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    Chapter 7 Aluminium Structure

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    กิตติพงศ์ ศรีอาจ

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    Se 7 (SD) ALUMINUM STRUCTURES 74 SCOPE This Section covers. the design of aluminum members, splices, and connections for highway bridges, including beam and girder structures, frames, trusses, and arches. Bridges with concrete slabs supported on aluminum floor systems and with orthotropic deck ssuperstructres are included, 712 DEFINITIONS “The provisions of Article 6.2 shall apply. Plate—A flat rolled product whose thickness equals o exceeds 6.4 mun. Shest—A lt rolled product whose thickness is berween 0.15 mm and 64 im 7 NOTATION area (mm) (7.4.2.2) rominal bolt area (eam?) (7.14.28) 4; = area of compression clement (mim’), consisting of compression flange, plus one-third of the area of web between compression flange and neutral axis (mms) (7.11.2.1) single-lane average daily truck trafic (7.6.12.4) 108s area of cross-section of longitudinal stiffener (mm) area ofa cross-section lying within 25 mm ofa weld ( Shorter dimension of rectangular pene (mm) (7.11.42) longer dimension of rectangular panel (mm) (7.11 equivalent width of rectangular panel (mm) (7.11.4.2) ‘buckling formula parameters, with following subscript: (MPa, MPa, dim (7.10.1) ‘e—sompression in columns _p compression in flat plates ‘compression in round tubes ‘tb —bending in round tubes bending in rectangular bars s—shear in fat plates 5 = width of element; width of compression flange; width of rectangular plate element (mmx) (7.5.1.2) 7.113.1) (7.23.1) effective width of thin element (mm) (7.5.12) clear wiath of lip (am) (7.11.53) ‘warping constant (mm) (7.12.2.1) (7.12.4.1) fatigue resistance constants (7.6.1.2.4) distance from neutral ais to extreme fiber (em) (7.4.2.2) depth of section or beam (mm) (C7.11.2.1) compressive modulus of elasticity (MPa) (7.4.2) factored resistance in terms of stess, F, for components subject to compression only (MPa) (7.13.1) 134) Fy = factored flexural resistance in terms of stress, F,, for components subjected to flexure only (MPa) (7.13.1) (7.134) Fy factored resistance in terms of stress forthe lange proper, taken as F (MPa) (7.11.3.1) Fu factored resistance in terms of stress for webs of flexural members (MPa) (7.11.31) Fw ultimate bearing strength (MPa) (7.4.2.1) Fy bearing yield strength (MPa) (7.4.2.1) Fe clement buckling stress (MPa) (7.5.1.2) Fy = compressive yield strength (MPa) (742.1) limiting stress for cross-section 25 mm or more from weld, MPa, taken from Table 7.42.1-1 (7.42.2) a Ea AASHTO LRFD Bripce: Dusion Srvcieicattons (SD) limiting stress on eross-seetion, part of whose area lies within 25 mm ofa weld (MPa) (7.4.2.2) factored resistance (75.3) factored resistance in tems of compressive bending stress in beam flange (MPa) (7.11.3.2.1) factored resistance in terms of stress for members subjected only to torsion or shear (MPa) (7.13.2) ultimate shear strength (MPa) (7.42.1) shear yield strength (MPa) (7.4.2.1) ultimate tensile strength (MPa) (7.4.2.1) tensile yield strength (MPa) (7.42.1) (7.4.2.2) limiting sess on cross-section if entire area were to lie within 25 mm of a weld (MPa) (7.42.2) caevlated stress (MPa) (7115.1) factored average compressive stress on cross-section of member produced by axiel compressive load (MPa) (7.5.12) (7.13.1) (7.13.2) factored maximum compressive bending stress caused by transverse loads or end moments (MPa) 7.13.) 0.134) factored shear stress caused by citer torsion or transverse shear (MPa) (7.13.2) factored end stresses (MPa) (7.13.1) shear modulus of elasticity (MPa) grip of rivet or bole (mum) (7.12.2.1) (7.14.1) spacing of rivet or bolt holes perpendicular to direction of load; gage between fasteners (mmm) (7.9.4) (7.14242) (7.14243) depth of shear web (mm) (7.11.31) (7-11.54) (7124.1) required moment of inertia of bearing stiffener (eum (7.11.54) ‘moment of inertia of longitudinal stiffener (mm) (7.11.5.1) polar moment of inertia referred tothe shear center (mmm) (7.12.2.1) ‘moment of inertia of transverse stiffener (mum) (7.11.5.2) ‘moment of inertia of a beam about axis parallel to web (mmm) (C7.11.2.1) ‘moment of inertia of compression element about axis parallel to vertical web (mon) (7.11.2.1) ‘moment of inertia of the upper and lower flange, respectively, about the y-axis taken as the axis of symmetry (mm) (7.12.4.1) torsional constant (mm) (C7.11.2.1) effective lng factor (7.10.2) slendemess ratio for columns (7.8.2) lateral nicking enefficient (C7.11 2.1) coefficient for compression members (7.10.1) coefficient for tension members (7.10.1) coeficient for determining slendemess limit Ss of seetions for which the limit state compressive stress is based on crippling strength (7.10.1) coefficient for determining limit state compressive siress in sections with slendemess ratio above Sp for ‘which the limit state compressive stress is based on erippling strength (7.10.1) length of compression member betwoen points of Isteral support, or twice the length of a cantilever column, except where analysis shows thet a shorter length should be used, length of plates (mm); ‘unsupported plate Length (mm) (782) (78.5.2) length of beam between points at which the compression flange is supported against lateral movement, (or length of cantilever beam from free end to point at which the compression flange is supported against {ateral movement (mm) (C7.11.2.1) length of tube between circumferential siffeners (mm) (7.13.3) ‘bending moments at two ends ofe beam (N-men) (C7.11.2.1) length of bearing at reaction or concentrated load (mtn; (365) (75) n (ADTM)g (7.5.1.3) (76.1.2) cycles per truck passage; 1.0 for curved walls or round tubular members, or 2.0 for webs of rectilinear shapes and plates of bultup beams (7.6.12.4) (7.13.2) factored reection foree (N}(7.11.5.4) action or concentrated load per web (N) (7.5.1.3) piteh of fasteners (mm) (7.14.24) transition radius, the radius of an attachment of the weld detail (mm); outside radius of round tubular column or maximum outside radius of oval tubular column (mux) (76.1.23) (7.13.3) rmidthickness radius of curvature of curved plates end tubular beam clerments (ram) (7.11.2.2) bbend radius at juncture of ange and web areas tothe inside surface of bend (mm) (7.5.1.3) radius of gyration of ip or bulb about face of flange from which lip projec (mm) (7.11.5.3) SecTton 7 (SI): ALUMINUM STRUCTURES 13 ‘of & beam, about axis parallel fo web, for beams that are unsymmetrical about the f= radius of gyrat horizontal axis, should be calculated es though both flanges were the same as the compression flange (om) 7112.1) S. = seetion modus ofa beam, compression side (am (C7.11.2.1) S; = slenderness limits (7.10.2 (7.10.3) SR = stress rato, the ratio of minimum sess to maximum sitess(7.6.1.23) 5 = spacing of transverse stifeners, clear distance between stifeners for stiffeners consisting of a pur of members, one on each side of the web, conter-t-center distance between stflners consisting of a ember on one side ofthe web only (mm) (7115.1) 1 = thickness of flange, plete, wed or tube (mmm). For tapered flanges, tis the average thickness (mm) 513) V = shear force on web at stiffiner location (N) (7.11.52) « factor equal to 1.0 fora stiffener consisting of equal members on both sides of the web and equal to 3.5 for a stiffener consisting of 2 member on onesie only (7.11.51) B= spring constant, transverse force in N applied to a 25-mm length of the member at the compression flange to cause a 25-mm deflection ofthe flange (7.11.2.1) stress range due to the passage of the fatigue truck (MPa) (7.6.1.2.2) ‘nominal fatigue resistance (MPa) (7.6.1.2.2) constant amplitude fatigue threshold (MPa) (7.6.1.2.4) resistance factor (75.3) (7.54) slenderness parameter (7.10.2) 7.4 MATERIALS. AA General ‘These Specifications shall apply to aluminum alloys ad tempers listed herein, Otter aluminum alloys and tempers may be used, however, their engineering properties, including sucugts, yield steogih and workability shall be established by tests in accordance with ASTM Standards B 557M and E9, 742 Aluminum Sheet, Plate, and Shapes ‘The compressive modulus of elasticity, B, shall be taken as 69 600 MPa for Alloys 6061-T6, 6061-1651 ‘and 6063-16, For all other alloys specified in Table 7.4.2.1-1, E shall be taken as 71 700 MPa, ‘The coefficient of linear expansion shall be taken as 0.000023 mm/mmC. 742.1 Extrusions and Mechanically Fastened Builtup Members Except as permitted herein, the properties of luminum sheet, plate, and shapes shall be taken as specified in Table I. Fy, and Fy for nonvwelded material shall be the minimum specified values; otherwise, strength properties for nonwelded material shall be the corresponding expected minimum values, angle < 90° between plane of web and plane of bearing surface (7.5.1.3) CTAL ‘Most alloys of interest in highway construction will have properties and workability available in The Aluminum Association's Specifications for Aluminum Structures. e142 ‘The curent specification allows the use of any corrosion-resistant alloys an! tempers with established ‘minimum mechanical properties and refers to the Specifications for Aluminum Strucrures 9s a source for this information. Alloy 6063 is commonly used in the 'T6 temper, is highly corrosion resistant and easily welded, and is listed in the Specifications for Aluminum Structures C1424 F. and Fy sre measured for each lot of material made at the plants of the various aluminum producers, This large database is used to determine statistically: based “minimum propertics.” “Expected minimum values” for the other properties are estimated from an analysis of a much smaller database, utilizing the variability obtsined from the tensile test date nA [Exceptions areas follows: © Values for other alloys and tempers, and Alloys $456-H116 and 5083-1321" in thicknesses other than those listed in Table 1, may be taken from tho latest edition of Specification for Alunsinum Structures, Plate values listed for Alloy 6061-T6 shall also apply to sheet. Sheet and plat in the thickness range 0.50 to 12 mm shall have a minimam elongation of ten percent; other thickness ranges have the same strength values, but a Tower minimum elongation Values listed for shapes of Alloys 6061-1651 ‘and 6061-T6 shall be taken to apply to ASTM B 308M Standard Structural Shapes and ASTM B 429 Extruded Structural Pipe and Tube. AASHTO LRFD Bunce Desicy SPaciFiCATIONs (SD) ‘The values in Table 1 are substituted in the appropriate criteria in Articles 7.9 through 7.13 to develop component resistance. For welded construction, the additional provisions of Article 7.4.2.2 also apply. Minimum clongation of Alloy 6061-T6 is dependent on sheet thickness, with the value decreasing for both thinner and thicker sheet. Values for other thickness sheet can be found in the Aluminum Association's dduminum Standards and Data. ‘Table 742.11 Minimum Nonvelded Material Properties for Aluminum Sheets, Plates and Shapes. ASTM Designation B20 [| B20M | Ba0OMmaneaIM [B20 | B2IM a 3086. | 08S joy Number $86 | sase-ani6 | 6061-7651 and oo61-n6 | sosa-us2i | 8 ‘Sheetand ‘Sheatand | Sheerand Product Plate | Sheetand | shapes | Sheet neetand | Shapes "Tikes (rm Sio8)_| $1032 | Al] 03510 100 | $t038 | AT Tensile Strength (MPa) | F, 275 315 260 290 305 205, Tensile Yield Stength | Fy | 195 230 240 240 215 70 (MPa) Compresave Yield] Fy] 180 1 Ta wa Ta 170 Strength (MPa) | ‘Shear Strength (MPa) Fy 165, 185, 165 185, 180, 130, Shear Yield Suength [Fy] 110 730 40 140 125 95 (Pa) Beating Seengih (MPa) | 7, | S80 600 350 aa 3 BS Bearing Yield Suength | Fy, | 330 385 385 400 365 2s LOvPa) 74.22 Welded Builtup Members {If Tess than 15 pervent of the area of @ given eross- section lies within 25 mm of a weld, regardless of ‘material thickness, the effect of welding may be neglected, and the limiting stresses for use in Articles 7.9 through 7.13 shall be taken as specified in Table 7.42.1+1 If the ares of a cross-section lying within 25 mm of weld, 4y, is not less than 15 percent of the net erea, 4, the limiting stress for use in Articles 7.9 through 7.13, shall be taken as: Fhe -F) 7422-1) Secrion 7 (SI): AuowNuw SruucruREs 1s where: Ae effective nominal limiting stress on cross- section, part of whose area lies within 25 mm of a weld (MPa) limiting stress for cross-section 25 mm or mote from weld specified in Table 7.4.2.1-1 (MPs) limiting stress on cross-section if entire area ‘were to lie within 25 um of a weld, specified in Table I (MPa) area of a cross-seeton lying within 25 mm of a weld (mm?) rot area of cross-section of a tension member fr tension flange of a beam, of gross azea of cross-section of a compression member or ‘compression flange of a beam; in calculating the net area, 4, a beam flange shall be considered to consist of that portion of the ‘member further than 2o'3 from the neutral axis (mum?) distance from noutral axis to the extreme fiber (mm) ‘The following exceptions may be permitted: All of the exceptions to Table 7.4.2.1-1 given I Anicle 742.1 apply w Table Plate values of Fy. Foy and Fy listed for Alloys 6061-1651 and 6061-T6 shall be taken to apply to material of any thickness winea welded with 5183, 5356, or $556 filler wire; they also apply to material where thickness does not exceed 10mm. when welded with 4043, $154, or $554 filler alloys. The strength values for material thicker than 10 mm that is welded with the latter filler alloys shall be taken as 100 MPa for tensile and compressive yield strength and 62 MPa for shear yield strength. Fy and Fe for welded material shall comespond tothe 02 percent offiet value in a 250mm gnge length across a butt wed 16 AASHTO LRFD Baubce Drsicn Sruciications ($1) ‘Table 7.42.21 Minimum Material Properties Near Wels for Alumaum Sheets, Plates, and Shapes. ae Dom [bao | BR Gao | pe > te, ae cen | sssmne | S10 [onan | wos Sata gem ae vse] Sand | Sst | Sean | Saal sea SS — en oe eee ee aa tee} sti} et} ‘Strength Shear Seng Fa uiPay | 1a 170 105 is Fe ‘Shear Yield Strength Fy (MPa) 45 105, 85. 95 45 Bearing Strength Fi, (MPa) 485 580. 345, 550, 235. oe ares in ee Dee cate eee oe eae oo oo ee available with strengths that exceed those of aluminum ‘© Power driven aluminum rivets that are made of rivets. These blind fasteners are especially useful ASTM B3I6M, Alloy 6061-6 Material and because they can be installed without access to both that conform ' to the roquirements of sides of the work. They have been widely used on MIL-R-1150F; or structures. subject to fatigue and vibration, such as sireraf and transportation vehicles, ‘© Coated AASHTO M 164 M (ASTM A 325M) high-strength steel bolts or ASTM F 593, Alloy Groups 1, 2, or3 stainless stel bolts; or ‘© Aluminum, stainless steel, or coated steel lockbolts conforming to the requirements of MIL-P-23469; oF ‘© Coated steel blind fasteners. Steagth of Alloy 6061-T6 rivets shall be as specified in Table 1 ‘Table 74.441 Strength of Aluminum Rivets, Tensile] Tensile Wield Alloy and | Strength | Strength Strength ‘Temper_| (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) Sos1-Te | _ 290 240 175 SecTion 7 (SI): ALUMINUM STRUCTURES, 1 TAS Weld Metal Weld metal shall conform to the requirements of ANSVAWS D1.2, current issue For welded sheet and plate material for Alloy 5456-HI16 and Alloy 5083-4321, minimum ‘material properties shall be taken ftom Table 7.4.2.2-1 Fu Shall be taken ag the ASME weld qualification test value; other properties shall correspond. 746 Aluminum Castings Permanent aluminum mold castings shall conform to the requirements of ASTM B 108, Alloy A444.0-T4, ‘The tensile strength of Alloy Ad44.0-T4 shall be 138 MPa, 747 Aluminum Forgings Atuminam forgings and forging stock shal conform to the requirements of ASTM B 247M, Alloy 6061-T6 Tensile and yield srengihs, and clongations for this alloy shall be taken as specified in Table 1. ‘Compressive yield strength, shear strength, shear veld strength, and bering yield strength values shall be tsken as specfiod in Teblo 7.4.2.1-1 ‘The provisions of Aricle 7A shall apply for welded values ‘Table 74.71 Miniroum Material Properties of Aluminum Alloy 6061-T6, Forgings, Specimen Axis Parallel to Grain Flow. Tlongatioa in 30 mmm Tensile | Tensile Yield or4 x diameter, % Strength | Strength ‘Separate Test Specified Thickness | _ (MPa) (ray Coupon To 100 mim, 260 240 10 inclusive 18 LIMIT STATES 718A Service Limit State 75.141 Appearance of Buckling 1 applications where any appearance of buckling ‘cannot be tolerated, the stresses for thin sections shall not exceed the values specified in Table I 18 AASHTO LRED Brroce Dusicy SeeciFicATioNs (SI) ‘Table 75.1.4 Element Buckling Stresses. Article Buckling Stress, Fy 7.10.4— Compressive Resistance of Components of Columns, Gross Section—Flat Plates with Both Edges Supported 7.11.3.3—Compression in Components of Beams with Component under Uniform Compression, Gross Section, Flat Plates with Both Edges Supported 7.11.3.6—Webs of Beams, Gross Section—Flat Plates with Both Badges Supparted 7.113.7—Webs of Beams with Longitudinal Sifener, Both Pages Supparted 7.11.32 Compression in Components of Beams with Component Under Uniform Compression, Gross Section—Outstanding Flanges 7-11.3.5—Compression in Components of Beams with Componeat Under Bending in Own Plane, Gross Section, Flat Plates with Compression Edge Free, Tension Edge Supported 78.1.2 Effective Width For Calculation of, Deflection of Thin Gage Seetions cTs.12 ‘The effective width, 5, of a thin element subjected \o wirect compression saresbes may be wake as If f, $#F, then 8, =b (S121) & If f,> OF, then 5, = 2.635 (75.122) where: effective width of flat plate element to be used in deflection caloulations (ma) b= clear width of clement (ram) Fo, = buckling stress for element as specified in Ariiele 7.5.1.1 (MPa) compressive stress (MPa) Eq, 2 may be used to calculate the effective width ton the compression side of a web in flexure, in which case the compressive flexural stress due to the applied Toaus,f, replaces f Where deflection at the service limit state is critical, le elective wid: expt aay be used w Jeti a effective section to be used in deflection calculations SECTION 7 (SI): ALUaNUM SravCTURES 3 784.3 Web Crippling ‘The compressive web resistence at points of interior reactions and concentrated Toads for flat webs shall be taken as: 42 (v+137)sino(o92F, +004 /EF) 2102+ F(t cass) (5.131) ‘The compressive web resistance at points of end reactions shall be taken as: 069 +39)sino(09aK, +008JEF, ) oases] (7.5.1.3-2) E = compressive modulus of elasticity (MPa) Fy ~ specified compressive yield strength of sheet (MPa) AV = length of bearing at reaction or concentiated load (mm) P, = reaction or concentrated load (N) r= bend radius at juncture of flange and web ‘measured to the inside surface of bend (mm); taken to be equal to zero for filleted web-flange junctures 1 = web thickness (mm) = resistance factor as specified in Table 7.5.41 8 = angle between plane of web and plane of bearing surface () 78.14 Live Load Deflection The provisions of Article 2.5.2.6 should be considered, 7.52 Fatigue and Fracture Limit State Components and detsils shall be investigated for fatigue as specified in Article 7.6. The fatigue toad combination specified in Table3.4.1-1 and the fatigue live load specified in Aaticle 3.6.1.4 shall apply. 710 75. Strength Li State Merabers and connections shall be designed for all applicable strength toad combinations specified in Table 3.4.1-1 ‘The factored resistance, F, of members, given in terms of stress, shall be token as! n=O, 53-1) § = resistance factor as applicable to yield or ultimate stress, specified in Table 7.5.4-1 F, = nominal yield, ultimate stress, or buckling, stress specified in Articles 7.9, 7.10, 7.11, 7.12, 7.13, and 7.14 as appropriate (MPa) 75.4 Resistance Factors Resistance fuctors shall be taken as specified in ‘Table | SecTHON 7 (SI): ALUMINUM STRUCTURES, m1 ‘Table 754-1 Resistance Factors. Fors Effect ‘Web Crippling — | — [oso] — — “Tensile Resistance 5007s, — [— | — ‘Column Capacity for A<15, §0.94-0.19A50.90 0.90, — for 3215, .°0.52+0.09220.90 ‘Compression in Components of Columas— Outstanding Flanges and Leys _[ — | — [80/090] — ‘Compression in Components of Columns, Gross Section—Flat Plates with | — | — | 0.80) 090{ — Both Edges Supported ‘Compression in Componcats of Columns, Gross Section—Cunved Plates | — | — [075/080 — Supported on Both Edges, Walls of Round or Oval Tubes Tension in Extreme Fibers of Beams ] Structural Shapes Bent about 050/08] — | =] — Strong Axis ‘Rectangular Tubes 050 [685 | — | “Tension in Extreme Fibers of Beams—Round or Oval Tubes—Bols os [0751 — | — | — “Tension in Extreme Fibers of Beams —Shapes Bent about Weak Axis, | 085 0.75) — | — | — Rectangular Bars, Plates ‘Compression in Beams, Extreme Fiber, Gross Section—Single-Web = [= [= } 0901 380 ‘Beams Bent sbout Steong Axis ‘Compression in Beams, Extreme Fiber, Gross Section—Round or Oval] — | — | — | 085 | 0.75 “Tubes Compression in Beats, Extreme Fiber, Gross Section Solid Reetangular | — | — | — | 085 | O85 ‘Beams ‘Compression in Beams, Extreme Fiber, Gross Secton—Restangular Tubes | — | — | — [090] 080 and Box Sections “Compression in Components of Beams (Component under Uniform = [= fox [030 f — Compression), Gross Section—Outstanding Flanges ‘Compression in Components of Beams (Component under Uniform = [= [080 050; — Compression), Gross Section th Both Edges Supported at ee zt ‘Compression in Componcats of Beams—Curved Sections =~ | os tous | — ‘Compression in Components of Beams (Component under Bendingin | — | — ) 0.80] 0.85 — (Own Plane), Gross Section—Flat Plates with Compression Edge Free, ‘Tension Edge Supported ‘Compression in Components of Beams (Component Under Bendingin | — | — | 080/085] — ‘Owa Plane), Gross Section—Flat Plates with Both Edges Supported ‘Compression in Components of Beams (Component Under Bendingin | — | — | 080) 085| — (Own Plane), Gross Section—Flat Plates with Horizontal Siffener, Both Edges Supported Shear—Unstiffened Fat Webs = = Shear—Stffened Fat Webs = = ‘Shear— Transverse Stiffeners Bearing Stffeners 7.6 FATIGUE AND FRACTURE, CONSIDERATIONS 7.61 Fatigue 76.11 General C7641 Fatigue shall be categorized as load-induced fatigue cor as distortion-induced fatigue. Toad-induced fatigue. In the 1996 AASHTO Standard Specifications, the provisions explicitly relating to fatigue dealt only with m2 76.1.2 Load-Indueed Fatigue 7.6.1.2.1 Application ‘The foree effect considered for the fatigue design of ‘an aluminum bridge detail shall be the live load stress ‘Residual stresses shall not be included in the stress range. ‘These provisions shall only be applied to details subject to a net applied tensile stress. In regions where the permanent loads produce compression, fatigue shall ‘be considered only if this compressive stress is less than twice the maximum tensile live load stress resulting from the fatigue load combination as specified in Table 3.4.1-1 7.6.1.2.2 Design Criteria For load-induced fatigue considerations, eech detail shall satisfy: 1(AP)S(4P),, (76.1.2.2-1) where: y= Toad factor specified in Teble 3.4.1-1 for the fatigue load combination Af =the force effect, stress range due to the passage of the fatigue loed as specified in Article 3.6.1.4 (MPa) (APy = the nominal fatigue resistance as specified in Article 7.6.1.2.4 (MPa) 7.6.1.23 Detail Categories ‘Components and details with fatigue resistance less than or equal to Detail Category C shall be designed to satisfy the requirements of their respective detail categories, as summarized in Table 1 and shown in Figure 1. For aluminum orthotropic decks, the details in Figure 6 6.12.3-1 should also be considered. AASHTO LRED Brupor Deston SPEctnCATIONS ($1) C76.1.2.1 Commentary of Article 6.6.1.1 is also applicable ‘to aluminum bridges. 761.22 Rewriting Eq, 1 in terms of fatigue load and resistance parameters yields: 7(4f) snd(aF),, (C76.1.22-1) but for the fatigue limit state, a = 10, $= 10 ‘SECTION 7 (SI): ALUMINUM STRUCTURES ‘Table 7.6.12341 Detal Categories for Fatigue Construction Detail Detail Category Tlasirative Plain Members Base metal with rolled or cleaned surfaces Example Numbers 12 Builtup Members ‘Base metal and weld metal in ‘components, without attachments, connected by: © Continuous full penetration groove welds, or * Continuous partial- ‘penetration groove welds parallel to the direotion of applied stress, or ++ Continuous fillet welds perallel to the direction of applied stress ‘Bage metal at ends of partal-length cover plates with or without end welds 345 Mechanically Fastened Connections ‘Base metal at net seotion of joints: © That do not include out- ‘ofiplane bending in the ‘connected material, where: © sress rau <0.0 © 00S stress ratio < 0.5 © stress ratio > 0.5 # That include out-of-plane ‘bending inthe eonnected material mayo Filler Welded Connections with Welds Normal to the Direction of Stress Filler Welded Connections with Welds Normal or Parallel tothe Direction of Stress Base metal: 4 Atthe toe of transverse stiffener-to-flange of ‘transverse stiffener-to-web ‘connections 4 Atthe junction of axially loaded members with fille-welded end connections with the ‘welds positioned about the members axis to balance weld stresses ‘hear sess onthe weld throat 15,17 3,15, 18 743 74 AASHTO LRED Bripce:Desion Sepcirications ($1) Detail tustrative Consimuetion Detail Category Example Numbers, “Groove- Welded ‘Base metal and weld metal at ful- Splice Connections | penetration groove-welded splices: with: © Ofplates of similar eross- B 9 = Wold soctions with welds soundness ground flush established © With transitions in widta B 112 by NDT or thickness with welds = Allrequired ground to provide slopes ssrinding in no steeper than 1.0 to 2.5, the direction | © With or without © 9,10, 11, 12 of the transitions having slopes spplied no greater than 1.0 t0 2.5, stresses when weld reinforcement isnot removed. ‘Aifachments Base metal at dotails anachod by a full-penetration groove welds loaded transversely ot longitudinally with a transition radius with the end welds ground smooth, regerfess of detail | dimensions: ‘© Transition divs > 600 mm, B 600 mm> transition c radius > 150 mm © 150mm > transition D radivs 2 $0 mm Base metal at details attached by 16 partil-penetration groove welds or filet welds loaded longitudinally ‘with a transition radius withthe end welds ground smooth, ‘regardless of detail dimensions: © Transition radius 2 600 mm, B #600 mm > transition c radius 2 150 mm ¢150mm> transition D radius 2 50 mm a detail dimension | Base metal at details attached by inthe direction of | foll- or patial-penctation groove applied stress ‘welds or fillet welds loaded longitudinally with a transition radius, if any, less than $0 mm: b= detail dimension © a<50mm © 19 normal to the © 50mm 12 or 100mm E 14, 19,20 62.44 mestraoe BAIS igure 216 — i 8 Groove or fillet weld ~ R250.mm 6 Figure 76.12.31 (continued, 7.6.1.2.4 Fatigue Resistance ‘Nominal fatigue resistance shal be taken as = sof)" 21, ar),-69¢ BP ew (76.1241) in which: W =(365)(75)n(4DIT) (7.6.1.2.4-2) where: ‘constant specified in Table 1 umber of stress range cycles per truck passage taken from Table 2 ADTT as single tane specified in Article 3.6.14 AASHTO LRED Brince: DEsion SrecuricarioNs ($1) ~ ~ ” 8 a — : rey @ ~ 20 76.124 ‘The requirement on higher traffic volume bridges that the maximum stress range experienced by a detail be less than the constant amplitude fatigue threshold provides a theoretically infinite fatigue life. The ‘maximum stress range is assumed fo be twice the live load stress range due to the passage of the fatigue load, factored in accordance with the load factor in ‘Table 3.4.1-1 forthe fatigue load combination In the 1996 AASHTO Standard Specifications, the constant amplitade fatigue threshold was termed the allowable fatigue stress range for more then 2 million cycles on @ redundant load path structure ‘The design life has been considered to be 75 years in the overall development of the Specifications. If a ‘design life other than 75 years is sought, a numer other than 75 may be inserted in the equation for N. Secrion 7 (SI): ALUmNUM SraucTURES (Fm = constant-amplitude fatigue threshold specified in Table 3 (MPa) Table 7.6.1.24-1 Detall Category Constants, Detail G Catego it _| _c A 100.000_| 0.155 B 200211 c 36 0.237 D 34] 0.209 E 12 [0.284 EF 045 [0.292 ‘Table 7.6.12.4-2 Load Cyeles, m, per Truck Passage. aT Table 7.6.1.24-3 Constant Amplitude Fatigue Thresholds, Detail Category | Threshold (MPa) A 65 B © c 30 D 20 E 15 F 10 76.13 Distortion-Indueed Fatigue ‘Load paths sufficient to transmit all intended and ‘unintended forees shall be provided by connecting ‘wansverse members, cither primary or secondary ‘members, to all the components that comprise. the longitudinal cross-section ofthe member. The loed paths shall be provided by attaching the various components through either welding or bolting, Longitudinal Span Lengit Members 312,000mm_| <12 000mm Simple Span 10 20) Girders ‘Continuous Ginders 1) near interior support 1S 20 2) elsewhere 10. 2.0 Cantilever o Ginders Trusses. To Spacing Transverse 6000 ram | <6000. Members 10. 20) ct. 3 Distortion-induced stresses ae difficult to quantify ‘by routine calculations. The best approach, therefore, is te preclude the development of such’ stresses by appropriate detailing. 8 AASHTO LRFD Bucs Desicy SrEcHICATIONS (ST) 7.1.3.1 Transverse Comection Plates The provisions of Article 6.6.1.3.1 shal apply 76.1.3.2 Lateral Comection Plates ‘The provisions of Article 6.6.1.3.2 shal apply 762 Fracture Mandatory toughness requirements specified herein shall apply oaly to facture-eitcal members Fracture-critical members shall be identified in the ‘contract documents. Fracture-ritcal members may be evaluated by R curve analysis complying with ASTM E 361 or evidence of material ductility inferred from reduction of area uring tensile tests, 27 nesIc) consinrr ations 77 Dead Load Camber Provisions of Article 6.7.2 apply. 7.7 Welding Requirements The welding requirements for FCMs shall be as specified in ANSVAWS DI.2-97, Sections 2, 3, and 5. Permanent backing fbr groove welds shall be of aluminum of the same alloy as the base metal Temporary backing for groove welds may be of austenitic. stainless stecl, glass tape, ceramic, or snodized aluminum of the same alloy. Copper shall not be used as temporary backing, The contract documents shall Intermittent fillet welding isnot permitted, specify that 7.7.3 Welding Procedures ‘The welding procedures shall be as specified in Structural Welding Code—Aluminum, ANSVAWS D12, Section 4. 7.62 Main load-cenying components fabricated withthe aluminum alloys described in these Specifications have succesfl fold experience in bridge stactres. These alloys are inheremly so tough that current testing procedures specified for metals cannot adequately Characterize the fracture toughness of the materi ‘Toughness is generally sstistactry, provided fatigue design puielines are followed “There are no simple standards for screening the alloys of interest for facture toughnes. ‘No reasonable Chay ‘V-notch impact facture ‘toughness correlation exists for aluminum alloys. Most aluminum slloys shove no rection in toughness with low tempecatres and impact Toads: in fist, they generally show inereased resistance Material toughness may be deserbed by the means ‘of Rcurve analysis In many instances, the R curves for Stricturl alloys show no platea but instead increasing resistance with erack extension (Rastear and Groh 198), cn72 Copper used 9s temporary backing introduces dangers of weld contamination and corrosion problems, ‘SecTioN 7 (SI): ALUMINUM STRUCTURES TTA Nondestructive Testing, ‘The nondestructive testing for FCMs shall be as specified in Structural Welding Code—Aluminum, ANSVAWS D1.2, Section 5.7. 7.1.8 Uplift and Slip of Deck Slabs If noacomposite design is used, the slab should be ‘connected to the supporting members to resist uplift and slip. The connection devices should be designed on the bass of full composite action, even if composite action is neglected in the design of the components supporting the deck 7.1.6 Composite Sections ‘The following criteria apply to the design of ‘luminum beams composite with a concrete deck ‘+The clastic design should be used based on the transformed section method. ‘©The shear connectors shall be of the same alloy and temper as the beam. Adequate strength and fatigue characteristics of shear connections stall be demonstrated by physical testing under representative conditions, ‘© Thermal stresses between the aluminum beams and the concrete should be considered in accordance with the temperature ranges and ‘gradients specified in Articles 3.12.2 and 3.123, respectively. ‘+ Reduction of allowable stresses due to welding shall be considered in accordance with the provisions of Article 7.4.2.2 ‘© All aluminurn in contact with or embedded in concrete shall be coated with a chromate conversion coating. ‘© Stee! reinforcing bars for the concrete deck shall be epoxy coated. For additional potection, the shear connectors may be painted. ‘© The contract documents shall specify that ‘concrete mixed with chlorides shall be avoided. 1.8 GENERAL DIMENSION AND DETAIL REQUIREMENTS, ‘748.1 Effective Length of Span ‘The provisions of Article 6.71 shall apply. 79 176 Composite action has been used in several aluminum bridges. The basic design principles used arc the same as those used for steel bridges. Shear connectors are usually extruded angles or Z-shapes with thickened sections at points of maximum shear fore. Where possible, welds should be located at points of least moment and be spliced for full strength. ‘The purpose ofthese coatings is to prevent galvanic action between dissimilar materials, ‘The chlorides in concrete will promote galvanic comesion between steel reinforcement bare and aluminum shear connectors, 120 782 Slenderness Ratios for Tension and ‘Compression Members Compression components shall satisfy the tenderness requirements specified herein. ‘© For main components or those in which more than 50 peroent of the stress results ftom dead and live load: ZL <0 For bracing components & <0 For the purpose of this Article only, the radius of gyration may be computed on 2 notional section that ‘neglects part ofthe area of a component, proved that ‘© The capacity of the component based on the actual area and radius of gyration excoeds the factored loads, and ‘+ The capacity of the notional component based ‘on a reduced area and corresponding radius of gytation also exceeds the factored loads Where a component contains perforated cover plates, the radius of gyration and the effective area for camying stress shall be determined for transverse section taken at the maximam width of perforation. Where perforations are staggered in opposite cover plates, the cross-sectional area of the memier shall be considered the samo as fora section having perforations inthe same transverse plane, The unbraced length, shall be taken as follows: ‘© For the top chords of hatf-through trusses, the Tength between laterally supported panel point, ‘+ For other main components, the length between ppanel point intersections or centers of end connections, and ‘+ For secondary components, the Fength between the centers of the end connections of such components or centers of braced points ‘Tension components, except rods, eyebats, cables, and plates, shall satisfy the slendemess ratios specified herein, AASHTO LRED BRIDGE DBSIGN SPECIFICATIONS (SI) SecTION 7 (SI): ALUMINUM STRUCTURES ‘+ Formain components subjected to a reversal of sxess: £ < 120 + Ferrin omens 180 + Forbracing components: = < 200 ‘The possibility of wind-induced vibrations should be considered for components designed for stenderess limits higher than 120, 783 Minimum Thickness of Aluminum ‘The thickness of aluminum plate or components stall not be Tess than 5.0mm, unless a smaller thickness can be justified through a bridge-specific evaluation of fabrication, shipping, and erection procedures. 784 Diaphragms and Cros Reames ‘The following Articles of Section 6 shall apply: + Anicle 67.42 Suit -Boams + Article 67.4.3—Stsight Box Beams + Asicle 67.44 —Trusses and Arches Extruded beam and plate gitder spans shall be provided with cross-frames of diaphragms at each support and with intermediate crose-ffames of diaphragms in all ‘boys and spaced as required for stability and control of wind stresses in flanges of main members, Diaphragms for extruded beams shall be at least one-third the beam depth. Diaphragms for plate gers shall be as deep as practicable End cross-frames or diaphragms shall be proportioned to transmit Isteral forces to the bearings. Where the supports are skewed more than 20°, the intermediate eross-ftames shall be placed normal 19 the ‘main components, Vertical connection plates, such as transverse stiffeners that connect diaphragms or eross-frames tothe bbeam or girder shall be rigidly connected to both top and ‘bottom flanges. ran C783 ‘The limiting thickness of aluminum depends primarily on the resistanco to damage during handling and fabrication, not on the need for corrosion allowance. For large, major components 5.0 mm is @ reasonable ‘minimum thickness. ‘Aluminum bridges erected in the 1960s and in use today employed. thicknessos as small as 3.0mm Standard extruded aluminum [-beems and channels have ‘webs as thin as 3.0mm Article 9.83.7.2 allows closed ribs in stee! orthotropic decks to be as thin as 5.0 mm, and steal is subject to corrosion. Given this information, ‘25.0 mm minimum thickness is deemed appropriate and ‘conservative for aluminurn components 7k Although this specification permits digphragms as shallow as one-third of the depth of extruded beams, half-depth diaphragms are preferred where they are practical For plate gitder bridges, ctoss-type or V-type intermediate cross-frames are preferred. mm AASHTO LRED Broce Dzstey SpectricaTioNs (SD) 785 Lateral Bracing 785.1 General ‘The following provisions of Section 6 shall apply: © Asticle 67.5.1—General ‘© Article 6.7.5.2—Straight Section + Atticle 6.7.5.3—Straight Box sections © Article 6.7.5.4-Trusses 785.2 Through-Spans Where beams comprise the main components of through-spens, such components shall be stiffened against lateral deformation by gusset plates or Knee braces with solid webs connected tothe stiffeners on the rosin components and the oorbeans, If the unsupported length of the edge of « gusset plate or solid web exceeds the eitrion given by Ea, 1, the plate or web shall have a stiffening plate or angles connected slong its unsupported edge. Fa) 029(2, Ls ( (852-1) », where: ‘unsupported length of plate (mm) thickness of plate (mm) coefficient specified in Table 7.10.1-2 coefficient specified in Table 7.10.1-2 compressive Table 742.141 yield stress specified in 78.6 Pins and Pin-Connected Elements Pins shall be proportioned for the maximum shears ‘and bending moments produced by the components ‘connected, ‘The following Articles of Seotion 6 shall apply: # Article 6:7.6.1—Lecation © Article 68.72—Pin Plates «Article 6:7.6.4—Pins and Nuts + Astiole 68,6—Eyebars Article 6.8.7—Pin-Connected Plates C7882 ‘This limit allows plate to be stressed 10 Fey Otherwise bracing is needed. Suction 7 (SI): ALuMmNu Sruecrunes 123 7.9 TENSION MEMBERS 7.9.1 General In general, the section should be compact and proportioned t© minimize the eccentricity between the ‘gravity axis of the section and the applied factored load ‘or working line. Consideration should also be given to the convenience of connection with other members or gusset plats. 7.9.2 Tensile Resistance ‘The factored resistance in terms of stress, F, shall be token as the values given by Eqs. 1 and 2: En$f, (7924) 5 Ee 7.9.22) mas (192.2) where: Fy = tensile yield strength specified in Table 7.42.1-1 (MPa) Fy = tensile ultimate strength specified in ‘Table 7.4.2.1-1 (MPa) dode resistance factors specified in Table 7.54.1 k -value specified in Table 7.10.1-1 The tensile resistance given by Pq. 1 shall be compared to a tensile stress computed by dividing the factored load by the area of the component without eduction for fastener holes. The resistance given by Eq, 2 shall be compared to a tensile sess hased on the net section, 7.93 Effective Area of Angle and T-Sections ‘The effective area of a single-angle tension ‘member, a T-section tension member, or each angle of a ddouble-angle tension member in which the shapes are connected back-to-back on the same side of a gussot plate shall be assumed as the net area of the connected leg or flange, plus one-half of the area of the outstanding les. If a double-angle or T-section tension member is connected with the angles or flanges back-to-back on opposite sides of a gusset plate, the full net area of the shapes shall be considered effective, Lug angles may be considered effective in lwansmitiing stress, provided that they are connected ‘with at least one-third more fasteners than required by the stress to be carried by the lug angle. 24 ‘Where angles connect to separate gusset plates and the angles are connected by stay plates located as near the gusset as practicable or by other adequate means, the full net area of the angles shall be considered effective. If the angles are not so connected, only 80 perceat of the net areas shall be considered effective 194 Net Area Unless modified Article 6.8.3 shall apply. Unless larger holes are permitted in accordance ‘with Anicle 7.14.22, the effective diameter of the hole shall be taken as 1.6mm greater than the nominal diameter of the hole, herein, the provisions of 740 COMPRESSION MEMBERS 7.10.1 General Compressive resistance parameters shall be as specified in Tables 1, 2, and 3. The cross-Scotion of a compression member may be composed of several thin clements. The factored resistance forthe section as a whole may be considered to be the weighted average factored resistance for the individual elements, where the resistance for each clement is weighted in accordance with the ratio of the area of the element to the total ares of the section, The factored resistance for the section as a whole used as @ column shall not exceed that specified by Fg. 7.10.2-1 or Bg, 7.10.22. ‘Table 7.10.11 Val of Coeffclents kya, ad ky Regions farther than 25 mm froma weld: ‘ASTM B 209M, B 221M, B 308M, Designation | ASTM B 209M B49 ‘Alloys 5086-HI16, Alloy and | S456-H116 and | | Alloys 6061-T6 and ‘Temper 3083-H321 ‘1651 1 DEsion SeRcinICATIONS (SD) 710.4 Formule for buckling constants for other alloys and tempers are given in the latest edition of the Specifications for Aluminum Structures. ke 7.00 60 1.10 112 Regions within 25 mm from a weld D 1.00 100 ke 1.00 1.00 ‘Crippling of fla plates in compression: ra 0.50, 035 2.04 227 GH ling of flat plates in flexure: 030 050, 2.04 [ 2.04 awd 1g u ssang swoys ould sumo w wag st "a doyssoudeuo3) sold 11g ur woyssaxduiog ia Ts 91-1909 PAF 9I-1909 SKIT “6h 8 INROE ‘WIZE € ‘W607 @ WIS TeeHeR0s PUR OTT OSFS ‘pu ssang Jo ody “9LLH-9805 SAOmTW N60 8 NLSV_ “sinpaurezeg Spyong soy einmeg ZONE MEL ‘SRAMIDTRAG RINTRIFTY 7S) Z NOTA 126 AASHTO LRED Buupce Desicn SreciFicaTtons (SP) ‘Table 7.0.13 Selected Values of Buckling Parameters—Nonwelded. ‘ASTM 209M, B 221M, ASTMB209M_| ASTM B 209M B 308M, B 429) ASTM B 200M, Alloy and Alloy 5456-H116 Alloy 5083-H321 Temper Alloy $086-H116 #532 mm Alloy 6061-16, T6S1 43 38mm BMPs) 208 217 272, 208 ‘D_(MPa) 137 146, 170 137 C TOF 39 6 101 BMPs) 249 260 310 249 ‘D, (MPa) 1.80 192 2.08, 1.80, cas 92 91 ‘oh 92. BMPs 332 34s 461 332 Dy (MPa) 2.16, 294 459 2.16 GC ED 78. Gl 80, BMPs) 155 188 178 177 D.(MPay 0.883 LIT 0.903 1.08 GC. 7 107 81 110 B(MPa) 239 248 298 239 DA(MP2) 9.63, 10.1 107 9.55 G 235 226, 41 235 By (MPa) 358 372 4a7 358 Da (MPa) 227 23.9 307 227) Co a 2 35 4 7.10.2. Compressive Resistance of Columns Unless further reduced by plate or component slendemess considerations, the ficored compressive resistanoe in terms of sires shal be taken as: + TERS them 4[,-D.3)54,2 1024) + 12S then 71022) in which a(S e 7102-3) TNE o, <0, fF 71024 7.1025) SECTION (SI): ALUMINUM STRUCTURES where: nde = resistance factors specified in Table 7.5.4.1 Bo Co DB.” = parameters specified in Tables 7.10.1-2 or 72013 ke = constants specified in Table 7.10.1-1 r= radius of gyration (mm) K = column effective length factor specified in Anite 4.62.5 Fa = parameter specified in Table 7421-4 (MPa) E = compressive modulus of elasticity specified in Antcle 74.2 (MPa) L = length of compression member between Points of lateral supports (mm) 7.10.3 Compressive Resistance of Components of ‘Columns—Outstanding Flanges and Legs The factored compressive resistanes in terms of strogs shall be taken as + bss rE 1031) + b2,, then: 7 one (7103-2) () 5 in which: & SZ (7.1033) where 6 = width (my t = thickness (mm) k= coefficient spite in Table 7.10.1-1 127 7.103 [tis assumed that the strength of columns is limited by the local buckling strength of the logs and flanges. No allowance is made for the postbuekling strength in such members. Note that the formulas are in the same form as those of Fas. 7.102-1 and 7.10.2-2. In Eas. 1 and 2, the slenderness for plate buckling is assumed to bbe 5.ibit, where the coefficient 5.1 is the value that applies to « plate free on one edge and simply supported on the other, ‘Open section members that are unsymmetrical about one or both principal axes may be subject to failure by combined torsion and flexure. For single or double-angles and T-sections, an adequate factor of safety is provided against this type of failure, Other ‘unsymmettical, open shapes, such as channels, lipped. angles, ot hat shapes, should not be used as columns unless an analysis is made of the resistance to buckling bby combined torsion and flexure, Dp B, = parameters specified in Table 7.10.1-2 or 7.10.13 os = resistance factors specited in Table 74-1 Fy = parameter specified in Table 742.141 (MPa) 7404 Compressive Resistance of Components of Columns, Gross Seetion—Flat Plates with Both Edges Supported 7404.1 General The factored compressive resistance in terms of stress shall be taken a: + 185, then: 16D, 1 F, znola, sn (7.104.161) + 1 225,, but is less than 60 percent of the ‘maximum column slenderness, Kir, then: di yBE ae (7041-2) 162 in which S HB, (7.10.4.1-3) 7 6D, ¢ 11-3) whore: By Dp = parameters specified in Tables 7.10.12 and 7.10.13, bo Os resistance factors specified in Table 7.5.4-1 hah and, = constants specified in Tble7.10.1-1 Fey = parameter fom Table 74.2.1-1 Q4Pa} F = factored resistance (MPa) kur = maximum slendemess rato of column bit = width to thickness rato for column flange E = compressive modulus of lasticity specified in Article 7.4.2 (MPa) 74044 ‘The equivalent slenderness ratio is 1.661, the value that applies to a plate simply supported on both longitudinal edges. In this range of Bit values, the local buckling strength is essentially the same as the ultimate ‘or “crippling” strength. Eq, 2 is based on the crippling strength of a plate simply supported on both longitudinal edges. "This strength msy be appreciably greater than the local buckling strength for thn sections ‘These provisions take advantage of the postbuckling strength of plate elements supported on two edges because in general such elements may buckle without causing failure of the member. However, there are cases Where the reduced stiffness that accompanies local buckling of these elements may necessitate a reduction in the factored resistance determined from Article 7.10.1. Article 7.10.3 does not take advantage of pooibuckling sucuus diecefure, ww provision is weeded for any additional effect of local buckling of the types of clerents covered. SECTION 7 (SI): ALUVANUM STRUCTURE 7104.2 Effect of Local Buckling of Elements on Column Strength If the maximum bie forthe flange of a rectangular tube or formed-closed shape is greater than the value of S; and also greater than 60 percent of the maximum slendemess ratio forthe column, the factored resistance shall be taken as: Ore ay ay o) (7.1042-1) = resistance factor specified in Table 7.5.4-1 Ely = maximum slendemess ratio of column, bir = wih to thickness ratio for columa flange E = compressive modulus of elasticity specified in Article 7.4.2 (MP2) 7108 Compressive Resistance of Components of Columns, Gross Section—Curved Plates Supported ‘on Both Edges, Walls of Round, or Oval Tubes ‘The factored compressive resistance in terms of stress shall be taken as + 1 8ss,.00 R\,, nevfaof ja — ansn » kes, ten: : — ee (7.10522) (Ry R 8) late = & beset 2,D, = puamete specie in Table 7101-2 and 7.10,1-3 (MPa), Ag ern k= sabes ected in Tale 710.4 = empresive nodules of sity specified in Article 7.4.2 (MPa) 7.29 710.42 Eq, 1 applies only to those cases in which local buckling of an element precipitates overall buckling of ‘the entire column. This equation reduces the factored resistance to account for that situation, cr405 Formulas are based on the local buckling strength of ‘tubes in direct compression. 230 R ‘maxionura midthickness radius (mm) ' thickness (mm) 7,11 FLEXURAL MEMBERS 7.1.1 Tensile Resistance of Flexural Member TALA.A Net Section 'No reduction in the cross-section area shall be made fot bolt holes in any flexural member, unless the reduction in the cross-section area, as determined in accordance with Article 7.9.4 and Antcle 7.93, exceeds 15 percent of the gross cross-section, in which case the ‘excess over 15 percent shall be deduced 7.1.1.2 Tension in Extreme Fibers of Beams, Structural Shapes Bent About Strong Axis, Rectangular Tubes ‘The factored resistance in terms of stress shall be taken as the lesser of the values specified by either Eg. 1 or2, B= omi2y Et 71122 where F tensile yield strength specified in Table 742.1-1 (MPa) Fu tensile strength specified in Table 7.42.1-1 (na) bn be resistance factors specified in Table 7.5. 7.11.13 Tension in Extreme Fibers of Beams, Round, or Oval Tubes ‘The factored resistance in terms of stress shall be taken as the lesser of the values specified by either Eq, or, R417, ans Fé. nate 1.13.2) AASHTO LRFD Baroge Deston SepciiCATIONS (SD) cms ‘The resistance in terms of tensile stress for round nd oval tubes subjected to flexure is somewhat higher than for structural shapes. Analysis and tests have demonstrated that yielding or failure of tubular beams does not occur unil the moment considerably exceeds the value predicted by the flexure formula based on triangular stress distribution, The constants of 1.17 and 1.24 were developed on the this basis and are analogous 1 shape factors, The factor & is provided for the tensile strength for some alloys that do not develop sufficiently high tensile properties in the presence of stress ‘concentrations SECTION (SI): ALUMI STRUCTURES. 7.14.4 Tension in Extreme Fibers of Beams— Shapes Bent About Weak Axis, Rectangular Bars, Plates ‘The factored resistance in terms of stress shall be taken as the lesser of the values specified by either Eq, 1 or, F.=6,130F, ou) F, = $1.42; (71.4.2) 7.11.2. Compressive Resistance of Flexural Members 7412.1 Compression in Beams, Extreme Fiber, Gross Section, Single-Web Beams Bent About Strong Axis ‘The factored resistance in terms of stress shall be taken as: © 2s, ther eoale Baa leae, (724-1) (7112.12) @n213) where De Be = parameters specified in Table 7.10.13 4 radius of gyrtion ofthe beam about axis paralel tothe web (mm) ods = resistance fcor specified in Table 75.41 Ly length of beam between points at which the compression flange’ is supported against lateral movement, or length of cantilever beam from free end to point at ‘which the compression flange i supported against lateral movement (mun) zat c7aiad As in the case of round tubes; theory and tests have shown that aluminum alloy members ofthese shepes can undergo bending moments that are considerably higher than those predicted on the basis of triangular stress distribution crn. The compressive stresses. in single-web structural shapes and buitup sections bent about the song axis are based on the lateral torsional buckling strength of beams. ‘The first formula for resistance in the inelastic stress range ‘or boams is based onthe straight line approximation to the tangent modulus buckling curve that is also used for columns. In deriving the resistance in tens of stess for ‘beams, it was assumed thatthe beam is eld in an upright Position at the supported ends, The strengthening effect of ‘any restraint against rotation of the anges at the supports ‘was noglocted. The second formula is based on a. conservative approximation to the elastic bucking strength ‘of beams, with Zr replacing a more complicated function ‘of the length and cross-section properties. Because ofthe approximation, the formulas give vey conservative results for certain conditions, namely for ‘values of Lr, excooding about $0; for oad distributions ‘such that the Bending moment near the center of the beam js appreciably less than the maxinmum bending moment ia ‘the beam; and for beams with transverse loads applied to a flange and acting away from the shear center. To compute more precise values of factored compressive resistance in terms of stress for these cases, the value of 1, may be replaced by Fe given by one ofthe following formulas: ‘© For beam spans subjected 10 end moment only ‘or fo transverse loads applied at the neutral axis of the beam: (cra12-1) For beams subjected to transverse loads applied ‘on the top or bottom flange, where the load is fice to move laterally with the beam if the ‘beam should buckle: 7a = compressive modulus of specified in Article 7.6.2 (MPa) lastcity The factored resistance of elastically supported flanges, including the compression flange of & hat- shaped’ beam loaded with the two flanges in ‘compression, shall be determined with the following effective value of Zy/ry substituted into Eas. 1 and 2 BL where: 2-4 Ae = area of compression element taken as that of the compression flange plus one-third of the area of web between compression flange end snoutal axis (ram) spring constant taken as the magnitude of a twansverse force applied at the compression flange to a 25-mm long strip of the member to cause a 25-mm deflection of the flange (Nmm/mm); the strip shall be supported to be Stable but not cause additional restraint or distortion he = moment of inctia of compression clement about axis parallel to vertical web (mm*) ampenecivn made of elactinity spectfind in Article 74.2 (MPa) AASHTO LRED BRIDGE DEsicn SPECIFICATIONS (SD) b. [4 205+ fiassots22{ 4) | tafe [ssn iasmnz[) (C71.2.1-2) moment of inertia of beam about axis parallel ro web (mamn') S, = section modulus of beam, compression side (am’) J = ‘torsional inertia of beam; an approximate value of J may be calculated by assuming the section to be composed of rectangles and leiting J ‘equal the sum of the terms 57/3 for each rectangle (mm*) length of beam between points at which the compression lange is supported against lateral ‘movement or length of cantilever beam from fee end to point at which the compression flange is supported against lateral movement om) d= depthof beam (mm) ‘The plus sign in ftom ofthe term “0.5” applies if the load ison the tension flange; the minus sign applies ifthe load ison the compresion flange. Values of tae coetticient fare tabulated below + For beams restrained against lateral displacement at both ends of span, (1) uniform bending moment, uniform transverse load, or two equal concentrated loads equidistant from the center of the span 1.00 Q) bending moment varying uniformly from 2 value of Mf at one end to M, at the other end Milky = 05 1s Mi/Ma=0 133, MiMy=-0.5 133 Mi/My=-1.0 1.60 Concentrated load at center of span 116 ‘© For cantilever beams (1) concentrated load at end of span 113 (2) uniform transverse load 1a ‘SUCTION (SI): ALUMINUM STRUCTURES 7.11.22 Compression in Beams, Extreme Fiber, Gross Section, Round or Oval Tubes ‘The factored resistance in terns of stress shall be taken as: if 45, then: 1 E =f S1176F, (7.11224) where: Ry = midtckness radius of curvature of plates (am) So Cn Ba Dg = parameters specified in Table 7.10.1-3 dude = resistance factor specified in Table 7.5441 ' thickness (sum) ‘or Ky/t values greater tan 9%, the allowable pending stross shell be determined from the relevant formula for tubes in compression as specified in Article 7.10.5 7112.3 Compression in Beams, Extreme Fiber, Gross Seetion, Solid Rectangular Beams ‘The factored resistance in terms of stress shall be taken as: . tle - af f= 6, 9,-230,4,/2 1 fa ant [2 36Fy 4123) + 18 FB es, Va F . 1232) A () 733 For beams that are unsymmettieal about the horizontal axis, rp S., and J should be determined as though both flanges were the same as the compression flange, cra23 ‘The formulas for rectangular beams are based on the lateral, torsional buckling strength of the beams. 14 in whieh: .1123:3) where: Be De G parameters specified in Tables 7.10.1-2 and 7.10.1-3 (MPa) dod, = resistance factors specified in Tele 7.5.4-1 E compressive modulus of elasticity specified in Article 742 (MP2) 7.11.24 Compression in Beams, Extreme Fiber, Gross Section, Rectangular Tubes, and Box Sections ‘The factored resistance in terms of siress shall be taken as + 0S <5,, men 1 2-160, PE )son, 31241) F=0 7.2.4.2) (701243) parameters specified in Table 7.10.1-3 resistance factors specified in Table 754-1 compressive modulus of specified in Anicle 7.4.2 (MPa) elasticity AASHTO LRFD Buapox Destex Sreciricart0ns (SD) cng The formulas for box beams are based on the lateral, torsional buckling strength of the beams. In deriving these formulas, it was recognized that lateral buckling will gover the design only for relatively deep, rarow box heams and for these members the torsion constant J is roughly proportional to Section 7 (SI): ALUMINUM STRUCTURES, 7.113 Compressive Resistance of Flexural Members Limited by Plate Stenderness A131 General ‘Where the factored resistanco in terms of stess for individual elements are determined from Amicles 7.11.32 through 7.11.3, the process of determining the weighed average resistance for the beam flanges may be applied. The beam flange may be considered to consist of the flange proper plus one-sixth ‘ofthe area ofthe web or webs. The weighed average compressive resistance in terms of ses, Phy for @ tapezoidally formed shoot beam, detemined according to Article 7.10.1, may be taken as (7.113.161) Fig = factored resistance in tenms of stress for the flange proper; taken as F, as specified in ‘Article 7.10.4 (MPa) Fig = factored resistence in terms of stress for webs; taken as F, as specified in Article 7.11.3.6 of ‘Asticle 7.11.3.7 (MPa) fh = height of shear web as specified in Article 7.11.3.6 (am) 4 = width of compression flange (mmm) Eq, | may also be applied to the factored resistance in terms of tensile stess in trapezoidally formed sheet ‘beams. In regions of positive moments with load applied to concave side ofthe deformed beam, F, shall be taken as the weighted average factored resistance in terms of tensile stress, Fiy shall be taken as Fas specified in Article 7.9.2, and Fy shall be taken as Fas specified in Article 7.11.14, Tn regions of negative moments with load applied to convex side of the deformed beam, the factored resistanee in terms of tensile stress on the tension flange of a formed sheet beam shall not exceed the compressive stress that would be allowed on the same flange if it ‘were in compression. 738 fontet This provision is required to take account of the effects of flange curling, the tendency of the tension flange to bond toward the neutral axis, It governs design only where the tension flange is wider than the compression flange. 7:36 7.1.3.2 Compression in Components of Beams with Component under Uniform Compression, Gross Section, Outstanding Flanges 2113.21 General ‘The factored resistance in terms of stress shall be taken as: © hss, then qai320-y +25, oie 0262, en Bg ote (7.11.3.2.1-2) By (= ‘) in which A, soe 9.113.213) where: F, = factored resistance in tems of compressive bending stress in beam fange (MPa) Irs = _slenderess ratio for beam b= width to thickness ratio for beam flange E = compressive modus of clasticity specified in Article 7.4.2 (MP2) By D, = parameters specified in Table 7.10.1-3 (MPa) ‘h,kz = constants specified in Table 7.10.1-1 Go ge = resistance factors specified in Table 7.54-1 AASHTO LRFD Ba1bGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS (SD) C7UN3.21 Eqs. I and 2 are based on the crippling strength of an outstanding flange simply supported on one edge. SECTION 7 (SI): ALUMINUM STRUCTURES 7.11.3.2.2 Effect of Local Buckling of Elements on Resistance If the value of bi for outstanding flanges is greater than the value of S and also greater than 0.16 (Ly), the factored resistance in terms of stress shall be taken as OnE ; (= Jery 7.1133 Compression in Components of Beams ‘With Component Under Uniform Compression, Gross Section, Flat Plates With Both Edges Supported 7.1132.2.1) ‘The factored resistance in terms of stress shall be taken as: + 2s, then 7 (. «1855, then r 4byBE aN se{8san, enaan pe (71133.2) 162 7 in which (741133) where: By Dy = parameters specified in Table 7.10.1-3 (MPa) hfe = constants specified in Table 7.10.1-1 dude = resistance factors specified in Table 54-1 E = compressive modulus of elasticity specified in Antcle 7.4.2 (MPa) 131 C7.113.22 ‘These provisions take advantage ofthe postbuckling strength of thin elements, They take aocount of the effect that the reduced stifness due to local buckling ‘may have on the lateral buckling strength of single-web beams. Any such effects on mulived beams are considered to be negligible because of their high torsional stiffness, T4133 Formulae are based on the crippling strength of a plate simply supported on both edges, 38 711.34 Compression in Components of Beams—Curved Sections ‘The factored resistance in terms of stress shall be teken as: © Abc, then: [a-nfE fsa, (isa oss, then: FF aisaa) { RY Ro rf Bos Ue Vinse in which: Se, (7.11.3.4-3) ober B,D, = parameters specified in Table 7.10.-3 (ita) bo be resistance factors specified in Table 7.5.4-1 B= compressive modulus of elasticity specified in Arle 74.2 (MPa) = thickness rm) Ry idthickness radius (oun) 7.1134 Compression in Components of Beams ‘Component Under Bending in Own Plane, Gross Section, Flat Plates With Compression Edge Free, Tension Edge Supported ‘The factored resistance in terms of stress shall be taken as: . tebe, thon: 7 (1135-1) AASHTO LRED Bribe Desiey Srucintcart0ys ($1) cuiisd “The expressions for curved sections are taken from ASCE Structural Division Paper 6744 Guide for the Design of Aluminum Formed Sheet Building Sheathing (1969). They apply to curved components of beams other than tubes, the latter being covered by Article 7.11.22 css The coefficients in the first formula for inelastic Duckling strength were assumed to be the same as for rectangular beams because calculations and tests have shown thatthe apparent stress (Mo!D) at which the yield strength is reached in the outer fiber of sections such as tees, angles, and channels i even higher than for rectangular beams. The equivalent slendersess ratio was assumed to be 3.Sb/f which implies pertil restraint ‘against rotation at the supported edge. ‘The second formula is based on elastic buckling streagth. This type of component is assumed to have negligible postbuckling strength Secrion 7 (SD): ALuuNune STRUCTURES 7.39 (7.M13.5-2) 7.353) where: By, Ds, C, "= parameters specified in Tables 7.10.1-2 and 7.10.1-3 (MPa) ‘boty = resistance factors specified in Table 754-1 E = compressive modulus of elasticity specified in Article 7.4.2 (MPa) f= thickness (ram) > = width (am) 71.3.6 Webs of Beams, Gross Section, Flat Plates With Both Edges Supported ‘The factored resistance in terms of stress shall be taken as: + hes, een ra[ncewn(!)fee, auias) h +850 tool tas) oar(*) inet a, 067d, eae whe b= apna newb am) He = thickness of web (mm) B,D, ~ panomion gas in Tales 71012 ‘and 7.10.1-3 (MPa) C1136 ‘The equivalent slendemess ratio used is 0.67H/, which applies to a plate in bending, which is simply supported on both edges. ‘The second formula is based on crippling strength. 280 6, = resistance factors specified in Table 7.5441 E compressive modulus of specified in Article 7.4.2 (MPa) elasticity 7.1.3.7 Webs of Beams With Longitudinal Stiffener, Both Edges Supported ‘The factored resistance in terms of stress shall be taken as: raa[oano (x2, anany + rhss, ten Shay h (7113.72) a va(?) ) (7.113.7-3) parameters specified in Table 7.10.1-3, (MPa) constants specified in Table 7.10.1-1 resistance factors specified in Table 7.5.4-1 E = compressive moduhis of elasticity specified in Antcle 7.42 (MPa) ‘ thickness (ram) A depth ofthe web (mmm) 714 Shear Resistance ALAA Shear—Unstiffened Flat Webs ‘The factored resistance in terms of stress shall be ‘aken as: + hss, the: AASHTO LRFD Brune Desion SpecirtcartOns (SD) C713.7 The equivalent slenderess ratio is 0.29h/t, based on simple support atthe edges end atthe stiffener. ‘The second formula is based on crippling strength cosa Resistance shear stresses in unstiffened flat webs are determined by the calculated buckling strength for 2 ‘web with partial restraint against rotation at the attachment to the flanges. The corresponding value of the equivalent slendemess ratio is 1.25h, SECTION (SI): ALUMINUM STRUCTURES raola-tan(t)feon, onan + Bes, then 7 (741-2) where: Sb = for 6061-16, 6061-T6S1, and 6063-T6, S.= C/1.36; for $083-H321, 5086-HLI6, and S4S6-11116, Ss= C/1.58 B,D, = parameters specified in Table 7.10.13 (MPs) dre = resistance factors spevfied in Table 7.5.4-1 E = compressive modulus of elasticity specified in Article 7.4.2 (MPa) = thickness am) f= depthof web (mm) Fy = parameter specified in Table 7.42.1-1 (MPa) 71.4.2 Shear in Webs—Stiffened Flat Webs ‘The factored resistance in terms of stress shall be taken as: © 12s, then: 1 5 -1378[a,-1 aso (ker, (42-1) © S25, then: ( sats aaa) a 1.25%) ee (7.114233) ra cra142 Resistance stresses for stiffened flat webs are determined on the basis of assumptions similar to those used for unstiffened webs except that a factor of 1.375 is applied to the buckling sirength of stiffened beam webs. Tests have demonstrated that shear stresses in such webs can considerably exceed the calculated buckling strength without appreciably affecting the behavior of the beam. a where: 5; = for 6061-76, 6061-T651, and 6063-76, Sp=G/1.36; for 5083-4321, 5086-H116, ‘and 5456-HI16, S:= C158 B,D, = parameters specified in Table 7.10.1-3 (MPa) a ‘quivalent width of retangulr pane] (mm) 4, = shorter dimension of rectangular panel (mm) a longer dimension of rectangular panel (mm) dob, = resistance factors specified in Table 7541 5 compressive modulus of —clasicity specified in Antcle 7.4.2 (MPa) Fy = parameter pected in Table 742.1-1 (MPa) ' thickness (mm) TALS Design of Stiffeners I Stiffeners For Webs fa longitudinal stiffener is used on a beam web, it shall be located so that the distance from the toe of the compression flange to the centroid of the stiffener is 04 times the distance ftom the toe of the compression flange tothe neutral axis of the beam, ‘The moment of inertia of a longitudinal stiffener, Je, shall satisfy: o02fam [/, 64,)/s 4 semattl.88(2)e]enasy Je = moment of inertia of the longitudinal stiffener about the web of the beam (min) @ = 10 for stiffener consisting of equal members ‘on both sides of the web @ = 345 for stiffener consisting of member on only ‘one side of web fh = depth of web between flanges (mun) 1 = thickness of web (mm) J = unfactored compressive stress at toe of flange (MPa) 8 = distance between transverse stiffeners (eum) ‘Sucrion 7 (SI): AvuMNum SrHUCTURES 743 de = gross area of cross-section of longitudinal stiffener (rm E = compressive modulus of elasticity specified in Article 7.42 (MPa) For a stiffener consisting of equal elements on both sides ofthe web, the moment of inertia shall be the sum of the moments of inertia sbout the centerline of the web, For a stiffener consisting of 2 member on one side ‘only, the moment of inertia shall be taken about the face ‘of the web in contact with the stiffener 71.5.2 Transverse Stiffeners For Shear in Webs ‘The moment of inertia of transverse web stiffeners, 1, shall not be less than the value specified by either Bq. 1 or: + 2s 04,, then: A res ane 41.524) oT > 04 then: 1.522) where: 1, = moment of inertia of transverse stiffener (an) ¥ = factored shear force on the web at location of stiffener (N) fe = depth of web (mm) 5) =. stiffener spacing (mm) 4 = resistance factor specified in Table 7.5.4-1 Where a transverse stiffener is composed of a pair of elements, one on each side of the web, the stiffener spacing shall be taken as the clear distance between the pairs of stiffeners. When a transverse stiffener is ‘composed of an clement on only one side ofthe web, the stiffener spacing shall be taken as the distance between lines of connection to the web. C7ALS2 744 For a transverse stiffener composed of elements of ‘equal size on each side of the web, the moment of inertia of the stiffener shall be taken about the centerline of the ‘web, For # transverse stiffener composed of an element ‘on one side only ofthe web, the moment of inertia of the stiffener shall be taken about the face of the web in ‘contact with the stiffener. Jn determining the moment of inertia the depth of web shall be taken as the full depth of the web, regardless of whether a longitudinal stiffener is present, ‘Transverse stiffeners shall extend from flange-to- ‘lange but need not be connected to cither flange, unless the stiffener is functioning as a connection piste, in which case the provisions of Article 7.6.1.3.1. shall apply. Unless the outer edge of a stiffener leg is continuously stiffened, its thickness shall not be less ‘than one-twelth the width ofthe leg 71.83 Stiffeners For Outstanding Flanges ‘Outstanding flanges stiffened at the free edge shall be considered as being supported on both edges if: ‘© The radius of gyration of the lip or bulb satisfies: 1, 20/5, 00 (ALS3-1) © A simple rectangular lip, having the same ‘thickness asthe flange, satisfies: 2.2513 (7.11.5.3-2) here: n= radius of gyration of lip or bulb about the midihickness of the flange from which it rojeets (am) b= clear width of flange (ram) 5, = clear width of ip (mm) ‘The factored resistance of flanges meeting the foregoing requirements shall be determined in accordance with the provisions of Article 7.10.4 of “Article 7.11.3.3. The factored resistance of stiffeners in terms of stress shall be determined in accordance with Article 7.10.3 or Article 7.11.32. The area of sliffening lips or bulbs may be included with the area of the rest of the section in determining stresses caused by the loads. AASHTO LRFD Brunae Desicn Srecirications ($1) Ifthe transverse stiffener is not connected to either ‘lange, the contract documents should require support 10 provent distortion of the beam during transportation. SECTION 7 (SI): ALUMINUM STRUCTURES. 7ALSA Bearing Stiffeners Where possible, vertical stiffeners shall be placed in pits at bearings and other points of concentrated load. ‘The stiffeners shall be connected tothe web to distribute the reaction force into the web and shall be fitted to form 4 tight and uniform beering against the loaded flanges, unless welds designed to transmit the full reaction of load ate provided between flange and stiffener. Only that part of a stiffener cross-section that lios outside the fille ofthe flange angle shall be considered as effective in bearing. Bearing stiffeners shall not be crimped. ‘The moment of inertia of the bearing stiffener, f, shall satisfy: hana @ais44) where: 1k = resid moment of neta of ering sifesr om’) 1, = moment of inertia required 10 resist shear buckling (mm) P= factored reaction force (N) A = depthof web between flanges (an) = setae tun ove Ls Table 7.3441 E = compressive modus of dasticty (MPs) 742 TORSION TAZA General Structural members shall be braced against Iateral deflection and twisting in order to prevent laeral- torsional buckling prior to reaching their full in-plane capacity, 7.12.2 Compression Members Subjected to Torsion Compression members shall be braced in such a way that the equivalent radius of gyration, f shall be at least equal to the radius of gyration used in the column strength formula in Article 7.10.2 748 CALs In the terminology of the ahminum industry, crimping is often referred to as “joggling.” cris “Torsion may be categorized as: ‘+ Pure torsion, or St. Venant's torsion, and + Warping torsion Pure torsion produces only shear stress, but warping torsion produces both shear stress and bending stress, 7-46 AASHTO LRFD Baiwor Desien SpecINCATIONS ($1) 7.12.21 Members With Double-Axis Symmetry ‘The equivalent radius of gyration, r, shall be taken (7.122.1-1) = sheur modulus of elasticity (MPa) St, Venant torsional inertia specified in Avtoles 7.12.3.1 and 7.12,3.2 (rama) warping torsion constant Attiele 7.12.4 specified in polar moment of inertia referred t9 the shear center (mm) = distance between bracing points (mm) 7122.2 Members With Si yle-Axis Symmetry ‘The equivalent radius of gyration, r, shall be taken (7.122.2-1) where: 7 = radius of gyration for axis of symmetry (mm) = pole ao of eration sou te shea eter Ye = distance from the shear center of section to the ‘center of gravity (mum) ry ~ respecified in Article 7.12.2.1 742.3 St. Venant Torsion 7423.1 Open Section ‘The torsional inertia, J, for an open section may be taken as e822, men SecHioN (SI): ALUMINUM STRUCTURES =¥(2 oe (1-0.032 s-x{2} (ioe! (7.123.1-1) anis(*) 2.00 1=1{-a0ss-0an(4)-0042) be TG (7.123.1-2) where: b= width ofthe rectangular plate element (eum) 1 = thickness ofthe plate (mm) 72.3.2 Box Section The torsional inertia, J, for a box section may be taken as: (7.12321) A/ = area enclosed by the plate of the box section (om?) = width of rectangular pate element (rm) f= thickness of plate (rm) 7124 Warping Torsion 7.12.4.1 Open Sestons ‘The warping constant, C, for an open section with

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