SECTION 11 (SI): ABUTMENTS, PIERS, AND WALLS TABLE OF CONTENTS 111 SCOPE... 112 DEFINITIONS. 113 NOTATION. TB. Generale. 11.4 SOIL PROPERTIES AND MATERIALS, 114.1. General 11.42 Determination of Soil Properties 11.5 LIMIT STATES AND RESISTANCE FACTORS 11S. General 11182 Service Limit States 11.53 Strength Limit State... 11.54 Resistance Requirement... 11.55 Load Combinstions and Load Factors ILS Resistance Factors. 11.5.7 Extreme Event Limit State 11.6 ABUTMENTS AND CONVENTIONAL RETAINING WALLS 11.6.1. General Considerations, 11.6.1-1 General 1.6.1.2 Losding.. 1.6.1.3 Integral Abutments 16.14 Wingwals 11.6.1. Reinforcement . 11.6.1.5.1 Conventional Walls and Abutment 11.6152 Wingwalls 11.6.1.6 Expansion and Contraction Joints, 11.62 Movement and Stability atthe Service Limit State, 1.6.2.1 Abutments, 11.622 Conventional Retaining Walls 116.23 Overall Stability 11.63 Bearing Resistance and Stability atthe Sirengih Limit Sate. 11.63.1 General 11.63.2 Bearing Resistance, 1163.3 Overruming, 11.634 Subsurface Erosion 11.635 Passive Resistance 11.636 Sliding, 11.64 ‘Safety Against Structural Failure, 11.65 Seismic Design 11.66 Drainage. 11.7 PIERS 11.7.1 Load Effects in Piers. 11.722 Pier Protection 1.7.2.1 Collision, 11.722 Collision Walls 117.23 Soour. 1.7.24 Facing. LLB NONGRAVITY CANTILEVERED WALLS. 11.8.1 General 11.82 Loading 11.83 Movement and Stability atthe Service Limit State 11.83.1 Moveret 1183.2 Overall Stability. 11.8.4 Safety Against Soil Failure atthe Strengt Limit State 11.8.4.1 Overall Stability 11.85 Safety Against Structural Failure, 1185.1 Vertical Wall Elementsa. AASHTOLRED Baince DESIGN SepciricATiONs ($1) 1185.2 Facing : oe 1124 11.86 Seismic Design . vonened 2S: 1187 Corrosion Protection 11.25 188 Drainage: 11.25 11.9. ANCHORED WALLS. 11-26 11.9.1 General 11-26 11.92 Loading 11-26 11193 Movement and Stability a the Service Limit State. 11.27 1193.1 Movement. : 11-27 11.93.2 Overall Subility 11.28 11.94 Safety Against Soil Failures... : E 11-28 1194.1 Bearing Resistance. : 11-28 11.942 Anchor Pullout Capacity 11-29 119.43 Passive Resistance 11.32 11.955 Safety Against Structural Failure 11-33, 119.51 Anchors. 11.33, 11.952 Vertical Wall Elements 1134 11.953 Pacing : vod 134 11.966 Seismic Design. 11.9.7 Corrosion Protestion 11.98 Construction and Installation 11.98.1 Anchor Stressing and Testing 11.9.9 Drainage 11.10 MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EARTH WALLS 1.10.1 Genesal, 111102 Structure Dimensions 11.102.1 Minimum Length of Soil Reinforcement 11.1022 Minimum Front Face Embedment, 11.10.23 Facing 11.10.23.1 Suif or Rigid Concrete, Steel, and Timber Facings. 11.1023. Flexible Wall Facings 11:102333 Corrosion Issues for MSE Facing. 11.103 Loading. 11.104 Movement and Stability atthe Service Limit State 11.40.4.1 Settlement 11.10.42 Lateral Displacement 11.1043 Overall Stability. 1110.5 Safety Against Soil Failure (External Stability) 11.1051 General 11.105. Loading 111053 Sliding. 1111054 Bearing Resistance, 1108.5 Overturaing. 11.10.6 Safety Against Structural Failure (Internal Stability) 11.106.1 General 11.10.6.2 Loading. 11,10.62.1 Maximum Reinforcement Loads 11.10.62.2 Reinforcement Loads at Connection to Wall Face. 11.10,6.3 Reinforcement Pullout 11,10.63.1 Boundary Between Active and Resistant Zones 11110632 Reinforcement Pullout Design 11,10.6.4 Reinforcement Strength 11,1064.1 Genera... e 11,106.42 Design Life Considerations... 1110.64.22 Stee! Reinforcements 11.10.6425 Geosyathetic Reinforcements 11.10.64.3 Design Tensile Resistance 11.10.6434 Steel Reinforcements‘Tasusor Conrents (SI) 11 11,106.4.3b Geosynthetic Reinforcements. 11-62 110.544 Reinforce Facing Comteton Design Seng 11-63 11.10.64.4a Steel Reinforcement 11463 11.10.6.44b Geosynthetic Reinforcements s 11-64 11.10.7 Seismic Design 11.67 H1.107.1 External Stability 11-67 11.10.72 Internal Stability. 1-69 11.10.73 Facing Reinforcement Connections. 1 11.408 Drainage... . : rene TA 11.10.9 Subsurface Erosion oo svn 14 11.10.10 Special Loading Conditions. 1-78 11,10.10.1 Concentrated Dead Loads. . . ne 11.10.10.2 Traffic Loads and Barriers. 1176) 11.10.103 Hydrostatic Pressures. : “TT 11.10.104 Obstructions in the Reinforced Soil Zone . M7 LILUOLL MSE Abutments 11-79 11,11 PREFABRICATED MODULAR WALLS 1181 TALL General. isl 1112 Loading... 1-82 11.113 Movement atthe Service Limit State . . 11-82 ILLL4 Safety Against Soil Faiture 11.82 HALAL General 11-82 ILILA2 Sliding 11-82 11.1143 Bearing Resistance... 11-82 11144 Overturning.. 11-83 111145 Subsurface Exosio “1-83 HAL46 Overall Stability. 7 11-83 11.1147 Passive Resistance and Sliding 11-83 11.115 Safety Against Sorctural Failure. 11-83 1115.1 Module Members : 1-83 LLALG Seismic Design 184 17 Abutments tsa ILUL8 Drainage: so 1184 REFERENCES 11-85 APPENDIX ALI SEISMIC DESIGN OF ABUTMENTS AND GRAVITY RETAINING STRUCTURES...... 11-88 AlL1 GENERAL 11-88 ‘ALLLL Free-Standing Abutments . es ‘AILL.L.1 Mononobe-Okabe Analysis . = 11-88 ALI.1.12 Design For Displacement. 11.93 AIL1.13 Nonyielding Abutments 11.97 A112 Monolithic Abuiments : 1197 APPENDIX REFERENCES.SECTION 11 (S1) ABUTMENTS, PIERS, AND WALLS 111 SCOPE ‘This Section provides requirements for design of abutments and walls. Conventional retaining walls, nnongravity cantilevered walls, anchored walls, mechanically stabilized arth (MSE) walls, and prefabricated modular walls aze considered. 11.2 DEFINITIONS Abutment—A structure that supports the end of a bridge span, and provides lateral support for fill material on which the roadway rests immediately adjacent to the bridge. In practice, different types of abutments may be used. These include: Stub Abuiment—Srub abutments are located at or near the top of approach fills, with a backwall depth sufficient to aceormodate the structure depth and bearings which sit on the bearing Seat. © Partial-Depth Abuiment-—Partial-depth abutments ere located approximately at middepth of the front slope of the approach embankment. The higher backwall and wingwalls may retain fill material, or the embankment slope may continue behind the backwall. Inthe later case, a structural approach slab or end span design must bridge the space over the fill slope, and curtain walls are provided to close off the open area, Inspection access should be provided for this situation, # Full-Depth Abuiment—Full-lepth abutments are located at the approximate front toe of the approach cmbankmen, restricting the opening under the structure © Integral Abutment—Integral abutments are rigidly attached to the superstructure and are supported on a spread o deep foundations capable of permitting necessary horizontal movements Anchored Wall—An earth retaining system typicslly composed of the same elements as nongravity cantilevered walls, ‘and that derive additional lateral resistance from one or more tiers of anchors. Mechanically Stabilized Farth Wall—A soilretaining systema, employing cither strip or grid-type, metallic, or polymeric tensile reinforcements in the sol mass, anda facing element that is either vertical or nesrly vertical Nongravity Cantilever Wall—A soil-retaining system that derives lateral resistance through embedment of vertical Wall elements and supports retained soil with facing elements. Vertical wall elements may consist of discrete elements, e., ples, drilled shafts or auger-cast piles spanned by a structural facing, eg. lagging, panels or shoterete Alternatively, the vertical wall elements und facing may be continuous, e.g, sheet piles, diaphragm wall panels, tangent-ples, or tangent drilled shafts, Pier—Taat part of a bridge structure that provides intermediate support to the superstructure. Different typos of piers may be used. These include: ‘© Solid Wall Piers—Solid wall piers are designed as columns for forces and moments acting about the week ‘axis and as piers for those acting about the strong axis. They may be pinned, fixed or free at the top, and are conventionally fixed at the base. Short, subby types are often pinned at the base to eliminate the high rioments which would develop due to fixity, Earlier, more massive designs were considered gravity types. 1+ Double Wall Piers—Double wall piers consist of two separate walls, spaced in the direction of taftie, to provide support atthe continuous soffit of conerete box superstructure sections. These walls are integral with the superstructure and must also be designed for the superstructure moments which develop from live loads and erection conditions42. AASHTO LRFD BaunGe Desicy SevciricaTioNs (S1) Bent Piers —Bent-ype piers consist of two or more transversely spaced columns of various solid eross- sections, and these types are designed for frame action relative to forces acting about the strong axis of the pier. They are usually fixed atthe base of the pier and are ether integral with the superstructure or witha pier cap atthe top. The columns may be supported on a spread- or pile-supported footing, or a solid wall shaft, or ‘hey may be extensions ofthe piles or shaft above the ground line. + Single-Column Piers—Single-column piers, often referred to as “T” or “Hammerhead” piers, are usually ‘supported at the base by a spread-, drilled shaft-or pile-supported footing, and may be either integral with, oF provide independent support for, the supersiricture. Their cross-section can be of various shapes and the column ean be prismatic or flared to form the pier cap or to blend with the sectional configuration of the superstructure cross-section. This type of pier can avoid the complexities of skewed supports if integrally framed into the superstructure and their appearance reduces the massiveness often associated with superstructures. ‘© Tubular Piers—A hollow core section which may be of stel, reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete, of such cross-section to support the forces and moments acting on the elements, Because oftheir vulnerability to lateral loadings, tubular piers shall be of suficient wall thickness to sustain the forces and moments for all Toading situations as are appropriate. Prismatic configurations may be sectionally precast or prestressed as crocted Prefabricated Modular Wall—A soil-retaining system employing interlocking soi-flled timber, reinforced concrete, ‘or steel modules or bins to resist earth pressures by acting as gravity retaining walls Rigid Gravity and Semi-Gravity (Conventional) Retaining Wall—A structure that provides lateral support for 2 mass ‘of soil and that owes its stability primarily to its own weight and to the weight of any soil located ditectly above its base. In practice, differen types ofrigid gravity and somi-gravity retaining walls may be used. These include: «A gravity wall depends entirely on the weight ofthe stone or concrete masonry and of any soil resting on the _masonry for is stability. Only @ nominal amount of steel is placed near the exposed faces to prevent surface cracking due to temperature changes ‘© A semi-gravity wall is somewhat more slender than gravity wall and requires reinforcement consisting of vertical bars along the inner face and dowels continuing into the footing, It is provided with temperature steel near the exposed face ‘© A-cantilever wall consists of a concrete stem and a concrete base slab, both of which are relatively thin and fully reinforced to resist the moments and shears to which they are subjected +A counterfort wall consiss of a thin conerete face slab, usually vertical, supported at intervals on the inner side by vertical slabs or counterforts that mest the face slab at right angles. Both the face slab and the counterforts are connected 10 a ase slab, and the space above the base slab and between the counterforts is ‘backfilled with sol. All the slabs are fally reinforced, 114 NOTATION 11.3.1 General A= maximum earthquake acceleration (dim) (C118 6) de = cross-seotional area of reinforcement unit (mm) (11.10.64.1) 4y = maximura wall acceleration coefficient atthe centroid (11.10:7.1) B= wall base width (nm) (11.10.2) 4 unit width of reinforcement; width of bin module (mm) (11.10.6441) (H.I1.S.1) by = width of applied footing load (mm) (11.10.10.2) C= overall reinforcement surface area geometry factor (dim) (11.10.6.3.2) CR, = long-term connection strength reduction factor to account for reduced ultimate strength resulting from connection dim.) (11.10.6 4.46)‘SucTION 1 (81): ABUTMENTS, Pass, AND WALLS n3 short-term connection sicength reduction factor to secount for reduced ultimate strength resulting from te connection (dim,)(11.10.6.4.40) ‘coefficient of uniformity (dim) (11.10.6.32) design embedment depth of vertical element (mm); diameter of bar or wire (mm) (11.10.62) (cH84.1) diameter of bar or wire corrected for corosion loss (mm) (11-10.64.1) ‘emibedient for which net passive pressure is sufficient to provide moment equilibrium (mam) (CH1.84.1) ‘uniformity coefficient of soil defined as ratio of the particle size of soil that is 60 pereet finer in size to the particle size of soil that is ten percent finer in size (dim, (11.10.6.3.2) iameter of anchor drill hole (mm); the lateral wall displacement (mm), fill above wall (mm) (C11.6.5) (11.942) (1.108) thickness of metal reinforcement at end of service lite (mm) (11.10.6.4.1) nominal thickness of steel reinforcement at construction (mm) (1110.64.24) sacrificial thickness of metal expected to be lost by uniform corrosion during service life (mm) (11.10.6428) {ote active static and seismic force (Nimm) (A11.1.1.1) total passive static and seismic force (N/mm) (AEL.L1.1) eccentricity of load from centerline of foundation (mma) (11.10.8) resultant force of active lateral earth pressure (Nimam) (11.63.2) ‘minimum yield strength of steel (MPa) (11.10.6.4.3a) reinforcement pullout fition factor (dim. (11.10.6.3.2) gravitational acceleration (msec) (1.953.1) distance from center of gravity of a horizontal segmental facing block unit, including aggregate fill, ‘measured from the front ofthe unit (mm) (11,10.6.4.40) height of wall (mm) (119.1) hinge height for segmental facing (mm) (11.10.6.4.4b) segmental facing biock unit height (mm) (11.10.6.4.4b) equivalent wall height (mm) (11.10.63.1) vertical distance between ground surface and wall base atthe back of wal hel (mm) (1.63.2) height of reinforced soil zone contributing horizontal load to reinforcement a level i (mm) (11.10.6.2.1) slope of facing base downward ino backfill }(11.10.6.4.4b) tetve earth presen cnefficion im ) (11 84 1) active earth pressure coefficient of backfil (dim, (11.10.52) horizontal seismic acceleration coefficient (dim, (11.8.6) vertical seismic acceleration coefficient (dim.) (A11.1.1.1) seismic active pressure coefficient (dim) (AII.1-1-1) seismie passive pressure coefficient (dim.) (AL. 1.1.1) horizontal earth pressure coefficient of reinforced fil (dim. (11.10.52) spacing between vertical elements or facing supports (mm): Ienth of reinforcing elements in an MSE all and correspondingly its foundation (mem) (11.8.5.2)(11.10.2) length of reinforcement in active zone (mm) (11.10.2) anchor bond length (ram) (11.9.4.2) length of reinforcement in resistance zone (mm) (11.102) effective reinforcement length for layer (mm) (11.10:7.2) minimum average roll value (1110.64.35) ‘maximum bending moment in vertical wall element or facing (N-mm or N-mmimm) (11:85.2) normal component of resultant on ase of foundation (N/mm) (11.6:3.2) BA, onal opto zero an“ inress, the portion of the blot ag wc nn wr soe ees Seng momen shot oC (recovers [rnp] 92-13%, Haka Mohn aaa eer 11.633 Overturning For foundations on soil, the location ofthe rosultunt ‘of the reaction forees shal be within the middle one-half of the base width, For foundations on rock, the location of the resultant ofthe reaction forces shall be within the middle three-fourths ofthe Base width 11.634 Subsurface Erosion For walls constructed along rivers and streams, scour of foundation materials shall be evaluated daring design, as specified in Article 2.6.4.4.2. Where potential problem conditions are anticipated, adequate protective ‘measures shall be ineorporated inthe design. The provisions of Article 10.6.1.2 shall apply. The hydraulic gradient shall not exceed: * Forsilts and cohesive sols: 020 © Forother cohesionless soils: 030 11633 ‘The specified criteria for the location of the resultant, coupled with investigation of the bearing pressure, replaces the investigation of the ratio of stabilizing moment to overturning moment. Location of the resultant within the middle one-half of the base ‘width for foundations on soil is based on the uso of plastic bearing pressure distribution for the limit state C1634 ‘The measures most commonly used to ensure that piping does not oceur are: * Seepage control, # Reduction of hydraulic gradient, and Protective filters.‘SUCTION 1 (SI): ABUTMENTS, PUERS, AND WALLS Where water seeps beneath a wall, the effects of ‘uplifand seepage forces shall be considered. 11.63.58 Passive Resistance Passive resistance shall be neglected in stability computations, unless the base of the wall extends below the depth of maximum scour, freeze-thaw or other disturbances. In the latter ease, only the embedment below the greater of these depths shall be considered effective Where passive resistance is utilized to ensure adequate wall stability, the ealevlated passive resistance of soil in from of abutments and conventional walls shall be sufficient to prevent unacceptable forward ‘movement of the wal ‘The passive resistance shall be neglected ifthe soil providing passive resistance is, or is likely to become soft, loose, or disturbed, or if the contact berween the soil and wall is mot tight. 11.636 Sliding ‘The provisions of Anicle 10.6:3.4 shall apply. 11.64 Safety Against Structural Failure ‘The structural design of individual wall elements and wall Foundatians ehall comply with the provisions of Sections 5, 6,7, and 8, ‘The provisions of Article 10,6.1.3 shall be used 10 determine the distribution of contact pressure for structural design of footings. 11.65 Seismie Design ‘The effect of ewthguike loading on multispan bridges shall be invented using the extreme event limit state of Table 3.4.-1 with resistance factors $= 10, an accepted methodology in Artoie 47.43, and the provisions of Anite 3.1082, 3.10.93, or 3.10.4, 28 appropriate arthquake loading on s investigated in accordance Wi 3.10811 For foundations on soil and roc, the location of the resultant of the reaction forces shall be within the middle tworthinds of the base for Yep = 0.0 and within the ridaleeightents ofthe base for yep™ 1.0 iglespan bridges shall be Articles 4.7.4.2 and 19 Seopage effects may be investigated by constructing @ flow net, or in certain circumstances, by using ‘generally accepted simplified methods. ci635 Unacceptable deformations may occur before passive resistance is mobilized. Approximate deformations required to mobilize passive resistance are discussed in Article 3.11.1, where in Table C3.11.1-1 Is the effective’ depth of passive restraint, cues Im general, the pseudo-static approach developed by Mononobe and Okabe may be used to estimate the equivalent static forces for seismic loads for gravity and semigravity retaining walls. The estimation of seismic design forces should account for wall inertia forces in ees yerod walls, forces resulting. from wall inertia effects may be ignored in exinating the seismic design forces. Where 2 wall supports a bridge structure, the seismic design forees should also include seismic forces transferred irom the bridge through bearing. supports which do not freely slide, e-, elastomeric bearings. Refer to Appendix All11.20 For values of pq between 0.0 and 1.0, the restrictions of the location of the resultant shall be ‘obiained by linear interpolation of the values given in this Article Where all of the following conditions are met, seismic lateral loads may be reduced as provided in Article C11.6.5, a8 @ result of lateral wall movement due to sliding, from values determined using the Mononobe- Okabe method specified in Appendix ALI, Article A111 ‘= the wall system and any structures supported by the wall can folerte lateral movement resulting from sliding of the structure ‘© the wall base is unrestrained against sliding, ‘ther than soil friction along its base and ‘minimal soil passive resistance. ‘© Afthe wall functions as an abutment, the top of the wall must also be unrestrained, e.g. the ‘superstructure is supported by sliding bearings. For overall stability of the retaining wall when earthquake loading is included, a resistance factor, 6 , of (09 shall be used. 11.6.6 Drainage Backflls behind abutments and retaining walls shall be drained or, if drainage cannot be provided, the abutment or wall shall be designed for loads due to earth pressure, plus full hydrostatic pressure due to water in the backfill, AASHTO LRED Baipck Drsicy SPECIFICATIONS (SI) Procedures reducing seismic load due to lateral wall movement are provided in Article A11.1.1.2. In general, this reduction only applies to gravity and semigravity walls. Though the specifications in Article AI.1.1.2 relate to gravity and semigravity walls, these provisions ‘may also apply to other types of walls provided the three conditions listed in Aricle 11.6.5 are met. Kavazanjian et al. (997) further simplified the relationship provided in Eq. AlllI2-1. of Appendix 11 as follows, assuming that the velocity, in the absence of information on the time history of the ground motion, is equal to 304: , i, =1.664 (4 \ox a) (C11 65-1) where: A| = the maximum earthquake acceleration (im.) Jy = horizontal seismic acceleration coefficient Gaim.) d= the lateral wall displacement (mm) ‘This equation should not be used for displacements of less than 25 mm or greater than approximately 200 mum, as this equation is an approximation of a more rigorous Newmark analysis. In general, typical practice among, states located in seismically active areas is to design walle for reduced selemic pressures corresponding to $0 mm to 100 mm of displacement. However, the amount of deformation which is tolerable ‘will depend on the nature of the wall and what it supports, as well as what i in front of the wall In addition to whether or not the wall can tolerate Tateral_deformation, it is recommended that this simplified approach not be used for walls which have a ‘complex geometry, such as stacked walls, MSE. walls with trapezoidal sections, or back-to-back walls supporting narrow ramps, for walls which are very tell (over 15 000 mm), nor for walls where the peak ground acceleration 4 is 03g ot higher. In such cases, @ specialist should be retained to evaluate the anticipated deformation response of the structure, as potentially unacceptable permanent lateral and vertical wall deformations could occur even if design eriteria based (om this pseudo static approach are met. 11.66 Weep holes or geocomposite pane! drains at the wall face do not assure fully drained conditions. Drainage systems should be designed to completely drain the entre retained soil volume behind the retaining wall face,‘SECTION 11 (SD: ABUTMENTS, PleRS, AND WALLS 1.7 PIERS 11.7 Load Effects in Piers Piers shall be designed to transmit the loads on the superstructure, and the loads acting on the pier itself ‘onto the foundation. The loads and toad combinations shall be as specified in Section 3, ‘The structural design of piers shall be in accordance ‘with the provisions of Sections 5, 6, 7, and 8 as appropriate. 11.72 Pier Protection 11.72.1 Collision Where the possibility of collision exists from highway or river traffie, an appropriate risk analysis should be made to determine the degree of impact resistance to be provided and/or the appropriate protection system. Collision loads shall be determined as specified in Articles 3.6.5 and 3.14 1.72.2 Collision Walls Collision walls may be required by railroad owners if the pier isin close proximity to the railroad, 11.7.23 Scour The scour potential shall be determined and the design shall be developed to minimize failure from this ‘condition as specified in Article 2.6.4.4.2. 11.724 Facing Where appropriate, the pier nose should be designed to effectively break up or deflect floating ice or drift 11.8 NONGRAVITY CANTILEVERED WALLS. 11.8.1 General Nongravity cantilevered walls may be considered for temporary and permanent support of stable and unstable soil and rock masses. The feasibility of using a rnongravity cantilevered wal at a particular location shall be based on the suitability of soil and rock conditions within the dopth of vertical element embedment to support the wal. 2 Loading ‘The provisions of Article 11.6.1.2 shall apply. The load factor for lateral earth pressure (EH) shall be applied to the leteral earth pressures for the design of ongravity cantilevered walls. ar on72.2 Collision walls are usually required by the railroad owner if the column is within 7600 mm of the rail. Some railroad owners requie a collision wall 2000 mm above the top of the rail between columns for railroad ‘overpasses. cu724 In those situations, pier Tife can be extended by facing the nosing with steel plates or angles, and by facing the pier with granite cua. Depending on soil conditions, nongravity cantilevered walls less than about 3000 to 4600 mm in height are usually feasible, with the exception of cylinder or tangent pile walls, where greater heights can be used. cua Lateral earth pressure distributions for design of ongravity cantilevered walls are provided in Article 3.11.56ua 11.8.3 Movement and Stability atthe Service Limit State 1.83.1 Movement ‘The provisions of Articles 10.7.2 and 10.8.2 shall apply. The effects of wall movements on adjacent facilities shall be considered in the solection of the design earth pressures in secordance with the provisions of Article 3.11.1 11.83.2 Overall Stability The provisions of Article L1.6.2.3 shall apply. 11.84 Safety Against Soll Failure at the Strength Limit State 184.1 Overall Stability ‘The provisions of Article 11.6.2.3 shall apply. ‘The provisions of Article 11.6.3.5 shall apply. Vertical elements shall be desiened to support the full design earth, surcharge and water pressures berween the elements. In determining the embedment depth to mobilize passive resistance, consideration shall be given to planes of weakness, eg. slickensides, bedding planes, and joint seis that could reduce the strength of the soil or rock determined by field or lnboratory tests. Embedment in intact rock, including massive to appreciably jointed rock which should not fail through a Joint surfacé, shall be based on the shear strength of the rock mass, AASHTO LRED Buinx Disten Sesciricarions (ST) cuss. ‘Table C3.L1.1-1 provides approximate magnitudes of relative movements required 10 achieve active earth pressure conditions inthe retained soil and passive earth ‘pressure conditions inthe resisting sol cn183.2 Use of vertical wall elements to provide resistance ‘against overall stability failure is described in “Anticle C11.9.3.2. Diserete vertical elements penetrating across deep lure planes can provide resistance against ‘overal stability failure. The magnitude of resistance will ‘depend on the size, type, and spacing of the vertical elements. cusaa Discrete vertical cloments penetrating across deep failure planes can provide resistance against failure, The ‘magnitude of resistance will depend on the size, ‘ype, and spacing of vertical elements ‘The maximum spacing between vertical supporting clements depends on the relative stiffness of the vertical elements. Spans of 1800 to 3000 mm are typical depending on the type and size of facing. JIn determining the embedment depth of vertical wall elements, consideration should be given to the presence of planes of weekness in the soil or rock that Could result in a reduction of passive resistance. For laminated, jointed, or fractured soils and rocks, the residual strength slong planes of weakness should be considered in the design and, where the planes are oriented at other than an angle of (45°-4'/2) from the horizontal in soil or 45° from the horizontal in rock toward the excavation, the orientation of the planes should also be considered. Where the wal i located on ‘ bench above e deeper excavation, consideration should bbe given to the potential for bearing failure of a supporting wedge of soil or rock through intact materials along planes of weakness. In designing permanent nongravity cantilevered walls with continoous vertical elements, the simplified ceorth pressure distributions in Figure 3.11.5.6-3 may be used withthe following procedure (Teng, 1962). ‘© Determine the magnitude of lateral pressure on the wall due to earth pressure, surcharge loads and differential water pressure over the design height of the wall using kySectioy 11 (51): ABUTMENTS, Pu, AND WALLS 13 Determine the magnitude of lateral pressure on the wall due to earth pressure, surcharge loads ‘and differential water pressure over the design ‘eight of the wall using ke Determine in the following equation the value x as defined in Figure 3.11.5.6.3 to determine the distribution of net passive pressure in front of the wal below the design height xe tkaoHY (Obst) | (CU84.1-1) where: y= load factor for horizontal earth pressure, EH (dim) aa =the active earth pressure coefficient for soil 2 (dim) Yar = the effective soil density for soil 1 (kgm) = the design height of the wall (mm) = the resistance factor for passive resistance in front ofthe wall im.) ya = the passive earth pressure coefficient fa soil 2 (aia) Ya™ the effective soil density for soil 2 kg/m") Sum moments about the point of setion of F (the base of the wall) to determine the embedment (D,) for which the net passive pressure is sufficient to provide moment equilibrium, Determine the depth at which the shear in the wall is zero, ie, the point at which the areas of the driving and resisting pressure diagrams are equivalent Calculate the maximum bending moment atthe point of zero shear. Caleulate the design depth, D=12D,, to account for errors inherent in the simplified passive pressure distribution1-24 LSS Safety Against Structural Failure 8. 1. Vertical Wall Elements ‘Vertical wall elements shall be designed to resist all horizontal earth pressure, surcharge, water pressure, and earthquake loadings. 11882 Facing ‘The maximum spacing between discrete vertical ‘wall elements shall be determined based on the selative stiffness ofthe vertical clements and facing, the type and condition of soil to be supported, and the type and condition ofthe soil im which the vertical wall elements are embedded. Facing may be designed assuming simple support between elements, with or without soil arching, ‘or assuming continuous support over several elements. If timber facing is used, it shall be stress-grade pressure-teated Tumber in conformance with Section 8. Ie timber is used where counlitions are favorable fon the growth of decay-producing organisms, wood should be pressure-reated with a wood preservative unless the heartwood of a naturally decay-resistant species is available and is considered adequate with respect to the decay hazard and expected service life of the structure. AASHTO LRED Brapce Deston Specte1caT1ONs (SD cn Discrete vertical wall elements include driven piles, drilled shafts and anger-cast piles, ic. piles, and built) up sections installed in preaugered holes. Continuous vertical wall elements are continuous throughout both their length and width, although vertical joints may prevent shear and/or moment transfor ‘between adjacent sections. Continuous vertical wall elements include sheet piles, precast or cast-in-place ‘concrete digphragm wall pancls, tangent-piles, and tangent drilled shafts, ‘The maximum bending moments and shears in vertical wall elements may be determined using the loading diagrams in Article 3.11.5.6, and appropriate Toad and resistance factors cuss In Tiew of other suitable methods, for preliminary average factored lateral pressure, including earth, surcharge and water pressure acting on the section of facing being considered (MPaimm) L spacing between vertical elements or other facing supports (mm)‘SECTION 11 (SD: ABUTMENTS, PRs, AND WALLS 11.866 Seismic Desig The effect of earthquake loading shall be investigated using the Extreme Event I limit state of ‘Table 3.4.1-1 with resistance factor 1,0 and load factor 7, = 1.0 and an accepted methodology. 11.8.7 Corrosion Protection ‘The level and extent of corrosion protoction shall be 1 function of the ground environment and the potential consequences of a wall failure. 1188 Drainage ‘The provisions of Article 3.11.3 shall apply. Seepage shall be contlled by installation of a drainage medium behind the facing with outlets at or near the base of te wall. Drainage pancls shall maintain their drainage characteristics under the design earth pressures and surcharge loadings, and shall exiend from the base of the wall to a level 300 mm below the top of the wall ‘Where thin drainage panels are used behind walls, and saturated or moist soil behind the panels may be subjected to freezing and expansion, either insulation shall be provided on the walls to prevent freezing of the soil, or the wall shall be designed for the pressures exerted onthe wall by frozen soi 1125 If the variations in Interal pressure with depth are lunge, moment diagrams should be constructed to provide more accuracy. The facing design may be varied ‘with depth, Ba Cis aplcble fer simply supped facing behind which the soil will not arch between ve pa apa previ ee eaer a facing placed tightly against the in-place soil. Eq. C2 is applicable for simply supported facing behind which the soil will arch between vertical supports, e.g, in granular or stiff cohesive soils with flexible facing or rigid facing behind which there is sufficient space to permit the in- place soil to arch. Eq. C3 and C4 are applicable for facing which is continuous over several vertical supports, ©, reinforced shoterete or concrete. cus6 In general, the pseudo-static approach developed by Mononobe and Okabe may be used to estimate the equivalent static forees provided the maximum lateral earth pressure, active and passive are computed using a seismic coefficient ki=0.54. Forces resulting from wall inertia effeets may be ignored in estimating the seismic lateral earth pressure, Refer to Appendix A. cits. Corrosion protection for piles and miscellaneous hardware and material should be consistent with the design life ofthe structure cuss In general, the potential for developinent of hydrostatic pressures behind walls with diserete vertical elements and lagging is limited duc to the presence of ‘openings in the lagging, and the disturbance of soil ‘bchind lagging as the wall is constructed. However, the potential for leakage through the wall should not be Counted upon where the ground wate level exceeds one~ third the height of the wall because of the potential for plugging and clogging of openings in the wall with time bby migration of soll fines. I is probable thst, under such conditions, a wall with continuous vertical elements, i, cutoff wall constructed with a drainage system designed to handle anticipated flows will bo required. ‘Water pressures may be considered reduced in design only if postive drainage, eg. drainage blanket, geocomposite drainage panels, gravel drains with outlet pipes is provided 0 prevent buildup of hydrostatic pressure behind the wall. Thin drains at the back of the wall face may not completcly relieve hydrostatic pressure and may increase seepage forces on the back of the wall face due to rainwater infiltration, Terzaghi and Peck (1967) and Cedergren (1989), The effectiveness of drainage control measures should be evalusted by seepage analyses.11.26 AASHTO LRED Bribe Distey SrectrICATIONS (ST) 11.9 ANCHORED WALLS AL9A. General Anchored walls, whose elements may _be proprietary, employ grouted in anchor elements, vertical ‘wall elements and facing. ‘Anchored walls, illustrated in Figure 1, may be considered for both temporary and permanent support of stable and unstable sol and rock masses. ‘The feasibility of using an anchored wall at a particular location should be based on the suitability of subsurface soil and rock conditions within the bonded anchor stressing zone. Where fill is placed behind a wall, either around or above the unbonded length, special designs and construction specifications shall be provided to provent anchor damage. ‘igure 11.9.1-1 Anchored Wall Nomenclature and Anchor Embedment Guidelines. 11.9.2 Loading The provisions of Article 11.6.1.2 shall apply, ‘except that shrinkage and temperature effects need not be considered. cuss Depending on soil conditions, anchors are usually required for support of both temporary and permanent nongravity cantilevered walls higher than about 3000 to 4600 min. ‘The availability or ability to obtain underground easements and proximity of buried facilities to anchor locations should also be considered in assessing feasibility. Anchored walls in cuts are typically constructed from the top of the wall down to the base of the wall. Anchored walls infill must include provisions to protect against anchor damage resulting from backfill and subsoil settlement or backfill end compaction activities above the anchors. ‘The minimum distance between the front of the bond zone and the active 2one behind the wall of 1500 mm or AUS is needed to insure that no load from the bonded zone is transferred into the no loud zone due to load transfer through the grout column in the no load cus2 Lateral earth pressures on anchored walls are 2 ‘function of the rigidity of the wall-anchor system, soil ‘conditions, method and sequence of construction, and level of prestress imposed by the anchors. Apparent earth pressure diagrams that are commonly used can be found in Article 3.11.5.7 and Sabatini etal. (1999).