Additional Statistical Tables Made for Reviewers and Editors

as Part of the Review Process, but Not Originally Published in APSR 2012
Robert D. Woodberry
2011

Below is the text of Appendix II for Woodberry, Robert D. 2012. “The Missionary Roots of
Liberal Democracy” American Political Science Review 106(2): 244-274. It contains 11
additional tables I had hoped to reserve for future publications. They mainly show the
relationship between Protestant mission and the intervening mechanism – e.g., book publishing,
education, INGO involvement, GDP, etc.

Appendix II

I hope to use the tables in Appendix II in future publications and so they are intended for the reviewers

and editors only. To help distinguish the two types of tables in the letter for the reviewers, I labeled the

tables in Appendix I with numbers (e.g., Table 14) and the tables in Appendix II with letters (e.g., Table

C). I do not refer to any of the lettered tables in the main paper – only here and in the letter to the

reviewers. If required to switch some of the tables from Appendix II to Appendix I, I will consider it, but

the amount of historical and statistical material I am dedicating to this article is already immense.

Table A (at the end of this appendix) lists the countries with the most and fewest missionaries per capita

in 1923 (Tables A1 & A2) and with the longest and shortest exposures to missions by 1960 (Tables A3 &

A4). Many of the places with the greatest exposure to Protestant missions are islands, but others, like

India and Namibia, are not. Dutch colonies on the list have lower levels of democracy, but non-islands do

not. Many of the countries with less exposure to Protestant missions are predominantly Muslim, but

others like Bhutan, Guinea Bissau, Cape Verde, and Sao Tome & Principe are not.

Moreover, statistical controls for Caribbean countries, sub-Saharan African countries, and Middle

Eastern and North African countries do not remove the influence of either “Protestant missionaries per

10,000 population in 1923,” or “Length of Protestant missionary activity” on democracy (see Table 16,

Appendix II). “Island Country” and “Percent Muslim” are already controlled in most regressions.

Moreover, dropping all Caribbean and Muslim majority countries from the analysis does not remove the
association between Protestant missionaries and democracy either (see Table 17, Appendix II).1 Thus, the

patterns visible in the extreme cases do not seem to be driving the results.

Table B shows the relationship between missions and book printing. Protestant missions are positively

and significantly associated with both the number of new titles published and the number of books printed

in 1975 (the first year that UNESCO provides data on publishing for countries in Africa, Asia, Latin

America or Oceania). Moreover, when controls for Protestant and Catholic missions are added, the R-

squared jumps dramatically (e.g., from .502 to .923). In 1975, Catholic missions have a negative

association with book publishing, but in later years Catholic missions also become positive and

statistically significant.

Table C shows a similar pattern exists for newspaper printing. Protestant missions are positively and

significantly associated with greater daily newspaper circulation in 1975, 1980, 1985, 1990, and 1995.

Both these tables are consistent with the historical argument that Protestant missions influenced the

spread of mass printing.

Table D shows the relationship between Protestant missions and historical education rates. Morrisson and

Murtin (2008) provide data on the average years of education for residents of 55 non-Western countries

from 1870 to the present. Therefore, it is possible to determine causal order with a consistent sample of

1
In the sample with all Caribbean and Muslim majority countries dropped, “Length of Protestant

missionary activity” becomes statistically insignificant after controls (it is statistically significant in this

sample without controls), but the “number of Protestant missionaries per 10,000 population in 1923” and

the “percent evangelized by 1900” remain highly significant.

countries.2 If Protestant missions caused education (rather than moving to places that already had more

education), we would expect the prevalence of Protestant missionaries to have a positive relationship with

later education rates, but not to earlier education rates (and that is the pattern we find). The number of

Protestant mission stations per 10,000 population in 1839 significantly predicts average years of

education in 1870. However, in countries where Protestant missions started after 1870, the number of

Protestant stations per 10,000 population in 1881 has a negative and insignificant relationship with

education in 1870. The same pattern holds of years of education in 1900. Even if we drop all the countries

that had Protestant missions before 1870 (and thus have already been shown to be positively correlated

with later education), the number of Protestant mission stations in 1890 per 10,000 population positively

and significantly predicts the average years of education in 1900. However, for countries where Protestant

missions started after 1900, the number of Protestant mission stations per 10,000 population in 1911 has a

negative and insignificant association with education in 1900.

After 1900 it is possible to measure the number of Protestant missionaries at each station and thus

calculate Protestant missionaries per 10,000 population. However, only 9 countries in the Morrisson and

Murtin sample had no Protestant missionaries by 1890 and only 4 did not by 1900; thus it is not possible

to test causal ordering after 1900. However, after 1900 the relationship between Protestant missions and

education is consistently positive and even seems to increase over time (as Protestant missions became

more established in each country). This table confirms the historical argument that Protestant missions

promoted mass education – a significant positive association exists between Protestant missionaries and

education after they arrived, but not with education before they arrived.

Table E shows the relationship between Protestant missions and the density of headquarters of INGOs or

internationally oriented NGOs per million people in 1993 and 2003. Protestant missions have a strong

2
Benavot and Riddle (1988) also provide historical education data but have fewer countries and the

countries vary between years. However, the results are consistent using these data as well.
positive and significant association with this measure of civil society. In fact, in 1993, controlling for

Protestant missions increases the R-squared from .141 to .683 – a huge jump. Similarly, Table F shows

the relationship between Protestant missions and Karatnycky and Ackerman’s (2005) measure of the

“Strength of Nonviolence Civic Coalitions Prior to Transitions from Authoritarian Rule.”3 In this case,

Protestant missions is the only variable that significant predicts strength of civic coalitions. Both these

tables are consistent with the historical argument that Protestant missions were important in spreading

organizational civil society.

Table G shows that the historic prevalence of Protestant missionaries is positively and significantly

related to current GDP, whereas government aid transfers are negatively related to GDP. A large literature

in economics and political science argues that aid transfers are detrimental to economic growth – or at

best beneficial in a very limited set of circumstances. Table G suggests that the mechanism through which

aid is delivered may be important. At any rate, the strong positive association between Protestant missions

and GDP may explain why controlling for Protestant missions removes the association between GDP and

democracy.

Tables H, I & J show that Protestant missions has a robust, statistically significant positive association

with economic institutions: i.e., protection of private property, low corruption, rule of law, and

government efficiency. These associations are much more robust than are Acemoglu, Johnson and

Robinson’s (AJR) widely touted variables related to “Settler mortality” “Population density in 1500” or

“Urbanization in 1500.” None of AJR’s variables significantly predict economic institutions when

Protestant missions are controlled. These statistical results are consistent with the argument that

3
Karatnycky and Ackerman (2005) argue that countries with stronger nonviolent civil coalitions prior to

transitions from authoritarian rule have more stable transitions to democracy (i.e., are less likely to revert

to authoritarian rule).
Protestant missions moderated colonial abuses and helped establish rule of law during the colonial period,

a pattern which continues to influence countries after independence.

Reviewer 4 asked if the association between Protestant missions and democracy is consistent at the

sub-national level. Measuring democracy at the sub-national level is extremely difficult. I have not been

able to find any data on external ratings of the freeness and fairness of the elections, freedom of the

judiciary from executive control, freedom of opposition parties to organize, and so on. Thus, sub-national

measures do not match the cross-national measures.

One plausible measure of sub-national democracy is voter turnout – although it seems error prone

as well. Voter turnout data are available for India and scholars have used them to measure sub-national

democracy (Banerjee and Iyer 2009). However, the digital maps available for Indian electoral districts are

very rough. When compared to more accurate digital maps of state boundaries, the electoral district

borders were often off by 15-20 miles. This creates problems for linking historical information about

Protestant and Catholic missions to these modern districts. Based on previous experience digitizing

detailed borders in Mexico, it would take over a year to re-digitize all the electoral districts of India, and

even longer to determine the exact correspondence of these modern borders with borders in 1906. Thus,

the missions variables in Table K use the already digitized, inexact, electoral district borders and link

these borders with the exact longitude and latitude of Protestant and Catholic mission stations.

This procedure introduces some error in the measures of Protestant and Catholic missionary

influence – i.e., because the digitized borders are inaccurate, some mission stations are grouped in the

wrong districts. However, this error is likely merely to inflate the standard error, making it harder to find

statistically significant results.4 I cannot think of a plausible mechanism through which it would create an

artificial association between missions and later voter turnout. Yet, in spite of the inflated standard error,

4
The errors in the modern digital map are unlikely to be systematically related to the historical prevalence

of Protestant and Catholic missionaries and thus are unlikely to bias the coefficients.
Table K shows that Protestant and Catholic missions are robustly and significantly associated with voter

turnout almost a century later. The association between Catholic missions and turnout is mediated through

the percent Christian (i.e., after controlling for percent Christian, the historic prevalence of Catholic

mission stations is no longer significantly associated with voter turnout). However, the association

between Protestant missions and voter turnout remains significant.

Bai, Ying and James Kai-sing Kung. 2011. Diffusing Knowledge while Spreading God’s Message:

Protestantism and Economic Prosperity in China, 1840-1920. Unpublished paper.

Banerjee, Abhijit, and Lakshmi Iyer. 2009. Colonial Land Tenure, Electoral Competition, and

Public Goods in India. In Natural Experiments of History, ed. J. Diamond and J. Robinson,

185-220. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Benavot, Aaron, and Phyllis Riddle. 1988. “The Expansion of Primary Education,

1870-1940: Trends and Issues.” Sociology of Education. 61(3): 191-210.

Francesco Gallego and Robert D. Woodberry. 2010. “Christian Missions and Education in Former African

Colonies: How Competition Mattered.” Journal of African Economies 19(3): 294-319.

Karatnycky, Adrian and Peter Ackerman. 2005. How Freedom is Won: From Civil Resistance to Durable

Democracy. New York: Freedom House.

Morrisson, Christian and Fabrice Murtin, 2008. "The Century of Education" – Paris-Jourdan Sciences

Economiques (PSE) working paper no 2008-22.

Nunn, Nathan.2010. Christianity in Colonial Africa. Unpublished paper.

Table A1: Most Protestant Missionaries per 10,000 population in 1923 Table A3: Longest Exposure to Protestant Missions
Mean Yrs. Prot. Mean
Prot. Miss. Per Democracy Missions Democracy
10K Pop. In Score 1950-1994 Main before Score 1950-1994 Main
Country Name 1923 (Bollen/Paxton) Colonizer Country Name 1960 (Bollen/Paxton) Colonizer
Vanuatu 10.66 96.85 British Indonesia 355 30.12 Dutch
Bahamas, The 9.23 98.03 British India 254 93.19 British
Suriname 7.64 41.67 Dutch Suriname 225 41.67 Dutch
St. Kitts & Nevis 6.95 65.28 British South Africa 223 49.70 British
American Samoa 6.69 79.69 US Jamaica 206 91.07 British
Samoa 5.88 62.43 British Antigua & Barbuda 204 83.33 British
Antigua & Barbuda 4.85 83.33 British Barbados 193 99.52 British
Solomon Islands 4.65 97.67 British St. Kitts & Nevis 183 65.28 British
Namibia 4.61 87.50 South African Trinidad & Tobago 177 88.40 British
Kiribati 4.35 61.08 British Grenada 176 70.83 British

Table A2: Least Protestant Missionaries per 10,000 population in 1923 Table A4: Shortest Exposure to Protestant Missions
Mean Yrs. Prot. Mean
Prot. Miss. Per Democracy Missions Democracy
10K Pop. In Score 1950-1994 Main before Score 1950-1994 Main
Country Name 1923 (Bollen/Paxton) Colonizer Country Name 1960 (Bollen/Paxton) Colonizer
Cape Verde 0 26.67 Portuguese Djibouti 0 28.13 French
Guinea Bissau 0 26.04 Portuguese Uzbekistan 0 25.00 Russian
Sao Tome & 0 21.67 Portuguese Mauritania 0 23.35 French
Principe
Comoros 0 21.30 French Comoros 0 21.30 French
Burundi 0 20.42 Belgian Kyrgyzstan 0 20.83 Russian
Maldives 0 15.83 British Maldives 0 15.83 British
Afghanistan 0 11.27 None Afghanistan 0 11.27 None
Saudi Arabia 0 4.86 None Saudi Arabia 0 4.86 None
Bhutan 0 0 None Bhutan 0 0 None
Brunei 0 0 British Brunei 0 0 British
Qatar 0 0 British Qatar 0 0 British
UAE 0 0 British UAE 0 0 British
 Table B: Robust Regression Predicting Book Publishing in Earliest Year with
Good International Data
VARIABLES # Titles Published in 1975 # Copies of Books Printed in 1975
British Colony -607.79 -375.32 -5,114.46* -71,514.44***
(358.68) (36375) (1,945.30) (6,761.16)
Never Colonized 151.81 386.07 11,715.34** -17,405.10*
Significantly (589.54) (318.58) (3,245.29) (7,425.36)
Latitude -29.81+ -26.66* -62.93 -2,090.44***
(14.61) (11.26) (62.90) (209.45)
Island Nation -32.61 -1,024.39** -3,147.07 -20,603.84**
(450.13) (262.52) (2,430.02) (5,009.36)
Landlocked Nation -516.62 89.17 -5,396.12* -58,080.12***
(621.62) (342.65) (2,385.12) (6,436.58)
Percent European 0.22 2.57 -14.31 594.6.56***
(5.87) (3.59) (24.41) (74.40)
Percent Muslim -14.51+ -16.35*** -99.51** -901.40***
(6.88) (3.51) (27.75) (70.42)
Major Oil Producer 194.60 564.21+ -63.69 8,065.42
(516.18) (309.19) (2,279.40) (6,052.60)
Literate Culture before 800.67+ 722.33** 3,674.70* 30,239.68***
Missionary Contact (381.38) (189.93) (1,584.00) (4,315.61)
Years Exposure to 13.01*** 713.09***
Protestant Missions (3.15) (77.65)
Years Exposure to -0.94 -365.72***
Catholic Missions (1.59) (31.65)
Constant 1,548*** 531.16 10,071.73*** 130,224.00***
(393.8) (505.66) (1,810.82) (10,094.53)
N 26 25 21 21
R-squared 0.502 0.923 0.840 0.979
+ < .1, * < .05, ** < .01, *** < .001; two-tailed test.
Source for Dependent Variable: UNESCO Institute for Statistics,
http://www.uis.unesco.org/ev_en.php?ID=3754_201&ID2=DO_TOPIC
 Table C: Robust Regression Showing the Association between Protestant Missions and
Daily Newspaper Circulation per 1,000 Inhabitants
Year: 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
British Colony 6.80 -0.92 -1.00 -4.54 -3.31 -0.66
(6.16) (6.57) (6.50) (7.21) (6.83) (6.52)
Other Religious Liberty -24.09 -46.63* -51.10** -58.70** -41.33 -42.62*
Colony (16.98) (18.11) (17.93) (20.17) (30.20) (18.29)
Dutch Colony 39.65+ 8.95 21.02 23.52 11.97 23.01
(20.54) (21.83) (21.61) (24.22) (22.94) (22.00)
Never Colonized 5.61 5.16 5.12 2.79 6.39 13.69
Significantly (10.51) (10.42) (10.29) (11.14) (10.40) (10.27)
Latitude 1.01*** 0.77** 0.89** 0.90** 0.90** 0.68*
(0.28) (0.29) (0.29) (0.32) (0.30) (0.29)
Island Nation 4.67 6.50 5.63 6.18 13.25+ 12.87+
(7.23) (7.19) (7.11) (8.04) (7.85) (7.31)
Landlocked Nation -18.46* -15.11* -16.31* -17.57* -18.09* -21.31**
(7.57) (7.55) (7.45) (8.29) (7.38) (6.77)
Percent European 0.59*** 0.68*** 0.81*** 0.79*** 0.69*** 0.59***
(0.14) (0.14) (0.13) (0.15) (0.14) (0.13)
Percent Muslim -0.33** -0.24* -0.18+ -0.18* -0.16 -0.09
(0.10) (0.10) (0.10) (0.11) (0.10) (0.10)
Major Oil Producer 6.26 5.56 1.18 3.51 11.87 11.35
(8.15) (8.11) (8.03) (8.85) (7.90) (7.42)
Literate Culture before 1.27 6.86 2.87 4.05 -0.47 -3.89
Missionary Contact (7.05) (7.20) (7.02) (7.75) (7.36) (7.05)
Protestant Missionaries 10.02*** 11.70*** 12.73*** 9.03*** 8.43***
per 10,000 pop. in 1923 (2.45) (2.42) (2.71) (2.62) (2.50)
Constant 16.14* 9.50 9.60 11.21 11.99+ 12.62*
(6.48) (6.52) (6.39) (7.19) (6.67) (6.22)
Observations 108 108 109 111 113 118
R-squared 0.464 0.537 0.602 0.553 0.517 0.483
+ < .1, * < .05, ** < .01, *** < .001; two-tailed test.
Source for Dependent Variable: UNESCO Institute for Statistics,
http://www.uis.unesco.org/ev_en.php?ID=3754_201&ID2=DO_TOPIC
 Table D: Regressions Testing the Causal Ordering of Protestant Missions and the Average Years of Education for
People Aged 15-64
Average Years of Average Years of Average Years of Avg. Years Avg. Yrs
Education in 1870 Education in 1900 Education in 1920 of Ed. in Ed. in 2000
VARIABLES 1940
All Countries Countries Countries All Countries Countries All
countries where Prot. where Prot. where Prot. countries where Prot. where Prot. Countries
Missions start Missions start Missions start Missions start Missions start
after 1870 after 1870 after 1900 after 1890 after 1890
Prot. Mission Stations .67***
per 10K pop. in 1839
(.13)
Prot. Mission Stations -35.45
per 10K pop. in 1881 (33.30)
Prot. Mission Stations 12.55***
per 10K pop. in 1890 (3.35)
Prot. Mission Stations -9.13
per 10K pop. in 1911 (65.83)
Prot. Missionaries per 1.29*** 8.55**
10K pop. in 1911 (.35) (2.44)
Prot. Missionaries per 11.62** 1.53*
10K pop. in 1923 (2.68) (.58)
Constant 0.51*** 0.48*** 0.43** 0.10+ 0.92*** 0.25 0.29 5.08***
(0.10) (0.09) (0.14) (0.02) (0.25) (0.23) (0.27) (.42)
N 55 24 24 4 55 9 9 52
R-squared 0.335 0.049 0.390 0.010 0.202 0.636 0.712 0.124
+ < .1, * < .05, ** < .01, *** < .001; two-tailed test.
Source for Dependent Variable: Morrisson, Christian and Fabrice Murtin, 2008. "The Century of Education" – Paris-Jourdan Sciences Economiques (PSE) working paper
no 2008-22. Results are consistent using Benavot and Riddle data.
 Table E: Robust Regressions Showing Density of Headquarters of INGOs and
Internationally Oriented NGOs per Million People in 1993 & 2003
Year 1993 2003
British Colony 0.50+ 0.43 0.87** 0.46+
(0.28) (0.40) (0.28) (0.27)
Other Religious Liberty -0.84 -6.13*** 0.53 -0.62
Colony (1.01) (1.40) (1.01) (0.95)
Dutch Colony -1.05 -6.26*** -0.21 -1.07
(0.83) (1.15) (0.84) (0.78)
Never Colonized -0.093 -0.03 0.04 0.04
Significantly (0.48) (0.64) (0.48) (0.44)
Latitude 0.007 -0.02 0.02 0.008
(0.01) (0.02) (0.01) (0.01)
Island Nation -0.31 0.76+ -0.20 -0.29
(0.33) (0.44) (0.33) (0.30)
Landlocked Nation -0.55+ -0.65 -0.70* -0.58*
(0.32) (0.42) (0.32) (0.29)
Percent European 0.007 0.02** 0.008 0.009
(0.006) (0.008) (0.006) (0.006)
Percent Muslim -0.002 0.003 -0.006 -0.003
(0.004) (0.006) (0.004) (0.004)
Major Oil Producer 0.32 0.75 0.006 0.06
(0.35) (0.47) (0.35) (0.31)
Literate Culture before -0.65+ 0.10 -0.56+ -0.28
Missionary Contact (0.33) (0.44) (0.33) (0.30)
Protestant Missionaries 1.53*** 0.38***
per 10,000 pop. in 1923 (0.13) (0.09)
Constant 1.30*** 0.50 1.20*** 0.99***
(0.29) (0.39) (0.29) (0.27)
N 130 130 130 130
R-squared 0.141 0.683 0.204 0.334
* < .05, ** < .01, *** < .001; two-tailed test.
Source for Dependent Variable: Kaldor, Mary, Helmut Anheier, and Marlies Glasius. 2003. Global Civil Society.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
 Table F: Robust Regression Showing
Strength of Nonviolent Civic Coalitions
Prior to Transitions from Authoritarian
Rule towards Democracy:1972-2005
British Colony -0.95
(0.56)
Dutch Colony -1.19
(2.09)
Never Colonized -0.47
Significantly (0.54)
Latitude 0.015
(0.017)
Island Nation -0.65
(0.62)
Landlocked Nation 0.02
(0.50)
Percent European -0.01
(0.01)
Percent Muslim -0.005
(0.006)
Major Oil Producer -0.45
(0.51)
Literate Culture before -0.13
Missionary Contact (0.44)
Years Exposure to 0.011*
Protestant Missions (0.005)
Years Exposure to Catholic -0.001
Missions (0.001)
Constant 1.79*
(0.79)
N 45
R-squared 0.293
* < .05, ** < .01, *** < .001; two-tailed test.
Source for Dependent Variable: Karatnycky, Adrian and Peter Ackerman. 2005. How Freedom is Won: From Civic
Resistance to Durable Democracy. Washington DC: Freedom House.
Karatnycky and Ackerman (2005) argue that transitions to democracy are much more stable when catalyzed by
strong nonviolent civic coalitions. No countries in the “Other Protestant Religious Liberty Colony” category are
included in the dataset. Therefore this variable is not included in the regression.
 Table G: Robust Regression Comparing Protestant Missions and Aids Influence on GDP IN US$
Ln Protestant Missionaries per 100,000 219.18* 341.25*** 342.04*** 353.50***
People in 1923 (116.15) (107.10) (108.72) (99.18)
Years of Protestant Missionary Activity 5.49** 5.32** 5.29** 5.10**
(2.49) (2.32) (2.35) (2.14)
Total Government Aid -9.49e-07** -1.17e-06*** -1.15e-06*** -1.14e-06***
(4.16e-07) (3.11e-07) (3.25e-07) (3.04e-07)
British Colony -461.1* -468.2* -638.5***
(248.8) (253.3) (232.2)
Dutch Colony -1,104 -1,107 -1,414*
(785.8) (796.5) (732.7)
Other “Protestant” Colonizer -497.0 -502.3 -385.7
(533.9) (539.7) (487.8)
No Significant Colonization -233.2 -225.6 -138.4
(306.7) (312.4) (291.2)
Landlocked Country -349.8 -351.0 3.963
(262.0) (265.7) (300.8)
Island -370.9* -382.0 -286.5
(216.6) (230.2) (212.0)
Latitude 22.79** 22.07** 9.81
(9.57) (9.99) (10.66)
% Population European in 1980 16.70*** 16.64*** 15.68***
(5.04) (5.10) (4.58)
% Muslim 4.37 4.33 6.48*
(3.17) (3.23) (3.57)
OPEC Member 588.6* 604.0* 743.9**
(329.6) (333.9) (317.7)
Sub-Saharan African Country -797.0*** -788.8*** -1,086***
(190.9) (197.6) (198.8)
East Asian/Confucian Country 536.9 544.4 518.4
(497.4) (504.3) (453.3)
Country on Arabian Peninsula 7,782*** 7,766*** 7,286***
(431.2) (438.7) (419.3)
Malaria Endemic -47.32 160.9
(252.6) (233.2)
Average Max. Temp. in Hottest Month -76.29**
(29.70)
% of Country Covered by Mountains -1,574***
(565.4)
Mean Distance to the Coast -0.66*
(0.36)
Precipitation per year -0.42***
(0.15)
Observations 112 112 112 112
R-squared 0.198 0.896 0.895 0.918
* < .05, ** < .01, *** < .001; two-tailed test. Constant not shown to save space.
 Table H: OLS Regression Predicting Protection of Property Rights
1985-95
Colonial Death Rate x 100 -.08* -.05 -.05 -.01 -.00
(Acemoglu et al.) (.04) (.03) (.03) (.03) (.03)
Years of Protestant Missionary .11*** .11*** .06* .07*
Activity X 10 (.02) (.02) (.03) (.03)
Years of Catholic Missionary -.00 -.00 -.00
Activity X 10 (.01) (.01) (.01)
Population Density in 1500 -.00 -.01
(Acemoglu et al.) (.01) (.01)
Landlocked Nation -.82 -.84+
(.49) (.47)
Island Nation -.73 -1.01+
(.53) (.55)
Latitude 1.17 -.58
(1.66) (1.84)
Minimum Monthly Rain x 10 .14* .15*
(Albouy) (.06) (.07)
Mean Temperature (Albouy) -.02 -.01
(.03) (.03)
Asia (Americas .27 .39
Reference Cat.) (.63) (.73)
Africa (Americas -.04 .55
Reference Cat.) (.48) (.62)
Other (Americas 1.45 1.82
Reference Cat.) (1.27) (1.30)
Neo-Europe (US, Can, .59 .91
Aus, NZ) (1.17) (1.15)
Percent European (1975) .00 .00
(.01) (.01)
Malaria (1994) -1.17*
(.56)
N 64 64 64 64 62
R-squared .064 .315 .315 .560 .623
+ < .1, * < .05, ** < .01, *** < .001; two-tailed test.
Constant not shown in table.
 Table I: OLS Regression Predicting Protection of Property Rights
1985-95
Urbanization in 1500 -.11* -.07 -.06
(Acemoglu et al.)
(.04) (.04) (.05)
Years of Protestant .08** .08**
Missionary Activity X 10 (.03) (.03)
Years of Catholic -.00
Missionary Activity X 10 (.01)
N 38 38 38
R-squared .143 .319 .321
+ < .1, * < .05, ** < .01, *** < .001; two-tailed test.
Constant not shown in table.
 Table J: OLS Regression Predicting Economic-Friendly
Institutions 1996-2002
Low Government
Rule of Law
Corruption Efficiency
Colonial Death Rate x 100 .00 -.00 -.00
(Acemoglu et al.) (.02) (.02) (.02)
Protestant Missionaries per .18* .19* .18*
10,000 pop. in 1923 (.07) (.07) (.07)
Landlocked Nation -.13 -.05 -.12
(.26) (.27) (.26)
Island Nation -.19 -.25 -.27
(.26) (.27) (.26)
Latitude 2.23* 2.14* 2.21*
(.85) (.87) (.83)
Minimum Monthly Rain x 10 .01** .01** .01***
(Albouy) (.00) (.00) (.00)
Mean Temperature (Albouy) -.01 -.01 -.02
(.02) (.02) (.02)
Asia .42 .48 .53
(.33) (.34) (.33)
Africa .16 .07 .15
(.25) (.26) (.25)
Percent European (1975) .00 .00 .00
(.01) (.01) (.01)
British Colony -.19 .01 -.08
(.19) (.19) (.19)
N 59 59 59
R-squared .465 .493 .523
+ < .1, * < .05, ** < .01, *** < .001; two-tailed test.
Constant not shown in table.
 Table K: Robust Regression Predicting Voter Turnout in India in 1980
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4
Peasant land-ownership vs. 0.06** 0.07*** 0.06** 0.05**
Landlord system (0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.02)
Rainfall .000 .00002* .000 .000
(.000) (.00001) (.000) (.000)
Maximum Temperature 0.004** 0.004** 0.003* 0.004*
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Minimum Temperature -0.001 -0.000 -0.002 -0.002
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Coastal District 0.05* 0.04+ 0.05* 0.05*
(0.02) (0.02) (0.02) (0.02)
Population Density -.00008* -0.0001*** -.00009** -.00009**
(.00003) (.0000) (.00003) (.00003)
Percent Muslim 0.10+ 0.10+ 0.09 0.11*
(0.05) (0.05) (0.05) (0.05)
Percent Scheduled Caste 0.17+ 0.22* 0.17+ 0.19*
(0.09) (0.10) (0.10) (0.10)
Percent Scheduled Tribe -0.21*** -0.23*** -0.20*** -0.21***
(0.05) (0.05) (0.05) (0.05)
British Rule 0.001*** 0.001*** 0.001*** 0.001***
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
Protestant Missionaries per 0.06* 0.08** 0.06+
10,000 people in 1903 (0.03) (0.03) (0.03)
Catholic Mission Stations 0.44** 0.52** 0.28
per 10,000 people 1906 (0.17) (0.17) (0.19)
Percent Christian 0.55*
(0.27)
Constant 0.20* 0.16+ 0.23** 0.23*
(0.09) (0.09) (0.09) (0.09)
Observations 233 233 233 233
R-squared 0.375 0.368 0.367 0.387
+ < .1, * < .05, ** < .01, *** < .001; two-tailed test.