story of political
disaffection and agitation altering with Council reform. The Congress during this period worked
on the presumption that the English race was wedded to justice and fairness and they would,
on being petitioned, certainly redress the grievances of the people. For a few years it enjoyed
the patronage of the rulers. It was a period of petitions and demands for Constitutional reforms.
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In 1890, the Congress sent a deputation to England to press upon the British press and public
the urgency of political reforms in India. The congress for several years demanded Council
reforms vigorously. At last the British Government in order to appease the national leaders
accepted their demand partly by the Act of 1892.
9.2. Circumstances Leading to the Act of 1892.
A few important factors that contributed to the growth of nationalism were religious
movements, western education, economic exploitation of India by the British traders and the
policy of repression adopted by the Government of India. The foolish doings of Lord Lytton
including the Vernacular Press Act and Afghan wars embittered the people against the British
rule. The possibilities of a country wide revolution had fairly increased before the birth of the
Indian National Congress. The reforms grudgingly conceded were always found inadequate,
occasioned disaffection and evoked demand for further reforms. It is true of all subsequent
Acts passed by the British Parliament relating to India, namely the Act of 1892, 1907, 1919 and
1935. In each case the story is in its broad outline practically the same.
9.2.1. Lord Mayo’s Suggestion
Though the Act of 1861 continued to work up till 1892 and thus had the longest span of
life, yet its short comings were soon revealed. Lord Mayo pointed out that the Government of
India was in one respect in an unfortunate position, for there is no assembly or any means of
discussion similar to that which prevails in other countries. He therefore suggested that the
annual budget should be submitted to the Madras and Bombay Councils for their consideration.
In this way those Governments would be able to give wide publicity to the estimates and
accounts of the year under review. He also removed the apprehensions of his colleagues in
the Council that the criticism of the Government would undermine its prestige or tamper its
smooth working.
9.2.2. Lord Ripon’s Liberal Policy
Lord Lytton had suppressed the freedom of Press and did not fill the vacancies of his
legislative Council. Lord Ripon followed a liberal policy. Lord Hartington too did not act favourably
to the proposal of Lord Ripon and he wrote a letter to him. After receiving this reply from Lord
Hartington, Lord Ripon felt greatly disappointed and he considered it as useless to pursue his
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scheme any further. The fear of the imminent revolution in India and the anxiety to save the
British Empire from disruption induced and retired Civil Servant Mr. Hume to lay the foundation
of Indian National Congress.
9.2.3. Demand of Indian National Congress
The national awakening of the 19th century had given fillip to the demand of representative
institutions. Firs of all Madras MahajanSabha gave a lead in this connection and demanded
representative institutions in December, 1885. W.C. Banerjee, President of the first session of
the Indian National Congress demanded the elected members should be included in the
Councils, budget should be presented to them for discussion and members should have the
right to ask questions.
In a resolution in 1885, the Indian National Congress prayed that the Supreme Central
and existing local Councils (Provincial Councils) should be expanded through the admission of
a considerable proportion of elected members. The creation of similar Councils for the North
Western Provinces and Oudh and also for the Punjab that all budgets should be referred to
these Councils, that the first of interpellations be granted and that a Standing Committee of the
House of Commons should be constituted recevice and consider any formal protests that
might be recorded by majorities of such Council against the exercise by the Executive of the
power.
DadabhaiNaoroji in his Presidential address to the second session of the Congress

again emphasized the need of introducing elective element in the council. He held the existing
Constitution of the Councils as most unsatisfactory. But we have no right to demand any
explanations even from them.
9.2.4. Lord Dufferin’s Suggestions
Lord Dufferin, the Governor-General, too lost his sympathies with the Congress. He
ridiculed the Congress and refuted its claim being the sole representative body of the people.
Although he condemned the Congress and its demands, he supported the popular agitation for
increasing the membership of the Councils. The motive was to increase the powers of the
Government of India as against the Secretary of State. He wanted to secure the backing of the
representatives of people for his demand for increase in his powers. For this reason, he
agreed to the Congress demand for the change in the character of the Councils.
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In 1888 he set up a Committee to suggest the reforms in the composition of the Councils.
On the basis of the Committee’s report, he sent a Despatch to the Home Government in
England. He suggested that the Councils should be expanded into petty Parliaments. Two-
fifths of the non-official members should be elected members. He made it very clear in his
despatch that Indians were not to be entrusted with the reins of administration. He further
wrote that Indian destinies have been confined to the guidance ofan alien rule and hence the
enlarged legislative Councils were to act merely as consultative bodies to help Government
with advice and suggestions. The British Government even after receiving Viceroy’s proposals,
moved slowly and passed an Act in 1890. It became an Act of Parliament on June 20, 1892.
9.3. Main Provisions of the Act of 1892

The Act of 1892 was only amending Act. Therefore, basically the structure of the
Government of India remained the same as envisaged in the Act of 1861.
1. Enlargement of Central and Provincial Councils: The Act made provision for an increase
in the number of additional members in the Council. In the Central Council the minimum
number of additional members for legislative functions was raised from 8 to 10 and the maximum
limit from 12 to 16. In the case of Madras and Bombay, the increased strength was to be not
less than eight and not more than twenty. The maximum for Bengal was fixed at 20 and for U.P
only 15. The increase was very paltry and miserable. Of the 16 additional members in the
Central Council 10 were to be non-officials of whom 4 were to be nominated on the
recommendations of the non-official members of the of the Provincial Legislatures, one on the
recommendation of the Calcutta chamber of Commerce and the remaining 10 represent the
landlords and other interests in the country. Thus there was practically no directly elected
member in the Central legislature.
2. Rule: The Act empowered the Governor-General-in-Council to make rules regarding the
nomination of members. But the Governor-General was required to seek the approval of the
Secretary of State-in-Council in exercising his right.
3. More Rights were Given to the Members of the Councils: The Act proposed an appreciable
increase in the powers of legislatures. The members could ask questions on domestic matters.
A prior notice of six days was to be given to the President for asking a question. The members
were also authorized to discuss the budget without the right to vote on it or demand a division
of House on any issue.
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As the rules did not specify the subjects to which the questions were limited, the President
of the Council could allow any questions without assigning any reason or an answer to a
question could be refused on the ground of its inconsistency with public interests. In the
Provincial Councils Members were not allowed to put questions regarding administration except
the local administration.
Regarding those matters in which there was a controversy between local Government
and the Governor-General in Council or the Secretary of State for India, the questions were
allowed. No question could be asked except as to matters of fact, and the answer was to be
confined to a statement of facts. Therefore, the right to ask questions mainly depended on the
sweet will of the Government.
4. Governor-General, Governors and Lieutenant Governors Empowered to fill Vacancies:

Technically all the members were to be nominated by the Governor-General, the Governor, or
the Lieutenant Governor. If a member failed to attend the sitting of the Legislature for two
months, or resigned his membership or died, his seat was declared vacant. Such vacancies
were to be filled by the Governor-General in the case of Central Legislature and by the Governor
in the case of a provincial legislature.
5. Provincial Legislatures Empowered to Repeal or Amend Laws: The functions of the

Provincial Legislative Councils were further enlarged. They were empowered to make new
laws or repeal the old ones with the prior permission of the Governor-General. This power
however, did not affect the powers of the Governor-General in Council at meetings for the
purpose of making laws and regulations.
6. Elective Element in the Council: As a result of the pressure brought by the Indian National
Congress, the Government agreed to introduce elective element in the Councils. The elected
member could take their seats only after being nominated the head of the Government. In the
case of the Imperial Legislature, the Chamber of Commerce was asked to submit a panel of
names having been chosen by election, and the Governor-General approved one name for the
membership of the Central Legislature. Same was the case in the provinces where the Municipal
Commettees, District Boards, Zamindars and University senates recommended the person to
the Governor who made his selection for the legislature from the list submitted.
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9.4. Importance of the Act of 1892

The Act of 1892 may be called a landmark in the Constitutional development of India. It
made a definite advance on the Act of 1861. For the first time the elective principle was
accepted and introduced by the Act. Persons of Indian origin got an opportunity to sit with the
Viceroy and share the privilege of law making for their country.
The Act is significant for making provision for elected members in the legislatures
although only through restricted and indirect elections. The Act also authorized the members
to ask questions and discuss the Budget.
The right of the members to discuss and criticize the financial policies of the Executive,
laid as it were the foundation of Parliamentary Government. The new Act gave effect to the
official policy stated in the Act of 1861, of giving Indians a larger share in the administration of
the affairs of their country.
9.5. Criticism of the Act of 1892
The criticisms of the Act of 1892 are as follows:
1. The Act of 1892, although a great stride forward, failed to arouse much enthusiasm. It
fell far short of the national demands. The disappointment of the people was due to the
fact that this Act did not give any ting substantial. The persons who got into the
legislatures through indirect elections did not represent the people in the real sense of
the word.
2. The first resolution of the Indian National Congress passed at its 1892 session. W.C.
Banerjee declared in his Presidential Address that if the rules should prove unsatisfactory
agitation, would continue and not stop until we get what we all think and we all believe
we have a right to get it. We all think, and we all believe we have a right to get it. When
the rules were framed the hopes of the Indian National Congress was dashed to the
ground. Gopala Krishna Gokhale expressed his great disappointment with this Act.
3. The newly granted powers were not very important. The right of discussions on the
annual financial statement was allowed but the members could not move any resolution
and demand voting there upon.
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4. The control of the Secretary of the State over the Government of India was not relaxed.
All the non-official Bills intended to be introduced in the Central Legislative Council had
to first seek the approval of the Secretary of State.Similarly no non-official Bill could be
moved in the Provincial Councils without the prior approval of the Governor-General.
The official members of the Councils (Central and Provincial) voted enbloc according
to the instructions of the higher authority (Governor-General or Governor). Therefore,
the measures introduced by the non-official members had only slim chance of success.
5. Th vote of the elected members was not all effective. The official members being in
majority had little difficulty in imposing their will on the house. The functions of the
Legilative Councils were also very limited. The members were not to ask supplementary
questions and no discussion was permitted in respect of an answer given to a question.
6. The distribution of seats to different communities for representation in the legislature

was most unsatisfactory. While certain classes were over-represented, others did not
find any representation at all.
According to a critic, the Act of 1892 makes a definite parting of the ways, the first mile
stone on a road leading eventually to political dead lock and a strangling of executive government.
While no efforts were made to enlarge the boundaries of the educated class, to provide them
with any training in responsible Government or to lay the foundations of a future electorate
control them, the Act deliberately attempted to dally with the elective idea.
9.6. Summary
 The Congress for several years demanded Council reforms vigorously. At last the
British Government in order to appease the national leaders accepted their demand
partly by the Act of 1892.
 The Act of 1892 was only an amending Act, therefore basically the structure of the
Government of India remained the same as envisaged in the Act of 1861.
 The Act of 1892 may be called a landmark in the Constitutional development of India.
 The Act of 1892 made a definite parting of the ways, the first mile-stone on a road
leading eventually to political dead lock and a strangling of executive Government.
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1. Describe the circumstance that led to the passing of the Act of 1892.
2. Discuss the main Provisions of the Act of 1892.
3. Explain the importance of the Act of 1892.
4. Analyse the criticism of the Act of1892.
1. See the section and subsections 9.2, and from 9.2.1 to 9.2.4.

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LESSON – 10
RISE OF RADICAL AND MILITANT NATIONALISM
Learning Objectives
 Know about the origin, principles and objectives of the Extremists.
 Discuss the causes of the militant Nationalism.
 Explain the contribution of Extremists towards the national movement.
 Understand the difference between the Extremists and the Moderates.
 Analyse the circumstances leading to the split of the All India congress at Surat in 1907.
Structure
10.1. Introduction.
10.2. Birth of Extremist Movement.
10.3. Origin of Extremism.
10.4. Era of Extremists (1905-1919).
10.5. Principles of Extremists.
10.6. Objective, Strategy and Social Base of the Extremists.
10.7. Causes of the Militant Nationalism.
10.8. The Nationalist Revolutionaries.
10.9. The Extremists Programme of Action.
10.10. The Difference between the Moderates and Extremists.
10.11. The Surat Split (1907).

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10.12. Decline of Extremist Movement.
10.13. Assessment of Extremism.
10.14. Summary.
10.1. Introduction
The closing decade of the 19th century and early years of the 20th century witnessed the
emergence of new and younger group within the Indian National Congress which was sharply
critical of the ideology and method of the old leadership. They advocated the adoption of
Swaraj as the goal of the Congress to be achieved by more self-reliant and independent methods.
The new group came to be called the Extremist party. The Extremists preferred not to get out
of the Congress but to capture it from within. They represented aggressive Indian nationalism
and became responsible for the split of the Congress in 1907 at Poona.
10.2. Birth of Extremist Movement
The Congress from 1885 to 1906 submitted petitions and led deputations without getting
much success. Lokmanyatilak, Bipin Chandra Pal and LajpatRai lost their patience with the
moderates and their method of work. Tilak suggested a militant course to obtain self-government.
His aggressive nationalism found favour with the masses and he became a national hero. The
trio Lal, Bal and Pal provided dynamic leadership to the people and stirred them to life.
10.3. Origin of Extremisms
The origin of Extremism may be traced to 1890’s. It was AurobindoGhosh (1872-1950)

who after his return from England in 1873 sowed the seeds of Extremism in the Indian National
politics. He branded the Congress as a ‘middle class organ’ and called for a new strategy to
galvanize the national movement.
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10.4. Era of Extremists

The period between 1905 and 1919 may be described as the Era of the Extremists.
They constituted a radical faction of the Congress. The Extremists were disenchanted with the
moderates on the following three grounds viz.
1. The moderates failed to define India’s political goal.
2. Their methods of agitation were ineffective and,
3. Their methods to enlist mass support as a basis to negotiate with the British from a
position of strength.
10.5. Principles of the Extremists
The Extremists or militant Nationalists as they were also known were in favour of complete
independence. Tilak, the leading man of this movement, was against the policy of political
begging. The alternative method that he suggested was to boycott foreign goods.
The Extremists were frank and inspiring in denouncing the economic exploitation of
India and the official attempt to impose social reforms on Hindu society. Tilak unflinching faith
in the superiority of Vedic culture, literature, language and civilization.
He stood for driving out the rulers rather than entreating them for favour. The method
that he suggested to accomplish this end was, however, not terrorism but Constitutional struggle.
He wanted the struggle to be waged with courage and fearlessness no matter if Britishers were
displeased.
AurobindoGhose was also a leader of the Extremist camp. He declared Independence

in all our movements is the goal of life and Hinduism can fulfill this aspiration of ours.
10.6. Objectives, Strategy and Social Base of the Extremists
Objectives:
The Congress Extremists were militant nationalists. They criticized the Moderates for
their loyalty to their British masters, passive Constitutional methods and their failure to create
enthusiasm among the people at large. The extremists laid stress on self-respect, character
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building and mass action. They appealed to the people to shape their destiny through self-
reliance. The Extremists focused on the character, capacities and capabilities of the masses.
In short their objective was Self-Government or Swaraj.
Strategy:
The Strategy of the Extremists to attain their objective was clean different from that of
the moderates. The extremists called for agitation. Pro-active agitation, constructive work,
love of liberty and freedom, sense of sacrifice and struggle, spreading the fire of Patriotism
formed part of their strategy.
Social Base:
The Extremists consciously cultivated their social base. Since their approach was
inclusive, they prepared the ground so as the involve the middle-class youth, students and
women in the national struggle. However, the common people at the grass-root level, the
peasants and workers were still outside the mainstream of national agitation.
10.7. Causes of the Militant Nationalism

The Indian Nationalism grew militant during this period. The primary causes of this
militant nationalism were as follows:
1. Mis Rule of the tory Government: The rise of extremism in India can directly be traced to
misrule of Tory (Conservative) party Government. From 1888 to 1902, Lord Salisbury headed
the British Government except during the brief intervals when Liberals were in power. Lord
Hamilton who presided over the India office from 1893 to 1903 was very sympathetic to India.
During the time when Hamilton was in the office, unparalleled calamities of War, famine and
pestilence visited India but he remained indifferent to the distress of the Indians. This aroused
great indignation against the British rule in India.
2. Discontent Over the Reforms of 1892: The rights conferred by the Act of 1892 were quite
inadequate and disappointing. The Government paid no heed to Congress demands of the
Indianization of services reduction of military expenditure or lowering of taxes on the people.
Disillusionment was so great that the people began to question the utility of the method of
passive resistance. A few Congress leaders began to feel that a more revolutionary method
would yield quicker and greater results.
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3. Revivalism of Hinduism: The various social and religious movements which had revived
the faith of Indian in their country and culture were increasing national awakening. The Indians
gradually realized that the primary reason of their decline was the foreign rule. Therefore, their
desire to gain independence was intensified. Thus, religious and social awakening helped in
intensifying nationalism.
4. Economic Exploitation of India: The economic exploitation of India by the European

traders and growing poverty of the people also helped the rise of extremism in Indian Politics.
Unemployment became so acute and disastrous that people lost their faith in moderate and
Constitutional methods for redressing their grievances. The leaders like DadabaiNaoroji,
Ramesh Chandra Dutta and others through books and speeches came out with their criticism
of the cruel economic policy of the Government.
5. The Famine and the Plague: The Indians seriously suffered from the famine in 1896-97
and from plague in 1899-1901. The measures of the Government to give relief to the people
proved inadequate and sometimes disrespectful. Particularly the entry of the soldiers in the
homes of the citizens to search out the people suffering from plague was very much resented
by the people. BalGangadharTilak protested against it in his news paper ‘Kesari’. Some
terrorist activities were also done by the Indian at that time.
6. Repressive Policy of Lord Curzon and other Viceroys: Lord Curzon and some of his
administrative measures, certainly aggravate the situation, particularly, his partition of Bengal
inflamed the national feeling leading to the boycott of foreign goods and Swadeshi movement.
7. Foreign Events: Several events that occurred in Europe in the later part of the 19th century
also inspired the youth of India to work for emancipation of India. The defeat of Italy at the
hands of the Abyssinian forces in 1896 and of Russia by the Japanese forces in 1905 also
gave a stimulus to Indian nationalism. The victory of the Afro-Asian forces over the Western
powers proved for certain that Britain was not invincible. The young patriots of India were
convinced that the claim of British superiority was a mere myth. The new consciousness
helped the rise of extremism in India.
All these factors led to the rise of militant nationalism in India. The militant Nationalists
were however divided into two parts – the Nationalist Revolutionaries and the extremists.
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10. 8. The Nationalist Revolutionaries

The reactionary policy of the British developed deep hatred towards them among a
section of the younger generation of India. Many of them, therefore closed the path of violence
to gain independence of India. They were called revolutionaries. The Centre of these
revolutionaries were Punjab, Maharashtra and Bengal. They believed that India could achieve
independence only by an organized violent movement. They were prepared to receive even
foreign support for this purpose. The revolutionaries established their Centres in foreign countries
like U.S.A., Germany, Indo-China, Singapore, Middle East, and Near East as well.
But the revolutionary movement could never get public support in India. The people
respected the revolutionary leaders but showed no faith in their methods. The role of these
revolutionaries has not been realized completely even now because the Indians realized
completely even now because the Indians have exaggerated the non-violent means to attain
their independence. Otherwise the efforts of the revolutionaries for Indian Independence were
certainly creditable.
10.9. The Extremists Programme of Action

The Extremists group grew within the All India Congress. Their leaders were
AurobindoGhosh, LalalajpatRai, BalGangadhartilak and Bipin Chandra Pal. The Extremists
were determined to fight for Indian independence. The Extremists were determined to fight for
Indian independence. The Extremists preached the policy of ‘passive resistance’ against the
British for achieving their goal. This policy was against the British for achieving their goal. This
policy was explained by ArbindoGhosh in the Magazine BandeMatram in 1907 A.D. Thus, the
Extremists desired to change not only the aim of the Congress but also the means to attain it.
This was militant nationalism but without violence. It led to the division of the congress at its
Surat Session in 1907 when the extremists were turned out of the Congress. The Moderates
remained in control of the Congress till 1916 when the two groups were again united. Then
gradually the extremists strengthened themselves and the leadership of the Congress ultimately
paved into their hands.
10.10. The Differences between the Moderates and Extremists
1. The Moderates were early nationalists. They dominated the Congress upon 1916. The
Extremists, on the other hand, were the Militant Nationalists.
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2. The moderates were loyal to the British Crown. They believed that their loyalty to the British
and their support to the British rule were absolutely essential to the gradual growth of India.
On the other contrary the Extremists considered the British rule in India as a curse. For them
loyalty to the British Crown and to support the British rule were unpatriotic.
3. The Moderates wished and worked for a Colonial form of self-government on par with the
British dominions like Cananda, Australia etc. In Short the Extremists considered Swaraj as
the only remedy to the multiple maladies India was affected with.
4. The Moderates believed in the policy of conciliation, compromise and concession. They
adopted strictly Constitutional means and methods of agitation. The Extremists wanted to
attain swaraj by developing in the people a spirit of self-reliance, self-confidence, self-
determination and self-sacrifice.
5. The Moderates believed that Indians were still not fit for self-government and they should be
given political education and trained to assume Constitutional responsibilities. But the Extremists
expressed themselves in favour of inherent capacity and essential unity of Indians to govern
themselves.
6. The Moderates and the Extremists differed diametrically over the nature of the Congress.
For the Moderates, the Congress was a class organization. They depended for their success
on the goodwill, good sense and sympathy of the Englishmen and not on Indian masses. The
Extremists endeavoured to convert the Congress into a mass movement. They provided meass
base to the Congress.
7. Both the Moderates and Extremists composed to capture and control the Congress. However,
the Congress was dominated by the Extremists till Gandhi emerged on the scene and captivated
the Congress to his side
10.11. TheSurat Split

The differences between he Moderates and Extremists went on increasing. The
Extremists advocated boycott of foreign goods, use of Swadeshi goods and proposed a National
scheme of education with a view to boycott the educational institutions of the Government.
They also desired that the Congress should declare Swaraj as its goal.
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The moderates were not prepared to take such aggressive steps which would have
brought them in direct conflict with the Government. The two contending groups might have
come into conflict with each other even at the Congress session of 1906. It was, however,
avoided because Dadha Bhai Naoroji, respected by both the gourps was elected as the
President. But the conflict could not be avoided in 1907 when the Congress held its session at
Poona.
The Moderates put up Rao Behari Bose as the candidate for the Presidentship of the
Congress while the Extremists desired to choose Lala Lajpat Rai as the President. The conflict
started on certain procedural methods. The moderates elected Rao Behari Bose as the President
and Tilakwas not allowed even to address the gathering. This led to physical fighting between
the two groups.
The Extremists were then turned out of the Congress. Tilak however, continued to
deliver his message of struggle to the people and remained a popular leader among the masses.
He was sentenced to imprisonment for six years and deported to Mandley on charge of publishing
material leading to violence. The Moderates continued their hold over the Congress. The
Minto-Morley reforms were declared in 1909. The Congress gave its approval to them and
agreed to co-operate with the government in implementing them.
10.12. Decline of Extremist Movement
The Extremist movement failed to strike roots in the Indian soil. The British Government
suppressed the movements by a series of repressive measures. The Extremist leaders were
arrested and deported.
The Moderate Congress leaders were unsympathetic and intolerant towards extremist
activities. The people in general though Sympathetic towards the programmes of the Extremists,
were unwilling to openly associate themselves with such activities. It lacked leadership.
The Extremists could not establish an organization of their wone. Hence the Extremist
movement declined. Though declined its impact on the Indian freedom struggle was enduring.
It promoted aggressive nationalism in India, provided a broad base by associating the mass
with the movement and hastened the struggle for Indian Independence.
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10.13. Assessment of Extremism

The Extremist well understood and highlighted the negative role of Britain in India.
They saw clearly the clash of interest between the British rules and Indian National interests.
The main focus of their politics was (a) to get a larger share for Indians in the administration of
their country and (b) to end Britain’s economic exploitation of India. The policy of the Extremists
yielded Zood dividends.
The partition of Bengal was annulled in 1911 which gave a new self-confidence and
self-assurance to Indian nationalists. The First World War was required to compel the British
Government to proclaim self-government institutions as the goal of Constitutional development
in India.
10.14. Summary
 Extremism grew within the Congress due to several factors and the so-called militant
nationalists were the young Congress men.
 Boycott of foreign goods, use of Swadeshi goods and emphasis on national education
remained the primary means of extremists to attain independence.
 The difference between the two groups resulted in the split of the Congress at Surat
in 1907, though ultimately the two groups were United in 1916 and the Extremists
became dominant in the Congress.
 National Education helped in the Cultural regeneration of Indian youths.
 The Moderates and Extremists differed in ideology, objective and techniques.

1. What were the causes for the rise of extremism or militant nationalism in Indian politics.
2. Examine the difference between the Moderates and Extremists in respect of their aims and
methods.
3. Describe the contribution of the Extremists towards the national movement.
4. Discuss the circumstances leading to the split of the All India Congress at Surat in 1907.
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3. See the section 10.8 and 10.9.
4. See the sections 10.11.

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LESSON – 11
BIRTH OF SWADESHI, MUSLIM LEAGUE AND

HOME RULE MOVEMENT
Learning Objectives
 Understand the Swadeshi and Boycott movements and its contributions.
 Know about the factors contributed to the formation of Muslim League, its objectives
and also the relation between the Congress and Muslim League.
 Discuss the reasons for the emergence of Home Rule Movement.
 AnalyseTilak’s Home Rule League and Besant’s Home Rule League.
 Describe the achievements of the Home Rule Movement.
Structure
11.1. Introduction.
11.2. Swadeshi Movement
11.3. Muslim League, 1906.
11.4. Home Rule Movement (1916).
11.5. Summary.
11.1. Introduction
The Indian Independent Movement was a series of historic events with the ultimate aim
of ending the British rule in India. The movement spanned from 1857 to 1947. The first
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nationalistic revolutionary movement for Indian Independence emerged from Bengal. It later
took root in the newly formed Indian National Congress. The Swadeshi Movement, formation
of the Muslim League and Home Rule Movement are considered to be important changes in
the Annals of the Indian freedom movement. This lesson throws light on the causes, courses
and results of these movements.
11.2. Swadeshi Movement

The Swadeshi Movement was a part of the Indian independence movement and the
development of Indian nationalism. The movement started in 1906 against the partition of
Bengal. It was the strongest movement in Bengal and was also known as the
VandeMataramMovement in India. The movement ended in 1911. It was one of the most
successful movements against the British rule, primarily organized and led by AurobindoGhosh,
LokmanyaBalGangadhartilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, LalaLajpatRai, V.O. Chidambaram Pillai and
Babu Genu. Swadeshi was a key focus of Mahatma Gandhi, who described it as the soul of
swaraj (Self-rule).
11.2.1. Partition of Bengal, 1905
Before the partition, the Province of Bengal included modern West Bengal, Banladesh,
Orissa and Bihar. Boundary adjustments of Bengal had been a subject of discussion for about
four decades prior to the arrival of Lord Curzon in India as its Viceroy (1899 – 1905). Scared
by the growing Bengal nationalism Curzon decided to divide Bengal and destroy the fountain
head of freedom struggle. He therefore, announced the partition scheme in December 1905.
At one stroke Curzon wanted to reduce the administrative area and drive a wedge between
Hindus and Muslims in Bengal.
Thus, it was clear that the plan was disfavoured by a section of Englishmen as well as
the Indian, particularly the people of Bengal vehemently protested against it. But the Government
finally, implemented the plan in 1905.
11.2.2. Opposition to Partition of Bengal
The Bengalies opposed Curzon’s satanic scheme from the beginning. Public meetings
were held and pledges were taken. Resolutions were passed condemning the move of the
Government. Memorials were addressed to the Viceroys. A petition signed by 60,000 people
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was submitted to the Secretary of State for India imploring him to intervene and prevent partition
of Bengal. But it was of no avail. The warning of the press went unheeded, despite all round
opposition Curzon;s Government declared its decision to partition of Bengal on 19th July, 1905.
The implementation of the Plan on 16th October 1905 ensured the creation of Two Bengals,
one predominantly Hindus and the other predominantly Muslims.
11.2.3. Causes for the Swadeshi Movement
The causes of the anti-partition agitation may be stated as follows.
1. The announcement that Delhi was to replace Calcutta as British India’s Capital, consequent
upon the Partition of Bengal.
2. The disadvantaged status and loss of opportunities which Bengali Hindus feared within a
divided Bengal.
3. Negligible progress in redressing the grievances of the Bengalis.
4. Insensitivity with which the scheme of partition had been thrust on the unwilling throats of
the people of Bengal.
5. The partition plan was decided without consulting the Government; and The traditional
Bengal unity and identity which cut across narrow interest groups, class as well as regional
or religious barriers.
11.2.4. The Movement: Day of National Mourning
1th October, 1905 the day when Bengal was partitioned was declared a day of national
mourning through out Bengal. The day witnessed fasting and mourning. There was a hartal in
Calcutta. A song specially composed Rabindranath Tagore to suit the occasion was sung by
huge crowds parading the streets. The agitators took out processions reciting BandeMataram.
Ananda Mohan Bose laid the foundation of a Federation hall to vindicate the unity of Bengal.
The Bengal leaders were not content with mere demonstrations, protest meetings, passing
resolutions and praying for the redress of grievances. They boldly resolved to plunge into
effective and direct political action. Thus, Swadeshi Movement was born.
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11.2.5. Swadeshi and Boycott Movements
The anti-partition of Bengal Movement gave birth to Swadeshi and Boycott movements.
The Swadeshi and Boycott movements which were closely interwoven with each other were
not new to the Indians. In 1896, BalaGangadharaTilak had asked Indians to adopt Swadeshi
goods and boycott foreign goods. In 1902, S.N. Banerjee had asked the people from the
Congress platform that as the government was not prepared to protect Indian industries, the
people should use Swadeshi goods with a view to protecting Indian industries. And when the
Government adopted the policy of repression, a four-fold programme of boycott was pursued.
It included the following:
(a) Boycott of English cloth, salt, sugar etc.,
(b) Boycott of English language.
(c) Resigning from honorary offices under the Government and from seats in the legislative
Councils, and
(d) Social boycott of persons purchasing foreign goods.
The Swadeshi meant use of only Indian made products. Thus, Swadeshi and Boycott
movements were only two sides of the same coin. The use of Swadeshi goods was a positive
approach while the boycott was a negative one. Both complemented each other. Therefore,
the movement itself has been called Swadeshi and Boycott movements.
11.2.6. Nature of the Movement
The Government was so silent spectator to these happenings. On the one hand, it
moved diplomatically and attempted to divide the people of Bengal, particularly the Hindus and
the Muslims. The Government succeeded as well in getting the support of a section of the
Muslim community, particularly in East Bengal. On the other hand, the Government let loose a
reign of terror in Bengal. The meetings were forcibly dispersed, political leaders were put to
confinement without trial, the students were debarred from appearing in the examinations and
government service, singing of VandeMataram was banned and newspapers were suppressed.
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11.2.7. Contributions of the Movement
The partition of Bengal provoked Swadeshi movement. The following are the major
contributions of the movement.
1. The Bengal militants clarified their objectives, taught people the virtues of self-confidence,
self-reliance and self-respect. As a result, the outlook of the younger generation had been
changed from one of the mendicancy to militancy.
2. Though the Swadeshi Movement originated in Bengal,it evoked all India sympathy.It spread
beyond Bengal,Punjab and Maharashtra to new seats of politics like United provinces,
Bihar, Orissa, Gujarat and Madras. It kindled the patriotic fervour of the hearts of younger
generation in these regions.
3. There was a spontaneous outburst of literacy effulgence in Bengal. Entire Bengal was
enlivened by popular literature.
4. The Swadeshi movement freed people from the fear of police, arrest and jails. It taught the
people to challenge and defy the authority of the Government openly.
5. After the partition of Bengal people realized that petitions protest and prayers must be
backed up by force and pressure and the agitators should be capable of suffering and
sacrifice.
6. The Swadeshi movement was regarded as the salvation of the country. It was considered
by LalaLajpatRai as the common Religion of United India. The agitation was such the
Government of India was forced to nullify the partition of Bengal in 1911.
11.3. Muslim League (1906)

The All-India Muslim League, popularized as the Muslim league was a political party
established in 1906 in British India. Its strong advocacy for the establishment of a separate
Muslim majority nation-state, Pakistan successfully led to the partition of India in 1947 by the
British Empire. With the sincere efforts by the pioneers of the Congress to attract Muslims to
their sessions the majority of the Muslim leadership, with exception of few scholars like Sir
Syed Ahmed Khan and Syed Ameer Ali who focused more on Muslims educations and scientific
developments, rejected the nation that India’s two distinct communities to be represented
separately Congress Sessions.
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11.3.1. Factors Contributed to the formation of the Muslim League
1. The basic causes of Muslim communalism in India which resulted in the formation of the
Muslim league were fanatic spirit of Islam imbibed by the Muslims and the British policy of
divide and rule. The first cause existed prior to their exploitation by the British in their favour.
The second one was the creation of the British with a view to safeguarding their rule in India.
2. It cannot be denied that the Hindus and Muslims failed to develop those common grounds
which would have enabled them to form one nation though they lived together for centuries in
this Sub-continent.
3. The relations between the British and the Muslims were not at all cordial for quite a long
time since the establishment of the British rule in India.
4. The revolt of 1857 further deteriorated their relations. The British attempted to arouse
strong groups of the Hindus against the Muslims during the period of revolt because they felt
that the Muslims were trying to throw them out of India under leadership of the Mughal emperor,
Bahadur Shah.
5. The Muslims, on their part, neglected English education and Western culture and thus
remained devoid of employment in the services ad also of modernization.
6. The situation was gradually reversed after the Revolt of 1857. The theory of ‘divide and
rule’ in fact was practiced by the British even during the period of the Revolt though it took its
final shape gradually afterwards.
7. The change in the policy of the British became clear from 1870. The Muslims were patronized
by them in different forms and communalism was encouraged.
11.3.2. Formation of Muslim League and its Objectives
Greatly enthused and encouraged by Lord Minto’s response, NawabSalimmullah, one

of the members of the Simla Delegation, issued a circular on 9th November, 1906. He suggested
that an organization to be known as All India Muslim conference should be established.
Accordingly, a Conference was convened at Dacca in the following December. It was attended
by Muslim leaders and representatives from all over India. On 30th December, 1906, the All
India Muslim League was formed.
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Objectives:
The objectives of the Muslim League were –
1. To motivate the Muslims to be loyal to the British Government.
2. To protect the political and other rights of the Muslims.
3. To place the needs and aspirations of the Muslims before the Government, and
4. To promote friendly feelings between Muslims and communities.
11.3.3. Independent Factor in Indian Politics
The first Conference of the Muslim League was held at Amritsar. It was presided by Sir
Syed Imam. The League leaders demanded more weightage to the Muslims in the Legislative
councils and in Civil Services. They also demanded equity of representation with the majority
community in the Viceroy’s Executive Council. The constitution of the League was approved in
1907. Its membership was fixed at 400. As the subscription was high, only landlords, aristocrats,
educated professionals and Government Servants joined the League.
11.3.4 Muslim League and Congress
The League amended its Constitution in 1913 with a view to promote mutual
understanding between the Muslims and other communities. The new Constitution also
proclaimed the goal of Self-Government for India. The Congress also passed a similar resolution
at its Karachi Session in 1913 under the Presidentship of NawabSayed Mohammad Bahadur.
The leaders of both the organizations displayed a rare display of solidarity at Lucknow in 1916.
The Lucknow pact represented Hindu Muslim willingness to pursue their political goals through
mutual concessions. Three years later Gandhi’s endorsement of the Khilafat issue led to an
unprecedented display of Hindu-Muslim unity.
11.4. Home Rule Movement (1916)

Home Rule Movement began in India in the background of the First World War. The
movement lasted around two years between 1916-1918 and is believed to set the stage for the
Independence movement under the leadership of Annie Besant and BalGangadharTilak to the
educated English-speaking upper-class Indians. In 1921 All India Home Rule League changed
its name to SwarajyaSabha.
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11.4.1. Annie Besant (1847-1933)
Annie Besant was born in 1847, in London into an upper middle-class family. His father
was an Englishman, and his mother was an Irish Catholic. She was a British Socialist, theosophist,
women’s rights activist, writer, orator, educationalist and philanthropist. Regarded as a champion
of human freedom, she was an ardent supporter of both Irish and Indian Self-rule. She was a
prolific author with over three hundred books and pamphlets to her credit. As an educationist,
her contributions included being one of the founders of the Banaras Hindu University.
11.4.2. Reasons for emergence of Home Rule Movement
1. During First World War, India supports British hoping that Britain would pay India’s loyalty in
the form of self-government. Soon they realized that government did not grant any status
unless popular pressure was bought to it.
2. Minot-Marley reforms failed to satisfy Nationalists.
3. Propagation of ideals of Home Rule Movement of Ireland.
4. Suppression of Ghadar movement created an atmosphere of resentment among Indian

masses.
11.4.3. Aim of the Home Rule Movement
The aim of the Home Rule Movement was the attainment of home rule or a dominion
status for India under the British Empire along the lines of countries like Canada and Australia.
The movement was carried out through the two home rule leagues. In England she tried to
form an Indian Party in the Parliament without success. However, her persistent propaganda
in favour of granting self-government to India resulted in the formation of a Home Rule League
in London.
11.4.4. Tilak’s Home Rule League
Though Annie Besant mooted the idea of a Home Rule League, it was Tilak who started
it first after his release from the Madalay jail on 16th June, 1914. Tilak rejoined the Congress.
Finally, he was readmitted to Congress in 1915 by Besant’s intervention. Both tried their best
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to reactivate the Congress but failed. Tilak, therefore, started his Indian Home Rule League at
the Bombay Provincial Conference held at Belgium on 23rd April 1916, with head quarters at
Poona. Securing Swaraj for India was the objective of Tilak’s League.
With renewed vigourTilak campaigned for the cause of the Home Rule. He toured
extensively and popularized the demand of Swaraj or complete independence. He also linked
the demand for Home Rule with the formation of linguistic States and education through one’s
mother tongue. He supported the non-Brahman demand for representation and the abolition
of untouchability. Above all, Tilak based his demand for Swaraj on strictly secular basis. Tilak
became immensely popular.
11.4.5. Besant’s Home Rule League
Annie Besant started the All India Home Rule League on the Irish model. She preferred
the term ‘Home Rule’ because it was short, better suited for popular cry and more explicit since
it connected self-government within the British Empire. On the other hand, the word ‘Swaraj’
meant complete independence or self-government. Further, the English people were more
familiar with the term Home Rule.
As close collaborator of Tilak, Annie Besant also started separately a Home Rule League.
The League was formally inaugurated in Gokhale hall, Madras on 3rd September 1916 with its
Head Quarters at Adayar. Besant as President, G.S. Arundale, organizing Secretary and B.P.
Wadia, treasurer were the moving spirits behand the League.
11.4.6. Objectives of the Home Rule League
The objectives of the League were as follows:
1. To Secure home rule for India through Constitution methods.
2. To maintain the connection with Britain by becoming a free nation within the British
Empire.
3. To support and strengthen the congress, and
4. To carry on a continuous educative propaganda on the necessity of Home Rule for

India.
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11.4.7. Home Rule Agitation
As Tilak was popular in the North, Annie Besant was prominent in the South. She
visited a number of places and enlisted popular support for the home Rule Agitation. By mid
1917 about fifty branches of the Home Rule League were started in the Andhra Area alone.
The Home Rule campaign gave tremendous impetus to the growing consciousness of the
Telugu speaking people and helped the cause of the demand for a separate Andhra Province.
The impact of the home Rule agitation on the Madras students was tremendous. In
many parts of the Madras Presidency, the students fearlessly and freely disobeyed Government
orders and restrictions. The Government of Lord Pentland in Madras alarmed. In short Annie
Besant enlivened the politics of the Presidency.
11.4.8. Achievements
The Home Rule Movement had many achievements to its credit.
1. It marked the beginning of a new phase in India’s struggle for freedom. It placed before
the country a concrete scheme of Home rule.
2. When the Congress was split and weak the Home Rule Movement presented a unified
opposition to British rule.
3. The movement discarded the methods of mendicancy and launched campaigns and agitation
to achieve its ends.
4. The Home Rule League acted a pressure group in England and America and mobilized
public opinion in favour of self-government.
5. The popularity and the intensity of the Home Rule agitation was to a great extent responsible
for the famous declaration of policy by Edwin Montague on 29th August 1917 about the
increasing association of Indians in every branch of administration and a gradual
development of self-governing institutions.
6. The Home Rule Leagues led by Tilak and Besant captured the Congress and virtually
ousted the moderates from the arena of agitation.
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7. With the emergence of Annie Besant on the national scene. Madras Presidency became
the center of Home Rule agitation in India.
8. The Home Rule Movement was a fitting tribute to Tilak’s political career. He converted the
class movement into a mass movement.
11.4.9. Suppression of the Movement
The movement was also left leaderless. Once Tilak left for England to pursue a libel
case he had filed, and Annie Besant was largely satisfied by the promise of reforms. Its further
growth and activity were stalled by the rise of Mahatma Gandhi and his satyagraha.
After the Montagu Declaration, the league agreed to suspend its expansion of the
movement. In 1920 the All India Home Rule League merged with Congress which elected
Mahatma Gandhi as its President. Several leaders of Home rule movement played an important
role in the national movement when it entered a truly mass movement phase under the leadership
of Gandhi.
11.4.10. Significance of the Home Rule Movement
The movement revived the tradition of mass struggle, the mass agitation against British
Raj continued to gain strength here after and the series came to halt only after the liberation of
India from British Raj.
The greater significance of Home Rule Movement was that it forced the British
government to change their policy towards India in August 1917 Lord Montague the Secretary
of State for India made an announcement popularly known as August Declaration, this declaration
emphasized that the ultimate objective of the British Government was to give dominion status
to India.
11.5. Summary
 The Swadeshi Movement was one of the most successful movements against the British
rule primarily organized and led by Arobindo Ghosh, Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal and
Lalalajpat Rai, V.O. Chidambaram Pillai and Baby Genu.
 The Anti-partition of Bengal movement gave birth to Swadeshi and Boycott movements.
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 The Swadeshi movement though suppressed for the time being ultimately resulted in
the cancellation of the partition of Bengal.
 All India Muslim League was formed on 30th December 1906.
 The objective of the Muslim League was to protect the political and other rights of the
Muslims.
 Both Tilak’s Indian Home Rule League and Besants All India Home Rule League were
parallel organizations with the common objective of self-rule.

1. Trace the causes for the formation of Swadeshi Movement.
2. Write shortly about the Swadeshi and boycott movements.
3. Discuss the factors contributed to the formation of Muslim League.
4. Explain the formation of Muslim League and its objectives.
5. Give an account of Annie Besant and Tilak’s Home Rule League.
6. Describe the Achievements of the Home Rule Movement.

1. See the section 11.2.3.
5. see the sub-section from 11.4.1 to 11.4.7.

111
LESSON – 12
INDIAN COUNCIL ACT OF 1909 (OR)
MINTO-MORLEY REFORMS ACT OF 1909
Learning Objectives
After reading this lesson you will be able to
 Analyse the circumstances leading to the Act of 1909.
 Give an account of the main provisions of the Act of 1909.
 Discuss the Assessment of Minto-Morley Reforms.
 Know about the disappointing of the Reforms of 1909.
 Explain the importance and criticism of the Act of 1909.
Structure
12.1. Introduction.
12.2. Circumstances leading toe Act of 1909.
12.3. Main Provisions of the Indian Councils Act of 1909.
12.4. Assessment of Minto-Morley Reforms (1909).
12.5. Disappointments of the reforms of 1909.
12.6. Importance of Minto-Morley Reforms (1909).
12.7. Criticism.
12.8. Summary.

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12.1. Introduction
The Indians were not satisfied with the reforms introduced by the Act of 1892. The Act
had failed to satisfy even the moderates among the ‘All India congress’. The arrogant behaviour
of Lord Curzon and some of his administrative measures like the Calcutta Corporation Act, the
Calcutta University Act, measures to check the bubonic plague and the partition of Bengal
inflamed the patriotism of the Indians. The necessity of further reforms arose to check the rise
of extremism in Indian plotics, to win over the moderates in the congress to the side of the
Government and to buttress Muslim communalism.
12.2. Circumstances Leading to the Act of 1909

1. The defeat of Russia by Japan in 1904 raised the morale of the Asians including those of the
Indians.
2. The partition of Bengal in 1905 gave great shock to all the nationalist leaders. There was
wide spread agitation against this idea pf partition.
3. The racial arrogance of the British and the humiliation of the Indians in India and outside it
particularly in South Agrica, also provided incentive to the Indian nationalism. It resulted in
the split of the All-India Congress in 1907.
4. The establishment of the Muslim League in 1906 also gave the government a chance to
support Muslim communalism against Indian nationalism. A new scheme of reforms could
certainly be utilized to inflame Muslim communalism.
Lord Minto, the Governor-General was convinced of the necessity of the reforms. Lord
Morley, the Secretary of State also agreed with his view. Therefore, a Committee was appointed
by the Government of India to propose a scheme of reforms. The Committee submitted its
report and when finally, everything was settled between the Governor-General and the Secretary
of State, the act of 1909 was passed by the British Parliament. So, the new scheme of reforms
has been called the Minto-Morley Reforms.
12.3. Main Provisions of the Indian Councils Act of 1909

1. Expansion of the Council: The Act provided for the enlargement of the Councils both
Central and Provincial. The number of additional members for legislative purposes in the
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Viceroy’s Executive council was raised form 16 to 6o. The Legislative councils of Madras,
Bengal and Bombay were also increased to 50 members each. Changes in the Councils of
other provinces were made later in 1912 when readjustments in provincial territorial limits were
affected.
2. Official Majority in the Imperial Legislative council Retained: The Governor-Generals

Legislative Council consisted of four categories of members (a) Ex-Officio Members (b)
Nominated Officials (c) Nominated non officials, and (d) Elected Members. The Governor
General and his Councilors enjoyed the membership of the Central Legislature by virtue of
their being the members of the highest Executive. The Act of 1909 retained the majority of
official members so as to avert any form of difficulty arising in the passage of Government
Bills.
3. Non-Official Majority in the Provincial Legislative Council: The Act dispensed with the
official majority in the Provincial Legislatures. The combined strength of official and nominated
non-official members still out numbered the elected members. Generally, the Provincial
Governments encountered no difficulty in the passage of any bill. The non-official members
always voted in favour of official moves where as the elected members who represented different
classes, communities and interests could never unite as one.
4. Introduction of Communal Electorate: The Act favoured the Muslims by giving them
representation disproportionate to their population. This was done on the excuse of the political
importance of the Muslim community. Separate representation was also given to Presidency
Corporations, Universities, Chambers of Commerce and Land Lords.
5. Enlargement of Functions of the Legislative Councils: The Act of 1909 empowered the
members to discuss the budget and move resolutions before it was finally approved. They
were also allowed to ask supplementary questions, to move resolutions on matters relating to
loans to local bodies, additional grants and new taxes. The Act also extended to members the
right to discuss matters of public interest, adopt resolutions or divide the House on them. But
the resolutions adopted by the House were not absolute and binding on the Government. In
short, the legislatures got the right to talk but not to influence the Government in any way.
6. Increase in the Size of Executive Councils: Under this Act the number of members of the
Executive Councils of Bombay and Madras was increased to four. The Act empowered the
Governor-General in Council to create with the approval of the Secretary of State, Executive
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Councils for Bengal and for the Lieutenant-Governor’s provinces. Another significant feature
of this Act was the appointment of the Indians to the Executive Council. He, under this act
appointed Mr. S.P. Sinha, Law Member to the Governor-General’s Executive Council.
7. System of Election: The Act of 1909 for the first time gave recognition to elective principle
for the appointment of non-official members to the Councils. He suggested a restricted and
discriminatory franchise. The electorate for returning the representatives were divided on the
basis of class, community and interest. Moreover, the voting qualifications also differed from
province to province. Besides that, the Government could debar those persons from contesting
the election, who participated in the agitations against the Government.
12. 4. Assessment of Minto-Morley Reforms (1909)
The reforms of 1909 were in the nature of concessions to appease the moderates so
that by securing their sympathies the Government might crush the terrorist movement.
When the detailed rules and regulations were made under this Act by the Government,
the liberal spirit of the Act was utterly destroyed. The Government of India wanted to crush the
nationalists.
So even the moderates who had expressed great joy over these reforms at the initial
stage were soon disillusioned.PanditMadan Mohan Malviya in his Presidential Address to the
Indian National Congress Session at Lahore in 1909 expressed his disappointment over these
reforms.
At the 1910 session, the Indian National Congress again urged the Government in the
name of justice and expediency to modify the regulation before another election comes on, so
as to remove anomalous distinction between different sections.
The Regulations issued on November 15, 1909 was amended in 1912 but the Congress
at its session of 1913 felt great disappointment. In the beginning Mr. Gokhale described the
reofrms as modifying the bureaucratic character of the Government but less than a year, the
Congress leaders were sorely disillusioned. The actual working of the reform brought into
limelight the evil consequences of communal representation in the Councils.
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12.5. Disappointments of the Reforms (1909)

Following are the grounds which rendered the Reform disappointing.
1. It did not establish Parliamentary form of Government: The Act of 1909 was in its true
colours to create a Constitutional autocracy. Mr. Morley, had no intention to give a representative
Government to India for he considered the conditions in the country highly unsuitable to
Parliamentary form of Government.
2. The Vicious System of Communal Electorate: Another ugly feature of the Act was its
recognition of Communal basis of representation. The Communal interest predominated the
national interests. The granting of separate representation to Muslims proved in fact the
beginning of an era of gross Communalism in Indian politics.
3. Indirect Election: Another serious defect in the new Act was that a large number of the
additional members for legislative purpose were to be returned on the basis of indirect elections.
4. Domination of Pro-Government bloc in the Councils: The reform proposed by the Act of
1909 was mere eye-wash because there continued to be the preponderance of official majority
in the Central Legislature and of the pro-Government bloc in the provincial Councils. In the
Imperial Legislature, the elected members became ineffective against the strong band of
nominated officials.
5. Strictly limited powers of the Legislative Councils: With the increase in size of the
Councils, the Act did not enlarge their functions and powers. The members were allowed to
discuss the budget but could not make any substantial change in any item. They could ask
questions but not insist on a reply from the Executive.
The recommendations of the Legislative Councils could be rejected or voted by the Governor
General or the Governor as the case may be. Besides these, there were statutory restrictions
on the powers of the Legislature. They had no direct control over any head of revenue or
expenditure. The real powers continued to be centralized in the Executive.
6. Curtainment of the Rights of the Members: The rules and regulations governing the
proceedings of the Legislative Councils, were so framed that the powers of its member were
substantially restricted. The Minto-Morley reforms neither contemplated any transfer of power
nor meant to make the Councils real law-making bodies. The function of the member was
confined to heated deliberations without affecting the policies of the Government.
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7. Indians were Given Influence and Not Power: The Minto-Morley reforms though a
distinct advance gave Indians in the Legislative Councils only influence and not power. Power
is different from influence. The Legislative Councils, as they are at present serve no purpose
but to present an illusion to the civilized world that India is governed through representative
assemblies.
12.6. Importance of Minto-Morley Reforms (1909)

Despite all the drawbacks the Act of 1909 suffered from, it was a definite advance on
the proceeding Act of 1892. It marked an important stage in the growth of representative
institutions in India. For the first time recognition was given to elective principle as the basis of
the composition of Legislative Councils. Gokhale was so optimistic that he interpreted the
reforms as a step towards the responsible association of elected Indians with the administration.
In spite of the disclaimer of Lord Morley, the Act did pave way for a Parliamentary Government
although indirectly in the country. Another significant feature of the Act was the increase in the
rights of the members. They were empowered to discuss the budget and divide the House on
many of the items included in it. Thus, the members got the opportunity to criticize the Executive
and make suggestions for better administration of the country.
12.7. Criticisms
1. It was a great disappointment to the people of India. They demanded responsible Government,
but they were given benevolent despotism.
2. The reform led to a lot of confusion. The Act provided Parliamentary reforms. But no
responsibility was given. The result was thoughtless and irresponsible criticism of the
Government.
3. According to this Act, the number of voters was very small. Women were completely excluded.
4. Since the system of elections was indirect, the members felt no responsibility towards the
people.
5. Another defect of the Act was the importance given to the vested interests.
6. The maintenance of an official majority in the Imperial council was resented by the Indians.
7. Although non-official majority was given to the Provincial Councils the practical result was
nothing.
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8. The principle of responsible Government was not allowed to germinate.
9. The critics printed out that Reforms of 1909 gave the people shadow rather than the substance.
The exclusion of Indians from senior posts and from public services also pin-pricked
the educated unemployed youths of India. Ever the Secretary of State during his visit to India
was taken a back to learn that the doors of British clubs were closed for his Indian friends. The
inadequacy of the reforms as such gave a fillip to extremist movement in India.
12.8. Summary
 The Indians were not satisfied with the reforms introduced by the Act of 1892. The Act
had failed to satisfy even the moderates among the All India Congress.
 The necessity of further reforms arose to check the rise of extremism in Indian politics,
to win over the moderates in the Congress to the side of the Government and to buttress
Muslim communalism.

1. Describe the circumstances leading to passing the Act of 1909.
2. Examine the main provisions of the Minto-Morley Reforms Act of 1909.
3. Explain the Defects of the Reform Act of 1909.
4. Write a short note about the importance of the Act of 1909.
5. Mention the criticism of the Act of 1909.


118
LESSON – 13
INDIAN COUNCILS ACT, 1919 (OR)
MONTAGUE-CHELMSFORD REFORMS (1919)
Learning Objective
After Reading this Lesson you will be able to
 Understand the circumstances that led to the Montague-Chelmsford reforms of 1919.
 Know about the Preamble and the main provisions of the Act of 1919.
 Explain the special powers of the Governor-General and the working of the Central
and the Provincial Legislature.
 Analyse the working of dyarchy and its failure.
 Discuss the advantages of the Act of 1919.
Structure
13.1. Introduction.
13.2. Circumstances that led to the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms (1919).
13.3. The Preamble.
13.4. Main Provisions of the Act of 1919.
13.5. Working of Dyarchy.
13.6. Advantages of the Act of 1919.
13.7. Summary.

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13.1. Introduction
The Government of India Act of 1919 was an act of the British Parliament that sought to
increase the participation of Indians in the administration of their country. The Act was based
on the recommendations of a report by Edwin Montague, then Secretary of State for India, and
Lord Chelmsford, India’s Viceroy between 1919 and 1921. Hence the Constitutional reforms
set forth by this act are known as Montague-Chelmsford reforms. This Act represented the
end of benevolent despotism and began the genesis of responsible Government in India.
13.2. Circumstances that Led to the Montague-Chelmsford

Reforms (1919)
1. The Minto-Morley reforms of 1909 failed to satisfy the people of India. Both Extremists and
Moderates did not satisfy with the reform Act. The discontentment and disappointment of
the people resulted in revolutionary activities.
2. In the meantime the Muslims also demanded separate electorates. The partition of Bengal
greatly annoyed the Muslims. So, they were in agitated mood.
3. The Muslim population of India did not like the Pre-war foreign policy of the British Government.
The Balkan incident, the British interference in Morocco and the condition of Persia and
Tripoli greatly affected the feelings of the Muslims. No wonder the Muslims were getting
restive.
4. The Indians were ill-treated in abroad by the Europeans. Their cruel treatment in Natal and
Transvaal especially aroused the Indians against the British Government and the latter was
accused of neglect of the Indian interests.
5. During the First World War the methods employed by the British Government in the manner
of recruitment and collection of funds for the Red Cross added insult to injury. Prices went
up and added to the distress of the people. The Indian soldiers were not given due recognition.
6. In 1915 Lord Sinha, the Congress President of the Bombay Session advised the British
Government to make a declaration of their goal in India with a view to pacifying the Indian
youth who were intoxicated with ideas of freedom, nationality and self-government.
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7. After Lord Hardinge, Lord Chelmsford became the Viceroy of India in 1915. Montague was
the then Secretary of State for India. He was a great friend of India. He had sympathized
with the aspirations of the people of India. He made an historic announcement in August
1917. It is called ‘August Declaration’. The moderates welcomed the Declaration as the
Magna Carta of India. The Extremists on the other hand regarded the announcement as
unsatisfactory both in language and substance.
8. Proposals for Reforms were made by Mr. Chamberlain, the Secretary of State for India in
1916. But the members resented this proposal.
9. Added to this Congress League Scheme was prepared and submitted in October 1916. It
recommended the increase of strength of the Provincial Legislature and other reforms in the
provinces.
10. Gokhale also had submitted a scheme of reforms on the request of Lord Wellington after
the war. This so called ‘Gokhale’s political treatment was published in August 1917. His
main recommendation was the grant of provincial autonomy and lessoning of the control of
the Government of India in the provincial sphere.
11. After prolonged thinking and study in conjunction with Lord Chelmsford, Montague published
his report in 1918, Montague’s Diary is both interesting and illuminating.
At that time there occurred the famous Jallianwala Bagh tragedy in 1919. As a result,
disturbances took place in Delhi, Kasur, Lahore etc. Martial Law was imposed in certain parts
of Punjab. The arrests of leaders also added fuel to the fire. It was in this atmosphere of storm
and stress that a bill embodying the recommendations made in the Report of 1918 was
introduced in Parliament on June 2, 1919. The scheme of reform was published under the
joint Signatures of Montague and Mr. Chelmsford and Act of 1919 was passed by the British
Parliament on the basis of that report.
13.3. The Preamble of the Act of 1919

The Act laid down its Preamble.
1. British India is to remain an integral part of British Empire.
2. Responsible Government in British India is the objective of the declared policy of

Parliament.
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3. Responsible Government is capable of progressive realization only.
4. In order to achieve Responsible Government, it is necessary to provide for two things,

the increasing association of the Indians in every branch of administration and the
gradual development of self-Governing institutions.
5. Concurrently with the development of Self-Governing institutions in the provinces, it is

expedient to give to provinces in provincial matters the highest measure of independence
of the Government of India, which is compatible with the due discharge by the later of
its own responsibilities.
The significance of the Preamble was that what already declared by Montague was
now given a definite legal shape. The sovereignty of the British Parliament over India was
reasserted and the country was told in clear terms of the basis of the future British action.
13.4. Main Provisions of the Act of 1919
Montague-Chelmsford Reform or the Government of India Act of 1919 made many far-
reaching changes in the administration of India. The following were the main provisions of the
Act.
1. Prior to this Act, the Secretary of State for India was to be paid out of the Indian revenues.
The new Act provided that in future he was to be paid out of the British revenues.
2. A High Commissioner for India was to be appointed by the Government of India. He

acted as the agent of the Governor-General-in-Council. Some of the functions of the
Secretary of State for India were taken away from him and given to the Commissioner.
3. The Secretary of State possessed and exercised the power of Superintendance, direction
and control over the affairs of India.
4. The Governor-General had to carry out the orders of the Secretary of State.
5. Formerly there was Imperial Council in the Centre consisting of one House. Now the
Act of 1919 set up a bicameral Legislature consisting of two houses viz., Central
Legislative Assembly and the Council of State.
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6. The Central Legislative Assembly consisted of 145 members. Among them 104 were
elected and the rest were nominated. Out of the nominated members 26 were officials
and the rest non-officials.
7. The Council of State consisted of 60 members. Among them 34 were elected and 25
were nominated by the Governor-General.
8. The term of the Central Legislative Assembly was 3 years.
9. The term of Council of State was 5 years.
10. The first speaker of Assembly was nominated by the Government, later on the Speakers
were elected by the Members of the Assembly.
11. Indirect election was recommended to the Central Assembly. But later it was changed
to direct elections for both Houses of the Central Legislature.
12. Franchise was restricted. It is to be noted that the total number of voters for the Central
Assembly was about 9,09,874 and for the Council of State was about 17,364 in 1920.
13.4.1. Special Powers of the Governor General
Besides being the head of the Executive, the Governor General had unlimited powers
in the legislative sphere. He also summoned and prorogued the Legislature, dissolved the
Legislative Assembly and also extended its life under special circumstances.
He could also address either or both the Houses as and when he pleased. No Bill
passed by the Legislature could become an Act unless assented to by the Governor-General
who could even with hold his assent or return the same with his suggestion for reconsideration
of the House. He was also empowered to disallow an adjournment motion or debate on any
resolution.
13.4.2. Central Legislature
The Central Legislature was not a sovereign law-making body. Extensive powers were
given to the Central Legislature. It could make laws for the whole of British India. It would also
repeal or amend laws for the time being in British India.
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Members of the Central Legislature (Both Houses) were given the right of putting
questions and supplementary questions. They were also given the right of moving resolutions,
making adjournment motions and freedom of speech.
As regards the Central Budget the Government submitted proposals for the appropriation,
in the form of demands for grant to the vote of the Indian Legislative Assembly. The Act of
1919 introduced responsive and not responsible Government at the Centre. It provided for two
lists of subjects. They were Central List and Provincial List.
The Central Subjects were,
1. Defence
2. Foreign and Political Relations
3. Public Debt
4. Tariffs and Customs
5. Posts and Telegraphs
6. Patents and Copy rights
7. Currency and Coinage
8. Communications
9. Commerce and shipping
10. Civil and Criminal Law and Procedure
11. Major Ports.
13.4.3. Provincial Legislature
The Provincial Government acted as the agents of the Central Government. There
was no rigid or clear-cut division of powers. The Provincial subjects were redivided into reserved
and transferred.
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The Reserved Subjects were administered by the Governor of each province with the
help of his Executive Council whose members had no responsibility towards the Legislative
Council. The transferred subjects were administered by the Governor with the help of Indian
ministers who were responsible to the legislature. The dual arrangement in the Provincial
Executive came to be known as dyarchy.
The Subjects which were chiefly of local importance and interest were treated as
Provincial Subjects.
The Provincial Subjects were –
1. Local Self-Government
2. Public Health and Sanitation
3. Medical Administration
4. Education
5. Public Works
6. Water Supplies and Irrigation
7. Land Revenue Administration
8. Famine Relief
9. Agriculture
10. Forests
11. Co-operative Society
12. Law and Order
The division of subjects between the Centre and the Provinces was not very definite
and clear cut. The Governor General continued to enjoy a set of overriding powers.
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13.5. Working of Dyarchy

The Act of 1919 introduced Dyarchy in the provinces under this system the subject to
be dealt with by the provincial Government were divided into two parts. Reserved and transferred
subjects. The Reserved subjects were administered by the Governor with the help of the
members of the Executive Council who were nominated by him and who were not to be
responsible to the legislature.
The transferred subjects were administered by the Governor acting with ministers
appointed by him from among the elected members of the Legislature and who were to be
responsible to the legislature and were to hold office during his pleasure.
Instrument of Instructions entrusted the Governor with a multitude of special

responsibilities. It charged the Governor -
1. to ensure Provincial Security and safety
2. to provide for the advancement and social welfare of small and backward communities.
3. to safeguard the interest of the Provincial Civil servants.
4. to see that no Government Order of Act of Legislature should deprive any of the diverse
interest in the Province, and
5. to prevent trade or commercial or industrial monopoly.
Dyarchy was introduced on 1st April 1921 in eight Governor’s Provinces viz., Madras,
Bengal, Bombay, United Provinces, the Punjab, Bihar, Central Provinces and Assam.
Subsequently, it was extended to Burma and North West Frontier Provinces. The systems of
Dyarchy worked in the Provinces from 1920-1937. In Madras Presidency Dyarchy worked
successfully despite Congress – Swarajist opposition. The Congress boycotted the elections.
The Justice Party was determined to operate the new Constitution.
13.5.1. Failure of Dyarchy
The system of dyarchy neither satisfied the Indian public opinion, nor worked successfully
when implemented. It failed both in practice and principle. The system of dyarchy suffered
from the following defects.
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1. The dyarchy divided the provincial administration into two independent parts. There
was no cooperation between these two parts of administration.
2. The division of subjects between he Reserved and Transferred was done without
forethought and principle. There remained confusion about the right and duties of different
departments.
3. Departments headed by Indian Ministers were always short of finances. Therefore, the
Indian Ministers could not do much useful work in their concerned Departments.
4. The Ministers had no control over the members of the civil Service. The ministers were
not only ineffective in dealing with their subordinates, but on the contrary, had to depend
on them for carrying on works of their departments efficiently.
5. The Ministers had to depend on the Governor for many things. Besides, it was not
always possible for the ministers to humour the Governor on the one hand, and on the
other, to keep satisfied the elected members of the Legislative Council.
6. The Ministers did not work on the basis of joint responsibility which is the cardinal
principle of Parliamentary Government.
13.6. Advantages of the Act of 1919

The Act of 1919 brought certain advantages. They are as follows –
1. It marked the end of the policy of ‘benevolent despotism’ and the beginning of the
responsible government.
2. The elections to the legislatures created political consciousness among the people.
The Indian women got the right of Franchise for the first time.
3. The Indians came in direct contact with the administration for the first time which provided
them useful experience. The number of the Indians increased in the Civil Services.
4. Many useful measures were by the Indian Ministers in different Provinces, i.e., Madras
State Aid to Industries Act 1923, ‘The Bombay Primary Education Act’, ‘The Bihar and
Orissa Village Administration Act’, ‘The Bombay Local Boards Act, 1923. The Calcutta
Municipal Act 1923 and the Madras Religious Endowments Act 1926 etc.
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13.7. Summary
 The Act of 1919 was passed to expand participation of Indians in the Government of
India.
 Dyarchy was introduced, there were two classes of administrators – Executive Councilors
and Ministers.
 The Subjects were divided into two lists – reserved and transferred.
 The size of the Provincial Legislative assemblies was increased.
 There were two lists for administration – Central and Provincial.
 The Act provided for the first time, the establishment of a Public Service Commission in
India.

1. Trace the circumstances that led to the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919.
2. Describe the main provisions of the Act of 1919.
3. Explain the special powers of the Governor-General and the working of Central and Provincial
Legislature.
4. Give an account of the working of Dyarchy introduced by the Act of 1919.
5. Discuss the causes for the failure of dyarchy established by the Act of 1919.
6. Examine the advantages of the Act of 1919.

3. See the sub-sections 13.4.1, 13.4.2, 13.4.3.

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LESSON – 14
NATIONAL MOVEMENT AND GANDHIAN ERA
Learning Objective
 Narrate the circumstances which brought M.K. Gandhi into Indian politics and its
significance.
 Analyse the Non-Co-operation movement and its contribution to the National struggle.
 Know the aims of the Swaraj party and its activities towards the National movement
 Describe the Civil Disobedience Movement and its results.
 Explain the Three Round Table conferences and its impact.
Structure
14.1. Introduction.
14.2. M.K. Gandhi.
14.3. Satyagraha Movement (1917-1918).
14.4. TheRowlatt Act (1919).
14.5. Jallianwalabagh Massacre (1919).
14.6. TheKhilafat Movement (1919)
14.7. Non-Co-operation Movement (1920).
14.8. Swaraj Party (1923).
14.9. Communal Riots (1922 to 1927)
14.10. The Simon Commission (1927).
14.11. Nehru Report (1928).

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14.12. Jinnah’s Fourteen Points (1928).
14.13. Lord Irwin Proclamation (1929).
14.14. The Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1931).
14.15. First Round Table Conference (1930-1931).
14.16. Second Round Table Conference (1931).
14.17. Third Round Table Conference (1932).
14.18. Assessment of Gandhian Era.
14.19. Summary.
14.1. Introduction
The period from 1919 to 1947 referred to as the Gandhian Era. The Act of 1919 fell
short of the expectations of the Indians and the Rowlett Act led to widespread protest and
unrest among the Indians. The Act authorized the Government to imprison any person without
trial and conviction in a Court of Law. Mahatma Gandhi was in south Africa when he was
summoned by Gopal Krishna Gokhale, after which he returned to India in 1915. He brought an
international reputation as a leading Indian nationalist, theorist and community organizer. During
the period between 1919 to 1947, many incidents, satyagrahas, acts and marches were carried
out to support the Indian Independence movement. Here are the major incidents during the
Gandhian Era that shaped the struggle for Indian Independence.
14.2. M.K. Gandhi

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on 2nd October 1869 at Porbandar in Gujarat.
He was well educated and went to England for his degree in law. He started his legal practice
at Bombay and from there went to South Africa. The treatment of the British towards the
Indians there provoked his conscience and he decided to fight against the policy of racial
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discrimination of the South African Government. For Gandhi, the war of Indian Independence
was a war to achieve justice and truth. Non-violence and truth remained the cardinal principles
of philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi.
14.3. Satyagraha Movement (1917-1918)

Gandhi succeeded in getting some relief for the Indians in South Africa. He returned to
India in 1915 at the age of 46. In 1916, he founded the Sabarmathi Ashram at Ahmedabad to
preach and practice the ideals of truth and non-violence. His first experiment in Satyagraha
began at Champaran in Bihar in 1917. In 1918, Gandhi intervened in a dispute between the
workers and millowners of Ahmedabad. He undertook a fast unto death to force a compromise
and the mill owners, thereby raised the wages of the labourers up to thirty five percent. Thus,
the non-violent struggle of Gandhi brought good results to him in India as well.
14.4. The Rowlett Act (1919)

The Rowlett Act was a legislative Council Act passed by the Imperial Legislative Council
in Delhi on 18th March 1919, indefinitely extending the emergency measures of preventive
indefinite detention, incarceration without trial and judicial review enacted in the Defence of
Indian Act 1915 during the first world war. It was the Rowlatt Act which brought Gandhi to the
mainstream of Indian struggle for independence and ushered in the Gandhian Era in Indian
politics.
14.5. Jallianwallabagh Massacre (1919)
In Punjab, General Dyer the military commander at Amritsar, deported the Congress
leaders, Dr. Satyapal and Dr. SaifuddinKichlew out of Punjab and Gandhi was stopped in the
way while proceeding to Delhi and was sent back to Bombay. It resulted in violent incidents in
many parts of India but the worst happened at Amritsar. The police fired on a procession of
peaceful demonstrators in Amritsar. After three days, a meeting was organized in
Jallianwallabagh to protest against it. It was attended by nearly twenty thousand people including
women and children.
General Dyer surrounded the Bagh (garden) with his troops, closed its exit which was
only one and then ordered his soldiers to fire refiles and machine guns. The firing continued till
the soldiers exhausted their ammunition. Thousands among the gathering were either killed or
wounded. Afterwards martial law was imposed in Punjab.
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But the government defended its officers and the British citizens offered a purse to
General Dyer. The Congress, however, in its session held at Amritsar in 1919, decided to
cooperate with the reforms of 1919 though, in practice it could not be possible.
14.6. The Khilafat Movement

The Muslims started the Khilafat movement in 1919. Maulana Muhammad Ali and
MaulanaShankat Ali started the Khilafat Movement. Their primary demand was that the British
should in no way interfere in the affairs of the Muslims and the title of the Khalifa be restored
to the Sultan of Turkey.
August 31st 1919 was celebrated as the Khilafat Day in India. The Congress also
decided to support the Muslims in this movement with a view to gain their sympathy in the
national cause but the government remained adamant. It refused to annual the Rowlatt Act, to
express regret at the happenings of JallianwallahBagh or to restore the title of Khalifa to the
Sultan.
14.7. Non-Co-operation Movement

The Non-Co-operation Movement was launched on 5th September, 1920 by Mahatma
Gandhi with the aim of Self-government and obtaining full independence. It was a peaceful
and a non-violent protest against the British Government in India.
The Non-Cooperation movement had four main causes.
1. Dissatisfaction with Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms.
2. The Rowlatt Act
3. The Jalliamwallabagh Massacre and Resultant Punjab Disturbances
4. The Khilafat movement.
A special session of the Congress was convened at Calcutta in September 1920 to

approve the scheme. It was presided over by LalaLajpatRai. The delegates passed several
resolutions condemning the British Government for breaking its promise in connection with the
khilafat and the failure to protect innocent people of the Punjab from the atrocious behaviour of
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the officials. The resolution on Non-Cooperation evoked a heated controversy. 1886 delegates
voted for and 844 voted against the scheme of Non-Cooperation. The resolution on Non-
Cooperation was again repeated at the Nagpur Congress in December 1920.
14.7.1. Programme of the Non-Cooperation Movement
The policy and programme which the Congress adopted at Calcutta session and
reiterated at Nagpur session was as follows:
1. Boycott of foreign goods and use of swadeshi
2. Surrender of titles and honorary offices and resignation of members occupying nominated
seats in local bodies.
3. Refuse to attend official durbars.
4. Gradual boycott of British Courts by lawyers and litigants.
5. Boycott of Government and State aided schools.
6. Boycott of elections to the new Councils and refusal by the voters to vote at the elections.
7. Refusal by soldiers, clerks and working people to serve in Mesopotamia.
In short, the Non-Cooperation scheme aimed at the boycott of colleges, courts, councils
and government jobs. Besides the boycott measures the Congress also adopted a constructive
programme.
14.7.2. Progress of the Non-Cooperation Movement
The venue of the next session of the Congress was Ahmedabad. It was held in December
1921. The party resolved to intensify and speed up the movement and invested Gandhiji with
full authority to carry on Congress activities in the manner he thought fit. On 1st February 1922,
he sent an ultimatum to Lord Reading that he would start mass Civil Disobedience in Bardoli,
if within seven days after the receipt of his letter the Viceroy did not release all the prisoners
convicted for non-violent activities.
But at that time there occur a violent incident in ChauriChaura, a village in the Gorakhpur
district of Uttar Pradesh. A procession of the people was fired upon by the police. This infuriated
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the mob. It attacked the police station and burnt it which caused the death of twenty-two
policemen. Gandhi felt sorry for this violent incident and immediately suspended the non-
cooperation movement. The movement thus finished in February 1922. Gandhi was charged
with fomenting disaffection among the people against the Government and sentenced to
imprisonment for six years but was released after two years because of illness.
14.7.3. Contribution of Movement to the National Struggle
The Non-Cooperation movement failed to achieve success. Many leaders of the

Congress disliked its suspension by Gandhi. Yet it succeeded in making the Congress movement
a mass movement for the first time.
It shifted the Congress from the Constitutional path and brought it on the path of the
struggle. It organized the people in a nation-wide movement. Gandhi probably suspended it
because he felt that it would be diverted from its non-violent path and therefore would be
crushed by the Government easily.
14.8. Swaraj Party (1923)

The Swaraj Party was established as the Congress-KhilafatSwaraj Party. It was a
political party formed in India in January 1923 after the Gaya annual conference in December
1922 of the National Congress, that sought greater self-government and political freedom for
the Indian people from the British Raj.
The Swaraj Party took part in the ensuing elections of the Provincial Legislatures and
gained good success. Afterwards Gandhi and the Congress also realized the utility of their
opinion and allowed congressmen to cooperate with the Swarajists. Thus, Swaraj Party became
an integral part of the Congress. The Swaraj party did useful work in the Councils constituted
under the system of Dyarchy in the provinces by the Act of 1919. The death of C.R. Das in
1925 definitely weakened its strength, yet it succeeded in discovering the weakness of the
system of Dyarchy which was its primary aim while entering into the Councils.
14.9. Communal Riots (1922 to 1927)
Since the withdrawal of the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation movement in 1922 till 1927
there was a period of riots. For five years from 1922 to 1927 the country passed through the
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horrible phase of Hindu-Muslim riots. It played into the hands of the British and thus failed all
the sincere attempts made by the Congress to form a united front against the British rulers.
The Government encouraged the riots so as to disrupt national unity.
Gandhiji was deeply pained to see Hindus and Muslims shedding each other’s bold
foolishly. He observed 21 days fast in 1924 to protest against the communal fury raging in all
parts of the country. The leaders who were fanning the flames of communalism realized their
mistake and formed a Committee for reconciliation. The peace committee which was headed
by Gandhiji had Hakim Ajmal Khan, LalaLajpatRai, Dr. S.K. Dutta, Master Sundar Singh and
G.K, Narriman as its members. As a result of their efforts the tension subsided for a year only
to restart with increased violence later on.
14.10. The Simon Commission (1927)

In 1927, the British Government appointed a Commission to look into the working of
the reforms of 1919 and suggest further measures for reforms. Its Chairman was Mr. Simon.The
Commission had no Indian member in it. The Indians boycotted this all white Commission and
protested against it when it visited India. After two years of consistent work the Commission
prepared and published the repot in May 1930.
The Report published by the Commission did not evoke much enthusiasm because its
recommendations fell far short of the national expectations. Not to speak of Dominion Status,
it did not recommend even partial responsibility at the Centre. The army was made loyal to His
Majesty’s Government, although its cost was to be borne by Indian tax payers. Although the
Commission had recommended Provincial Autonomy, the powers of the ministers were greatly
restricted by the special powers of the Governors and the Governor-General. Every national
leader condemned the meagre reforms suggested by the Commission.
14.11. Nehru Report (1928)

In response to a challenge by the Commission to draft a Constitution acceptable to all
the parties the Congress convened an All Parties Conference in Delhi towards the end of
February 1928. Twenty-nine parties participated in it. After discussing the preliminaries, the
Conference held its sittings in Bombay on May19, 1928. It appointed a sub-committee under
the presidentship of Pt. Motilal Nehru to draft a Constitution. It also framed a Constitution for
India. The Congress accepted its recommendations.
135
The following are the highlight of the Nehru Report.
1. Dominion Status and full responsible Government.
2. Provincial Autonomy and Residuary Powers.
3. Rejection of Communal Electorate.
4. Creation of New Provinces.
5. Fundamental Rights.
6. Parliament.
7. Indian States.
8. Central Executive.
9. Supreme Court, and
10. Defence.
The Report was accepted unanimously by the All Parties Conference at Lucknow but
difficulties arose when it came up for scrutiny separately before all the parties which were
represented at Lucknow Conference. They began to examine the report with a communal
bias. Mohammed Ali Jinnah who was prepared to accept it but only after certain vital changes
proposed by him were introduced in it.
14.12. Jinnah’s Fourteen Points (1928)
Mr. Jinnah who did not agree to Nehru Report put forward his fourteen points as the
minimum demands of the Muslim for any political settlement.
The substance of the fourteen points formula was as follows.
1. Free India should have a Federal Constitution with the residuary powers vested in the
provinces.
2. Provincial Autonomy should be uniform to all provinces.

136
3. Minorities in every province should be adequately and effectively represented in all

legislatures and local bodies.
4. One third of the total seats in the Central Legislative Assembly should be reserved for
the Muslims.
5. Separate electorate should be the basis for representation of all communities.
6. Territorial redistribution should be done without affecting the Muslim majority in the
Punjab, Bengal and NWFP.
7. Full liberty of belief worship and observance, propaganda association and education
should be guaranteed to all communities.
8. Any bill or resolutions should be adopted only if supported by three fourth of that
community in the legislature or an elected body.
9. Sind should be separated from Bombay Presidency.
10. Baluchistan and NWFP should not be discriminated against in respect of reforms.
11. Adequate share for Muslims should be provided in the Constitution of all service.
12. Adequate safeguards and State help should be given for the protection and promotion
of Muslim culture, religion etc.
13. Atleast one third of total number of Ministers in the Central and Provincial Cabinets
should be drawn from Muslim community, and
14. Constitutional change should be made only with the concurrence of the units constituting
the Indian Federation.
In short Jinna’s 14 points were 14 objections to the Nehru Report.
14.13. Lord Irwin’s Proclamation (1929)

Lord Irwin’s Proclamation was quite vague and disappointing because it did not mention
the deadline for the grant of Dominion Status with a view to clearing the fog of doubts and
ascertaining the intentions of the British Government regarding the future of India, Gandhiji
137
called on the viceroy on 23rd December 1929. Lord Irwin was unable to give an assurance
whether the proposed Round Table Conference would discuss a scheme of reforms on the
basis of Dominion Status. Nor was he sure whether the Conference would consider the issue
of conferring responsible government to India. The interview ended abruptly.
The Congress also issued a call to the country to celebrate 26th January as a PurnaSwaraj
Day. A pledge was drawn up to be taken by every Congressman. In the midnight on 31 st
December 1929, when the ultimatum issued, the resolution on PurnaSwaraj was voted upon
and the flagof independence was unfurled. The PurnaSwaraj Resolution (December 1929)
heralded the Civil Disobedience Movement.
14.14. The Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1931)

The political atmosphere of India grew more tense after the declaration of Swaraj by
the Congress in 1929. The Civil Disobedience Movement was one of the most significant
movements launched by Mahatma Gandhi in the course of India’s freedom struggle. Gandhiji
in one of his letters to the Viceroy placed the following 11 demands before the Government.
1. Prohibition of all intoxicants.
2. Change of ratio between the pound and the rupee.
3. Reduction in the revenue rates.
4. Abolition of Salt tax.
5. Reduction in military expenditure.
6. Reduction in Civil Administrative expenditure.
7. Imposition of Custom duty on foreign cloth.
8. Acceptance of Postal Reservation Bill.
9. Release of all Political Prisoners.
10. The abolition of Criminal Investigation Department or its control by the people’s
representatives.
11. Issue of arms licenses to the citizens for self-defence.

138
Gandhi declared that if these demands were not accepted then he would start the Civil
Disobedience Movement. The Viceroy paid no attention towards the demands of Gandhi. The
Congress working Committee, therefore, authorized Gandhi to start the Civil Disobedience
Movement.
14.14.1. The Historic Dandi March: 12th March 1930 – 6th April 1930
After the Lahore Congress he selected a good number of his Ashram-mates to receive
training in the techniques of satyagraha. The opportunity to make an experiment came soon
when the Government enhanced the taxes on salt. Accompanied by a band of 79 trained and
disciplined workers, Gandhiji marched on foot from Sabarmathi Ashram to the seashore on
12th March 1930. The distance of 200 miles was travelled in 24 days. Gandhiji’s tour generated
a good deal of fervor and patriotic sentiment. On 6th April 1930, after the morning prayer,
Mahatma and his Satyagrahis started the Civil Disobedience Movement by picking salt lying
on sea shore.
14.14.2. Programme of the Civil Disobedience
The technical violation of the salt law a signal to the country to start mass
movement.Gandhiji’s orders were faithfully obeyed. Salt Law was broken at hundreds of places
all over the country. The programme of the movement included –
1. The violation of Salt Law.
2. Abstention from attending the educational institutions by the students and offices by
the public servants.
3. Picketing of shops dealing in liquor, opium and foreign goods.
4. Bonfire of cloth, and
5. Nonpayment of taxes.
In fact very few Muslims took part in the Civil Disobedience movement. The followers
of Mr. Jinnah did not associate with the movement at all. Bulk of the Muslim leaders who had
cooperated with Gandhi on the Khilfat issue refused to have anything to do with this movement.
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14.14.3. Repression by the Government
The movement reached peak point in June 1930. The administrative machinery was
paralyzed at many places. The Government could not accept it lying down. The police force
went into action. Jawaharlal Nehru, the Congress President was arrested on 14th April. His
arrest was followed by the arrest of other leaders also. Nearly 60,000 people went to Jail.
Indiscriminate lathi charge became the order of the day.
14.15. First Round Table Conference (1930-1931)
In the midst of the Civil Disobedience movement the First Round Table Conference
was held in London from 12th November 1930 to 19th January 1931. Gandhi was in jail and
other Congress leaders refused to attend the Conference. However, 89 delegates representing
British India, Princely States and the British political parties participated in the Conference.
The conference was presided over by the Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald. In the
opening session he moved some Constitutional proposals as the basis for discussion. His
proposals included the following.
1. The idea ofan All India Federation.
2. The principle of making the federal executive responsible to the federal legislature, and
3. The reconstitution of provincial governments on the basis of full responsibility. There

was unanimous agreement on the issue of Federation. In the absence of the Congress
participation the First Round Table Conference proved to be an exercise in futility.
14.15.1. Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931)
The British Government knew it well that Congress was the premier political party of
India and its co-operation was essential for solving the Constitutional problem of the country.
The Government realized the need of arriving at a settlement with the Congress. In pursuance
of this policy the Government released all the leaders including Mahatma Gandhi uncomditionally
on 17th February, 1931.
Though the mediation of Sir Sapru and Sri Jayakar, a pact was concluded between
Gandhi and Irwin on 5th March, 1931. According to this pact the Government agree to the
following.
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a. To withdraw all ordinances and cases pending against the political workers.
b. To release all political prisoners excepting those who were guilty of violence.
c. To permit the person living within a certain distance from the sea-shore to collect or
manufacture salt without being taxed.
d. To permit peaceful picketing of shops selling liquors, foreign goods and opium.
e. To restore the property seized in connection with the Civil Disobedience Movement.
f. To return all the movable and immovable property forfeited in lieu of land revenue.
Gandhiji also on behalf of the Congress agreed -
a. to suspend the Civil Disobedience Movement,
b. not to press for enquiry into police excesses,
c. tso take steps to associate Congress with the Round Table Conference, and
d. to withdraw all boycott plans.
The pact concluded between Gandhi and Irwin got a mixed reception. The left wing in
the Congress did not feel satisfied. Sri Subhas and Jawaharlal Nehru argued the safeguards
agreed upon by the Congress were undesirable.
14.16. Second Round Table Conference (1931)

Second Round Table Conference opened on 7th September 1931. Gandhi reached London
on 12th September, five days behind the schedule. In all 107 delegates attended the Conference.
The future Constitutional structure and the representation of minorities were the two important
issues discussed by the delegates. Lord Irwin has been replaced by Lord Willington as the
Viceroy of India. The office of the Secretary of State for India was taken over by M. Samuel
Hoare who was a conservative. Gandhiji attended the Conference as the sole representative of
the Congress. In fact Gandhiji wanted that the Viceroy should also nominate Dr. Ansari to join the
Conference as Congress delegate. The Viceroy however refused to nominate a Muslim as
Congress delegate simply because the Muslims were not agreeable to it.
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Winding up the Second Round Table Conference on 1st December 1931, the Prime
Minister Ramsay Mac Donald stated that since the Indian delegates had agreed to disagree,
the British Government would decide the safeguards to protect the minorities from the majority
power. The new manifestation of this policy was the communal award of 16th August 1932.
14.16.1. Communal Award 1932
As the Civil Disobedience Movement was in progress the British Prime Minister Ramsay
Mac Donald announced his Communal Award on 16th August 1932. The Principal features of
the Communal Award were as follows.
1. The Muslims, Europeans and Sikhs would have separate communal electorate.
2. All qualified voters who were not voters in the reserved Constituencies were entitle to
vote in a general constituency.
3. Seven seats were to be reserved for the Marathas in certain plural members
Constituencies in Bombay.
4. Separate electorates were to be given to the Depressed classes.
5. The Anglo-Indians were to be elected on communal lines.
6. Special seats allotted to commerce and industry, mining and plantation were to be
filled through Chambers of commerce and other Association. Provision was also made
for landholders Constituencies.
The Communal Award accorded, Government recognition to the Minority communities.

The Award was opposed to the spirit of democracy. The Communal Award was an anarchism.
It had no historical basis.
14.16.2. Poona Pact (1932)
Poona Pact was made on 24th September, 1932 at Yerwada Central Jail in Poona,
India. It was signed by Ambedkar on behalf of the depressed classes and by Madan Mohan
Malaviya on behalf of the upper caste Hindu and Gandhi. It was signed to end the fast that
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Gandhi was undertaking in jail as a protest against the decision made by the British Prime
Minister Ramsay Mac Donald to give separate electorate to depressed classes for the election
of members of provincial legislative assemblies in British India.
The Main Provisions
1. There shall be electoral seats reserved for the Depressed classes. 148 seats were
reserved.
2. All the members of the Depressed classes registered in the general electoral roll in a
Constituency formed an electoral college.
3. Nearly 20% of seats were reserved for the Harijans in the Central Legislature.
4. Adequate representation was given to Harijans in the Local bodies and public services.
5. Financial aid was promised to promote literacy among the Harijans.
The Poona Package was a commendable compromise under the circumstance. It

saved Gandhi from his fateful fast.
14.17. Third Round Table Conference (1932)
As the Indian leaders were pre occupied with finding out an agreed solution to the
communal complication, the British Government called for the Third Round Table Conference.
It lasted from 17th November to 24th December 1932. Only 46 delegates who were loyal to the
Government were invited this time. Those members who were considered to be
unaccommodating were excluded. Even SrinivasaSastri was not invited. Congress could not
participate since it was embroiled in the lingering Civil Disobedience Movement.
14.18. Assessment of Gandhian Era
The Indian freedom struggle was one of the greatest liberation movements against
colonialism and imperialism. It is broadly accepted that Gandhi played a major vital and crucial
role in keeping the Indian national movement first and foremost non-violent. He passionately
and enthusiastically adopted and applied his theory and strategy of non-violence to make India
independent from the British servitude.
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14.19. Summary
 Gandhiji was primarily responsible for attracting the masses towards the national
movement and thus, converting the Congress into an organization of the common people
of India.
 The Khilafat Committee started the non-cooperation movement on 31st August 1920,
which was endorsed by the Congress and finally, the demands of the Khilafat Committee
and the Congress were merged. Gandhiji was asked to lead the movement.
 Gandhi put up his eleven demands before Lord Irwin and when not accepted, started
the Civil Disobedience movement by beginning the Dandi March on March 12th, 1930 to
prepare salt at the sea coast.
 The Government utilized the first and second Round Table Conference to justify that
the Indians could not take a united stand.
 Gandhi undertook fast unto death on September 20, 1932 to protest against it. Gandhi
broke his fast and the Government withdrew the Award. And thus, the Hindu society
was saved from division.
 The deliberations at the Third Round Table Conference led to the passing of the Act of
1935.
14.20.Review Questions
1. What were the circumstances which brought M.K. Gandhi into India Politics and its
significance.
2. Give an account of the Non-Cooperation Movement.
3. Write short notes about Swaraj party, Communal riots and the Simon Commission.
4. Describe Nehru Report and Fourteen Points of Jinnah.
5. Discuss the Civil Disobedience Movement.
6. Critically analyse the Three Round Table Conference.

144

1. See sections 14.1 - 14.6.
2. See section and sub-section 14.7, 14.7.1 – 14.7.3.
3. See sections 14.8 – 14.10
4. See section and sub-section 14.11 , 14.12.
5. See section and sub-section 14.13 – 14.14.3.
6. See section 14.15 – 14.17.

145
LESSON – 15
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT OF 1935
Learning Objectives
 Analyse the circumstances which led to the formation of the Act of 1935.
 List out the salient features of the Act of 1935.
 Understand the working of the Provincial Autonomy.
 Know about the creation of All India Federation.
 Estimate the importance of the Act of 1935.
 Discuss the causes for the failure of the Act of 1935.
Structure
15.1. Introduction.
15.2. Circumstances that led to the passing of the Act of 1935.
15.3. Salient features of the Act of 1935.
15.4. Creation of an All India Federation.
15.5. Provincial Autonomy.
15.6. High Commissioner for India.
15.7. Federal Court.
15.8. Importance of the Act of 1935.
15.9. Failure of the Act of 1935.
15.10. Conclusion.
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15.11. Summary
15.1. Introduction
The Government of India Act was passed by the British Parliament in August 1935. It
was the longest act enacted by the British Parliament at that time. It consisted of 321 sections
and 10 schedules. It partly came into operation in 1936 when the general election in the
country was held on the lines prescribed by it. It was fully enforced in April 1937. The Act was
out come on Simon Commission Report, the recommendation of the Round Table conferences,
the White paper published by the British Government and the Report of the Joint Select
Committee.
15.2. Circumstances that led to the Passing of the Act of 1935
The Indians were dissatisfied with the Act of 1919 since it considered to be utterly
inadequate. The Indian National Congress at its annual session in 1919 condemned the reform
as inadequate, unsatisfactory and disappointing. In the new Assembly Diwan Bahadur
Rangachariar moved a resolution recommending to the Governor-General-in-Council for revising
the Government of India Act so as to secure for India full self-governing dominion status within
the British empire and provincial autonomy in the provinces.
Muddiman Committee: The resolution of the Assembly was not accepted by the Government
of India. But it set up a Commission under the Chairmanship of Sir Alexander Muddiman. It
submitted a report for improving machinery of the Government. In September 1925 the Report
of the Muddiman Committee was discussed in the Central Assembly. As a result, Simon
Commission was appointed to find out a solution for the Indian problems.
Simon Commission: The Simon Commission was appointed in November 1927, for the purpose
of inquiring into the working of the system of Government, the growth of education and
development of representative institutions in British India and Matters connected there with
and the possibility of establishing responsible Government.
147
Round Table Conferences: The Round Table Conferences were convened to gather all
shades of political opinions in India with a view to drawing up a Constitution for the country.
The Congress boycotted the first Conference. The Conference could not come to an agreement
on separate electorates.
White Paper, March 1933: In March 1933, the British Government published a White Paper
which indicated the lines on which the new Act of 1935 was to be made. This paper was
prepared on the basis of the discussions and decisions taken during the three Round Table
Conferences. This paper was so reactionary in character that the Congress and other
progressive elements in India rejected it outright.
In view of general discontentment, the Government submitted the proposals to a Joint

Select Committee of the Parliament to discuss it thoroughly. The Committee met under Lord
Linlithgow. It sat for 18 months at the end of which it published its report on 11th November,
1934.
The net result of Three Round Table Conferences, White Paper and Joint Committee’s
report was the Government of Indian Act of 1935.
15.3. Salient Features of the Act of 1935
The newly glaring features of the Act were the suggestion to form a Federation consisting
of the British India and the Indian States, autonomy in the Provinces and a partly responsible
government or dyarchy at the Centre, we will now discuss the salient features of the Constitution
in detail.
1. Provincial Autonomy: One redeeming feature of the new Act was that it marked the
beginning of the Provincial Autonomy. The provinces for the first time got a measure of
democratic Government. The system of dyarchy or the division of subjects into ‘Transferred
and Reserved’ as done away with. All the subjects were transferred to the charge of Ministers.
This however does not mean that the Act of 1935 established a full-pledged responsible
Government in the provinces.
2. All India Federation: The Act provided for an All India Federation comprising the British
Indian Provinces and the Indian States. The States were absolutely free to join or not to join
the proposed Federation. The Act also provided for the setting up of a Federal Court to settle
disputes between the Federal Government and the units.
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3. Dyarchy at the Centre: The Act of 1935 abolished dyarchy at the provincial level
andintroduced it at the centre. The Federal subjects were divided into two categories. The
Reserved and Transferred. The Reserved list included Defence, External Affairs, Ecclesiastical
affairs and Tribal areas. These were to be administered by the Governor General with the help
of three Councilors to be appointed by him.
The Governor-General remained over all in charge of both Reserved and Transferred
Subjects. He was also responsible for the co-ordination of work between the two wings and for
encouraging joint deliberations between the Councilors and the Ministers.
4. Safeguards and Reservations: Another distinctive trait of the new Act was the Provision of
elaborate safeguards and protective armours for the minorities. The reason given for it was
that the minorities needed protection from the dominance of the majority community. They
knew that the so-called provision in the Act relating to the safeguards were merely a trick to
empower the Governor-General and the Governors to override the Ministers and Legislators.
In fact, the safeguard amounted to vital reduction in the powers of the Ministers.
5. Supremacy of the British Parliament: The Act of 1935 was a rigid one. No Indian
Legislature whether Federal or Provincial was authorized to modify or amend it. Thus, the new
Constitution was in no way an Indian Constitution, it was an imposition on India by the British
Parliament.
6. Federal Court: The Act also provided for the establishment of a Federal Court to settle
disputes arising among the units themselves and also between a unit and the Federal
Government. One of its functions was to interpret the controversial clauses of the Act. It was,
however, not the final court of appeal. In certain circumstances, the appeals could be made to
the privy Council.
7. Increase in the Size of Legislatures and Extension of Franchise: Another highlight of

the Act was the extension of Franchise. Nearly 10 percent of the total population got the right
to vote. The Act not only retained communal electorate but also extended it.
8. Division of Subjects: Under the Act of 1935, the subjects for administrative purposes were
catalogued into three lists – The Federal List, the Provincial List, and the Concurrent List.
The Federal List: The Federal List included 59 subjects, the provincial list 54 and the concurrent
list 36. The subjects which were of all India interest and demanded Uniform treatment were
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put in the Federal list. These subjects were Armed forces, Currency and Coinage, Post and
Telegraphs, Railways, Central Services, External Affairs, Wireless, Customs etc. Only the Federal
Legislature could make laws on the Federal subjects.
Provincial List: Subjects mainly of local interest were placed in the Provincial list and were
wholly within the jurisdiction of the Provincial Legislatures for the purpose of legislation. These
Subjects were Public Order, Education, Local Self Government, Public Health, Land Revenue,
Forests, Mining and Fisheries and others.
Concurrent List: The third list known as the Concurrent list, and which contained 36 items,
included subjects which were primarily or Provincial interest but at the same time required
uniformity of treatment all over the country. Hence, the Act authorized both the Federal and
Provincial Legislatures to pass laws on those subjects. In the event of a conflict, the Federal
law was to prevail.
9. Preamble: No new preamble was affixed to the Act of 1935 because the new Constitution
did not register any change in the British attitude towards India’s sentiments. The Preamble of
the Act of 1919 was however added to the new Act so as to appease the Indians that British
Government still was committed to its promise of giving Dominion Status to India.
10. Abolition of Indian Council: The Indians had always been very critical of the Indian Council.
The reasons for this bitterness were many. The new Act abolished Indian Council and provided
for the appointment by the Secretary of State his team of advisers whose number was not to be
less than 3 and not more than 6. .
11. Retention of Communal Electorate: Although the principle of communal electorate was
not in the interests of the nation. Yet in order to weaken the growing spirit of nationalism, the
Act of 1935, not only retained communal electorate but also enlarged its scope. It granted this
unholy concession to the depressed classes also. The workers and women got separate
representation although they had not asked for it.
12. Burma, Berar and Aden: Another important feature of the new Constitution was that
Burma was separated from India and Aden was surrendered to British colonial office Berar,
although it remained formally a part of Hyderabad State, was for administrative purposes merged
with the Central Provinces.
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15.4. Creation of an All India Federation

1. The Act of 1935 proposed the formation of Federation. This federation was to consist of
British India and the Princely states.
2. The Provinces in British India would have to join the federation but this was not compulsory
for the princely states.
3. The federation never materialized because of the lack of support from the required number
of Princely States.
4. The three distinctive and essential traits of any Federation are –
(a) the precise division of powers between the centre and the units
(b) theSupremacy of the Constitution, and
(c) the special position of the Judiciary.
5. The authority of the federal Government under this Act was not to extend equally to all units.
6. No legal equality of units and weighted representation to States.
The Federal Executive:
Dyarchy rejected by the Simon Commission was provided for in the Federal Executive.
Defence, External Affairs, Ecclesiastical Affairs and Administration of Tribal Areas were reserved
in the hands of the Governor-General to be administered by him with the assistance of a
maximum of three Councilors to be appointed by him.
The Federal Legislature:
It was to have two chambers, the Council of State and the Federal Assembly. The
Council of State was to be a permanent body, and the Federal Assembly whose duration was
fixed for five years. As regards the extent of Federal and Provincial laws, the Federal legislature
was to have power to make laws for the whole or any part of British India or for any federal
State while a Provincial Legislature was to make laws for the province or any part thereof.
151
15.5. Provincial Autonomy

The Act gave more autonomy to the provinces. Dyarchy was abolished at the provincial
levels. The British authorities could still suspend a provincial government. The extent of central
control over the provinces was considerably restricted. The provincial governments were as
such mere agents of the certral authority. The joint parliamentary committee in its report explained
the new status of the provinces as units which have an executive and a legislature having
exclusive authority with in the province.
Executive:
Executive authority was vested in a Governor to represent the Crown in the Province.
Administration was to be carried on by the Council of Ministers appointed by the Governor,
from among the elected members of the Provincial Legislature and responsible to that body.
The Governor had special responsibilities in certain specified subjects such as maintenance of
peace. Governors were given discretionary powers as well as powers of individual judgment.
Legislature:
Election to the Provincial Legislature was to be directly by the people. The Legislature
was bicameral in six provinces and unicameral in the rest. There was to be a separatist system
of representation by religious communities and groups. Seats were reserved for Muslims,
Christians, Sikhs, Scheduled Castes and Anglo-Indians. There were separate communities
for labour, land holders commerce and industry.
15.6. High Commissioner for India

The Act of 1919 had provided for the office of the High Commissioner for India to act as
the agent of the Central Government and the Provincial Governments. The Act of 1935
authorised the Governor General to appoint him in the exercise of his individual judgement.
His functions were essentially non-political. He was to purchase stores for Indian Government
in England and also to safeguard and promote Indian trade. Besides acting as the agent of
India in England, the High Commissioner also looked after the welfare of the Indian students
studying in England and Europe.
152
15.7. Federal Court
The new Act of 1935 was introduced in the province from April1, 1937 and hence the
Federal Court was also established quite soon. It began to function from 1st October, 1937.
The Federal Court consisted of one Chief Justice and not more than six other judges. Their
salaries and allowances were fixed by His Majesty in Council and could not be changed to their
disadvantage during their turn of office. The Act provided a number of safeguards for the
judges of the Federal Court. Thus, the Judges with regards to their appointment, salaries and
dismissal were in no way subject to their authority of the Governor-General or the Federal
Legislature. The functions of the Federal Court included advisory functions also.
15.8. Importance of the Act of 1935
1. The introduction of the act ended the dyarchy system by giving more freedom to British India
for better governance in the form of Provincial Autonomy and established dyarchy at the
centre.
2. There was a division of the federal subjects between the Centre and the Provinces, and the
division made in the act of 1919 was revised.
3. The Act is of utmost importance because it leads to the relationship of a dominion status
which urged the need for independence again in the minds of the people.
4. The main provision of the Act was to make the Governor General Pivot of the Constitution to
settle if there were any disputes among the people.
5. An important provision of the Act was the protection of minorities such as women etc, and
safeguarding their rights.
15.9. Failure of the Act of 1935
The Act had so much to promise to the people for their welfare but was not able to
deliver anything that could turn out in its implementation. The Act was a complete failure and
the main reasons why the Act failed have been discussed below.
153
1. The concept of an All India Federation failed completely because the Indian National
Congress never came for the accomplishment of the plan which was made because of
the representation power of the princely States was still in the hands of the British, so
the concept could not be implemented.
2. The Act failed to provide flexibility to the people at the Constitutional level in regard to
their amendments of rights as the power to change or alter any right was present with
the British government while the Indian could not do anything according to their needs.
3. The Act failed to provide a proper federal structure majority of the power was with the
Governor General who was not at all responsible for the Central Legislature, which
meant that the legislature was not governed properly.
15.10. Conclusion,
The Government of India Act 1935 was a major step towards the Independence of
India and helped in the reorganization of the States such as Sindh was separated from the
province of Bombay, similarly Bihar and Orissa were separated, Aden which was earlier a part
of the country was separated and was then made a new Crown colony.
Due to the lack of provision of a Central government, it was not good for the Indians
and there were many flaws in the act that was in a way hampering the rights and morals of the
people. The Government of India Act was total failure as it was not able to give what it had
proposed.
15.11. Summary
 The Act of 1935 was quite a lengthy and detailed document. It consisted of 321
sections and 10 schedules. It was fully enforced in April 1937.
 The Dyarchy was abolished in the Provinces and instead Provincial Autonomy was
introduced.
 The Scheme of the federation which the Government of India Act, 1935 devised
was thus a combination of the draw backs of different systems.
154
 The Government of India Act was a total failure as it was not able to give what it had
proposed.
 The Act had so much to promise to the people for their welfare but was not able to
deliver anything that could turn out in its implementation.

1. Describe the circumstances that led to the passing of the Act of 1935.
2. Give an account of the salient features of the Act of 1935.
3. Explain the creation of All India Federation.
4. Discuss the working of the Provincial Autonomy.
5. Estimate the importance of the Act of 1935.
6. List out the causes for the failure of the Act of 1935.


155
LESSON – 16
NATIONAL MOVEMENT TOWARDS INDEPENDENCE

(1937-1947)
Learning Objectives
 Analyse the National Movement from 1937 to 1947 in different stages.
 Know about the proposals of Cripp’s Mission and its failure.
 Explain the contribution of the Revolt of Indian Navy and Mass Movement to the freedom
movement in India.
 Discuss the Cabinet Mission Plan.
 Describe the Mountbatten Plan and the salient features of the Indian Independence Act
of 1947.
Structure
16.1. Introduction.
16.2. August Offer (1940).
16.3. Individual Satyagraha (October, 1940).
16.4. Cripp’s Proposals (March. 1942).
16.5. Quit India Movement (August, 1942).
16.6. Indian National Army (1942).
16.7. C. Rajagopalachari Formula and Desai Liaquat Pact (1944).
16.8. Wavell Plan and Simla Conference (June, 1945).

156
16.9. The Revolt of the Indian Navy (1946).
16.10. The Cabinet Mission Plan (1946).
16.11. Direct Action Day (August 1946).
16.12. Mountbatten Plan (June, 1947).
16.13. Indian Independence Act (1947).
16.14. Summary.
16.1. Introduction
In 1837 general elections the Congress took part and got a clear majority in six provinces.
Later on, the number increased to seven. The Congress Ministers were formed in those
provinces. Their office continued till 1939, when the Second World War broke out. The Second
World War was one of the most significant factors in accelerating Indian independence and the
independence of many British and non-British colonies. As the Cripps Mission was failed in
1942, Gandhiji decided to take up another mass movement called Quit India.
16.2. August Offer (1940)
In the meantime, significant political changes took place in England. The Prime Minister
of Britain Mr. Winston Churchill declared that he had not become the Prime Minister of
Britain for disintegrating the Empire. Yet the Government was feeling the necessity of getting
the cooperation of the Indians. It led to the declaration by the Viceroy Lord Linlithgow on 8th
August, 1940 which was called the August Offer.
The ‘Offer’ included the following terms:
(a) The aim of the British Government was to provide dominion Status to India.
(b) A representative Committee consisting of all important political parties of India would
frame the future Constitution of India.
157
(c) The Executive at the Centre would be extended by appointing some Indian represntatives
immediately.
(d) A war Advisory Committee would be formed immediately which would include the
representative of native States and other important elements of Indian life.
(e) The Government would not hand over power to any such political group which was
opposed by other strong elements in national life.
(f) All political parties should Cooperate with the Government in its war effort on the basis
of the above conditions and thus help India in getting equal status in the British dominions.
The Congress had asked for establishing an interim Government at the Centre. It was
not granted. So, the Congress rejected the offer and is then President Maulana Azad even
refused to meet the Viceroy to discuss the offer. The Muslim League also rejected the ‘offer;
because its demand of Pakistan was not included in it.
16.3. Individual Satyagraha, (October, 1940)
The August Offer was not meant for finding a solution of the Constitutional problem in
India but to deepen it by encouraging Muslim Communalism through the Muslim League and
blaming the Congress for blockading Constitutional progress. The Congress then, looked
towards Gandhi to advise it. He, therefore chose the path of non-cooperation again but only in
a limited way. That resulted in the beginning of the ‘Individual Satyagraha’. This was simply a
moral protest against the forced entry of India into the war. The individual satyagraha was
started on October17, 1940 and VinobaBhave was chosen the first satyagrahi. Jawaharlal
Nehru was the next one.
In December 1941, Japan entered in the war against Britain and its allies. It speedily
conquered South East Asian countries and attached Burma. It endangered the security of
India. The British Government started releasing the political prisoners and the Congress also
suspended the Satyagraha movement. The British Government then, deputed Cripps Mission
to India to find out a workable solution with a view to gain the support of the Indians in the war.
158
16.4. Cripp’s Proposals, March, 1942
On 22nd March 1942, the British Government sent Sir Stafford Cripps to negotiate with
Indian political parties ana secure their co-operation in the prosecution of war. The choice of
Cripps was a significant one. He was a member of the British war Cabinet and leader of House
of Commons. Above all he was said to be a personal friend of Pt. Nehru.
The Mission reached India in 1942, talked to Indian leaders of all prominent political
parties and then proposed the following in return of the co-operation of the Indians.
(a). Full Dominion Status would be granted to India after the close of the war. It would have the
right to cede itself from the British Common Wealth of Nations.
(b). A Constituent Assembly would be formed after the close of the war. Its members would be
elected by the members of the legislative assemblies (lower houses) of the provinces by
proportional representative system of election.
(c). The Constitution framed by that Assembly would be accepted by the British Government
on the condition that the provinces which would not like the new Constitution would keep
their status as before.
(d). The Constituent Assembly would make a treaty with Britain for the protection of the rights
of the minorities and till the Constituent Assembly was not formed, the British Government
would continue to look after the defence of India.
Some scholars described the Cripps proposals a step ahead of the ‘August Offer’. But
some others described it as a post-dated cheque on a crashing bank. The proposals accepted
the demand of Pakistan by Muslim League though indirectly. Its defence proposals were also
not acceptable to the Congress. It, therefore rejected the proposals. The League also rejected
them because its demand of Pakistan was not accepted directly by the Government.
16.5. Quit India Movement, August 1942
The failure of Cripps Mission convinced the Indians that the British would not permit
them to defend their country. The Congress, therefore decided to start a mass movement
again. Gandhi was convinced of the necessity of the withdrawal of British from India.
159
The Congress working Committee passed the ‘Quit India’ resolution on 8th August,
1942. But before it could take any step in that direction, the Government took preventive
measures. All prominent Congress leaders were captured and imprisoned on the morning of
9th August.It created widespread resentment in India.
The people protested by observing hartals, taking out processions, public meetings
etc. This time the meeting grew violent. The students remained in the forefront of this movement.
Railway traffic was disrupted, telephone and telegraph wires were cut down and government
officials were attacked. According to the official report two hundred fifty railway stations and
five hundred post-offices were burnt.
The movement, however subsided because of severe oppressive measures of the

Government. It would be wrong to assume that the movement was not effective in any way.
The movement was a proof of the determined attitude of the Indians to fight against the British
rule. It became a part of the nationalist revolutionary movement of the Indians. However, it
changed the venue of the struggle. It now became beyond the boundary of India andits proof
was the struggle of Indian National Army under the leadership of Subash Chandra Bose.
16.6. Indian National Army (INA) (1942)
In 1942, the Indian National Army was formed by Subash Chandra Bose with the Co-
operation of Indian war. Prisoners captured by the Japanese army and the Indian citizens in
South East Asia. He was made the Commander-in-Chief of that Army. The Indian National
Army co-operated with the Japanese army and reached Imphal in Assam. But from there it
was forced to withdraw and when in 1945 A.D, Japan surrendered to the allied forces, it too
had to surrender. Its soldiers and officers were brought to India as prisoners. However, Subhash
Chandra Bose was not captured. It is believed that the aeroplane by which he was going to
Tokyo caught fire and he was burnt in it. Thus, the efforts of the Indian National Army for
liberating India also failed. The Indian National Army was certainly responsible for creating
that mass movement in India after Second World War. Thus the formation of the Indian national
Army also helped, though indirectly in attaining independence for India.
160
16.7. C. Rajagopalachari Formula and Desai Liaquat Pact (1944)
The Muslim League observed the ‘Pakistan Day’ on March 23, 1943. It declared that
Pakistan was the final goal of the Muslims in India. It became clear that some sort of compromise
was necessary between the Congress and Muslim League. Mr. C. Rajagopalachari drafted a
formula, to solve the communal problem in March, 1944.
The scheme suggested that,
(a) The League should cooperate with the Congress in its demand of complete
independence.
(b) After the close of the war, a plebiscite would be held in the Muslim majority provinces to
decide whether or not they should form a separate State.
(c) In the event of separation, the two states would make an agreement concerning defence,
communication and other matters of common concern.
(d) The scheme would be put into practice only when India was given complete
independence. The formula however, was rejected by the League.
Another attempt for compromise between the two parties was made by Mr. Bhulabai
Desai, leader of the Congress in the Central Legislative Assembly. He met Mr. Liaquat Ali
Khan, deputy leader of the League in the Assembly and proposed that an Interim Government
should be formed at the Centre, consisting of equal number of persons nominated by the
Congress and the league in the Central Legislature, representatives of minorities and the
Commander-in-chief. The Muslim League rejected this scheme as well.
16.8. Wavell Plan and Simla Conference (June, 1940)
In 1942 Lord Wavell had come to India as Viceroy. The economic condition in India had
also deteriorated much and there had occurred a large-scale famine during the period 1943-
44. Some political solution of the Indian problem was felt to be necessary. Though Lord
Wavell went to England in March 1945 and consulted Mr. Churchill regarding the political
deadlock in India. Therefore, a new plan was offered to the Indians. It has been called the
Wavell Plan.
161
The Wavell Plan was announced on 14th June 1945. The plan was offered as an
interim arrangement. The main feature of the plan was,
(a). the formation of an interim government at the Centre with equal representation of both, the
Hindus and the Muslims.
(b). Besides all portfolios except that of Defence were to be transferred to the Indians. Only,
the Commander-in-chief and the Governor-General were to remain free from the control
of Indian Ministers.
(c). The Interim Government, consisting of all Indian Ministers would work under the framework
of the Act of 1935 till a new Constitution was formed, and
(d), The Governor General would also retain the right to veto the advice of his newly constituted
executive Council.
In the Simla Conference the Congress nominated Maulana Abul Kalam Azad as one of
its representatives in the proposed Interim Government. Mr. Jinnah refused to accept it because
he claimed that the Muslim league alone represented the Indian Muslims. The Congress also
remained adamant on its nomination. Therefore, the Wavell Plan failed. Nearly the same time
the British Government declared that a Cabinet Mission would be soon deputed to India.
However, prior to the arrival of Cabinet Mission in India certain events happened in India which
accelerated the Indian National Movement one of them was the revolt of the Indian Navy.
16.9. Revolt of the Indian Navy (1946)
The Revolt of the Indian Navy in 1946 was virtually a part of those mass movements in
India which engulfed it after the Second World War. The strikers formed a committee under the
leadership of M.S. Khan and demanded that the Indian Mariners should be provided good
food, their salaries should be at par with British mariners, soldiers and officers of the Indian
National Army as well as all political prisoners should be released. When the Government tried
to break up the Hartal by force violence erupted. It resulted in further revolts at other parts and
some ships on the sea. This revolt of the Indian Mariners also contributed towards Indian
Independence. The British had lost faith in the loyalty of the Indian army after the struggle of
Indian National Army. Now they lost faith in the loyalty of the Indian navy as well.
162
16.9.1. Mass Movements (1945 – 1946)
The year 1945-46 has an important place in the history of Indian National Movement.
That year, when the Indian National leaders were busy in negotiations with the British concerning
independence of India, the Indian citizens without any guidance from them, expressed their
deep resentment against continuation of the British rule. Those mass movements began with
protests against the trials of the officers of the Indian National Army. Protest meeting were
held all over India in which people of all shades participated and demanded the release of
officers and soldiers of Indian National Army unconditionally. Besides, mass movements took
place at many places in India including those of native States. The British Government probably
realized that it could not or should not face this mass upsurge and that hastened the process of
Indian Independence.
16.10. The Cabinet Mission Plan (!946)
The Cabinet Mission which consisted of three Cabinet Ministers Lord Pathick-Lawrence,
Sir Stafford Cripps and Mr. Alexander arrived in New Delhi on 24th March 1946. The Muslims
held talks with the leaders of all prominent political parties in India and then proposed the
following.
(a) A federal Government should be established at the Centre which include the native
States as well. It should look after the defence, foreign affairs and communication.
(b) Communal problems should be decided by the concerned Communities.
(c) Residency powers should be left to the provinces.
(d) The provinces could organize themselves in to groups.
(e) An Interim Government should be formed which should include representatives of all
prominent political parties.
(f) The Constituent Assembly would make a treaty with Britain.
Besides the plan determined the number of the members of the Constituent Assembly
and the method of election of its members. It divided it into three parts as well.
163
16.11. Direct Action Day, 16th August 1946
Difference soon arose between the Congress and the Muslim League concerning the
powers of the Constituent Assembly. The Congress regarded it as the sovereign body to
frame a Constitution for India. The Muslim league refused to accept it as such. The League
therefore, rejected the Cabinet Mission Plan in the middle of 1946. In September 1946, the
congress formed the Government at the Centre. The League refused to be partly to it. It
instead fixed August 16, 1946 as the ‘Direct Action Day’ to attain Pakistan. It was asking for
open violence by the Muslim against the Hindus. It resulted in widespread communal riots in
different parts of India. In such circumstances Mr. Attlee announced on February 20, 1947 that
the British would leave India before June 1948 in every case. Gandhi asked for immediate
withdrawal of the British.
16.12. Mountbatten Plan3rd June 1947
Lord Mountbatten was sent as the Viceroy to India at that time. He set himself to this
task by holding talks with the leaders of both the Congress and the league. He settled the
details with the Congress and League leaders. He left for England to discuss finally with the
Home Government and returned on June 2, with certain definite proposal. Next day, he published
his plan.
The salient features of Mountbatten Plan were as follows.
1. Mountbatten’s Plan set down the partition of India as a settled fact It proposed the
division of India into two dominions and the transference of power to take place on 15th
August 1947, instead of June, 1948 as declared earlier.
2. The Provincial Legislature of Bengal and Punjab were to meet separately in two parts
each one representing the Muslim majority districts and the other Hindu majority districts.
3. The Muslim majority district of Sylhet was to decide by a referendum whether it was to
join cast Bengal or remain in Assam. In the case of NWFP there was to be a referendum
to ascertain whether the people wanted to be in Pakistan or India.
The working of Committee of the Congress and at Delhi on 14th June 1947 to discuss
the draft plan of the Viceroy. Maulana Azad, the nationalist Muslims, the Hindu members
164
representing Pakistani districts opposed the plan, but Pt. Pant, Nehru, Patel, AcharyaKripalani
and Mahatma Gandhi accepted it in view of the conditions prevailing in the country.
16.13. Indian Independence Act, 1947

In order to give effect to the scheme given by Mountbatten and agreed upon both by
the Congress and the league, the British Parliament passed the Indian independence Act on
July 5, 1947 and it received Royal assent on July 18, to become operative on August 15,1947.
Provisions of the Act:
1. The Act provided for the creation of two independent Dominions, India and Pakistan
from 15th August 1947.
2. The Independence Act defined the territories of the two Dominions adjustable after the
award of the Boundary Commission.
3. When the Dominion of Pakistan was born on August 15, 1947 after the Partition of
India, it consisted of two wings, Eastern and Western Pakistan.
4. Both the dominions were to have Governor Generals appointed by the British king for
that purpose. The Act also provided for one common Governor-General if both the
Dominions so agreed.
5. The Constituent Assemblies of both the Dominions got the power to draft a new
Constitution according to their wishes in addition to the rights towards from the British
common Wealth.
6. The provisions regarding the discretionary and individual judgements’ powers will not
remain effective after independence.
7. The British Government no longer possessed any control over the dominions, provinces
or any part of the Dominions after 18th August 1947.
8. After establishment of two independent Dominions, the British Government would have
absolutely no responsibility in regard to any territory which was included in British India.
165
9. The British Government would exercise no authority in future over the tribal areas and
any treatment on agreement in force at the time of the passing of the Indian
Independence Act between His Majesty and any tribal authority would also lapse.
10. Pakistan was henceforth to negotiate with the tribes of North Western Frontier Province.
The Dawn of Independence:
India got out of the British domination and became an independent State on 15th August,
1947.
The factors responsible for the transfer of power were –
1. The spirit of nationalism and the strength of national movement – extremist, revolutionary
and constitutional.
2. Weakening of England at the end of Second World War.
3. The coming of Labour Party to power a party which had always been inclined to confer
independence on India.
4. The acceptance of Jinnah’s demand of Pakistan by the Congress. Had the Congress
not accepted the League and the British Government might have postponed the issue
of ours freedom for an indefinite period.
After achieving Independence, the Constituent Assembly of India pushed on with the
work of Constitution making. In the meantime, India had to handle another problem of great
magnitude, namely the rehabilitation of lakhs of Hindus who migrated to India in the wake of
disturbances of Pakistan. Then the Government applied itself to reconstruction work, for which
it launched Five Year Plan. A New India, cheerful and prosperous is emerging out of the rut of
backwardness and poverty.
16.14. Summary
 The period from 1937-1947 was a series of historic events with the ultimate aim of ending
the British rule in India.
 Gandhi and Congress were not responsible for the failure of the mission. Primarily the
Conservative Government headed by Mr. Churchill was responsible for its failure.
166
 When Cripps Mission failed, the Congress under the guidance of Gandhi gave a call to
Quit India Movement and asked the British to transfer power in the hands of Indians.
 Lord Mountbatten came to India in March, 1947 and proposed his June plan which was
accepted by the Congress and the League resulting into Partition of India.
 On 15th August 1947 India was partitioned and two independent states emerged on this
Sub-Continent viz, Indian Union and Pakistan.

1. What do you know about the August Offer? How did it lead to the Individual Satyagraha?
2. Explain the proposals of Cripps Mission and its failure.
3. Discuss the cause and circumstances leading to the Quit India Movement of 1942 and its
importance.
4. Describe the contribution of Indian National Army to the freedom movement in India.
5. Write short notes on the following.
(a). C.R. Formula
(b). Wavell Plan and Simla Conference
(c). Cabinet Mission Plan
(d) June Plan or Mountbatten Plan
6. Examine the salient features of the Indian Independence Act.

1. See the sections 16.2 and 16.3
5. See the section for a,b,c,d, - 16.7, 16.8, 16.‘9 and 16.12.

167
MODEL QUESTION PAPER

THIRD YEAR - FIFTH SEMESTER
CORE PAPER - IX
Time: 3Hrs. Max Marks: 75
Section – A (10 X 2 = 20)

Answer any TEN questions
All questions carry equal marks
Each answer should not exceed 50 words
1. Dual System of Government
2. Arms Act
3. Renaissance
4. Sati
5. Deoband School
6. Ilbert Bill
7. The Moderates
8. Governor-General
9. Swadeshi
10. Annie Besant
11. Rowlatt Act
12. Federal Court

168
Section – B (5 X 5 = 25)
Answer any FIVE questions
13. Analyse the main provisions of the Act of 1858.
14. Write a short note about the Educational Reforms of Lord Ripon.
15. Briefly write about Brahma Samaj.
16. Evaluate the achievements of the moderates.
17. Examine the criticism of the Act of 1892.
18. Estimate the importance of the Government of India Act of 1935.
19. Assess the proposals of Cripps Mission.
Section – C (3 X 10 = 30)
Answer any THREE questions
20. Estimate the importance of the administrative measures of Lord Ripon.
21. Examine the part played by Rajaram Mohan Roy in the Socio-religious awakening in
the first half of the 19th century.
22. Describe the circumstances leading to the passing of the Act of 1909.
23. Give an account of the salient features of the Act of 1935.
24. Critically analyse the salient features of the Indian Independence Act.

History of Modern India 1858-1947

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DRAFT

HISTORY OF MODERN INDIA

INSTITUTE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

It is with a great pleasure to welcome you as a student of Institute of Distance

With best wishes from mind and heart,

COORDINATION & EDITING

Dr. S.S. SUNDARAM

© UNIVERSITY OF MADRAS, CHENNAI 600 005.

HISTORY OF MODERN INDIA (A.D. 1858 - 1947)

UNIT I : India under the Crown – Queen Victoria’s Proclamation – Government of

UNIT II : Renaissance and Socio-Religious Movements in the Nineteenth Century –

1.Percival Spear : The Oxford History of Modern India

2. Bipan Chandra : India’s Struggle for Independence

3. Sumit Sarkar : Modern India 1885 – 1947

4. R.C. Majumdar : History of Freedom Movement in India

5. G.S. Chhabra : Advanced Study in the History of Modern India

6. Jyoti Prasad & Satish Kumar : The Indian National Movement

7. B.L. Grover and S. Grover : Evolution of Indian Constitution and

8. A.C. Kapur : Indian Constitutional Development

9. V.D. Mahajan : Indian Freedom Struggle

10. S.N. Sen : History of Freedom Movement in India

11. Prakash Chandra : The History of the Indian National Movement

THIRD YEAR - FIFTH SEMESTER

HISTORY OF MODERN INDIA (A.D. 1858 - 1947)

Sl. No. Title Page No.

1 India Under the Crown 001

2 Lord Lytton (1876 – 1880) 011

3 Lord Ripon (1880 – 84) 017

4 The Indian Renaissance and Social and Religious Reform

5 Muslim Reform Movement 040

6 Depressed Class Movements 050

7 The Growth of National Movement in India 061

8 The Moderates 072

9 Indian Councils Act of 1892 081

10 Rise of Radical and Militant Nationalism 089

11 Birth of Swadeshi, muslim league and home rule Movement 099

13 Indian Councils act,1919 (or) Montague-Chelmsford Reforms 1919 118

14 National Movement and Gandhian era 128

15 Government of India Act of 1935 145

16 National Movement towards Independence (1937-1947) 155

 Understand the end of colonial rule of East India Company.

 Discuss the main provisions of the Government of India Act of 1858.

 Evaluate the Queen’s Proclamation.

 Narrate the implications of the Indian Councils Act of 1861.

1.1. Introduction – Government of India Act of 1858

1.2. Proclamation of Queen Victoria.

1.3. Indian Council Act of 1861.

1.5. Review Questions.

1.6. Answers to check review questions.

1.2. Government of India Act of 1858

1.2.1. Circumstances leading to the passing of the Act of Government of

1.2.2. End of East India Company

1.2.3. Main Provisions of the Act of 1858

and rejecting them.

1.2.4. Defects of the Act of 1858

1.2.5. Significance of the Act of 1858

1.3. Proclamation of Queen Victoria

The Queen’s Proclamation of 1858 is a great landmark in the Constitutional history of

1.4. Indian Councils Act of 1861

1.4.1. Circumstances Leading to the Passing of the Act

1.3.2. Main Provisions of the Act of 1861

1.3.3. Evaluation of the Act of 1861

 India came directly under the British Crown.

 Control of British Parliament over the Secretary of State for India.