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ZOOLOGY FINAL HOUR REVISION NOTE

A. Father of Various Branches

S.N. Name Father of
1. Hippocrates Medicine
2. Hugo de Vries Mutation
3. Leonardo da Vinchi Paleontology
4. Empedocles Evolutionary ideas
5. Robert Koch Bacteriology
6. K. Land Steiner Blood group
7. Carolus Linnaeus Taxonomy
8. G.J. Mendel Genetics
9. Bateson Modern genetics
10. Aristotle Biology, Zoology & Embryology
11. Thomas Addition Endocrinology
12. Edward Jenner Immunology
13. Marcello Malpighi Microscopic Anatomy
14. Louis Pasteur Microbiology
15. G. Cuvier Comparative Anatomy

B. Connecting links
S.N. Organism Link
1. Virus Between Living and Non-living
2. Euglena Between Plants and Animals
3. Protospongia Between Protozoa and Sponge
4. Peripatus Between Annelida and Arthropoda
5. Neopilina Between Annelida and Mollusca
6. Balanoglossus Between Chordata and Non-chordata
7. Protopterus Between Fish and Amphibia
8. Seymoria Between Amphibia and Reptiles
9. Ornithorynchus Between Reptiles and Mammals
10. Archeopteryx Between Reptiles & Birds

C. Books and Authors

S.N. Name of Books Author
1. Historia Animalia Aristotle
2. Origin of Species by Natural Selection Darwin
3. Systema Naturae & Species Plantarum C. Linnaeus
4. Micrographia Robert Hook
5. Philosphic Zoologique Lamarck
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6. Historia Plantarum Theophrastus

D. Scientists & Theories

1. Cell theory was purposed by M.J. Schleiden (in plants) and Schwann (in animals).
2. Germplasm theory was given by August Weismann.
3. Germ theory of disease was given by Louis Pasteur.
4. Theory of Mutation was given by Hugo de Vries.
5. Theory of Natural Selection was proposed by Darwin.
6. Recapitulation theory "Ontogeny repeats Phylogeny" was proposed by Haeckel.
7. Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Character was purposed by Jean Baptiste De
Lamarck.
8. Theory of Special Creation was purposed by Father Saurez.
9. Binomial system of nomenclature was given by Carolus Linnaeus.
10. Spontaneous theory of Origin of Life and pasteurization was purposed by Louis
Pasteur.

E. Animal Nutrition
i) Herbivorous – Animals which feed on plant materials. E.g. Cow, horse, rabbit etc.
ii) Carnivorous – Flesh eater (meat eating) e.g. Lion
iii) Omnivorous – Feeds on both plant and animal products e.g. Man
iv) Filter feeder – Feeding on smaller organism rejecting larger e.g. Paramecium
v) Autotrophic – Can prepare their food by themselves e.g. plant
vi) Heterotrophic – Cannot prepare their food themselves e.g. Man
vii) Holophytic nutrition – Plant like nutrition
viii) Holozoic nutrition – Animal like nutrition
ix) Mixotrophic nutrition – Autotrophic and heterotrophic both e.g. Euglena

F. Receptor & Stimuli

S.N. Receptor Stimuli
1. Photoreceptor Light
2. Phonoreceptor Sound
3. Olfactoreceptor Smell
4. Gustatoreceptor Taste
5. Nocireceptor Pain
6. Rheoreceptor Water current
7. Proprioreceptor Muscle position

G. Coelom or Body Cavity

True coelom is lined by Mesoderm.
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1) Acoelomate: Absence of coelom e.g. Protozoa, Porifera, Coelenterata and

Platyhelminthes.
2) Pseudocoelomate: False coelomic cavity which may be a persistent blastocoel
embryologically or derived from vacuoles within cells. E.g. Aschelminthes like
Ascaris (Round worm) or Nematods.
3) Eucoelomate: True coelomic cavity develops from mesoderm.
i) Schizocoelic coelomate (Schizocoel): Develops by splitting of mesoderm. E.g.
Annelida, Arthropoda and Mollusca
ii) Enterocoelomic coelomate: Is formed by the fusion of pouches of Archenteron. E.g.
Echinoderms and Chordates

H. Symmetry
1) Asymmetrical: These animals cannot be divided into two equal halves in any planes.
E.g. Sponge, Amoeba, Snails
2) Radially symmetrical: These animals can be divided into two equal halves by number
of radial divisions. E.g. Coelenterata, Echinodermata
3) Bilaterally symmetrical: In all the higher animals body can be divided into two
similar parts. These two halves are mirror image of each other. E.g. Platyhelminthes to
Chordate except Gastropoda and Echinodermata.

I. Body Plan
1) Cellular form: Protozoa
2) Cell aggregate plan: A clusters of cells with limited division of labour; e.g. Sponges
(Porifera).
3) Blind sac form: Having mouth but no anus. Ingestion and egestion through the same
opening. E.g. Coelenterates, Flatworms
4) Tube within tube body plant:
 Most complex body plan, tissue organization forms organ and organ forms system.
 Has two openings (mouth and anus) and digestive tube is in the form of tube running
through the centre of the body. E.g. higher invertebrates (Annelida, Arthropoda,
Mollusca and Echinodermata) and Mammals.

J. Worms
 Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm)
 Taenia solium (Pork tapeworm)
 Hymenolepsis nana (Dwarf tapeworm)
 Echinococcus granulosus (Dog tapeworm)
 Diphylobothradium latum (fish tapeworm)
 Fasciola hepatica (Sheep liver fluke)
 Schistosoma (Blood fluke)
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 Paragonimus (Lung fluke)

 Polystoma  found in urinary bladder of frogs and toads.
 Ascaris lumbricoides (Round worm)
 Enterobius vermicularis (Pinworm or seat-worms)
 Dracunculus medinesis (Guinea worm)
 Trichinella spiralis (trichina worm)
 Wuchereria bancrofti (Filaria worm)
 Ancyclostoma duodenale (Hook worm)
 Trichuris trichiura (Whip worm)
 Loa loa (Eye worm)

K. METAMORPHOSIS
Changes from larva to adult is known as Metamorphosis or Metabola. Based on it, insects
are classified as
a) Ametabolous insect:
 Insect without metamorphosis e.g. Lepisma
b) Paurometabalous insect:
 Insect with gradual metamorphosis e.g. cockroach, grasshopper.
 Egg  Nymph  Adult
c) Hemimetabolous insect:
 Insect with incomplete metamorphosis e.g. Dragonfly.
d) Holometabolous insect:
 Insect with complete metamorphois e.g. Housefly, mosquito etc.
 Egg  Larva  Pupa  Adult

L. Cancers
Carcinomas: are the malignant tumours of epithelial origin.
Sarcomas (sarcos-fleshy): are the malignant tumours of mesenchymal origin.
Metastasis is the spread of cancerous cell to distant sites which occurs through blood,
lymphatics or seeding through body cavity.

Some examples of benign and malignant tumors:

Tissue of origin Benign Tumours Malignant Tumours
Glandular epithelium Adenoma Adenocarcinoma
Bone Osteoma Osteosarcoma
Cartilage Chondroma Chondrosarcoma
Adipose tissue Lipoma Liposarcoma
Fibrous tissue Fibroma Fibrosarcoma
Nerve cells Ganglioneuroma Neuroblastoma
 Melanoma: Carcinoma of melanocytes
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 Hepatoma: Carcinoma of hepatocytes

 Leukemias: Blood cancer due to excessive and uncontrolled increase in no. of WBCs.
 Seminoma: Malignant tumour of testis
 Lymphoma: Malignant tumour of lymphoid tissue.

M. Bones of Rabbit
1. Skull:
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Dorsal view of skull of rabbit

1.1 Skull of rabbit is Dicondylic.

1.2 Tropibasic, i.e. internal orbital septum is present.
1.3 Occipital region: 4 bones:
 two exoccipitals
 one basioccipital
 one supraoccipital
1.4 Auditory region:
 Periotic
 Tympanic bulla
 Ear ossicles: Malleus (Hammer shaped)
Incus (Anvil shaped)
Stapes (Stirrup shaped)
1.5 Parietal region: two parietals. An interparietal in between.
 one basisphenoid
 two alisphenoids
1.6 Frontal region: two frontals.
1.7 A pair of nasal bones anterior to frontals.
1.8 Presphenoid, orbitosphenoid bones are present.
Prefrontal, postfrontal, parasphenoid & quadratojugals are absent.
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1.9 Roof of nasal cavity: Cribiform plate of ethmoid bond  separates nasal and cranial
cavity.
1.10 Outer boundary of orbit formed by zygomatic arch / Jugal.
1.11 Jaw suspensorium is craniostylic, i.e. lower jaw is firmly articulated to upper jaw by
squamosal.
2. Lower jaw:
2.1 Formed by two rami called Dentaries joined by a suture.
2.2 Anterior part bears sockets for articulation of teeth.
2.3 Posterior part bears:
 Condyle: articulates with skull
 Coronoid process
 Angular process
2.4 In front of the condyle: Mandibular foramen.

3. Cervical Vertebrae: 7 in number

3.1 ATLAS
a) Ring-like in shape.
b) Neural spine poorly developed in form of a ridge.
c) Transverse processes broad, horizontal. Bear small opening called vertebrarterial
canal at its base.
d) Two concavities on the anterior side for articulation with the occipital condyles.
e) Single facet on posterior side for articulation with odontoid process of axis.
f) Neural canal is long & broad.
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Atlas vertebra of rabbit, A – dorsal view, B – anterior view

3.2 AXIS
a) Centrum: acoelus
b) Anterior side of centrum bears an odontoid process / Dens  fits into posterior
concavity of atlas.
c) Neural spine is well developed and laterally compressed.
d) Transverse processes: absent.
Possess cervical ribs instead.
Post zygapophyses present.

Axis vertebra of rabbit

3.3 TYPICAL CERVICAL VERTEBRAE: C3 – C7

a) Centrum is acoelus, well developed with broad sides.
b) Neural spine: small, pointed, directed backwards.
c) Transverse processes present. Bases perforated by vertebrarterial canals.
Cervical ribs also present.
d) Both pre- & post zygapophyses are present.
3.4 Movement in atlantooccipital joint causes nodding of head while that on atlantoaxial
joint causes rotation of head.

4. Thoracic Vertebrae: 12–13 in number

4.1 ANTERIOR THORACIC VERTEBRAE: first 9
a) Centrum: short, acoelus
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b) Neural spine: long, slender, backwardly directed.

c) Transverse processes: short, stout, horizontal.
Bear tubercular facets for articulation with tuberculum of ribs.
d) Below the transverse processes on the centrum lie the demifacets for articulation with
the capitulum of ribs.
[C for C; T for T, i.e. capitulum articulates with centrum, tuberculum with transverse
process.]
e) Pre- & post zygaphophyses are present.

A B
Anterior thoracic vertebra of rabbit. A – anterior view, B – lateral view

4.2 POSTERIOR THORACIC VERTEBRAE

a) Centrum: large & acoelus
b) Neural spine: short, vertical, compressed.
c) Transverse processes small, flattened, plate-like.
d) Facets for ribs present at anterior ends only.
e) Pre- & post zygapophyses present.
f) Metapophyses & anapophyses present above & below pre & post zygapophyses
respectively.
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5. Lumbar Vertebrae: 7 in number

5.1 ANTERIOR LUMBAR VERTEBRAE: first 2 – 3
a) Centrum: large, stout, acoelus
b) Neural spine: narrow & prominent
c) Transverse processes: long, flat, stout, directed backwards obliquely.
d) Pre- & post zygapophyses and meta- & anapophyses are present.
e) Median ventral process arising from centrum known as Hypapophysis is present.

5.2 POSTERIOR LUMBAR VERTEBRAE:

a) Similar to anterior ones except for absence of Hypapophyses.

6. Sacrum: 1 in number
6.1 Formed by fusion of 4 sacral vertebrae.
6.2 Centrum: acoelus or flat.
6.3 Neural spine: large and directed backwardly.
6.4 Transverse processes: rudimentary.
6.5 Pre- & post zygapophyses present.
6.6 First sacral vertebra carries articular facets on its lateral side for articulation with
ilium.
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7. Ribs: 12 – 13 pairs
7.1 Each rib consists of vertebral & sternal portions.
7.2 Vertebral portion bears capitulum (articulates with centrum) and tuberculum
(articulates with transverse process).
7.3 Sternal portion is cartilaginous and articulates with sternum.

8. Sternum:
8.1 Consists of 6 pieces called sternabrae.
8.2 First piece: Manubrium sterni.
8.3 Last piece: Xiphisternum  bears a plate of cartilage at the end: Xiphoid cartilage.
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9. Pectoral Girdle:
9.1 One pair in number.
9.2 Consists of: Scapula, coracoid and spine.
9.3 Scapula: Triangular with glenoid cavity at the apex.
9.4 Coracoid: Fused with scapula forming a coracoid process.
9.5 Spine is directed downwards and consists of an acromian process and metacromian
process.
A cartilaginous strip called suprascapula is attached to dorsal border of scapula.
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10. Pelvic Girdle:

10.1 Composed of two equal halves called os-innominata. They are united posteriorly to
each other by public symphysis.
10.2 Each os-innominatum consists of: Ilium, Ischium & Pubis.
10.3 At the point of union of these bones, there is a cavity called Acetabulum  fits the
head of femur.
10.4 Between pubis and ischium: Obturator foramen.
10.5 Ischial tuberosity at the posterior end of ischium.

11. Humerus:
11.1 Bone of arm.
11.2 Proximal end: rounded and knob-like head  fits into glenoid cavity of scapula.
11.3 At the sides of head: Greater and Lesser tuberosities.
11.4 Below the head: Deltoid ridge  for insertion of deltoid muscle.
11.5 Distal end: Trochlea, olecranon fossa.
11.6 Above trochlea: Supra-trochlear foramen.
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12. Radius and Ulna:

12.1 Bones of forearm.
12.2 Radius lies laterally. Proximally articulates with trochlea of humerus & distally with
bones of wrist.
12.3 Ulna: Longer, lies medially. Proximally bears olecranon process and sigmoid notch for
articulation with trochlea of humerus. Distally it is narrow & articulates with carpus.

13. Femur:
13.1 Bone of thigh.
13.2 Proximal end: Head  fits into acetabulum of pelvic girdle.
13.3 Below head: Greater trochanter, lesser trochanter and third trochanter.
13.4 Distal end: Two large condyles separated by intercondylar notch. Condyles articulate
with tibia.
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14. Tibio-Fibula:
14.1 Bone of shank.
14.2 Tibia is stout and straight.
Proximal end bears two oval surfaces on its upper end for articulation with condyles
of femur.
14.3 Near the proximal end: Cnemial crest.
14.4 Fibula: Slender & fused distally with tibia.

N. Evidences of evolution
(a) HOMOLOGOUS ORGANS:
 The organs in different organisms that have the same basic structure and origin but
differ in appearance and function.
 Similarity is credited to common ancestry.
 The differences (in appearance & function) are attributed to adaptive modifications
due to different mode of life i.e. "Divergent Evolution".

Examples:
 Fore limbs of vertebrates like flipper of seal, wing of bird, patagium of bat, hand of
man look different and perform different functions but have same pentadactyl plan
and similar arrangement of bones, blood vessels, nerves etc.
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 Mouth parts of insects always formed of a labrum, two maxilla and two mandibles.
 Phylloclade of Opuntia and cladode of Ruscus.
Homology may be
i) Phylogenetic – Between different species.
ii) Sexual – Between sexes of same species e.g. Penis in man & Clitoris in woman.
iii) Serial – Between organs of similar individuals occupying different levels of body.

(b) ANALOGOUS ORGANS:

 Have similar appearance and function but differ in their origin and basic structure.
 Also called Homoplastic organs.
 Suggest convergent evolution.
Examples:
 Wings of birds (modified fore limbs) and wings of insects (modified outgrowth of
body wall).
 However, perform similar function.
 Fins of fishes and flippers of whale.
 Trachea of insects and lungs of vertebrates.
 Tail of scorpion and sting apparatus of honey bee.
 Leaf of plants and cladode of Ruscus.

(c) VESTIGIAL ORGANS:

 Functionless organs that have no any apparent use in the organisms.
 These are the remnants of the organs that had been well developed and functional in
their ancestral state and become modified during the course of evolution.
Example:
 Coccyx (tail bone)
 Nictitating membrane (third eye lid)
 Muscles to move pinna
 Caecum, vermiform appendix, canine, body hair, mammary gland in male, wings of
flightless birds, hind limbs in python, pelvic girdle of whale.
 In plants: Scale leaves of Ruscus
Gynaecium in ray floret of sunflower.

(d) CONNECTING LINKS:

 Living organisms which posses characters intermediate between two major groups of
animals.
 Can be called bridge animals.
 These prove the path of evolution.
Examples:
Connecting Links Connected Groups
Virus Living and Non-living
Euglena Plants and Animals
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Proterospongia Protozoa and Sponges

Neopilina Annelida and Mollusca
Peripatus(Walking worm) Annelida and Arthropoda
Chimaera (Rabbit fish) Cartilagenous and Bony fish
Seymauria Amphibians and Reptiles
Protopterus(Lung fishes) Bony fishes & Amphibians
Balanoglossus Chordates & Non-chordates
 Ornithorhynchus & Tachyglossus are egg laying mammals.
 Mammalian characters are hair, diaphragm, mammary gland, etc. while reptilian
characters are large coracoid, being oviparous, laying eggs and having cloaca.

MISSING LINKS:
 Those extinct organisms which had the characters of two different groups of animals.
E.g. Archeopteryx, Lithographica, Seymauria
 Archeopteryx (fossil bird / lizard bird)

i) Reptilian Characters
 Presence of similar teeth in jaws
 Each finger ending into a claw
 A long tail with free caudal vertebrae
 Presence of Keelless sternum

ii) Avian Characters

 Presence of feathers on the body
 Rounded cranium
 Forelimbs modified into wings; 3 fingers
 Presence of Furcula (wish bone)
 Above mentioned characters show that birds have evolved from reptilian ancestors.
 So birds are called Glorified Reptiles (Huxley).

O. Types of eggs:
a) ON THE BASIS OF AMOUNT OF YOLK
 Alecithal: No yolk. E.g. marsupials & eutheria
 Microlecithal: Small amount of yolk. E.g. sea urchin, Branchiostoma
 Mesolecithal: Moderate amount of yolk. E.g. frogs, toads
 Megalecithal / Macrolecithal: Large amount of yolk. E.g. fishes, reptiles, birds,
prototherian mammals and insects
b) ON THE BASIS OF DISTRIBUTION OF YOLK
 Homolecithal / Isolecithal: Evenly distributed yolk. E.g. microlecithal eggs
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 Telolecithal: Much of yolk concentrated to the vegetal pole. E.g. mesolecithal &
megalecithal eggs
 Centrolecithal: Yolk placed centrally, surrounded by a rim of cytoplasm. E.g. insects

P. Types of cleavage:
a) HOLOBLASTIC: Division is complete. It may be:
 Equal: in isolecithal eggs.
 Unequal: in telolecithal eggs.
b) MESOBLASTIC: Division is incomplete, i.e. occurring only in cytoplasm, not in yolk.

Q. Patterns of cleavage:
a) RADIAL: Blastomeres get arranged radially around the axis passing from animal pole
to vegetal pole. E.g. Sponges, echinoderms
b) BILATERAL: Blastomeres get arranged in bilateral symmetry. E.g. Mollusca,
vertebrates
c) SPIRAL: Blastomeres get arranged spirally around the axis passing from animal pole
to vegetal pole. E.g. Annelida

R. Types of blastula:
a) STEREOBLASTULA: Blastocoel (cavity of blastula) either very small or absent. Cells
large & few. E.g. Hydra, annelida
b) COELOBLASTULA: One to many layers of cells arranged around a centrally or
eccentrical placed blastocoel. E.g. Starfish, frog
c) DISCOBLASTULA: Few layers of cells over the yolk form a disc. E.g. Fishes, reptiles,
birds
d) SUPERFICIAL: Yolk is surrounded by a layer of epithelial cells. There is NO
blastocoel.