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SECTION 3 (SI): LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.1 SCOPE.
32 DEFINITIONS.
33 NOTATION,
33.1 General é
3.32 Load and Load Designation.
3.4 LOAD FACTORS AND COMBINATIONS.
3.4.1 Load Factors and Load Combinations
3.42 Load Factors for Construction Loads...
3.4.2.1 Evaluation atthe Strength Limit State
3.4.2.2 Evaluation of Deflection atthe Service Limit State
3.43 Load Factors for Jacking and Post-Tensioning Forces,
3.43.1 Jacking Forees.
3.43.2 Fore for Pos-Teasonng Anchorage Zone,
3.5 PERMANENT LOADS.
3.5.1 Dead Loads: DC, DW, and EV.
3.5.2. Earth Loads: EW, BS, and DD.
36 LIVE LOADS
3.6.1 Gravity Loads: ZL and PI.
3.6.1.1. Vehicular Live Load...
3.6.1.1 Number of Design Lanes:
3.6.1.1.2 Multiple Presence of Live Load.
3.6.1.2 Design Vehicular Live Load.
36.1.2.1 General
36.1.2.2 Design Truck
3.61.23 Design Tandem...
36.124 Design Lane Load,
36.1.2.5 Tire Contact Area
3.6.1.2.6 Distribution of Wheel Loads Through Barth
3.6.1.3 Application of Desion Vehicular Live Loads
3613.1 General
43.6.1.3.2 Loading for Optional Live Load Defiection Evaluation,
346133 Design Loads for Dei, Desk Syms, and he Top Seo Box Cave 3.26
3.6.34 Deck Overhang Load. 3.27
3.6.1.4 Fatigue Load. 7 . rene 32T
3.6..4.1 Magnitude and Configuration 3.27
36.142 Frequency 3.27
3.6.1.4.3 Load Distibution for Fatigue. . 7 3.28
3.6.1.43a Refined Methods. 3.28
3.6.14:3b Approximate Methods 3.28
3.6.1.5 Rail Transit Load. 3-28
3.6.1.6 Pedestrian Loads. 3.28
3.6.1.7 Loads on Railings 3.29
3.62 Dynamic Load Allowance: IM. 3.29
3.62.1 General 3.29
3.622 Buried Components . . 3.30
3.623 Wood Components. 330
3.63 Centrifugal Forces: CE : esa
3.64 Braking Force: BR : : eeaiai
3.65 Vebieular Collision Force: CT. 3034
3.6.5.1 Protection of Structures 334
3.6.5.2 Vehicle and Railway Collision with Structures 3.35
3.6.5.3 Vehicle Collision with Barriers = is 3.38
3.7 WATER LOADS: 74 ee . 7
3.7.1 Static Pressure,
MM Ss AASHTO LRED rupr DEston SrECIICATIONS (SD)
3.1.2 Buoyancy
3.73 Stream Pressure...
3.73.1 Longitudinal
3.7.3.2 Lateral.
3.74 Wave Load...
3.7.5 Change in Foundations Due to Limit State for Seour..
3.8 WIND LOAD: IL AND WS.
3.8.1. Horizontal Wind Pressure
3.8.1.1 General.
318.1.2 Wind Pressure on Structures: VS.
38.121 General.
3.81.22 Loads from St
38.123 Forces Applied Directly to the Substructure.
3.8.13 Wind Pressure on Vehicles: WL.
3.82 Vertical Wind Pressure
3.83 Aeroelastic Instability
3.83.1 General
3.832 Aeroelastic Phenomena.
3833 Contol of Dynamic Responses
3.834 Wind Tunnel Tests
39 ICELOADS: IC.
3.9.1 Genera.
3.9.2. Dynamic lee Forees on Pitts nun
3.9.2.1 bifective Ice Strength.
3.9.24 Combination of Longitudinal and Transverse Forces
3.9.2.4. Piers Parallel to Flow 2
3.9.2.4. Piers Skewed to Flow.
3.9.6 Ice Accretion and Snow Loads on Superstructures
3.10 EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS: FQ.
31101 Genera ne
3.102 Acceleration Coefficient
3.10.3 Importance Categories,
3.104 Seismic Performance Zones
3.108 Site BAVC nun
3,105.1 General.
3.10.52 Soil Profile Type
3.1053 Soil Profile Type IL
3.10.5.4 Soil Profile Type IIL
3.10.5 Soil Profile Type TV ver
3.10.6 Elastic Seismic Response Coefficient
3.10.61 General...
3.10.62 Exceptions .
3.10.7 Response Modification Factors.
3.10-7.1 General
3.10.7.2 Application
3.108 Combination of Seismic Force Effects,
3.10.9 Calculation of Design Forces.
3.10.9.1 General...
3.10.2 Seismic Zone 1.
3.10.9.3 Seismic Zone 2. ‘Taste oF Contents SD) sa
3.10.9.4.1 Generel
3.10.9.4.2 Modified Design Forees
3.109.433 Inelastic Hinging Forces
3.109.438 General
3:10.9.4.3o Single Cofurmns and Piers.
3.10.9.4.3e Piers with Two or More Columns.
3.109.434 Colm and Pile Bent Desin Fores
3.10.9.4.3e Pier Design Fozees.
3.10.9.4.3f Foundation Design Farces..
3.1095 Longitudinal Restrainers.
3.10.96 Hold-Down Devices
3.10.10 Requirements for Temporary Bridges and Stage Construction.
3.11 BARTH PRESSURE: BH, £5, LS, AND DD.
3.111 General
3.11.2 Compaction...
3.11.3 Presence of Water
3.114 Effect of Earthquake
B.ILS Earth Pressure: £1
3.1.5.1 Lateral Earth Pressure
3.1152 At-Rest Lateral Earth Pressure Coefficient, f
3.11.53 Active Lateral Earth Pressure Coefficient, ky
3.11.54 Passive Lateral Earth Pressure Coefficient, ky
3.11.55 Equivalent-Fluid Method of Estimating Rankine Lateral Earth Pressures,
3.11.5.6 Lateral Barth Pressures for Nongravity Cantilevered Walls.
3.11.57 Apparent Earth Pressures (4ZP) for Anchored Walls.
3.11571 Cobesionless Soils.
3.11.5.7.2. Cohesive Soils
3.41.57.2a Stiffto Hard
3.11.5.72b Soft to Medium Sif.
3.1L Eat Preses for Mectaniealy Stabilized Earth Wal
3.11.58. General
3119.82 tates Sabilny
3.11.59 Lateral Earth Pressures for Prefabricated Modular Walls
3.11.6 Surcharge Loads: BS and 1S.
3.1.6.1 Uniform Surcharge Loads (ES).
3.11.62 Point, Line and Strip Loads (£5) Walls Restrained from Movement.
3.11.63 Strip Loads (£5)—Flexible Walls.
3.11.64 Live Load Surcharge (LS).
3.11.6 Reduction of Surcharge
3.11.7 Reduction Due to Earth Pressure
3,118 Downdrag
3.12 FORCE EFFECTS DUE TO SUPERIMPOSED DEFORMATIONS: 70, 7G, STI, CR, SE.
3.12.1 General
3.12.2 Uniform Temperature
3,122.1 ‘Temperature Range for Procedure A
3.12.22 Temperature Range for Procedure B.
3.12.2.3 Design Thermal Movements am
3.123 Temperature Gradient.
3.124 Differential Shrinkage.
3.125 Creep.
3.12.6 Settlement
3.13 FRICTION FORCES: FR.
3.14 VESSEL COLLISION: CY.
3.14.1 General
3.14.2 Owner's Responsibility
3.143 Importance Categories Sav AASHTOLRED Brick Desi Srecinicavions (SI)
3-106
3-107
3.144 Design Vessel :
3.14.5 Annual Frequency of Collapse.
3.14.1. Vessel Frequency Distribution os 3-108
3.14.52 Probability of Aberrancy. 3109
3.145.2.1 General : 3-109
3.14.5.22 Statistical Method 3-109
3.14523 Approximate Method. 3-110
3.14.53 Geomettic Probability. 3-113
3.1454 Probability of Collapse, 7 3114
3.14.6 Design Collision Velocity ..ccyecnnnssnennsnninan 7 7 seen LIS
3.14.7 Vessel Collision Energy. 7 7 3-116
3.148 Ship Collision Forve on Pier 3117
3.14.9 Ship Bow Damage Length 7 3118
3.14.10 Ship Collision Force on Supersinucture 3-119
3.14,10.1 Collision with Bow 34119
3.14.102 Collision with Deck House 3-119
3.14.103 Collision with Mast 3-119
3.14.11 Barge Collision Foree on Pier 3-120
3.1412 Barge Bow Damage Length 3121
3.14.13 Damage at the Extreme Limit State. . "3-12
3.14.14 Application of Impact Force. 7 7 3-122
3.14.14.1. Substructure Desiga
3.14.14.2 Superstructure Design.
3.14.15 Protection of Substructures
REFERENCES.
APPENDIX A3 SEISMIC DESIGN FLOWCHARTS
APPENDIX B3 OVERSTRENGTH RESISTANCE.
3122 SECTIONS (SI)
LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS,
3.41 SCOPE
‘This section specifies minimum requirements for loads
and forces, the limits oftheir application load factor, and
load combinations used forthe design of new bridges. The
Toad provisions may also be applied to the structural
evaluation of existing bridges,
‘Where multiple performance levels ae provided, the
selection of the design performance level isthe
responsibility of the Owner.
‘A minimum load factor is specified for force effects
that “may develop during construction. Additional
requirements for construction of segmental concrete
bridges are specified in Article 5.14.2
32 DEFINITIONS
on
This section includes, in addition to traditional loads,
the force effects duc 10 collisions, earthquakes, and
settlement and distortion ofthe structure.
Vehicle and vessel collisions, earthquakes, and
acroelastic instability develop force ffeeis that are
dependent upon structural response. Therefore, such force
effects cannot be determined without analysis andor
testing.
With the exception of segmental concrete bridges,
construction loads are not provided, but the Designer
should obtain pertinent information from prospective
contractors.
Active Rarth Pressure—Lateral pressure resulting from the retention ofthe earth by a structure or component that is
tending to move away from the soil mass,
Active Earth Wedge-—Wedge of earth with a tendency to become mobile if not retained by a structure or component.
Aeroelastic Vibration Periodic, clas
response of a structure to wind.
Apparent Barth Pressure —Lateral pressure distribution for anchored walls constructed from the top down,
Axle Unit—Single axle or tandem axle.
Berm—An earthwork used to redirect or slow down impinging vehicles or vessels and to stabilize fill, embankment, or soft
ground and eut slopes,
Contrifugal Force—A tateral force resulting from a change inthe direction of vehicle's movement.
Damper—A. device that transfers and reduces forces between superstructure elements and/or superstructure and
‘substructure elements, while permitting thermal movements. The device provides damping by dissipating energy under
seismic, braking or other dynamic loads.
Deep Draft Waterways
-A navigable waterway used by merchant ships with loaded drafts of 4200-18 000+ mm,
Design Lane—A notional tallic lane positioned transversely on the roadway.
Design Thermal Movement Range—The structure movement range resulting from the difference between the maximum,
design temperature and minimam design temperature as defined in Article 3.12.
Deslgn Water Depth—Depth of water at mean high water.
Distortion —Change in structural geometry.
Dolphin—Protective object that may have its own fender system and that is usually circular in plan and structurally
independent from the bridge.
Dynamic Load Allowance—An increas
the bridge and moving vehicles.
the applied static force effects to account forthe dynamic interaction between
‘Equivalent Fluid—A notional substance whose density is such that it would exer the same pressure as the oi itis seen to
replace for computational purposes. 32 AASHTO LRED Brupce Drsion SrECIICATIONS (SD)
Exposed—A condition in which a portion ofa bridge's substructure or superstructure is subject to physical contact by any
portion of a colliding vessel's bow, deck house, oF mat.
Extreme—A maximum or « minimum.
Fender-—Protection hardware attached to the structural component to be protected or used to delineate channels or to
redirect aberrant vessels,
Frazilfee—Ice resulting from turbulent water flow.
Globat—Pertinent to the entire superstructure orto the whole bridge.
Influence Surface—A. continuous or discretized function over a bridge deck whose value at a point, multiplied by a load
acting normal tothe deck at that point, yields the force effect being sought.
Lane—The area of dock receiving one vehicle or one uniform load line.
Lever Rule—The stioal summation of moments about one point to calculate the rection ata second point
Liguefection —The loss of shear strength in saturated soil dye to excess hydrostatic pressure. In started cohesionless
soil auch a stength lous can result fon loads thas ae applied instantaneously or cjlily, particulary in lose fine 1
‘medium sands that ae uniformly graded.
Load —The effect of eoeiention, including tha de to gravity, imposed deformation, or volumetric change
Local—Pertvent oa component or subassembly of components
Megagram (Mg)—1000 kg (a unit of mass.
Made of Vibration A shape of dynamic deformation associated with a fequsncy of vibration
Navigable Waterway—A waterway, determined by the U.S. Coast Guard as being suitable for interstate or foreign
Nominal Load—An atbitrarily selected design load level
Normally Consolidated SoilA soil for which the eurrent effective overburden pressure is the same as the maximum
pressure that has been experienced.
Overconsolidated Soil—A soil that bas been under greater overburden pressure than currently exists.
Overall Stabitiny—Stability ofthe entice retaining wal or abutment structure and is determined by evaluating potential slip
surfaces located outside ofthe whole structure.
Overconsolidation Ratio—Ratio of the maximum preconsolidation pressure to the overburden pressure.
Passive Earth Pressure—Lsteral pressure resulting from the earth's resistance to the lateral movement ofa structure oF
‘component into the soil mass,
Permanent Loads~Loads and forces that are, or are assumed o be, constant upon completion of construction,
Permit Vehicle—Any vehicle whose right to travel is administratively restricted in any way duc to its weight or size.
Reliability Index—A quantitative assessment of safety expressed as tho ratio of the difference between the mean resistance
‘and mean force effect to the combined standard deviation of resistance and force effect. SECTION3 (SH): LoaDs 4xD Loa FACTORS 33
Restrainers—A system of high-strength cables or rods that transfers forces between superstructure clements and/or
superstructure and substructure elements under seismic or other dynamic loads after an inital slack is taken up, while
permitting thermal movements.
Roadway Width —Clear space between barriers and/or curbs.
Setting Temperature—A structure's average temperature, which is used to determine the dimensions ofa structure when a
‘component is added or set in place.
Shallow Draft Waterways—A navigable waterway used primarily by barge vessels with loaded drafts of less than 2700 10
3000 mm,
‘Shock Transmission Unit (STU}—A device that provides a temporary rigid link between superstructure elements andor
‘superstructure and substructure elements under seismic, braking or other dynamic loads, while permitting thermal
‘movements.
Structurally Continuous Barrier—A barrier, or any pat thereof, that is interrupted only at deck joints
‘Substructure—Straetural parts of the bridge that support the horizontal span.
Superstructure—Steuctual parts of the bridge that provide the horizontal span.
‘Surcharge—A load used t0 model the weight of earth fill or other loads applied tothe top ofthe retnined material
Tancdem—"Two closely spaced axles, usually connected tothe samé under-cariage, by which le equalization of load
between the axles is enhanced,
Wall Friction Angle—Aa angle whose arctangent represents the apparent frietion between a wall nd @ soil mass,
Wheel Single or dual tie at one end of an axle.
Wheel Line—A transverse ot longitudinal grouping of wheels.
33 NOTATION
33.1 General
A= planarea ofice floe (mm); seismic aceleration coefficient; depth of temperature gradient (mm) (C3.9.2.3)
G.102) 3.123)
AEP = apparent earth pressure for anchored walls (MP2) (34.1)
AF annual frequency of bridge clement collepss (numberiyr.)(C3.14.4)
@ = _Iength of umiform deceleration at braking (mm); truncated distance (ram); average bow damage length (mm)
(3.64) (C3.9.5) (C3.149)
ay = bow damage length of standard hopper barge (mm) (3.14.11)
4, = bow damage length of ship (mm) (3.149)
B equivalent footing width (mm) 3.11.63)
a Width of excavation (mm) (3.11.5.7.2b)
By ‘beam (with) for barge, barge tows, and ship vessels (mm) (C3.14.5.1)
3, width of bridge pier (mm) 3.14.5.3)
BR vehicular braking force; base rate of vessel aberrancy (3.3.2) (3.14.5.2.3)
b braking force coefficient; width ofa discrete vertical wall element (mm) (C3.6.4) (3.11.5.6)
by = wid of applied load or footing (mm) 3.11.6.3)
C= _ coefficient to compute centrifugal forees; constant for terrain conditions in relation to wind approach (3.6.3)
(3.8.11)
C, = coefficient for force due to crushing of ie (3.9.2.2),
Cy = tag coefficient (see.? Nim) 3.73.1)
Cu hydrodynamic mass coefficient (3.14.7)
C, = lateral drag coefficient (C3.73.1) AASHTO LRED Bainge Drsten SPECIFICATIONS (SD)
coefficient for nose inclination to compute F) (3.9.2.2)
clastic seismic response coefficient for the mi mode of vibration (3.10.1)
soil cohesion (Ma) 3.11.54)
distance from back of a wall fce tothe front of an applied load or footing (mm (11.6.3)
depth of embedment fora permanent nongravity cantilever wall with discrete vertical wall elements (mm)
G.156)
bow depth (mm) (C3.14.1)
rminimom depth of earth cover (ram) (3.6.2.2)
calculated embedment depth to provide equilibrium for nongravity cantilevered with continuous vertical
elements by the simplified method (mm) (3.11.5.6)
size of vessel based on deadweight tonnage (Mg) (C3.14.1)
effective width of applied load at any depth (mm) (3.11.63)
depth of potential base failure surface below base of excavation (mm); horizontal distance from the back ofa
wall face to the centerline ofan applied load (mm) (3.11.5.7.2b) 3.11.63)
Young's modulus (MPs) (C3.9.5)
deformation energy (1) (C3.14.11)
‘eccentricity of load on footing (mmm) (3.11.6.3)
longitudinal force on pier due to ice fice (N); force required to fail an ice sheet (N/mm), force at base of
nongravity cantilevered wall required to provide force equilibrium (N/mm) (3.9.2.2) {C3.9.5)(3.11.5.6)
horizontal force due to failure of ce flow due to bending (N) (3.92.2)
horizontal force duc to crushing of ce (N) (3.9.22)
factor of safety against basal heave (C3.11.5.6)
transverse force on pier due to ice flow (N) 3.9.2.4.1)
vertical ie force due to adhesion (N) @.9.5)
Tateral force due to earth pressure (Nim) (3.11.63)
Interal force due to traffic surcharge (N/mm) (3.11.63)
constant applied in calculating the eoeffcient C used to compute centefugal forces, taken equal to 4/3 for
Joed combinations other than fatigue and 1.0 for fatigue (3.6.3)
specified compressive strength of concrete for use in design (MPa) (3.5.1)
‘gravitational acceleration (mv/sce.*) (3.6.3)
ultimate bridge clement strength (N); final height of retaining wall (mm); total excavation depth (mm);
resistance of briage component roa norizanal force CN) (C3.1.1) (3.11371) G.14SA)
depth of barge head-block on its bow (mim) (3.14.14.1)
ultimate bridge per resistance (N) @.14.5.8)
ultimate bridge superstructre resistance (N) (3.14.4)
éistence from ground surfece to uppermost ground anchor (mi) (3.11.57.1)
distance from base of excavation to lowermost ground anchor (zn) (3.11.5.7.1)
notional height of earth pressure diagram (mm) (3.11.3.7)
equivalent height of sol fr vehicular load (mm) (3.11.64)
dynamic Joad allowance (C3.6,1.25)
design impact energy of vessel collision (J) (3.14.7)
{ce foree reduction factor for small streams (C3.9.23)
coefficient of lateral earth pressure (3.11.6.2)
coefficient of active lateral earth pressure (3.1) 5.1)
coefticient of at rest latcral earth pressure (3.11.51)
coefficient of passive lateel earth pressure 3.11.5.1)
cocflcient of earth pressure due to surcharge (3.11:6.1)
perimeter of pier (mm); length of soil reinforcing elements in an MSE wall (mm); length of footing (mm);
expansion length (mm) (3.9.5) 3.11.5.8) 3.11.63) B.12.2.3)
characteristic length (rm); center-to-center spacing of vertical wal elements (mm) (C3.9.5) 3.11.5.6)
length overall of ship or barge tow including the tug or tow boat (mum) (3.14.5)
sass of vessel (Ma) (3.14.7)
multiple presence factor (3.6.1.2)
‘numberof one-way passages of vessels navigating through the bridge (number!y.) (3.14.5)
stability number (3.11.56)
‘overconsolidetion ratio (3.11.5.2)
‘maximum vertical force for single ice wedge (N) load resulting from vessel impact (N); concentrated wheel
Toad (N); liv load intensity; point load (N) (C3.9.5) (3.14.54) (C3.6.1.2.5) (C3.11.6.2) B.11.6.1) ‘SucTION3 (SD): Loans anv Loa Facrons, 38
PA
Pa
Ps
P
Pray
PC
Po
probability of vessel aberrancy (3.14.5)
force resultant per unit width of wall (N/mm) (3.11.5.8.1)
barge collision impact force for head-on collision between barge bow and a rigid object (N; base wind
pressure corresponding toa wind speed of 160 kmh. (MPa) (3.14.11) (3.8.1.2)
average equivalent static barge impact force resulting from Meir-Dormberg Study (N) (C3.14.11)
ship collision impact force between ship bow and a rigid superstructure (N) (3.14.10.1)
probability of brie collapse (3.14.5)
design wind pressure (MPa) 38.1.1)
ship collision impact force between ship deck house anda rigid superstructure (N) G.14.54)
scometsc probabil of vessel collision with bridge pie/span 3.148)
lateral force due to superstructure or other concentrated lateral loads (Nims (3.11.63)
horizontal component of resultant earth pressure on wall (N/mm) (3.11.5.5)
ship collision impuet force between ship mast anda rigid superstructure (N) (3.14.54)
pastve earth pressure (ium) (3.11.54)
Ship collision impact farce for head-on collision between ship bow anda rigid object QD) @.1454)
vertical component of resultant earth pressure on Wall (Nim); load per linear mim of stip footing (Nam)
G.1155)G.11.63)
oad on isolated rectangular footing or point toad (N) (3.1.6.3)
cffectve ice crushing sirenath (MPa); steam pressure (MPa): basic earth pressure (MPa); faction of ruck
teffc ina single lane; load intensity (MPa) (3.92.2) (3.7.3.1) G.11.5.1) @.6.1.42) B.LL6.1)
apparent earth pressure (MPs); maximtim ordinate of pressure diagram (MPa) (3.11,5.3) @.11.8.7.1)
passive earth pressure (MPa) (3.11.54)
total factored load; load intensity for infinitely tong line loading (Ninm) (34.1) 8.11.62)
fonce effects @.4.1)
‘surcharge pressure (MPa) (3.11.6.3)
‘uniform surcharge peessize (MPa) (3.11.6.1)
sadivs of curvature (mm); radi of circular pier (mm); seismic response modifiation fot, ection factor
of lateral passive earth pressure; radial distance fom point of load application to point onthe wal (mam);
reaction force to be resisted by subgrade below base of excavation (Nin) (3.63) G.9.5) G.10°7.1)
6.1154) G.11.6.) 1157.1)
1 conection factor for bridge location (214.52.2)
ratio of exposed superstructure dept tthe total ship bow depth (3.14.10.1)
A correction factor for currents parallel to vessel transit path @.14.5.23)
PA comection factor for vessel tate density (3.14.52.3)
reduction Factor for ship deck house collision foree(3.14.10.2)
PA correction factor for eross-curents acting perpendicular to vessel transit path 3.14.52.3)
radius of pier nose (mn) (€3.9.23)
cocticent elated to site conditions for use in determining seismic loads (3105.1)
freezing index (C3.9.2.2)
shear siength of rok mass (MPa) (3115.6)
‘uncained shear stength of cobesive sil (MPa) (3.115.6)
“undrained strength of soil below excavation base (MPa) (3.11.5.7.2b)
‘vertical spacing of reinforeaments (ram) (3.11 538.1)
nen daly air temperature °C) (C3.92.2)
‘horizontal load in anchor j (N/mm) (3.11.5.7.1)
period of vibration for m* mode (sec) (3.10.6.1)
applied load to reinforcement in araechanically stabilized earth wall (Nimm) (3.11.58.2)
‘maximum design temperature sed for thermal movement effets (°C) (3.12.21) (3.1222) @.122.3)
minimum design temperature used for thermal movement effects (°C) (3.12.2.1) (3.12.2.2) (3.12.2.3)
thickness of ie (mm thickness of dek (mm) (3.9.2.2) 3.12.3)
design velocity of water (msec); design impact speed of vessel (w/se.) (3.7.3.1) 3.14.6)
‘base wind velocity taken as 160 knvhr. (3.8.1.1)
‘waterway current component acting parallel tothe vessel transit path (kmh. (3.14.5.2.3)
10 000 mm (mm); depth below surface of soil (mm);
depth fom the ground surface toa point onthe wall under consideration (mm); vertical distance fom point
‘of Toad application to the elevation ofa point on the wall under consideration (mm) (3.8.1.1) G.11.63)
G.1162)
fiction length of upstream fetch, a meteorological wind characteristic (ra) (38.1.1)
loot ane ot par
Figure 3.732-1 Plan View of Pier Showing Streatn Flow
Pressure
Tanie3
13.24 Lateral Drag Coofitent,
“Angle. 0, between direction of flow
and longitudinal axis ofthe pior
= 05
10" 07
20° 09
om 10
“The lateral drag force shall be taken as the product of
the Lateral stream pressure and the surface exposed thereto,
3.74 Wave Load
‘Wave action on bridge structures shal be considered
for exposed structures where the development of
significant wave forces may occut.
3.78 Change in Foundations Due to Limit State for
Scour
‘The provisions of Article 2.6.4.4 shall apply,
‘The consequences of changes in foundation conditions
resulting fom the design flood for scour shall be
considered at strength and service limit, states. The
consequences of changes in foundation conditions due to
scour resulting from the check flood for bridge scour and
from hurricanes shell be considered atthe extreme event
Tim states.
337
3.732
‘The discussion of Eq. 3.7:3.1-1 also applies to Bq. 1
cara
Loads due to wave action onbridge structures shall be
determined using aocepted engingering practice methods,
Site-specific conditions should be considered. The latest
edition of the Shore Protection Manual, published by the
Coastal Engineering Research Center, Department ofthe
Army, is recommended for the computation of wave
forces.
cars
Statistically speaking, scour is the most common
reason for the failure of highway bridges in the United
States.
Provisions concerning the effects of scour are given in
Seetion 2. Scour per se is not a force effect, but by
changing the conditions of the substructure’ it’ may
significantly alter the consequences of force effets acting
on structures 338
3.8 WIND LOAD: VL AND WS
3.8.1 Horizontal Wind Pressure
38.1.1 General
Pressures specified herein shall be assumed t0 be
caused by a ase design wind velocity, Ya, of 160 kv,
‘Wind load shall be assumed to” be uniformly
10 000 mm.
Yo = fiction velocity, a meteorological wind
characteristic taken, as specified in Table I, for
vatious upwind surface characteristics (kam/r;)
Z = fiction length of upstream fetch, 2
meteorological wind characteristic token as
specified in Table I (ram)
AASHTO LRED Bripce DEsicn SrEciFIcATIONS (SD)
38d
Base design wind velocity varies significantly due to
local conditions, For small and/or low structures, wind
usually does not govern. For large and/or tall bridges,
however, the local conditions should be investigated,
Pressures on windward and leeward sides are 1 be
taken simultaneously in the assumed direction of wind.
Typically, a bridge structure should be examined
separately under wind pressures from two or more
sifferent directions in order to ascertain those windward,
leeward, and side pressures producing the most critical
loads on the structure.
Eq, Lis based on boundary layer theory combined
with empirical observations and represents the most recent
approach o defining wind speeds for various conditions 2s,
used in meteorology. Inthe past an exponential equation
‘was sometimes used to relate wind speed to heights above
10 000 mm, This formulation was based solely on
empirical observations and had no theoretical basis.
+
ra cra ean)
‘The purpose of the term C and exponent was to adjust
the equation for various upstream surface conditions,
similar to the use of Table 1, Further information can be
found in Liu (1991) and Simi (1973, 1976).
‘The following descriptions for the terms “open
country,” “suburban,” and “city” in Table 1 are
paraphrased from ASCE-7-98:
3811-1)
© Open Country—Open terrain with scattered
obstructions having eights generally less than
10 000 mm. This category includes flat open
country and grasslands
‘© Suburban—Urban and suburban arcas, wooded
areas, or other terrain with numerous closely
spaced obstructions having the size of single-
family or larger dwellings. Use of this category
shall be Timited to those areas for which
representative terrain prevails in the upwind
direction at least 500 000 mm. SECTION; (SI): LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS
339
* City Large city centers with atleast 50 percent
of the buildings having a height in excess of
21 000 mma, Use of this category shall be limited
to those areas for which representative terrain
prevails in the upwind direction atleast 800 000
‘mm, Possible channeling effects of ineveased
velocity pressures due tothe bridge or structure's
location in the wake of adjacent structures shall,
be taken into account,
Table 3.8,.1-1 Values of Vp and Zp for Various Upstream Surface
Conditions.
OPEN
CONDITION
¥o (km/hr) 132.
Zo(mm) | 70
Vig may be established from:
‘+ Basic Wind Speed charts available in ASCE 7-88
for various recurrence intervals,
‘Site-specific wind surveys, and
‘+ Inthe absence of beter exterion, the assumption
that Vig = Ve ~ 160 kane.
3.8.1.2 Wind Pressure on Structures: 17S
381.21 General
[fjustified by local conditions, a different base design
‘wind velocity may be selected for load combinations not
involving wind on live load. The direction of the design
‘wind shall be assumed to be horizontal, unless otherwise
specified in Article 3.8.3. Inthe absence of mote precise
‘data, design wind preseure, in MPa, may be determined as.
8121)
P= base wind pressure specified in Table 1 (MPa)
‘Table 38.1.2.1-1 Base Pressures, Pp Corresponding to Vs =
160 kmihe.
C3B121
‘The stagnation pressure associated with a wind
velocity of 160 kmvfar. is 12310? MPa, which is
significantly Tess than the valves specified in Table I. The
difforence reflects the effect of gusting combined with
some tadition of long-time usage.
‘The pressures specified in Nimm or MPa (Nima)
should be chosen to produce the greater net wind load on
the structure.
‘Wind tunnel tests may be used to provide more precise
estimates of wind pressures. Such testing should be
considered where wind is a major design load.
‘The term “columns” in Table 1 refers to columns in
superstructures such a5 spandrel colutnns in arches.
SUPERSTRUCTURE | WINDWARD | LEEWARD
‘COMPONTENT LOAD, MPa_| LOAD, MPa
‘Trusses, Columns, and 0.0024 0.0012
Arches
‘Beams 0.0024 NA
Large Flat Surfaces 0.0019 NA 3.40
‘The total wind loading shall not be taken less than
44 Nima in the plano ofa windward chord and 2.2.Nimm
jn the plane of @ leeward chord on truss and arch
‘components, and not less than 44 N/mm on beam or girder
spans,
4.8.1.2.2 Loads from Superstructures
Where the wind isnot taken as normal tothe structure,
the base wind pressures, Ps, for various angles of wind
direction may be taken as specified in Table I and shall be
applied to single place of exposed area, The skew angle
shall be faken as measured from a perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis. The wind direction for design shall be
that which produces the extreme force effect on the
component under investigation. The wansverse and
longitudinal pressures shal be applied simultancousy.
AASHTO LRFD Bunce Drsicn SreciricaTions (SI)
38.122
For trusses, columns, and arches, the base wind
pressures specified in Table I are the sum of the pressures
applied to both the windward and leeward areas.
Table 3.8:1.2.2-1 Base Wind Pressures, Pp, for Various Angles of Atiaek and
0 0.0036 [0.0000 | “0.0024 | ~o.0000.
15 (0.0034 | 0.0006 | 0.0021 | 0.0008.
30 ‘0.0031 | 0.0013 | 0.0020 | 0.0006
w (0.0023_| 0.0020 | 0.0016 | 0.0008.
oo ‘0.0011 | 0.0024 | 0.0008 0.0008
3.8.1.2.3 Forees Applied Directly 10 the
Substructure
‘The transverse and longitudinal forces to be applied
irectly to the substructure shall be caleulated from. an
assumed base wind pressure of 0.0019 MPa. For wind
direction taken skewed tothe substructure, this force shall
be resolved into components perpendicular to the end and
front elevations of the substructure. The component
perpendicular tothe end elevation shall act on the expased
substructure srea as seen in end clevation, and the
‘component perpendicular to the front elevation shall act on
the exposed areas and shall be applied simultaneously With
‘the wind loads from the superstructure, ‘SECTIONS (SI): LoaDs aN Loan FACTORS.
38.1.3 Wind Pressure on Vehicles: WZ
When vehicles are present, the design wind pressure
shall be applied to both structure and vebicles, Wind
pressure on vehicles shall be represented by an
interuptible, moving foree of 1.46 Nimm acting normal to,
‘and 1800 mm above, the roadway and shall be transmitted
to the structure,
‘When wind on vehicles is not taken as normal to the
structure, the components of normal and parallel force
applied tothe live load may be taken as specified in Table
1 with the skow angle taken as referenced normal tothe
surface,
‘Table3.8.1.341 Wind Components on Live Load.
Normal Parallel
Skew Angle_| Component _| Component
Degrees ‘Nim Nim
0 1.46 0.00,
1s 128. 0.18
30. 1.20 035
45 096 047
a. 050 0.55
3.82 Vertical Wind Pressure
‘Unless otherwise determined in Article 3.8.3, a
vertical upward wind foree of 9.6:10" MPa times the
‘width ofthe deck incmucng parapess ana siacwalks, sail
be considered to be a longitudinal line load. This force
be applied only for the Strength If and Service TV
Timit sates which do not involve wind on live Toad, and
only when the direetion of wind is taken 10 be
‘erpencicular to the longitudinal axis ofthe bridge. This
Tineal force shal be applied atthe windward quarter point
ofthe deck wid in conjunction withthe Horizontal Wind
loads specified in Arcle 3.8.1
3.83 Aeroelastic Instability
3.83.1 General
Aeroelastic force effects shal be taken into aecountin
the design of bridges and structural components apt to be
‘wind-sensitive. For the purpose of this Amtile, all bridges,
and structural components thereof with a span Tength to
width or depth ratio exceeding 30.0 shall be deemed to be
wind-sensitive
‘The vibration of cables due to the interaction of wind
and rain shall also be considered,
aa
C3813
Based on practical experience, maximum live loads
‘are not expected tobe present oa the bridge when the wind
‘velocity exceeds 90 kin. The load factor corresponding
to the treatment of wind on structure only in Load
‘Combination Strength II would be (90/160)? (1.4)=0.44,
‘which has bean rounded to 0.40 in the Strength V Load
Combination. This loed factor corresponds to 03 in
Serviee I
‘The 1.46 Nim wind load is based on a long row of
randomly sequenced passenger ears, commercial vans, and
trucks exposed to the 90 kavbr. design wind. This
horizontal ive Toad, similar tothe design lane load, should
be epplied only to the tributary areas producing a force
effect of the same kind.
e382
‘The intent of this Article is to account forthe effect
resulting from interruption ofthe horizoatal flow of air by
tte superstructure, This loud 4s 4 be applied even 4
discontinuous bridge decks, such as grid decks. This load
‘may govem where overtuming of the bridge is
investigated,
383.1
Because ofthe complexity of analyses often necessary
for an in-depth evaluation of structural aeroclastciy, this
Antcle is intentionally kept to @ simple statement. Many
bridges, decks, or individual structural components have
been shown to be aeroelastcally insensitive iftheirlength=
‘o-width of length-to-depth ratios are under about 30.0, a
somewhat arbitrary value helpful only in identifying likely
‘wind-sensitive eases. 342
3.8.3.2 Aeroelastic Phenomena
‘The aeroelastic phenomena of vortex excitation,
galloping, flutter, and divergence shall be considered
‘where applicable
383.3 Control of Dynamle Responses
Bridges and structural components thereof, including
cables, shall be designed to be fie of fatigue damage due
to vortex-induced or galloping oscillations. Bridges shall
be designed to be free of divergence and catastrophic
flutter up to 1.2 times the design wind velocity applicable
at bridge deck height.
3834 Wind Tunnel Tests
Representative wind tunnel tests may be used 10
satisfy the requirements of Articles 3.8.3.2 and3.8.3.3.
AASHTO LRFD Brince Desiey Sprciricartons (SD)
Flexible bridges, such as eable-supported or very long,
spans of any type, may require special studies based on.
Wind tunnel information. In general, appropriate wind
‘tunnel tests involve simulation of the wind environment
local to the bridge site. Details of this are part of the
existing wind tunnel state of the art and aro beyand the
scope of this commentary.
3.832
Excitation due to vortex shedding is the escape of
‘wind-induced vortices behind the member, which tend to
excite the component at its fundamental natural frequency
{in harmonie motion. Itis important to keep stresses due to
‘vortex-induced oscillations below the “infinite life” fatigue
stress. Methods exist for estimating such stress amplitudes,
but they are outside the scope of this commentary.
‘Tubular components ean be protected against vortex
induced oscillation by adding bracing, strakes, or tuned
‘mass dampers or by ataching horizontal lat plates parallel
to the tube axis above and/or below the central third of
their span. Such aerodynamic damper plates should lie
about one-third tube diameter above or below the tube to
allow free passage of wind. The width ofthe plates may be
the diameter ofthe tube or wider.
Galloping is a high-amplitude oscillation associated
‘with ice-laden cables or long, flexible members having
aerodynamically unsymmettical cross-sections. Cable-
‘says, having circular sections, will not gallop unless their
circumferences are deformed by ice, dropping water, or
accumulated debris,
lexile bridge decks, ax in very long spans and some
pedestrian bridges, may be prone to wind-induced fitter, a
wind-excited oscillation of destructive amplitudes, or, on
some occasions, divergence, an irreversible twist under
high wind, Analysis methods, including wind tunnel
studies leading to adjustments of the deck form, are
available for prevention ofboth flutter and divergence.
3.833
Cables in stayed-gicer bridges have been successfully
stabilized against excessive dynamic responses by
attaching automotive dampers to the bridge at deck level or
by cross-tying multiple eable-stays,
C3834
Wind tunnel testing of bridges and other civil
‘engincering structures is a highly developed technology,
which may be used to study the wind response
characteristics ofa structural model orto verify the results
‘of analysis (Simiu 1976). ‘SECTION; (SI): LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS,
39 ICE LOADS: IC
3.9.1 General
This Article refers only to freshwater ice in rivers and
Takes; ice loads in seawater should be determined by
suitable specialists using site-specific information.
Tee forces on piers shall be determined with regard to
site conditions and expected modes of ice action as
follows:
+ Dynamic pressure due to moving sheets or floes
of ice being carried by stream flow, wind, or
ceurents;
‘+ Static pressure duc to thermal movements of tee
sheets
© Pressure resulting from hanging dams or jams of
ice: and
‘© Static: uplift or vertical load resulting from
adhering ice in waters of fluctuating evel
‘The expected thickness of ice, the direction of its
movement, and the height of ts action shal be determined
‘by field investigations, review of public records, serial
surveys, or other suitable means.
3.83
e391
‘Most ofthe information for ice loads was taken from
Montgomery tal. (/94), which provided background for
the clauses on ice loads for Canadian Standards
Association (/988). A useful additional source has been
Neill (1980),
It is convenient to classify ice forces on piers as
dynamic forees and static forces.
Dynamic forces occur when a moving ice floestikesa
bridge pier. The forces imposed by the ice floc on 2 pier
are dependent on the size of the foe, the strength and.
thickness of the ice, andthe geometry ofthe pir.
‘The following types of ice failure have been observed
(Momgomery etal. 1984
* Crushing, where the ice fails by local crushing
across the width of a pier. The crushed ice is
continually clear froma zone around the pier as
the fle moves past.
Bending, where 2 vertical reaction component
tacts on the ice fle impinging on a pier with sn
inclined nose. This reaction causes the fle to rise
up the pier nose, as flexural cracks form.
‘© Spliting, where a comparatively small floe strikes
1 pier and is split into smaller parts by stress
cracks propagating fcen the pier
‘+ Impact, where a small floe is brought toa halt by
impinging on the nose of the pier before it has
crushed over the full width of the pier, bent or
soli
‘+ Buckling, where compressive forces cause a large
‘oe to fail by buckling in font of the nose of a
very wide pier.
For bridge piers of usual proportions on larger bodies
cof water, crushing and bending failures usually control the
‘magnitude of the design dynamic ice force. On smaller
streams, Which cannot carry large ice floes, impact failure
can be the controlling mode.
Inall three cases, itis essential to recognize the effects
fof resonance between the pier and the ice forces
‘Montgomery etal (1980) have shown that for a massive
pier with a damping coefficient of 20 pervent of critica,
‘tho maximum dynamic effect is approximately equal tothe
‘greatest force, but for lesser damping values there is a
‘considerable amplification.
‘Montgomery and Lipsett (1980) measured damping of
1 massive pier at 19 percent of critical, but it is expected
that slender piers and individual piles may have damping
‘values ofS percent or less 3.9.2 Dynamic Tee Forees on Piers
39.22. Effective Ice Strength
In the absence of more precise information, the
following values may be used for effective ice crushing
strength:
038 MPa, where breakup occurs at melting
tempecatines and the oe srctire i ube
disintegrated;
© 0.77 MPa, where breakup occurs at melting
temperatures and the ico stcture is somewhat
isintegrated;
‘© LIS MPs, where breakup ormsjor ice movement
‘occurs at melting temperatures, but the ice moves
in large pieces and is internally sound; and
© 153. MPa, where breakup or majorice movement
‘occurs when the iee temperature, averaged over
its dept, is measurably below the melting point
AASHTO LRED Brnce. Drsicx Srrcincavioxs (SI)
In the discussion of impuct-type ice failure above, the
indication is thatthe floe is “small.” Small is extremely
difficult to define and is site-specific, Floes up 10 23 000,
‘mm long have been observed to fail by splitting when
driven by water velocities of 3000 mmisec. (Haynes 1996),
Static forces may be caused by the thermal expansion
‘of ice in which a pier is embedded or by iregular growth
ff the ice field. This kas typically been observed
downstream of a dam, or hyéroclectric plant or other
channel where ice predominantly forms only on one side of
the river or ier.
Ice jams can arch between bridge piers. The break-up
{ce jam isa more or less cohesianless accumulation of ice
fragments (Montgomery etal. 1984).
“Hanging dams are created when fezil ice passos under
the surface layer of ice and accumulates under the surface
ice at the bridge site. The frazil ice comes typically from
rapids or waterfalls upstream. The hanging dam can cause
a backup of water, which exerts pressure on the pier and
‘can cause scour around or under piers as water flows at an
increased velocity,
3924
should be noted that the effective ie strenaths given
herein are forthe purpose of entering imo formula to
anive at forces on pies. Different formulas might require
different offectve ie strengths o arrive a tho same result
‘AS guide, the 0.38 MPa strength is appropeate for
pine whore lang eeporionce innate that ine frre are
‘minima, but som allowance i required frie effects the
1.53 MPs stength is considered 1o be «reasonable upper
limit based on the observed history of bridges that have
survived ic conditions (Neil 1981) Effective ce stengths
of up to 2.76 MPa havo been used inthe design of some
bridges in Alaska (Haynes 1996)
The effective ice strength depends mostly on the
temperature and grain sizeof the ice (Montgomery eta.
1984), For example, laboratory measured compressive
strengths at 0°C vay from about 2.9 MPa fr grain sizes of
{mm to 1.3 MPa for grain sizes ofS mm, and at-5°C ice
stcengtis are approximately double the values given. Thus,
tne effective ice strenaths given herein are not necessarily
representative of laboratory tests or actual ice strengths,
and infact areon the order of one-half of observed values
(cit 1982). ‘SeCTION3 (SI): Loans AND Loan FAcrORS,
3.92.2 Crushing and Flexing
‘The horizontal force, F, resulting from the pressure of
moving ioe shal be taken as
6.0, then:
lesser of either F, of, when ice failure by flexure
is considered applicable as described herein, F,
and
© 1f% > 60, then:
'
Cs ptw B.9.2.2-1)
Fem Cy pt? (3.9.2.2-2)
Ce = Sts 1)? (3.9.2.2-3)
os
4)
im (a-15) fue
where:
© = thickness of ice (mm)
3.45
‘The compressive strength of the ice depends upon
temperature, but the tensile strength is nat soositive to
temperature. Because much ice failure is the result of
spliting or tensile failure ia bending, and because grain
sizes, tacks, and other imperfections vary in the field,
only crude approximations of ice strenats can be made
Thus, temperature is nol a consideration for seting
effective ice strengths in these Specifications
Some ofthe most severe ice runs in the United States
cour during a rapid Janunry thaw, when the air
temperature is about 10°C, atthe average ice temperature
can sil be below 0°C because of an insulting snow cover
apnes 1996),
3922
‘The expression of Fis based on field measurements
of forees on two bridge piers in Alberta (Lipsert and
Gerard 1980). See also Huiskamp (2983), with a Cy
proposed by Afunas'ev et al. (/97/), and verified by Neill
(1976).
‘The expression for s taken from Lipsott and Gerard
(2980)
‘wit= 6.0 isa rough estimate ofthe upper limit of wr at
Which ice that has failed by bending will be washed around,
the pier
Tis assumed that the force on the pier is governed by
the crushing or bending strength ofthe ice, and thus there
is not a term in Eqs. 1 or 2 relating to velocity ofthe ice.
‘The interaction between an ice floe and a pier depends on,
the size and strength ofthe floc and how squarely it strikes
the pier Ie as besa reported tha as ce Hoe 60-000 a in
size will usually fall by crushing if this pier squarely. T¢
2 floe 30 000 mm in size does not hit the pier squarely, it
will usually impact the pier and rotate sround the pier und
pass downstream with only litte local erushing.
Although no account is taken ofthe shape af the nose
of the pier, laboratory tests at the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers” Cold Regions Research and. Engineering,
Laboratory (CRREL) have shown the bullet-shaped pier
nose can reduce ice forces the most compared to ather
types of geometry. Pointed angular noses, as shown in
Figure C3.9.24.1-1, have been found to cause lateral
vibrations of the pier without reducing the streamwise
force. CRREL has measured lateral or torsional vibrations
‘on the pointed nose Yukon River Bridge piers. The long-
term ramifications ofthese vibrations are not known at this
time (Haynes 1996). @ = inclination ofthe nose to the vertical
effective ico crushing suength as spocified in
Anicle 3.9.2.1 (MPs)
w = pice width at level of ice action (mam)
Fe = horizontal ice force caused by ice floes that fail,
by crushing over the full width ofthe pier (N)
Fy = horizontal ice force caused by ice floes that ful
by flexure as they ride up the inclined pier nose
”
coefficient accounting for the effect of the pier
vwidtbice thickness ratio where the floe fails by
crushing
Ga
coefficient accounting for the inclination of the
pier nose with respect to a vertical line
where «:< 15°, ice failure by flexure shall not be
‘considered to be a possible ie failure made for the
purpose of calculating the horizontal force. Fin which
caso F shall be taken as F
AASHTO LRED Bribe Desion SrEciTiCst10xs (SD)
Tce thickness is the greatest unknown in the
‘determination of ce forces on piers. Equations can be used
{forostisatingice thickness. The design should be based on
tho extrome, not averago, iee thickness. The elevation on
‘the pier where the design force shall be applied is
important for calculating the overturning moments.
‘Because ie stage increases during an ie run, relying on
local knowledge of the maximum stage is vital to proper
design (Haynes 1993). For the purpose of design, the
proferred method to establish the thickness of ie, fs to
‘base it on measurements of maximum thicknesses, taken
‘over period of several years, atthe potential bridge sites.
‘Where observations over a long period of ime are not
available, an empirical method based on Neill (198/) is,
suggested as follows:
t= Ma Jl5; e392)
wher:
a. = coeciet for Joes! condos, normally less
than 10
5 = fering inden, bing the sigehaic sum, 1-2),
‘summed from the date of froeze-up to the date of
interest, in degree days
‘mean daily air temperature (°C)
Assuming hat temperate recor ar eval, the
maximum receded alo of Scan be teraned
‘Ons poste method of determining by simple
caltation in vic, through he course oFa single wine,
the ice thickness can be teased at vais fines and
plotted against J,
Asa guide, Nil (981 incest following values
fore:
‘windy lakes without snow. cen O8
average lake with snow.
average river with snow.
sheltered small river with snow...
Due to its good insulating characteristics, snow has 2
significant effect on ice growth. Williams (1963) has
shown that asnow cover greater than 150 mm in thickness
thas the effect of reducing a by as much as 50 percent.
Neill does not define “average,” sad it has been noted.
bby Gerard and Stanely (1992) tht deep snow can produce
snow-ce, thus offsetting the benefits of snow insulation, ‘SecTION3 (SI): Loans AND Loan FACTORS.
3.9.2.3 Small Streams
(On sinall streams not conducive to the formation of
large ice floes, consideration may be givea to reducing the
forces Fy and F., determined in accordance with
Article 3.9.2.2, but under no cizcumstances shall the forces
bbe reduced by more than 50 percent.
a7
Large lakes take longer to cool down, which leads to
later freeze-up date. This results in fewer degree-days of
freezing and, hence, smaller ice thicknesses.
The remaining decision isto establish the appropriate
clevation of the ice force to be applied to the pier. The
elevation required is that at break-up, not at the mean
winter level. Neill (1982) suggests several methods of
determining ie elevations, but the most common method
in general use is probably to rely on local knowledge and
examination of the river banks to determine the extent of
damage by ice, such as the marking or removal of trees.
3923
CANICSA-S6-88 has an expression for ive frees in
‘small streams, for which a theory is given by Montgomery
etal. (1984), It is considered insulliciently verified to be
included herein.
‘On sll streams, witha width of ess than 90 000 ram
atthe mean water level, dynamic ie forees, as determined
in Article 3.9.2.2, may be reduced in accordance with,
‘Table Cl. Another important factor that determines the ice
floe size are the type of features in the river upstream of
the site. Islands, dams, and bridge piers can break ice into
small floes.
where:
A = plan area of the largest ee foe in (min)
radius of pier nose (mun)
Table €3.9.2.3-1 Reduction Factor
Ki; for Stall Streams.
Reduction Factor, Ky;
1000 10.
300 09
7200 Or
100. 06,
50. os
‘The rationale forthe reduction factor, Ki, is thatthe
bridge may be struck only by small ice flocs with
insufficient momentum to cause failure of the floe. 348
39.24 Combination of Longitudinal and
‘Transverse Forces
3.9.24 Piers Parallel to Flow
The force F, determined as specified in Articles
3.9.22 and 39.23, shall be taken to act along the
longitudinal axis of the pier ifthe ive movement has only
‘one direction and the pier is approximately aligned with
‘that direction. In this case, two design cases shall be
investigated as follows;
‘© A longitudinal force equal to F shallbe combined
‘with a transverse force of 0.15F, or
+ A longitudinal force of 0.5F shall be combined
with a transverse force af Fy
The transverse force, shall be taken as
Fr
——_— GB9241-1)
Fea B2+0)
where
B= nose angle in a horizontal plane for around nose
taken as 100 C)
6 = ition angle between ice and pier nose (*)
Both the longitudinal and transverse forces shall be
assumed to acta the pier nose.
3.92.4.2 Piers Skewed to Flow
‘Where the longitudinal axis of a pier is not parallel to
‘the principal direction of ice ation, or where the direction
of ice action may shift, the total force onthe pier shall be
determined on the basis of the projected pier width and
resolved into components. Under such coacitions, forces
‘ransversoto tho Tongitudinel axis of the picr shall be taken
toe atleast 20 percent of the foal force.
3
§§ Slender and
ble Piers
Slender and flexible piers shall not be use in regions
where ice forees are significant, unless advice on
icolstructure interaction has been obtained from an ice
specialist. This provision also applies to slender and
flexible components of piers, including piles that come imo
‘contact with water-borne ie.
AASHTO LRED Bruns DrsiGN SrECIFICATIONS (SI)
3.9241
It would be unrealistic to expect the ice force to be
exactly paratlel to the pier, so a minimum lateral
‘component of 15 percent of the longitudinal force is
specified
‘The expression for F; comes from Montgomery eta
(984), and is explained in Figure C1 taken from the same
ICE FLOE
Figure C3.9.24l-1 Transverse lee Force Where a Floe
Falls Over a Portion ofa Pier.
€3.92.4.2
The provisions for piers skewed to flow are taken from
CANICSA-$6-88 (188).
3925
Ichas been shown by Montgomery etal. (7980) and
coihers that flexible piets and pier components may
‘experience considerable amplification ofthe ice forees as @
result of resonant ice/structure interaction at low levels of
structural damping. In this case, the provisions of
Article 3.9.5 may be inadequate for vertical forces on piers. ‘SeT10N3 (SI): Loans AND LOAD FACTORS,
3.9.3 Static Iee Loads on Piers
Ice pressures on pies frozen into ice sheets shall be
investigated where the ice sheets are subject to significant
thermal movements relative to the pier winere the growth of
shore ie ison one side only or in other situations that may
produce substantil unbalanced forees onthe pier.
3.9.4 Hanging Dams and Ice Jams
The frazil accumulation in a hanging dam may be
faken to exert a pressure of 0.0096 to 0.096 MPa as it
moves by the pier. An ice jam may be taken to exert a
pressure of 0.9610" to 9.6x10° MPa.
3.9.5 Vertical Forces Due to Ice Adhesion
‘The vertical force, in N, ona bridge pier due to rapid
‘water level fluctuation shall be taken a8:
Fora etrouar ler:
atas (105-222) eas
Foranohong ne
(25n0°}ese0128 (10512224) aos,
where:
{ce thickness (mn)
R= radius of circular pier (mm); or radius of half
circles at ends of an oblong pier (mam) or radius
of a circle that cireumscribes each end of an
‘oblong pier of which the ends are not circular in
plan at water level (mm)
perimeter of pier, excluding half circles at ends of
oblong pier (mm)
349
3.93
Little guidance is available for predicting static ice
loads on piers. Under normal circumstances, the effects of
static ice forces on piers may be strain-limited, but expert,
advice should be sought if there is reason for concer,
Static ice forces due to thermal expansion of ice are
discussed in Haynes (2995). lee force cun be reduced by
several mitigating factors that usually apply. For example,
ice does not act simultaneously over the ful length of the
pies. Thermal stresses relax in time and prevent high
stresses over the fl ice thickness. A snow cover oa the ice
insulates the ice and reduces the thermal stresses, and ice
usually acts simultaneously on both sides of the pier
surrounded by the ice so that the resultant force is
‘considerably less than the lerger directional foree, ic,
force on one side of the pier. Article C3.9.1 contains
additional discussion,
03.94
‘The theory behind the ice pressures given for hanging
dams can be found in Montgomery eta. (7984). The wide
spread of pressures quoted reflects both the variability of
the ice and the lack of firm information on the subject.
9s
Bq, was derived by considering the failure ofa semi
infinite, wedge-shaped ice sheet on an elastic foundation
under vertical load applied at its apex. For a single ice
‘weage, the maximum verte foree, P, can be evaluaiea
from the expression (Nevel 1972)
tao( Joy" ne
p= | 1assa(2 +os[% |
: | a3) (395-1)
in which
o-(ws8) (350
a
or = tensile strength of ice (MPa)
maximum thickness of ice (mm)
angle of the truncated wedge (°) 350
AASHTO LRED Bunce Desicy Sencinicari0Ns (1)
2 = truncated distance, which is assumed to be equal
1 the radius ofa circular pier (mm)
€ = characteristic length calculated from the
expression (mm)
E = Young's modulus for ice (MPa)
1 = unit density of water (kg/m!)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/sec)
‘To obtain Eq. 1, the vertical force is summed for fo
‘wedges, each with a truncated angle of 90° Itis assumed.
thatthe tensile strength of ice is 0.84 times an effective
conishing strength of 1.1 MPa and that the ratio of the
‘rumeatod distance tothe characteristic length, aif, s less
than 0.6.
Eg, 2is the sum of two expressions
‘+ Bq, 1, which accounts forthe vertical ice forces
acting on the half circles atthe ends of an oblong
pies, and
© An expression that calculates the vertical ice
forces on the straight walls of the pier.
The expression for calculating the vertical ice forees
fon the long straight walls of the pier was derived by
considering a semi-infinite, rectangular ice sheet on an
elastic foundation under a uniformly distributed edge load,
‘The foree required to fail the ice sheet, F, can be expressed
as F=0.236 67! £ (Montgomery ef al, 1984),
gs, land 2are based on the conservative assumption
that ie adheres around the full perimeter ofthe pier cross-
section. They neglect creep and ae, therefore, conservative
{for water level fluctustions occurring over more than a few
minutes. However, they are also based on the
onconservative assumption that failure oceurs on the
formation of the first crack.
‘Some issues surrounding ice forces have been reported
in Zabilansky (1996). [LOADS AND LOaD FaCtons
3.9.6 lee Accretion and Snow Loads on
Superstructures
Generally snow loads, other than those caused by an
avalanche, neod not be considered. However, Owners in,
areas where unique sccumulations of snow and/or ice are
possible should specify appropriate loads for that
condition.
Loads due to icing of the superstructure by freezing,
‘ain shal be specified ifocal conditions so warrant.
3.96
‘The following discussion of snow loads is taken from.
Ritter (1990)
Snow loads should be considered where a bridge is
located in an area of potentially heavy snowfall. This can,
occur at high elevations in mountainous areas with large
seasonal accumulations, Snow loads are normally
negligible in areas of the United States that are below
{600 000 mm elevation and east of longitude 10S°W, or
below 300 000 mm elevation and west of longitude
105°W. In other areas of the country, snow loads as large
as 0.034 MPa may be encountered in mountainous
locations.
‘The effets of snow are assumed to be offset by an
accompanying decrease in vehicle live load. This
assumption is valid for most structures, but is not realistic
in areas where snowfll is significant. When prolonged
winter closure of a oad makes snow removal impossible,
the magnitude of snow loads may exceed those from
vehicular live loads. Loads also may be notable where
plowed snow is stockpiled or otherwise allowed to
accumulate. The applicability and magnitude of stow loads
‘are left to the Designer's judgment
Snow loads vary ftom year to year and depend on the
depth and density of snow pack, The depth used for design
should be based on @ mean recurrence interval or the
‘maximum recorded depth, Density is based on the degree
‘of compaction. The lightest accumulation is produced by
fresh snow fling at cold temperatures. Density increases
‘when the snow pack 1s subjected to freeze-thaw cycles or
rain. Probable densities for several snow pack conditions
are indicated in Table C1, ASCE (7980).
‘Table C3.9.6-1 Snow Density,
CONDITION OF | PROBABLE
SNOW PACK | DENSITY (kw'n")
Freshly Fallen 96
‘Accumulated 300)
‘Compacted 500)
Rain or Snow 500
Estimated snow load ean be determined from historical
records or other reliable data. General information on
‘ground snow loads is available from the National Weather
Service, from state and local agencies, and ASCE (1988),
Snow loads in mountain areas are subject to extreme
variations. The extent ofthese loads should be determined
‘an the basis of local experience or records, instead af on,
generalized information. 32
3.19 EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS: EQ
3.10.1 General
Barthguake loads shall be taken to be horizontal force
effects determined in accordance with the provisions of
Article 47.4 on the basis of the elastic response
coefficient, Cyq, specified in Anicle 3.10.6, and the
‘equivalent weight of the superstructure, end adjusted by
the response modification factor, R, specified in
Asticle 3.10.7.
‘The provisions herein shall apply to bridges of
conventional slab, beam girder, box girder, and truss
superstructure construction with spans not exceeding
150 000 mm. For other types of construction and bridges
With spans exceeding 1500000 mm, the Owner shall specify
and/or approve appropriate provisions. Unless otherwise
specified by the Owner, these provisions need not be
applied to completely buried structures.
Seismic effects for box culverts and buried structures
need not be considered, except where they eross active
faults,
Tne potential for soil
movenents shall be considered,
liquefaction and slope
AASHTO LRFD Bunce DEsiGn SPECIFICATIONS (SI)
‘The effect of snow loads on a bridge structure is
influenced by the pattem of snow accumulation.
‘Windblown snow drifts may produce unbalanced loads
‘considerably greater than those produced from uniformly
listibuted loads, Drifting is influenced by the terrain,
structure shape, and other features that cause changes in
the general wind flow. Bridge components, such as
railings, can serve to contain drifting snow and cause large
‘accumulations to develop.
cated
Earthquake loads ae given by the product of the
last seismic response coefficient Cy andthe equivalent
\weight ofthe superstrcture. The equivalent weigh i a
fimetion ofthe actual weight and bridge configuration and
is automatically included in both the single-mode and
multimode methods of analysis specified in Artile 4.7.4
‘hese Specifications establish design and detailing
provisions for bridges to minimize their suscepablty to
damage ffom earthquakes. A flow chart sunsarzing the
cartnquake design provisions is presented in the appendix
to this section.
‘Tae design eartiquake motions and forces specified
herein are based on a low probability of their being
exceeded during the normal life expectancy ofa bridge
Bridges that are designed and detailed in accordance with
the provisions ofthese Specifications mey suer damage,
‘but should have low probability of eollase due to
seismically mcuced ground shaking,
The principles sed for the development of these
Specifications ae:
‘© Small o moderate earthquakes should be resisted
within the elastic range of the structural
components without significant damage
‘© Realistic seismic ground motion intensities and
forces should be used in the design procedures
‘© Exposure to shaking from large earthquakes
should not cause collapse of all or part of the
bridge, Where possible, damage that does occur
should be readily detectable and accessible for
inspostion and repair ‘SECTION 3 (SI): LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS.
310.2. Acceleration Coefficient
‘The coefficient, 4, to be used inthe application of
these provisions shell be determined from the contour
naps in Figures 1, 2, and 3. Linear interpolation shall be
_used for sites located between contour lines or between a
‘contour line and a local maximum or minimum,
Special studies to determine site- and structure-
specific acceleration coefficients shall be performed by a
qualified professional if any one of the following
conditions exis:
‘©The site is located close to an active fault,
‘+ Long-duration earthquakes are expected in the
region,
‘+ Thoimportance ofthe bridge is such thata longer
exposure petiod (and, therefore, return period)
should be considered,
‘The effect of soil conditions at the site are considered
in Article 3.10.5
353
ca102
‘Values given in these figures are expressed in percent
‘Numerical values for the Coefficient are obtained by
dividing contour values by 100, Local maxima and minima
are given inside the highest and lowest contour for a
particular region.
‘The maps used in these Specifications to define the
acceleration coefficient are based on a uniform risk model
of seismic hazard. The probability thet the coefficient will,
not be exceeded ata given location during a 50-year period
js estimated to be about 90 percent, ix., a 10 percent
probability of exceedance. The use of a 50-year interval to
characterize this probability is an arbitrary convenience
and docs not imply that all bridges are thought to have a
useful life of 50 years,
Tt can be shown that an event with the above
probebility of nonexceedance has a return period of about
475 years and is called the design earthquake. Larger
earthquakes than those implied by the above eeceleration
cocfficients have a finite probability of occurrence
throughout the United States. Those with a return period of
around 2500 years are sometimes called maxinmm
probeble earthquakes.
Tt can also be shown that if the time interval is
lengthened to, say, 75 yeas, the probability of exceeding
an earthquake with 2 retum period of 475 years increases
to about 15 percent. 356
AASHTO LRFD Baipae Desiex Seeciricarions (SD)
igure 3.10.23 Acceleration Coefficient for Alaska, Hawai, and Puerto Rico,
3.10.3 Importance Categories
For the purpose of Article 3.10, the Owner or those
having jurisdiction shall classify the bridge into one of
three importance categories as follows:
oc
I bridges,
‘© Bssential bridges, or
© Other bridges,
‘Tae basis of classification shall include socia/survival
and security/defense requirements. In classifying bridge,
consideration should be given to possible future changes in
conditions and requirements.
3.104 Seismic Performance Zones
Each bridge stall be assigned to one of the four
seismic zones in accordance with Table 1.
‘Table 3.10.41 Seismic Zones.
‘Acceleration
Coefficient
45009
oo
