LESSON 1: Introduction to Animals animals from the

fertilized egg to birth or

Zoology: An Evolutionary and Ecological hatching.
Perspective Genetics Study of mechanisms of
transmission of traits
from parents to
Zoology offspring.
Histology Study of tissues
 Greek word “zoon” (animal) and
“logos” (to study). Molecular Study of subcellular
 A very broad science due to a variety Biology details of structure and
of animals. function.
 A branch of biology that deals with the Parasitology Study of animals that live
study of animals. (Kingdom Animalia) in or on other organisms
 It studies the characteristics of animals at the expense of the
including their structure, function, host.
behavior and role to the environment. Physiology Study of the function of
organisms and their
parts
Examples of Specializations in Systematics Study of the classification
Zoology of, and the evolutionary
Sub-discipline Description interrelationships among
Anatomy Study of the structure of animal groups.
entire organisms and
their parts.
Examples of Specializations in Zoology by
Cytology Study of the structure Taxonomic Categories
and function of cells.
Sub-discipline Description
Comparative Study of structure,
Genomics and function, and evolution Entomology Study of insects
Bioinformatics of the genetic Herpetology Study of amphibians
composition of groups of and reptiles
animals using computer-
based computational Ichthyology Study of fishes
methods. Mammalogy Study of mammals
Ecology Study of interaction of
Ornithology Study of birds
organisms with their
environment. Protozoology Study of protozoa
Studies the importance
of organisms in their
Evolutionary Processes
environment.
Biotic Factor – living  Organic Evolution is the change in the
organisms/things that genetic makeup of populations.
are being found in that  Evolution is important as all of the
ecosystem,
organisms have undergone evolution.
Abiotic Factor –
 Evolution is the product of what we
nonliving
organisms/things that call “mutational process”.
can be found in
ecosystem
Charles Darwin
Embryology Study of the
development of an  Father of Evolution
  Scientist that published convincing
evidence of evolution in 1859.
 He gave the term “survival of the
fittest” that suggests that organisms
best adjusted to their environment are
the most successful in surviving and
reproducing.
 He was on the field of Biology.
 He travel around the world to study
the characteristics of animals.
Animal Classification and Evolution
Relations
 Binomial Nomenclature
 Used for assigning scientific
names for all organisms.
 Also used in classifying plants
but was adopted for animals.
 Biological system of naming
the organisms in which the
name is composed of two
terms, where, the first term
indicates the genus and the
second term indicates the
species of the organism.
Ecology
 Study of the relationships between
organisms and their environment.
 Very broad of biology and zoology as
we have different types of
environment or ecosystem around the
world.
World Resources and Endangered Animals
 Global Population is the one of the
reasons in the exploitation of world
resources.
LESSON 2: The Scientific Method
What are the characteristics of a scientist?
 Patient
 Proper mindset/ open-minded
 Curious
How does a scientist think?
 A scientist should be curious in a way
that you have to be careful.
 As a scientist, analyzing is very
essential.
What is the purpose of an experiment?
 The purpose of an experiment is to
discover new things or knowledge.
Scientific Method unchanged throughout the
course of the investigation.
 A proper way or process on how we
deal or solve a particular problem.
 It is a general pattern followed by
scientists when conducting an
experiment.

Steps in Scientific Method

 Make an observation.
 Ask a question.
 Form a hypothesis (scientific guess), or
testable explanation.
 Test the hypothesis or conduct an
experiment.
 Analyze the results.
 Make a conclusion. LESSON 3: Laboratory Equipment
Laboratory Equipment

 Goggles
o Most important piece of lab
equipment
o Protects eyes from broken
glass, chemicals, and flames

 Beaker
o Measures liquid (but not
accurate)
o May be heated
o Used to hold or mix chemicals
Important Factors in Research/Variables in
an Experiment  Erlenmeyer Flask
o Measures liquid (but not too
 Independent Variable accurate)
o The variable that is changed in o May be heated
an experiment. o Used for mixing
o Cause of an experiment o Used in titrations

 Dependent Variable  Graduated Cylinder

o What is observed during the o Measures volume of liquids
experiment accurately
o Changes as result
o Variable that is affected by the  Test Tubes
cause/independent variable o May be heated
o Effect of an experiment o Mix chemicals
o Holding small amount of
 Control Variable (scientific constant) chemicals
o An experimental element
which is constant and
 Forceps
o Used to pick up small items
 Spatula
o Used to transfer solid item
from one container to another
 Medicine Dropper
o Used to transfer small
quantities of substance or
liquid
 Funnel
o Holds filter paper for filtering
solutions
o Transfer liquids to narrow
necked containers
 Test Tube Rack
o Hold test tube in vertical
position
o Allow for clear sight
o Drying rack
 Ring/Retort Stand
o Multi-purpose, mostly used as
a support to heat chemicals
and hold burettes
Laboratory Safety Rules
 Ring Clamp
o One side clamps to ring stand
o Place wire gauze on ring for
heating beakers and flasks
 Bunsen Burner
o Control releases of natural gas
for burning
o Surgical tubing connects to gas
source
 Watch Glass
o Used as a beaker cover
o Can be used to place small
amounts of chemicals
 Evaporating Dish
o Holds small volumes of liquid
being evaporated
 Reagent Bottle
o Can be used for storage,
mixing and display
 Mortar and Pestle
o Used for grinding
 Filter Paper
o Used to separate fine solids
from liquids or air
 Spot Plate
o Used to perform reactions on a
very small amount of materials
 Petri Dish
o Used to culture cells and
bacteria
 Burette
o Used to dispense known
amounts of liquid in
experiment for which precision
is necessary
 Electronic Balance
o Measures mass in grams
 Wear protective clothing or lab gowns.
 Gloves are essential.
 Safety glasses (goggles) may be
required to avoid splashes.
 Do not wear sandals.
 Do not wear jewelry and loose or
baggy clothing.
 Avoid touching objects (e.g., pencils,
cell phones, door handles) while
wearing gloves.
 Caution must be taken when using gas
burners. Be sure gas burners are
turned off when finished.
 Long hair must be tied back or
covered to minimize fire hazard or
contamination of experiments.
 Do not eat food or drink water in the
lab. Do not use lab glassware as food
or water containers.
  Wash hands after every lab. Handle
glassware, sharp tools and heated  Corrosive
containers carefully. o Avoid contact with the skin.
 Electrical safety. Unplug electrical Can damage your skin or can
equipment after use. Keep all electrical rust chemical cupboards.
cords and wires away from water.
 Chemical safety. Never touch, taste, or
smell a chemical unless instructed to
do so.
 Do not engage in practical jokes or
horseplay in the lab.
 Clean the laboratory with disinfectant
before you begin your work and after
you have completed your work.
 Dispose of waste products according  Oxidizing Chemical
to instructions. o Materials that are
 Report all accidents, no matter how spontaneously release oxygen
minor, to your supervisor. with slight heating, or promote
combustion.

Laboratory Safety Signs

 Poisonous
o Chemicals are dangerous if
ingested or inhaled

 Radioactive
o Used as a warning to protect
people from being exposed to
radioactivity.

 Flammable
o Chemicals are to be stored in
flame-resistant cupboard.

 Irritant
o Substances labelled with the
irritant symbol are not
corrosive, but they can cause
discomfort and reddening,
irritation, or blistering of the
skin.
 LESSON 4: The Microscope
History of Microscope

 Anton Van Leeuwenhoek

o Father of Microscopy
o Invented Leeuwenhoek
microscope
 Zacharias Janssen
 Explosion o Dutch spectacle-maker who
o Products with this pictogram
invented the compound
present severe fire and
microscope in the 1500’s
explosion hazards.  Robert Hooke
o Devices the compound
Microscope and illumination
system
o Discovered the plant cells
 Microscope
o A tool that can be used to
examine cells and other tiny
objects

Types of Microscopes
 Environment Hazard
o This symbol is attributed to  Light Microscope
substances that pose a o The term light refers to the
significant danger to the process by which light
environment. transmits the image to the eye.

 Monocular Microscope
 Binocular Microscope
o Low Power Objective – 10x
Magnification
o High Power Objective- 40x
Magnification
o Oil Immersion Objective- 100x
Magnification
 Biohazard
o This symbol is defined as
“those infectious agents  Electron Microscope
presenting a risk or potential o A microscope that can magnify
risk to the well-being of man, diminutive details with a high
either directly through his resolution and gives 2D or 3D
infection or indirectly through view.
disruption of his
environment.”
Parts and Functions of a Microscope  Stage Clips
o Clips on the stage that hold the
slide in place on the
mechanical stage
 Aperture/ Iris Diaphragm
o The aperture is the hole in the
opening of the iris.
o The iris is the movable opening
that controls how much light
enters the camera.
 Abbe Condenser
o This lens condenses the light
from the base illumination and
focuses it onto the stage.
 Coarse and Fine adjustment controls
o Adjusts the focus of the
 Eyepiece
microscope.
o The part that is looked through
 Stage height adjustment
the top of the compound
o Adjusts the position of the
microscope
mechanical stage vertically &
horizontally.
 Nosepiece
 Mirror
o Holds the objective lenses and
o Reflects light into the base of
attaches them to the
the microscope
microscope head. It rotates to
 Illumination
change which objective lens is
o Light used to illuminate the
active
slide or specimen from the base
 Monocular/Binocular head
of the microscope.
o Structural support that holds &
 Bottom lens/Field diaphragm
connects the eyepieces to the
o Knob used to adjust the
objective lenses.
amount of light that reaches
 Arm
the specimen or slide from the
o Supports the microscope head
base illumination.
and attaches it to the base
 Base
o Bottom base of the microscope LESSON 5: Levels of Organization
that houses the illumination &
 Biological Organization
supports the compound
o Is the hierarchy of complex
microscope.
biological structures and
 Objective Lenses
systems that define using a
o Lenses that directly observe the
reductionistic approach
object the microscope user is
 Atom
examining.
o Smallest unit of ordinary
 Specimen Slide
matter that forms a chemical
o Object used to hold the
element
specimen in place along with
o Smallest non-living unit to
slide covers for viewing.
build a living thing
 Stage
o The platform upon which the
specimen or slide are placed.

 Molecules
o A group of atoms bonded
together, representing the
smallest fundamental unit of a
chemical compound
 Macromolecules
o Macro means Large
o A very large molecule bonded
together
o Composed of thousands of
covalently bonded atoms
 Organelles
o Specialized structures that
perform various jobs inside
cells
o Means “Little Organs”
o Serves a specific function to
keep an organism alive
 Cells
o Building block of living things
o Level where life begins
 Tissue
o Cells that are similar in
structure and functions are
usually joined together to form
tissues
 Organs
o When bunch of different
tissues work together, they
form an organ
o Collection of tissues that
structurally form a functional
unit specialized to perform a
particular function
 Organ system
o Group of organs that work
together to perform a major
function
 Organism
o Living thing that has organized
structure, can react to stimuli,
reproduce, grow, adapt, and
maintain homeostasis
 Population
o Group of organisms of the
same species, occupying a
given area.
o These organisms are freely
interacting with one another
 Community
o Consists of population of
different species of organisms
living together in a given area
 Ecosystem
o Consists of all the community
of organisms and the sets of
interactions that exist between
biotic and abiotic components
 Biome
o Collection of ecosystems with
similar climates and covering a
large geographical area
 Biosphere
o Consists of the totality of the
ecosystems of the planet earth
o Pertains to any part of the
earth’s sphere where life exists
LESSON 6: Cell and Its Organelles
 Cell
o The simplest unit of living
matter
 Robert Hooke (1635-1703)
o English Scientist
o Father of Microscopy
o First to discover cell
 Cell Theory
o All living things are made of
cells.
o The cells are a basic structure
and function in all living
things.
o All cells come from pre-
existing cells
 Matthias Schleiden and Theodor
Schwann states that “all living things
are made up of cells”
 Rudolf Virchow states that “new cells
come from preexisting cells”
Parts and Functions of the Cell
 Cell Membrane
o Separates the cell from
the outside
environment
 Cytoplasm
o Everything within the
cell membrane
o 
 Golgi Apparatus
o “Packaging and
shipping center” of the
cell
 Ribosomes
o Made of proteins and
RNA
 Nucleus
o Presentation are tools
that can be used as
lectures
 Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum (Smooth ER)
o Involved in the
production of lipids
 Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum (Rough ER)
o Aids in the production
and storage of proteins
 Mitochondria
o Powerhouse of the cell
 Cytoskeleton
o Vast infrastructure of
microtubules and
microfilaments
 Centrosomes
o Responsible for the
production of
microtubules
 Lysosomes
o Contain digestive
enzymes for recycling
old molecules, proteins,
and structures
 Vacuole
o Membrane bound
storage
 Peroxisomes
o Contain oxidative
enzymes that aid in
digestion
 Centriole
o Responsible for cell
division
LESSON 7: TYPES OF CELLS
Cell
A structure containing a mass of
cytoplasm surrounded by semi-
permeable membrane called plasma
membrane.
 The cells are classified into two types:
Prokaryotic cell and Eukaryotic cell.
These terms were suggested by Hans
Ris(1960s).
Prokaryotic Cells
 Unicellular cell structure
 Cells without nucleus and other
membrane-bound organelles, but a
nucleoid region is still present.
 Most primitive cells and have simple
structural organization. It has a single
membrane system.
 Prokaryotes can be split into two
domains: bacteria and archaea.
 Molecules of protein, DNA and
metabolites are all found together,
floating in the cytoplasm.
 Nucleoid – a central region of the cell
that contains its DNA
Examples of Prokaryotic cells:
 Bacteria
 Viruses
 Blue-green algae
 Mycoplasmas
Eukaryotic Cells
 Multicellular cell structure
 Larger and more complex than
prokaryotes, and usually contain
organelles that are absent from
prokaryotic cells.
 This is because eukaryotes contain
membrane-bound organelles (like the
nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, and mitochondria).
Examples of Eukaryotic cells:
 Animals, plants, fungi, and protists
Differences between Prokaryotic
Eukaryotic Cell
Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell
Unicellular Multi- celled
organisms
DNA is stored in the DNA is stored within
cytoplasm the nucleus
Mitochondria absent Mitochondria present
Ribosomes smaller Ribosomes larger
LESSON 8: Cell Division and
Inheritance
Cell Division
 Parent Cell
o The cell that is dividing in the
cell division.
o This divides into two "daughter"
cells. The process then repeats in
what is called the cell cycle.
 Cells regulate their division by
communicating with each other using
chemical signals from special proteins
called cyclins. These signals act like
switches to tell cells when to start
dividing and later when to stop
dividing.
 It is important for cells to divide so you
can grow and so your cuts heal.
 It is also important for cells to stop
dividing at the right time. If a cell
cannot stop dividing, this can lead to a
disease called cancer.
Two Types of Cell Division (Mitosis &
Meiosis)
and
Mitosis
 The process of making new body cells.
 It occurs when a parent cell divides to
produce 2 daughter cells.
 It is important in tissue growth, tissue
repair, and replacement of dying
disease
 It is how somatic—or non-
reproductive cells—divide.
 Somatic cells make up most of our
body's tissues and organs, including
skin, muscles, lungs, gut, and hair cells.
2 Major Phases of Mitosis Cell Division
(Interphase & Mitosis)
Interphase
 During interphase, the cell takes in
nutrients, grows, and conducts other
normal cell functions
 First Growth Phase (G₁ Phase)
o A period of growth for the cell.
 Synthesis Phase (S Phase)
o The cell synthesizes a complete
copy of the DNA in its nucleus.
o It also duplicates a
microtubule-organizing a
structure called the
centrosome.
  Second Gap Phase (G₂ Phase)
o The cell produces the
organelles and structures
needed for cell division.
o It begins to reorganize its
contents in preparation for
mitosis. G₂ phase ends when
mitosis begins.
 Once the cell is ready to divide and make
two new identical cells, It enters the
Mitosis (M Phase)
Mitotic Phase (M phase)
 There are 2 major events that take place
in this phase which is the division of the
nucleus and cytokinesis which is the
division of the cytoplasm.

 Prophase
o The chromatin (DNA and
Proteins) that makes up the
chromosomes condenses.
 Metaphase
o Spindle fibers extend from the
poles of the cell and attach to the
centromere of chromosomes
 Anaphase
o The sister chromatids separate at
the centromere.
 Telophase
o A new nuclear envelop forms
around the chromosomes a
nucleus reforms within the
nucleus the spindle fibers break
up and disappear.
o The process that separates the
duplicated genetic material
carried in the nucleus of a parent
cell into two identical daughter
cells.
 Cytokinesis
o The physical process of cell
division, which divides the
cytoplasm of a parental cell into
two daughter cell.
Meiosis  Metaphase I
o Homologue pairs—not
 Is a type of cell division that takes place
individual chromosomes —line
in reproductive cells or sex cells.
up at the metaphase plate for
 It produces gametes that contain half the
separation.
number of chromosomes.
o When the homologous pairs line
 Diploid (2n) is the complete number of
up at the metaphase plate, the
chromosomes in a cell. 46 chromosomes
orientation of each pair is
for humans.
random
 Haploid (n) is the half number of the
chromosomes in a cell. 23 chromosomes
for each gamete in humans.

 Anaphase I
o Homologues are pulled apart
and move apart to opposite ends
of the cell. The sister chromatids
 In many ways, meiosis is a lot like of each chromosome, however,
mitosis. The cell goes through similar remain attached to one another
stages and uses similar strategies to and don't come apart.
organize and separate chromosomes. In
meiosis, however, the cell has a more
complex task.

 Telophase I and Cytokinesis

o Chromosomes arrive at opposite
poles of the cell. In some
organisms, the nuclear
membrane re-forms and the
chromosomes decondense
o Cytokinesis usually occurs at the
same time as telophase I,
Two-step Division Process of Meiosis forming two haploid daughter
(Meiosis I & Meiosis II) cells.
Meiosis I

 Prophase I
o The chromosomes pair with their
homologues in the process called
synapsis.
o The paired homologous form a
tetrad since it is composed for 4
chromatids.
Meiosis II

 The cells that enter meiosis II are the ones

made in meiosis I. These cells are
haploid—have just one chromosome
from each homologue pair—but their
 chromosomes still consist of two sister
chromatids.
 In meiosis II, the sister chromatids
separate, making haploid cells with non-
duplicated chromosomes.
 Prophase II
o Chromosomes condense and the
nuclear envelope breaks down, if
needed. The centrosomes move
apart, the spindle forms between
them, and the spindle microtubules
begin to capture chromosomes.
 Metaphase II
o Chromosomes line up individually
along the metaphase plate.
 Anaphase II
o Sister chromatids separate and are
pulled towards opposite poles of
the cell
 Telophase II
o Nuclear membranes form around
each set of chromosomes, and the
chromosomes decondense
 Cytokinesis
o Cytokinesis splits the chromosome
sets into new cells, forming the final
products of meiosis: four haploid
cells in which each chromosome has
just one chromatid. In humans, the
products of meiosis are sperm or
egg cells.
Inheritance
Gregor Mendel (1822-1884)
 Father of Genetics
 He deduced that genes come in pairs
and are inherited as distinct units, one
from each parent.
 An Austrian Monk who discovered the
Fundamental Laws of Inheritance
through a pea plant.
 His Laws of Inheritance wasn’t
understood until 1900’s. The genetic
experiments Mendel did with pea plants
took him eight years (1856-1863)
 Published his results in 1865. During
this time, Mendel grew over 28,000 pea
plants.
Why did Mendel choose Pea Plant for his
experiment?
 Pea plant easy to grow and can be sown
each year
 Contains both male and female parts,
called stamen and stigma, and usually
self-pollinate.
 Can also be cross-pollinated by hand,
can be grown in a small area, and it
produces lots of offspring
Terminologies Homozygous genotype

Genetics  means that the organism’s genome has

two identical alleles for a specific gene.
 Study of how genes and how traits are
passed down from one generation to Heterozygous genotype
the next.
 contains two different forms of a
Heredity particular gene.

 Specific mechanisms by which

characteristics or traits are passed from
one generation to the next via genes.

Trait

 As related to genetics, is a specific

characteristic of an individual. Traits
can be determined by genes,
environmental factors or by a
combination of both.
Genetic Crosses
Alleles
 Monohybrid cross
 An allele is a term coined to describe a o the parent organisms differ in a
specific copy of a gene. Ex: Dominant P single characteristic.
and Recessive p

Gene

 Considered the basic unit of

inheritance.

Phenotype

 Used to describe a visible trait or  Dihybrid cross

characteristic from the genotype. o describes a mating experiment
yellow, red between two organisms that are
identically hybrid for two traits
Genotype

 Used to describe an organism’s set of

alleles coding or combinations for each
trait. Ex: AA, Aa, aa

Dominant

 Dominates the recessive gene,

represented by an uppercase letter (A)

Recessive
 Backcross
 A gene that is less likely to be o the mating of a hybrid organism
expressed, represented by a lowercase (offspring of genetically unlike
letter (a) parents) with one of its parents or
with an organism genetically
similar to the parent.

Mendel’s 3 Laws of Heredity
 Law of Segregation (purity law of
gametes)
o This law explains that the pair of
alleles segregate from each other
during meiosis cell division (gamete
formation) so that only one allele
will be present in each gamete.
o During the formation of gametes
(eggs or sperm), the two alleles
responsible for a trait separate from
each other.
 Law of Dominance
o Recessive traits are always
dominated or masked by the
dominant trait.
o The only way the recessive trait
shows-up in the phenotype is if
the geneotype has 2 lowercase
letters.
 Mendel’s Law of Assortment
o Mendel’s law of independent
assortment states that genes do
not influence each other with
regard to the sorting of alleles into
gametes: every possible
combination of alleles for every
gene is equally likely to occur.
o This law described that alleles of
various genes that are distributed
during gamete development
assort independently of each
other.
Reproduction of Flowering Plants and How
Mendel Began
 Self-pollination occurs when the
pollen from the anther is deposited on
the stigma of the same flower, or
another flower on the same plant.
 Cross-pollination is the transfer of
pollen from the anther of one flower to
the stigma of another flower on a
different individual of the same species.
 Mendel hand-pollinated flowers using
a paintbrush, he could snip the stamens
to prevent self-pollination covered
each flower with a cloth bag, He
traced traits through the several
generations
  Mendel used pollen to fertilize
selected pea plants
The Punnett Square
 Chart that allows you to easily
determine the expected percentage of
different genotypes in the offspring of
two parents.
 It is a method originally proposed
by British geneticist Reginald C.
Punnett. Who employed it for
determining the genetic outcome of
crosses.
 F1 generation refers to the first filial
generation of the offspring from the
parents.
 F2 generation is the second filial
generation of the offspring, generated
through inbreeding of F1 individuals.
 The p generation is the original pair of
parents at the start of a genetic cross
experiment
Non-Mendellian Genetics
 Inheritance of traits that have a more
complex genetic basis than one gene
with two alleles and complete
dominance.
 Does not follow the iconic Mendel's
Laws and can be defined as any
inheritance pattern that fails to follow
one or more laws of Mendelian
genetics.
 Some traits exhibited blending where
the organisms’ offspring had two
separate traits from the parent,
meaning that certain alleles were not
dominant.
Types of Non-Mendellian Genetics
 Multiple Allele - A gene that is
controlled by more than two alleles.
Ex: gene for coat color in rabbits (the
CCC gene) which comes in four
common alleles
 Incomplete Dominance - Pattern of
heredity in which one allele is not
completely dominant over another.
Ex: the snapdragon plant. A cross
between a homozygous white-
flowered plant and a homozygous
red-flowered plant will produce
offspring with pink flowers
 Codominance - Pattern of heredity in
which both alleles are simultaneously
expressed in the heterozygote.
Ex: In some varieties of chickens, the
allele for black feathers is codominant
with the allele for white feathers. A
cross between a black chicken and a
white chicken will result in chicken
with both black and white feathers.
 Polygenic trait - Traits that are
controlled by multiple genes. As the
name indicates, there is a need for a
number of genes to work together for
the offspring to show certain traits.
 Ex: Height, weight, skin color, etc.
 Sex-linked Inheritance - referring to the
inheritance of traits that are located
on genes on the sex chromosomes.
Ex: Red-green color blindness. People
with this type of color blindness
cannot tell the difference between red
and green. They often see these colors
as shades of brown. Boys are much
more likely to be colorblind than girls.
This is because color blindness is a
sex-linked, recessive trait.
LESSON 9: Phylum Porifera
Phylum Porifera
 “Porifera” refers to the pore bearers or
pore bearing species.
 The pores are known Ostia.
 Poriferans have a spongy appearance
and are called sponges
 They have the ability to absorb and
withhold fluids
Characteristics
 Pore-bearing multicellular animals.
 The body has no organs.
 They exhibit holozoic nutrition.
 The body is Asymmetrical or
superficially radially symmetrical
 They can regenerate their lost parts.
Types of Sponges
Morphology of a Simple Sponge
 Spongocoel
o Large, central cavity of sponges
o The main function of spongocoel
is nutrition
 Porocyte
o controls the amount of water that
enters pores into the spongocoel
 Amoeboid Cell
o helps engulf and digest food
secretes a material that helps to
keep the sponge flexible
 Mesohyl
o acts as a type of endoskeleton
helps maintain the tubular shape
of sponges
 Pinacocyte
o the "skin cells" of sponges.
o They line the exterior of the
sponge body wall
o They are thin, leathery and
tightly packed together
 Ostia/Ostium
o allows water to enter the sponge
 Choanocyte
o specialized cells that have a
single flagellum surrounded by a
net-like collar of microvilli
 Food vacuole
o membrane-bound sacs within a
cell, which contain food matter
to be digested.
 Flagellum
o creates currents to filter bacteria
out of the sponge's cells and trap
food within
 Asconoid
o The simplest and least common
sponge body form
o Small and tube shaped
o Appearance: Vaselike
o Example: Olynthus
  Syconoid
o Larger versions (with more
infoldings) of asconoids
o The body wall is generally
thicker and more complex with
incurrent canals
o Appearance: fingerlike body
shape
o Example: scypha
 Class Hexactinellida
o Have siliceous hexactine (six-
pointed) spicules
o Structures often lack color
o Body type: Syconoid or Leuconoid
o Ecology: Marine
o Example: glass sponges

 Class Demospongiae
 Leuconoid
o Sponges with a skeleton made
up of silicon-containing spicules
or spongin fibers or both
o Can vary in size from small,
encrusting forms to very large,
irregular masses
o Example: Spongia (Bath
sponges)
o Ranges in size from small,
encrusting forms, through to large
irregular masses.
o Colorful
o Body type: Leuoconoid
o Ecology: Marine
o Example: Poecilosclerida

 Class Homoscleromorpha
o Tiny spicules and encrusting forms
o Body type: Leuconoid
o Ecology: Marine
Classification of Porifera
o Examples: red encrusting sponge
 Class Calcarea
o Spicules composed of calcium
carbonate
o Spicules are needle shaped or have
three or four rays
o Small in size and less colorful
o Body type: Asconiod, Leuconoid, or
Syconoid
o Ecology: Marine
o Example: Grantia