Lecture 1

Lecture 1
EEE 471
Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 1
EEE 471
Introduction to
Radar Systems
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Radar System
Classification
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Introduction
❖ The word radar is an abbreviation for radio detection and ranging.
❖ In most cases, radar systems use modulated waveforms and
directive antennas to transmit electromagnetic energy into a specific
volume in space to search for targets.
❖ Objects (targets) within a search volume will reflect portions of
the incident energy (radar returns or echoes) in the direction of the
radar.
❖ These echoes are then processed by the radar receiver to extract
target information such as range, velocity, angular position, and
other target identifying characteristics.
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Radar Systems Classifications
Radars can be classified as;
➢ Ground-based radar systems,
➢ Airborne radar systems,
➢ Spaceborne radar systems,
➢ Ship-based radar systems.

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Radars can also be classified into numerous categories based
on the specific radar characteristics, such as
❑ The frequency band,
❑ Antenna type,
❑ Waveforms utilized.
▪ Radar systems using continuous waveforms (modulated or
otherwise) are classified as Continuous Wave (CW) radars.
▪ Alternatively, radar systems using time-limited pulsed
waveforms are classified as Pulsed Radars.
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Another radar systems classification is concerned with the
mission or the functionality of the specific radar.
❑ Weather,
❑ Acquisition and search,
❑ Tracking,
❑ Track-while-scan,
❑ Fire control,
❑ Early warning,
❑ Over-the-horizon,
❑ Terrain following, and terrain avoidance radars.
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Phased Array Radar (PAR)
➢ PARs utilize phased array antennas and are often called
multifunction (multimode) radars.
➢ A phased array is a composite antenna formed from two or more
basic radiators.
➢ Array antennas synthesize narrow directive beams that may be
steered, mechanically or electronically.
➢ Electronic steering is achieved by controlling the phase of the
electric current feeding the array elements.
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➢ Historically, radars were first developed for military
purposes. For this reason, the most common radar systems
classification is the letter or band designation used initially by
the military during and after World War II.
➢ This letter or band designation has also been adopted as
an IEEE standard. (Also, an ITU standard has taken place.)
➢ In recent decades, NATO has adopted a new band
designation with easier abecedarian letters.
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IEEE Standard 521-2002 Standard Radar
Frequency Letter-Band Nomenclature
Radar systems band or letter

classification
NATO Radar/ECM Frequency Letter-Band

Nomenclature
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)

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NATO Radar & ECM Bands
Band Frequency
A 30 - 250 MHz
Radar systems band or letter B 250 - 500 MHz
classification C
D
500 - 1,000 MHz
1 - 2 GHz
E 2 - 3 GHz
F 3 - 4 GHz
G 4 - 6 GHz
H 6 - 8 GHz
I 8 - 10 GHz
J 10 - 20 GHz
K 20 - 40 GHz
NATO Radar/ECM Frequency Letter-Band L 40 - 60 GHz
Nomenclature M 60 - 100 GHz

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Band Description Frequency Range Wavelength
ELF Extremely low frequency 3 Hz - 30 Hz 100,000 Km - 10,000 Km
ITU radio bands - SLF Super low frequency 30 Hz - 300 Hz 10,000 Km - 1,000 Km
Article 2, provision ULF

VLF
Ultra low frequency
Very low frequency
300 Hz - 3 KHz
3 KHz - 30 KHz
1,000 Km - 100 Km
100 Km - 10 Km
No. 2.1 Frequency LF Low frequency 30 KHz - 300 KHz 10 Km - 1 Km
Letter-Band MF Medium frequency 300 KHz - 3 MHz 1 Km - 100 meters

HF High frequency 3 MHz - 30 MHz 100 meters - 10 meters
Nomenclature VHF Very high frequency 30 MHz - 300 MHz 10 meters - 1 meter
UHF Ultra high frequency 300 - 3,000 MHz 1 meter - 10 cm
SHF Super high frequency 3 - 30 GHz 10 cm - 10 mm
(ITU: International
Telecommunication Union) Extremely high
EHF 30 - 300 GHz 10 mm - 1 mm
frequency
Tremendously high
THF 300 - 3,000 GHz 1 mm - 0.1 mm
frequency

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Band Frequency Explanation of meaning
Designation Range of letters
Radar Frequency HF 0.003 - 0.03 GHz High Frequency
VHF 0.03 - 0.3 GHz Very High Frequency
Bands according to UHF 0.3 - 1 GHz Ultra High Frequency
L 1 - 2 GHz Long wave
IEEE Standard (We will S 2 - 4 GHz Short wave
use this classification C 4 - 8 GHz Compromise between S and X

Used in World War II for fire control, X
in this lecture!) X 8 – 12.5 GHz
for cross (as in crosshair). Exotic.
Ku 12.5 - 18 GHz Kurz-under
K 18 – 26.5 GHz Kurz (German for 'short')
Ka 26.5 - 40 GHz Kurz-above
V 40 - 75 GHz
W 75 - 110 GHz W follows V in the alphabet
mm or G 110 - 300 GHz Millimeter
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HF and VHF Radars (A- and B-Bands)
❑ These radar bands below 300MHz represent the frontier of
radio technology at the time during the World War II.
❑ In the modern radar era, these frequency bands are used
for early warning radars.
❑ These radars utilize the electromagnetic (EM) waves’
reflection off the ionosphere to detect targets beyond the
horizon, and so they are called Over-the-Horizon Radars
(OTHR).
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Ionosphere: The earths
atmosphere can be divided
into five concentric regions
having boundaries that are
not clearly defined.

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Ionosphere: Day and night hours.

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U. S. Navy over-the-horizon
Radar
AN/TPS-71 ROTHR
(Relocatable Over-the-Horizon Radar)
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Duga (Russian Woodpecker
OTHR radar)

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➢ In low HF and VHF frequency bands, the EM wave atmospheric
attenuation is small, and OTH detection can be achieved using
high-power transmitters.
➢ Radar angular measurement accuracies are limited in these
bands because lower frequencies require antennas with
significant physical size, thus limiting the radar’s angle accuracy
and resolution.

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Atmospheric Attenuation

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Atmospheric Attenuation (Polarization)
B
 E = −
t
D
 H = J +
t
Radio waves are polarized in the E plane.

- Vertically Polarized: The E-field is vertical,
- Horizontal Polarized: The E-field is horizontal,
- Circular Polarized: The E-field is circular or elliptical
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Atmospheric Attenuation

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➢ Other communication and broadcasting services typically
use these frequency bands.
➢ Therefore, the available bandwidth for military radar
systems is limited and highly contested throughout the world.
➢ Low-frequency systems can be used for Foliage Penetration
(FoPen) applications, as well as in Ground Penetrating (GPen)
applications.
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HF and VHF Radars (A and B Bands)
Foliage Penetration (FoPen) Radar Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)

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UHF Radars (B and C Bands)
➢ UHF bands are used for very long-
BMEWS
range Early Warning Radars. An example
of UHF radars is the Ballistic Missile Early
Warning System (BMEWS) search-and-
track monopulse radar that operates at
the low portions of UHF.
➢ This frequency band is also used for the detection and tracking of
satellites and ballistic missiles over a long range.
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UHF Radars (C-Band) Perimeter and
Other examples of the UHF radars are Acquisition
➢ The Perimeter and Acquisition Radar, Radar
which is a very long-range multifunction
phased array radar
PAVE
PAWS
➢ The early warning PAVE PAWS

multifunction UHF phased array radar.
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L-Band Radars (D-Band/1-2GHz)
➢ Radars in the L-band are primarily ground-based and ship-
based systems used in long-range military and air traffic
control and search operations for up to 500 km.
➢ Due to earth curvature, their maximum achievable range is
limited when detecting low-altitude targets, which can
disappear very quickly below the horizon.

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L-Band Radars (D-Band/1-2GHz)
Air Traffic Management (ATM) long-range surveillance radars like
the Air Route Surveillance Radar (ARSR), work in this frequency
band.
ARSR-1
ARSR-4
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S-Band Radars (E and F-Bands / 2-4 GHz)
Most ground- and ship- ASR-9
based medium range radars
operate in the S-band. For
example, the Airport
Surveillance Radar (ASR)
used for air traffic control is
an S-band radar.

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S-Band Radars (E and F-Bands / 2-4 GHz)
The ship-based AEGIS
multifunction phased array
radar is another example
for S-band radars.

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S-Band Radars (E and F-Bands)
The Airborne Warning and
Control Systems (AWACS)
also use S-band radars.
The atmospheric attenuation in this
band is higher than in the D-Band,
and they are also more susceptible
to weather conditions. Radar in this
Boeing 737 AEW&C MESA
band usually need considerably
high transmitting power as compared to the lower-frequency radars
in order to achieve maximum detection range.
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C-Band Radars (G-Band / 4-8 GHz)
Many of the mobile military battlefield surveillance, missile control
and ground surveillance radar systems operate in this band.
SA-8 Gecko
AN/MPQ-53 Patriot Radar Search and Detection

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Most weather radar systems are also C-band
radars. Medium range search and fire control
military radars and metric instrumentation
radars are C-band systems.
OU-PRIME (Polarimetric Radar

for Innovations in Meteorology
and Engineering)

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➢ In this band, the size of the antenna allows for achieving
excellent angular accuracies and resolution.
➢ The performance of systems operating in this band suffers
severely from lousy weather conditions, and to counter that,
they often employ antenna feeds with circular polarization.

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X and Ku-Band Radars (I- and J-Bands)
➢ In the X-band frequency range (8 to 12.5GHz) the
relationship between the wavelength and size of the antenna
is considerably better than in lower-frequency bands.
➢ Radar systems that require sensitive target detection
capabilities and cannot tolerate the atmospheric attenuation
of higher-frequency bands are typically X-Band.

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The X- and Ku-bands are relatively
popular radar frequency bands for
military applications like airborne
radars, since the small antenna
size provides good performance.
AN/APG-83/AESA
(Active Electronically
Scanned Array) Radar

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➢ Missile guidance systems use the Ku-Band (12.5 - 18 GHz)
because of the convenient antenna size where weight is a
limiting requirement.
➢ These frequency bands are also widely used in maritime
civil and military navigation radars.

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Space borne or airborne imaging
radars used in Synthetic
Aperture Radar (SAR) for military
electronic intelligence and civil
geographic mapping typically use
these frequency bands.

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K and Ka-Band Radars (J- and K-Bands)
➢ These high-frequency bands suffer severe weather and
atmospheric attenuation.
➢ Therefore, radars utilizing these frequency bands are
limited to short range applications, such as police traffic
radars, short range terrain avoidance, and terrain following
radars.

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K and Ka-Band Radars (J- and K-Bands)
The achievable angular accuracies and range SMR / SAAB
resolution are superior to other bands. In ATM
applications these radars are often called Surface
Movement Radar (SMR) or Airport Surface
Detection Equipment (ASDE) radars.

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Millimeter Wave (MMW) Radars (V- and W-Bands)
➢ Radars operating in this Frequency band also suffer from severe high
atmospheric attenuation.
➢ Radar applications are limited to very short range of up to a tens of
meters. In the W-Band maximum attenuation occurs at about 75GHz and
at about 96GHz.
➢ Both frequencies are used in practice primarily in automotive industry
where very small radars (~75-76GHz) are used for parking assistants, blind
spot and brake assists.
➢ Some radar systems operating at 96 to 98GHz are used as laboratory
experimental or prototype systems.
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Decibel
Arithmetic
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Decibel Arithmetic
➢ The decibel (dB) is a logarithmic unit of measurement that
represents a ratio of a physical quantity (such as voltage, power, or
antenna gain) to a specific reference quantity of the same type.
➢ The unit dB is named after Alexander Graham Bell, who originated
the unit as a measure of power attenuation in telephone lines. By
Bell’s definition, a unit of Bell gain is
 Po 
Bell ( B ) = log  
 Pi 
where the logarithm operation is base 10, Po is the output power of a
standard telephone line (almost one mile long) and Pi is the input
power to the line.
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Decibel Arithmetic
If voltage (or current) ratios are used instead of the power ratio, then
a unit Bell gain is defined as
2 2
 Vo   Io 
B = log   or B = log  
 Vi   Ii 
𝟏
A decibel (dB) is of a Bell (the prefix “deci” means 10-1). It follows
𝟏𝟎
that a dB is defined as
2 2
 Po   Vo   Io 
dB = 10 log   = 10 log   = 10 log  
 Pi   Vi   Ii 

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Decibel Arithmetic
The inverse dB is computed from the relations
Po Vo Io
= 10dB 10 = 10dB 20 = 10dB 20
Pi Vi Ii
❖ Radar designers and users widely use the decibel

nomenclature for several reasons.
❖ The most crucial reason is that a designer or operator
significantly reduces the dynamic range using dB to represent
the physical quantities associated with the radar.
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Decibel Arithmetic
❑ For example, a returning echo signal may be as weak as 1x10 -9W,
which can be expressed in dBs as,
(
10 log 110 −9
) = −90dB ( dBW )
❑ Alternatively, a target may be located at range R=1000km, which
can be expressed (for one-way link R2) in dBs as
(
20 log 1103 = 60dB )
❑ Another advantage of using dB in radar design and analysis is to
facilitate the arithmetic associated with calculating the different
radar parameters.
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Decibel Arithmetic
❑ This is true since multiplication in base-10 arithmetic translates
into addition in dB-arithmetic, and division translates into
subtraction.
 250  0.0001 
  = 10 log ( 250 ) + 10 log ( 0.0001) − 10 log ( 455 )  dB = −42.6dB
 455  dB
To write in general form;

 A B 
10 log   = 10 log A + 10 log B − 10 log C
 C 
10 log Aq = q 10 log A
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Decibel Arithmetic
➢ Some dB ratios are often used for expressing absolute physical
values.
➢ The first is the dBsm or dBm2 (dB, squared meters).
➢ This definition is significant when referring to the target Radar
Cross Section (RCS), whose units are in square meters.
➢ More precisely, a target whose RCS is σ (m2) can be expressed
in dBsm as 10log(σ (m2)).
➢ For example, a 10m2 target is often referred to as a 10 dBm2 (or
dBsm) target, and a target with RCS 0.01m2 is equivalent to a
-20dBm2.
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Decibel Arithmetic
➢ Another important absolute dB expression is used for
expressing power. The units dBm (dB, milliwatt) and dBW (dB,
Watt) are power ratios of dBs with reference to one milliwatt
and one Watt, respectively.
 P   P 
dBm = 10 log   dBW = 10 log  
 1mW   1W 
➢ To find dBm from dBW, add 30dB, and to find dBW from
dBm, subtract 30dB.

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Decibel Arithmetic
➢ The standard absolute dB unit for antenna gain is dBi. The unit dBi
(referenced to isotropic) represents the forward gain of an antenna
compared to an ideal isotropic antenna that emits energy equally in
all directions.
➢ Sometimes dBd (referenced to a half-wave dipole) may be
confused with dBi. When using dB for antenna gain, one may assume
that the referenced gain is dBd.
dBi = dBd + 2.15
Note: A 3dB antenna has the same gain as a 5 dBi antenna. There is no performance
difference between the two antennae. It is just the way that each vendor choses to specify
each antenna.
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Basics of
Propagation
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RF Spectrum
➢ The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum covers
EM waves ranging from DC to above 1025 Hz.
➢ Visible light from a lamp and radio waves
from a radio station are two types of EM
radiation.
➢ Other types of EM radiation that make up the
EM spectrum are RF spectrum (radio and
microwaves), infrared (IR) light, ultraviolet (UV)
light, X-rays, and gamma rays.
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RF Spectrum
Before giving information about the RF spectrum, let us inspect the
position of the RF band in the EM spectrum.

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RF Spectrum
When extending the RF spectrum, we will encounter the following
figure.

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RF Spectrum
❑ RF signals occupy a frequency range between a few tens of kHz
to several hundred GHz in the EM spectrum.
❑ At the lowest part of RF (3-30 kHz) is only suitable for narrow-
band comms. The signal propagates as ground waves over very
long distances.
❑ Frequencies between 3-30 MHz ionospheric propagation
regularly permit intercontinental broadcasting and comms.
❑ In other frequency ranges, propagation and refraction show
typical behavior.
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RF Spectrum
According to ITU (International Telecommunications Union), RF is
divided into several operational bands for convenience.
Frequency range ITU band
3-30 Hz ELF (Extremely Low Frequency) ❖ The ITU has defined a terminology
30Hz to 300Hz SLF (Super Low Frequency) system for EM frequencies used
300Hz to 3000Hz ULF (Ultra Low Frequency) for radio and radar.
3kHz to 30kHz VLF (Very Low Frequency)
30-300 KHz LF (Low Frequency; "longwave")
❖ Its categories have too coarsely
300KHz-3 MHz MF (Medium Frequency; "medium wave") intervals for describing radar uses.
3-30 MHz HF (High Frequency; "shortwave") However, it provides a good set of
30-300 MHz VHF (Very High Frequency) terms for communication frequencies.
300 MHz -3 GHz UHF (Ultra High Frequency)
3-30 GHz SHF (Super High Frequency)
30-300 GHz EHF (Extremely High Frequency)
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RF Spectrum
IEEE Standards for RF Bands
Frekans
We prefer using IEEE Bant
Menzili
Harflerin Anlamları
HF 0.003 - 0.03 GHz High Frequency
frequency bands for VHF 0.03 - 0.3 GHz Very High Frequency
UHF 0.3 - 1 GHz Ultra High Frequency
radar designations in L 1 - 2 GHz Long wave
this lecture. S
C
2 - 4 GHz
4 - 8 GHz
Short wave
Compromise between S and X
Used in World War II for fire control, X
X 8 - 12 GHz
for cross (as in crosshair). Exotic.
Ku 12 - 18 GHz Kurz-under
K 18 - 27 GHz Kurz (German for 'short')
Ka 27 - 40 GHz Kurz-above
V 40 - 75 GHz
W 75 - 110 GHz W follows V in the alphabet
mm veya
110 - 300 GHz Millimeter
G
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EM Waves
Radio waves propagate outwards from a source of energy
transmitter (Tx) and comprise electric (E) and magnetic (H) fields
at right angles to one another. E and H components are
inseparable.
B
 E = −
t
D
 H = J +
t

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EM Waves
EM waves are polarized in
the E plane. The changing
direction of the E vector
shows the polarization.
EM may be in:
- Vertically polarized,
- Horizontally polarized,
- Circular Polarized,
- Elliptically Polarized.
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EM Waves
➢ The direction of E-field lines is reversed on each cycle of the signal

as the wavefront moves outwards from the source (Tx). The receiving
aerial intercepts the moving field, and voltage is induced.
➢ The induction voltages of both Tx and Rx are similar in shape,
while the ones in Rx are smaller in amplitude.
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Frequency and Wavelength
RF waves propagate in the air at the speed of light
(300000 km/sec). The relationship among wavelength, frequency
and propagation velocity defined as follows;
v= f λ = 3 x 108m/s or λ = (3 x 108/f ) m
A signal at a frequency of 1 MHz will have a wavelength of
300 m, similar way 100 MHz will have a wavelength of 3 m.

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The Atmosphere
The earth's atmosphere can
be divided into five
concentric regions having
boundaries that are not
clearly defined.

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RF Wave Propogation
Depending on a number of complex factors, RF waves can
propagate through the atmosphere in various ways, which
includes;
❖ Ground waves,
❖ Ionospheric (Sky) waves,
❖ Space waves,
❖ Tropospheric waves.

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RF Wave Propogation
Ground Waves (or surface waves) travel close to the earth and
propagate for relatively short distances at HF and VHF but a much
greater distance at MF and LF.
100 kHz – 500 km
1 MHz – 150 km (max)
10 MHz – 15 km (max)
Ground waves are composed of two separate component waves:

the direct wave and the ground reflected wave.
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RF Wave Propogation
The direct path which exists line-of-sight (LOS) basis between the
Tx and Rx.
Note: Direct or LOS waves may interact with the earth-reflected wave
depending on terminal separation, frequency, and polarization.
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RF Wave Propogation
Ground reflection depends on near the ground for short

distances, up to 100 km over land and 300 km over sea.
Attenuation of the wave depends on antenna height,
polarization, frequency, ground types, terrain and/or sea state.
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RF Wave Propogation
Ionospheric waves (or sky waves) can travel for long distance at
MF, HF and VHF (under certain conditions).

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RF Wave Propogation
What happens when RF waves meet certain types of
discontinuity in the atmosphere or a physical obstruction?
❑ Reflection: A plane wave meets a plane object.
❑ Refraction: Wave moves from one medium to another.
❑ Diffraction: A wave meets an edge with large dimensions
relative to the signal's wavelength.
❑ Scattering: A wave encounters one or more objects in its
path.

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RF Wave Propogation
Reflection:
• Occurs when a wave impinges upon a smooth surface.
• Dimensions of the surface are large relative to a threshold.
• Reflections occur from the surface of the earth and
buildings and walls.

Radio Wave Propogation EEE-471
A demonstration of reflection.
Tx R
street
S
D
D
R: Reflection Rx
D: Diffraction Buildings/Building Blocks
S: Scattering

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RF Wave Propogation
Refraction:
• Waves are deflected when they go through a substance.
• The wave generally changes the angle of its general
direction.

A demonstration of propagation defects.
Refraction

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RF Wave Propogation
Diffraction (Shadowing):
• Occurs when the path is blocked by an object with
large dimensions relative to a threshold and sharp
irregularities (edges).
• Diffraction gives rise to the bending of waves around
the obstacle.

A demonstration of diffraction.
Tx R
Street
S
D
D
R: Reflection Rx
S: Scattering

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RF Wave Propogation
Scattering:
• Occurs when a wave impinges upon an object, causing the
reflected energy to spread out or “scatter” in many directions.
• Small objects such as streetlights, signs, and leaves cause
scattering.
• Occurs more readily at higher frequencies (typically VHF and
above.)
• Regularly occurs in the troposphere at UHF (300-3000 MHz)
and EHF (30-300 GHz).
Demonstration of Scattering
R
Street
S
Tx D
D
R: Reflection Rx
S: Scattering

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RF Wave Propogation
Tropospheric wave uses the scattering principle to achieve
beyond the LOS radio communications within the
troposphere.

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RF Wave Propogation
➢ Slight bending of radio waves occurs in the troposphere,
causing signals to return to Earth beyond the geometric
horizon.
➢ This radio path horizon is generally about 15% farther away
than the visible horizon.
➢ Tropospheric bending is evident over a wide range of
frequencies, although it is most useful in the VHF/UHF region.

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RF Wave Propogation
Under normal conditions, the temperature of the air gradually
decreases with increasing height above ground. When there is a
stable high-pressure system, warm air mass may overrun cold air,
causing a temperature inversion. Radio waves trapped below the
warm air can travel great distances with little loss. The area
between the Earth and the warm air mass is known as a duct.

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RF Wave Propogation
Another illustration of tropospheric ducting is shown in the following
figure.
Also, a high-altitude tropospheric duct is shown below.

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Ionosphere
• When an RF wave is transmitted into an ionized layer, refraction, or
bending of the wave, occurs.
• As discussed earlier, refraction is caused by an abrupt change in the
velocity of the upper part of a radio wave as it strikes or enters a new
medium.
• The amount of refraction that occurs depends on three main
factors:
(1) the density of ionization of the layer,
(2) the frequency of the radio wave, and
(3) the angle at which the wave enters the layer.
Ionosphere EEE 471
During sunlight hours, the ionosphere separates into three layers.

• D-layer does not refract radio waves but unfortunately attenuates
the wave as it travels through in both directions.
• E-layer refracts radio waves and is used for daylight communications
up to approximately 500 kilometers.
• F-layer separates during daylight hours
into the indistinct F1 and F2 layers.
These layers refract radio waves and are
used for ‘long-haul’ daytime comms over
500 km.

Ionosphere EEE 471
• Once the sun has set, the D-layer decays quite rapidly. The D-layer
attenuates radio waves during daylight; once it begins to decay, HF
signals increase dramatically in strength and concentration.
• The E-layer decays more slowly and is often usable well after dusk
for effective communications.
• The daytime F1 and F2 layers
combine very early after sunset,
separate soon after sunrise, and are
called the F-layer.

Silent Zone & Skip Distance EEE 471
• Quiet (Silent) Zone: The region is located between the coverage

area of the ground wave signal and the point where the sky wave
returns to earth.
• Skip Distance: The distance

between the radiation point
of the sky wave and the
point it returns to the earth.

Fading EEE 471
• Fading: Where signals are received simultaneously by ground wave

and sky wave constructively and destructively due to the different
path lengths, this will produce an effect known as fading.

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Basics of
Antenna Theory
Introduction EEE 471
➢ Antennas are used both for Tx and Rx.

➢ A Tx antenna converts the high-frequency electrical energy
supplied to it into EM energy launched or radiated into space.
➢ An Rx antenna captures the EM energy in the surrounding space,
converts it into high-frequency electrical energy, and passes it on to
the receiving system.
➢ The law of reciprocity: Antenna will have the same gain and
directional properties in Rx and Tx usage.

The Isotropic Radiator EEE 471
➢ The most basic form is the isotropic radiator.

➢ An isotropic radiator radiates power equally in all directions;
however, a perfect isotropic radiator is only theoretical, as even the
simplest antennas will concentrate the signal in a particular
direction(s).
➢ Before entering the details of antenna gain and directivity, half-

wave dipole antenna type is given.
The Half-wave Dipole EEE 471
➢ The HwD is one of the most fundamental types of antennae.

➢ The HwD consists of a single conductor with a length equal to one-
half of the wave being transmitted or received.
➢ The conductor is split in the center to enable connection to the

feeder.
➢ The antenna is cut a little shorter because of the capacitance effect.
➢ The length of the antenna is equal to one half wavelength


=
2
v
➢ Also we know “v = f x λ”, we can conclude that, for a =
half-wave dipole: 2f
Note that “ℓ” is the electrical length of the antenna rather than its
actual physical length. In order to define physical length apps 5%
reduction is required (for capacitance effect).

➢ The figure shows the distribution of Current

current and voltage along the length of a
HwD.
Voltage
➢ The current is max at the center and zero at the ends.

➢ In contrast, the voltage is zero at the center and max at the ends.
➢ This implies that the impedence is not constant along the HwD
antenna, and takes max value at the ends.
➢ The dipole antenna has directional properties as shown in the

figure.
➢ Figure-d shows the radiation pattern

of the antenna in the plane of the
antenna’s electric (E) field.
➢ Figure-c shows the radiation pattern
of the antenna in the plane of the
antenna’s magnetic (H) field.

➢Figure-b shows the combination of E-

and H-fields in a 3-D plot.
➢ E-field has min radiation along the
axis, while the two zones of max
radiation are at 90o the dipole
elements.
➢ In H-field the antenna radiates
uniformly in all directions.

➢ A vertical dipole has omnidirectional characteristics,

➢ A horizantal dipole has a bi-directional radiation pattern.

Example: Determine the length of a half-wave dipole antenna for use

at a frequency of 150 MHz.
Solution: A half-wave dipole for 150 MHz is determined as follows;
v
=
2f
Substituting the values in the equation;
v 3 10 3 10
8 8
= = = = 1m
2 f 2 150 10 6
300 10 6

EEE 471
Impedance and Radiation Resistance
❑ Up until now, the antennas have been sorted as
lossless power transformers.
❑ We need to consider their electrical properties
to understand antenna basics.
1
❑ Figure 1 shows a simple Tx system. Power from
a source is sent along a transmission line to the
antenna. The antenna then directionally radiates
power we can describe using its power pattern.
2

EEE 471
❑ The electrical structure of an antenna

system looks like the circuit shown in Figure 2.
❑ The signal generator does not know
anything about the details of the antenna or its 1
power pattern.
❑ The antenna/transmission line combination
looks like some load impedance.
2

EEE 471
❑ The impedance is a mixture of resistance “R” and reactance
“X,” both measured in ohms (Ω).
❑ “X” varies with frequency while “R” remains constant. This
fact shows us why antennas are often designed for operation
over a restricted range of frequencies.
❑ The impedance “Z” of an aerial is the ratio of the voltage “E”
across its terminals to the current “I”;
E
Z =  = ( R + RR ) + jX
I
Impedance and Radiation Resistance EEE 471
Z = ( R + RR ) + jX → R = RL + Rref
❑ A real antenna will not radiate all the power it receives. Some
will be dissipated in antenna losses and warm it up a bit.
❑ Some power may ‘bounce’ off the antenna and be reflected in
the generator.
❑ These three effects, radiation, loss, and RL RR
reflection, can be represented by three impedances,

Rref
as illustrated in the figure.
RL RR ❑ RR is the antenna's Radiation Resistance value; it

represents the antenna properties that allow power
Rref to radiate away.
❑ RL is the Loss Resistance; it represents how power is dissipated

and warming up the antenna.
❑ Rref is the Reflection Resistance; the wave is then
reflected at the interface between the line and the
antenna, with significant energy loss. The goal is then
to return to a matched system. mismatch

➢ X is the antenna reactance; this represents the antenna energy

store ability and returning it to the generator after a delay.
➢ As mentioned before, antenna impedance is obtained by using the
following equation;
Z A = ( RL + Rref + RR ) + jX 

Z A = ( RL + Rref + RR ) + jX 
Also a general representation for antenna equivalent circuit is

shown below.
RL Rref RR
+
 VG
jXA
-

EEE 471
Radiated Power
➢ Let us assume that there is no impedance Rg+jXg RL +
mismatch in the equivalent circuit. +
RR VR
 VG -
➢ The complex power associated with any
-
element in the equivalent circuit is given by jXA
1
P =V I *
rms rms = Vpeak I peak
*
➢ The power radiated by the antenna (PR) may be written as
PR = VR _ peak I peak = ( I peak ) RR = ( I rms ) RR Watts

1 * 1 * 2 * 2
2 2
Radiation Efficiency EEE 471
The radiation efficiency (ηR) of a given antenna is defined in terms of

the total power radiated by the antenna (PR) and the total power
dissipated by the antenna in the form of ohmic losses (Pohmic).
RL +
Rg+jXg
RR VR PR PR
+ R = =
 VG -
Pin PR + Pohmic
-
jXA
2
The power radiated by the antenna (PR) may be Vg RR
PR =
written as 8 ( RR + RL )
2

Radiation Efficiency EEE 471
The total ohmic losses for the antenna are those dissipated in the
antenna loss resistance (RL). 2
Vg RL
Pohmic = PL =
8 ( RR + RL )
2
Inserting the equivalent circuit results for PR and Pohmic into the
equation for the antenna radiation efficiency yields
PR PR RR
R = = =
Pin PR + Pohmic RR + RL
Finally Radiation efficiency is;  R = RR

100%
RR + RL
Radiation Power & Efficiency EEE 471
Example: An HF transmitting antenna has a radiation resistance

of 12 ohms. If a current of 0.5 A is supplied to it, determine the
radiated power.
PR = I  RR = ( 0.5 ) 12 = 0.25 12 = 3W

2 2
a

EEE 471
Radiation Power & Efficiency
Example: If the aerial in the previous example has a DC resistance
of 2, determine the power loss and the radiation efficiency of
the antenna.
Solution is obtained by using next
R
V out
DC
equivalent circuit.
Rr
I a = 0.5 A RDC = 2
PL = I  RDC = ( 0.5 )  2 = 0.5W
2 2
X
a
PR PR 3
R = = 100% = 100% = 86%
Pin PR + Pohmic 3 + 0.5

EEE 471
Antenna Directivity & Gain
The definitions of antenna directivity and antenna gain are
essentially the same except for the power terms used in the
definitions.
Directivity: The ratio of the antenna radiated power density at a
distant point to the total antenna radiated power (Pr) isotropically.
Gain: The ratio of the antenna radiated power density at a distant

point to the total antenna input power (Pin) isotropically.

Antenna Directivity & Gain EEE 471
Additional note on directivity;

Directivity (D): The ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction
from the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions.
U ( ,  ) 4 U ( ,  )
D ( ,  ) = =
U avg PR
where U(,Φ) is radiation intensity, and Uavg(,Φ) is average radiation
intensity; 2 
  U ( ,  ) d  PR
U avg = 0 0
=
4 4
where d = sin d dΦ defines the differential solid angle.

Antenna Directivity & Gain EEE 471
❑ The antenna gain depends on the total power delivered to the antenna
input terminals, which accounts for the ohmic losses in the antenna.
4 U ( ,  ) U ( ,  )
G ( ,  ) = =
Pin Pin
4
❑ The antenna directivity depends on the total radiated power, which

does not include the effect of ohmic losses.
4 U ( ,  ) U ( ,  )
D ( ,  ) = =
PR PR
4
EEE 471
The relationship between the directivity and gain of an antenna may
be found using the definition of the radiation efficiency of the
antenna.
4 U ( ,  ) U ( ,  ) 4 U ( ,  ) U ( ,  )
G ( ,  ) = = D ( ,  ) = =
Pin Pin PR PR
4 4
PR =  R Pin
G ( ,  ) =  R D ( ,  )
EEE 471
Definition: The dB gain can be defined as follows;
G ( ,  )  dB  = 10 og G ( ,  )

EEE 471
Antenna Pattern
Definitions
The antenna pattern is a graphical
representation of the antenna radiation
properties as a function of position at
spherical coordinates.
Common Types of Antenna Patterns;
- Power Pattern: Normalized power vs.
spherical coordinate position.
- Field Pattern: Normalized “E” or “H” vs.
spherical coordinate position.
Antenna Pattern EEE 471
Definitions
Antenna Field Types;
- Reactive field: The portion of the antenna field is characterized by
standing (stationary) waves representing stored energy.
- Radiation field: The portion of the antenna field characterized by
radiating (propagating) waves representing transmitted energy.

Antenna Field Regions;

- Reactive Near Field Region: The region surrounding the antenna
where the reactive field (stored energy – standing waves) is
dominant.
- Near-Field (Fresnel) Region: The region between the reactive near-
field and the far-field where the radiation fields are dominant, and
the field distribution depends on the distance from the antenna.
- Far-Field (Fraunhofer) Region: The region farthest from the antenna
where the field distribution is essentially independent of the distance
from the antenna (propagating waves).
Antenna Field Regions; Far-Field (Fraunhofer) Region
Radiating Near-Field
(Fresnel) Region
Reactive Near Field Region

Antenna Pattern Definitions;

- Isotropic Pattern : Defined by uniform radiation in all directions,
produced by an isotropic radiator (point source, a non-physical
antenna which is the only non-directional antenna).
- Directional Pattern: Characterized by more efficient radiation in one
direction than another (all physically realizable antennas are
directional antennas).
- Omnidirectional Pattern: Uniform in a given plane.
- Principal Plane Patterns: E-plane and H-plane patterns of a linearly
polarized antenna.

EEE 471
Antenna Pattern
Antenna Pattern Parameters;
Radiation Lobe: Defined by a clear peak in the radiation intensity
surrounded by regions of weaker radiation intensity.
Main Lobe (major lobe, main beam): This lobe is the radiation lobe in
the direction of maximum radiation.
Minor Lobe: Any radiation lobe other than the
main lobe.
Side Lobe: A radiation lobe in any direction
other than the direction(s) of intended
radiation.
Back Lobe: This lobe is the radiation lobe
opposite
Fall 2023
to the main lobe. Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 118
Antenna Pattern Parameters;

A Half-Power Beamwidth (HPBW): The angular width of the main beam
at the half-power points.
First Null Beamwidth (FNBW): Angular
width between the first nulls on either
side of the main beam.

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Lecture 1

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Lecture 1

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 5

Radar systems band or letter

NATO Radar/ECM Frequency Letter-Band

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 11

Article 2, provision ULF

Letter-Band MF Medium frequency 300 KHz - 3 MHz 1 Km - 100 meters

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 12

use this classification C 4 - 8 GHz Compromise between S and X

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 15

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 16

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 18

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 19

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 20

Radio waves are polarized in the E plane.

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 22

Foliage Penetration (FoPen) Radar Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 24

➢ The early warning PAVE PAWS

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 27

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 29

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 30

AN/MPQ-53 Patriot Radar Search and Detection

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 32

OU-PRIME (Polarimetric Radar

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 33

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 34

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 35

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 36

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Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 39

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 40

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 44

❖ Radar designers and users widely use the decibel

To write in general form;

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 49

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 53

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 54

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 58

➢ The direction of E-field lines is reversed on each cycle of the signal

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 61

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 62

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 63

Ground waves are composed of two separate component waves:

Ground reflection depends on near the ground for short

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 67

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Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 69

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 70

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 71

A demonstration of propagation defects.

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 72

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Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 79

Also, a high-altitude tropospheric duct is shown below.

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 80

During sunlight hours, the ionosphere separates into three layers.

Fall 2023 Assoc.Prof.Dr.A.G.Pakfiliz 82