11th Biology-Botany English Medium Text

GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU
HIGHER SECONDARY FIRST YEAR
BIOLOGY
BOTANY
A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu
Department of School Education
Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime
11th Bio-Botany_EM_Front page.indd 1 12-12-2021 7.29.22 PM

Government of Tamil Nadu
First Edition - 2018
Revised Edition - 2019, 2020, 2022
(Published under New Syllabus)
NOT FOR SALE
Content Creation
The wise
possess all
State Council of Educational

Research and Training
© SCERT 2018
Printing & Publishing
Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

Services Corporation
www.textbooksonline.tn.nic.in
II

CONTENTS
BIOLOGY-BOTANY
BIO-BOTANY
Unit Page
Chapter Title Month
No. No.
UNIT I: Diversity of Living World
1 Living World 1 June
2 Plant Kingdom 31 June
UNIT II: Plant Morphology and Taxonomy of Angiosperm
3 Vegetative Morphology 47 July
4 Reproductive Morphology 65 July-August
5 Taxonomy and Systematic Botany 86 August
UNIT III: Cell Biology and Biomolecules
6 Cell: The Unit of Life 118 August -September
7 Cell Cycle 140 September
8 Biomolecules 150 September
UNIT IV: Plant Anatomy (Structural Organisation)
9 Tissue and Tissue System 168 October
10 Secondary Growth 192 October
UNIT V: Plant Physiology (Functional Organisation)
11 Transport in Plants 203 October
12 Mineral Nutrition 229 November
13 Photosynthesis 241 November
14 Respiration 261 December
15 Plant Growth and Development 276 December
References 293
Glossary 295
English-Tamil Terminology 299
Competitive Examination Questions 302
E-book Assessment
III

Learning objectives are brief statements that describe what
students will be expected to learn by the end of school year,
Learning Objectives: course, unit, lesson or class period.
Chapter Outline Illustrate the complete overview of chapter
Amazing facts, Rhetorical questions to lead students

to biological inquiry
Tamil terminology for Botanical terms given for easy

List of Botanical terms understanding
Activity Directions are provided to students to conduct activities

in order to explore, enrich the concept.
Infographics Visual representation of the lesson to enrich learning .

HOW TO USE
THE BOOK Evaluation Assess students to pause, think and check their understanding
To motivate the students to further explore the content

digitally and take them in to virtual world
ICT To enhance digital Science skills among students
Conceptual diagram that depicts relationships between

Concept Map concepts to enable students to learn the content schematically
Career corner List of professions related to the subject
References List of related books for further details of the topic
Web links List of digital resources
Glossary Explanation of scientific terms
Competitive
Model questions to face various competitive exams
Exam questions
IV

Scope of Botany
Higher Studies and Career Opportunities
11th Bio-Botany_EM_Front page.indd 5

TNAU TNMGRMU AIIMS SCIENCE
B.Sc. Agriculture, MEDICAL Indian Medicine and Undergraduate Courses (UG) Courses in Arts & Science Coleges
Homoeopathy Courses and Universities
B.Sc. Horticulture
MBBS MBBS
B.Sc. Forestry, B.Sc. Botany
M.D/M.S/M.D.S B.A.M.S. - Ayurvedic Medicine B.Sc Nursing (post Certificate)
B.Sc Sericulture B.Sc. Plant Biology & Plant Biotechnology
M.Ch. (5 year course) B.H.M.S. - Homoeopathic Medicine B.Sc. (Hons.) Nursing
B.Tech Biotechnology B.Sc Biochemisty
B.D.S B.N.Y.S. - Naturopathy and Yogic Paramedical Courses (PM)
B.Tech Agricultural Engineering B.Sc Bio-computing
M.D.S B.S.M.S. - Siddha Medicine B.Sc. (Hons.) Opthalmic Techniques
B.Tech Horticulture B.Sc. Plant Pathology
B.U.M.S. - Unani Medicine B.Sc. (Hons.) Medical Technology
B.Tech Food process Engineering M.Sc. Botany
B.Tech Energy and Allied Health Sciences M.Sc Biotechnology
Environmental Engineering Postgraduate Courses (PG)
M.Sc. Bio-chemistry
B.Sc.(N)- Bachelor of Science in Nursing
B.Tech Bioinformatics M.Sc. Bioinformatics
B.P.T.- Bachelor of Physiotherapy M.D/M.S/M.D.S
B.Sc Agribusiness Management M.Sc Immunology and Microbiology
M.P.T. - Master of Physiotherapy M.Ch. (5 year course)
B.Tech Agricultural IT M.Sc. Applied Medical Biotechnology & clinical
B.O.T. - Bachelor of Occupational Therapy M.Sc. / M. Biotechnology
M. Tech. Environmental Engineering Research
M. Sc in Agriculture M.O.T. - Master of Occupational Therapy M.Sc. Genetic Engineering & Plant Breeding
B.Sc. - Accident & Emergency Care Technology
V
M. Sc in Agricultural Extension M.Sc. Applied Plant Science
M. Sc in Agronomy B.Sc. - Audiology & speech Language Pathology M.Sc. Plant Biology & Plant Biotechnology
M. Sc in Soil Science B.Sc. - Cardiac Technology M.Sc. Plant molecular Biology
M. Sc in Agricultural Biotechnology B.Sc. - Cardio Pulmonary Perfusion Care Technology M.Sc. Mycology & Plant pathology
M. Sc in Agricultural Marketing B.Sc. - Critical Care Technology M.Sc. Plant science
M. Sc in Agricultural Microbiology B.Sc. - Dialysis Technology
M. Tech in Agricultural Engineering B.Sc. - Neuro Electrophysiology
M. E in Agricultural Engineering B.Sc. - Medical Sociology
Master of Agriculture in Entomology B.Sc. - Nuclear Medicine Technology
Master of Agriculture in Horticulture B.Sc. - Operation Theatre & Anaesthesia Technology
Master of Agriculture in Animal Sciences B.Sc. - Physician Assistant
Master of Agriculture in Entomology B.Sc. - Radiology Imaging Technology Integrated
tegrat
atted courses
d cours
Master of Agriculture in Plant Pathology B.Sc. - Radiotherapy Technology
Master of Agriculture in Agricultural B.Sc. - Fitness and Lifestyle Modifications Mode of selection: Entrance conducted by
Economics and Rural Sociology B.Sc. - Clinical Nutrition concern institution or NEET
Master In Agriculture And M.Sc in Life sciences- 5 year Integrated
Rural Development course
Diploma Course
Indian institute of Science, Bengaluru
Accident & Emergency Care Technology ANNA UNIVERSITY
Website: http://www.iisc.ac.in/
Critical Care Technology
National Institute of Science
Health Care Aide (as per 245th GC)
Education and Research (NISER) , B.E. Bio Medical Engineering
Operation Theatre & Anaesthesia Technology
Bhubaneswar, Kolkata , Pune , B.Tech. Industrial Bio technology
Ophthalmic Nursing Assistant Mohali, Bhopal ,Thiruvananthapuram , B.Tech. Food technology
Scope Support Technology Tirupati and Berhampur
B.Tech. Bio technology
Medical Record Science Website: http://www.niser.ac.in
Optometry Technology B.Sc.,B.Ed -5 year Integrated course
Radiology & Imaging Technology Regional Institute of Education
Medical Lab Technology Ajmer, Bhopal, Bhubaneswar, Mysuru
Cardiac Non Invasive Technology and Shilillong
Dialysis Technology Website: www.riemysore.ac.in
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Research Institutions in various areas of Botany
Name of the Institution Research Areas Website
Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) New Delhi Genetics & Plant Breeding; Microbiology; Post Harvest Technology www.iari.res.in
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) New Delhi Plant genetic resources management and use. www.nbpgr.ernet.in
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Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding, Coimbatore. Tree improvement; Bio-prospecting of Forest Natural Resources www .ifgtb.icfre.gov.in
Central Plantation crops Research Institute, Kerala Crop improvement; Production; Protection; Plant physiology and www.cpcri.gov.in
Biochemistry.
Indian Institute of Crop Processing Technology, Thanjavur. Agricultural Process Engineering Renewable energy for food processing . www.iicpt.edu.in
Central Tuber Crops Research Institute, Thiruvananthapuram. Development of Agro techniques for tuber crops www.ctcri.org
Indian Institute of Spices Research, Kozhikode. Collection, conservation, evaluation and cataloging of germplasm. www.spices.res.in
Central Institute for Cotton Research, Nagpur, (Regional station: Crop improvement, Crop Production and Crop Protection. www.cicr.org.in
Coimbatore & Sirsa)
Directorate of Cashewnut & Cocoa, Agri, Kerala Cocoa production and processing www.dccd.gov.in
National Research Center on Plant Biotechnology, New Delhi Genetic engineering for biotic resistance. www.nrcpb.org
National Institute of Plant Genome Research (NIPGR), New Delhi Structural and Functional Genomics in Plants; Computational biology; www.nipgr.res.in
Genome analysis and molecular mapping..
Sugarcane Breeding Institute, ICAR, Coimbatore. Breeding of superior sugarcane varieties/ genotypes; www.sugarcane.res.in
Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad Dryland, Agrometerology and Crop sciences crida.in
National Research Centre for Groundnut(NRCG) Junagarh, Productivity and quality of groundnut; repository of groundnut germplasm www.nrcg.res.in
Gujarat and information on groundnut researches
VI
International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Mammalian Biology; Plant Biology; Synthetic Biology and Biofuels. www.icgen.org
(ICGEB), New Delhi
National Institute of Virology, Pune Epidemology, Basic virology; Diagnostics. www.niv.co.in
Center for DNA Fingerprinting and Diagnostics, Hyderabad Computational Biology. Protein structure, Dynamic and Interactions www.cdfd.org.in
Epigenetic
Institute of Life Sciences, Bhubaneswar Infectious disease;Iimmune biology; Cancer biology; Nanotechnology www.ils.res.in
Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad. Genetics & evolution, Genomics; Cell Biology & Development. www.ccmb.res.in
Central Institute of medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow. Biotechnology, Crop protection; Genetics and plant breeding www.cimap.res.in
National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow. Genetics and molecular biology; Plant microbe interaction & www.nbri.res.in
Pharmacogonosy.
Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology Genomics and Molecular medicine, Chemical and systems biology. www.igib.res.in
National Centre for Biological Sciecnes, Bangalore Biochemistry, Biophysics, Bioinformatics, Genetics and www.ncbs.res.in
development;Cellular organization & signelling neurobiology etc.
Birbal Sahni Institute od Palaeobotany (BSIP) Lucknow. Palynology in fossil fuel exploration; Dendrochronology; Ethnobotany; www.bsip.res.in
Micropaleontology; Carbon 14Dating
North East Institute of Science & Technology Jorhat, Assam. Chemical science; Biological sciences;Material sciences; Agro-science www.rrljorhat.res.in
and technology; Geosciences.
Institute of Wood Science and Technology, Bangalore. Tree improvement and Genetics; Chemistry of Forest Products. iwst.icfre.gov.in
Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science. Behavior Ecology; Evolution; climate change & conservation. www.ces.iisc.ernet.in
Bangalore.
Botanical Survey of India(BSI), Kolkatta www.bsi.gov.in
endangered species.
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Unit I: Diversity of
Living World
Chapter
1 Living World
Learning Objectives
The learner will be able to,
• Differentiate living and non-living
things.
• Appreciate the attributes of living
organisms.
• Compare the different classifications
proposed by biologists.
• Recognize the general characters,
structure and reproduction of
Bacteria.
• Identify the characteristic features visible but the activity of
of Archaebacteria, Cyanobacteria, some capture the attention
Mycoplasma and Actinomycetes. of all. For example the
• Describe the characteristic features of response of sun flower to
fungi. the sunlight, the twinkling
• Discuss the structure and uses of firefly in the dark forest, the
Mycorrhizae and Lichens. rolling water droplets on the surface of lotus
leaf, the closure of the leaf of venus fly trap
on insect touch and a squid squeezing ink to
escape from its predator. From this it is clear
Chapter Outline that the wonder planet earth harbours both
landforms and life forms. Have you thought
1.1 Attributes of Living organisms
of DNA molecule? It is essential for the
1.2 Viruses
regulation of life and is made up of carbon,
1.3 Classification of Living world
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus.
1.4 Bacteria
thus nonliving and living things exist together
1.5 Fungi
to make our planet unique.
Earth was formed some 4.6 billion years ago. According to a survey made by
It is the life supporting planet with land forms Mora et al., 2011 the number of estimated
like mountains, plateaus, glaciers, etc. Life on species on earth is 8.7 million. The living
earth exists within a complex structure called world includes microbes, plants, animals
biosphere. There exist many mysteries and and human beings which possess unique
wonders in the living world some are not and distinct characteristic feature.
XIth_BIO-BOTANY_Ch_1-EM.indd 1 12/09/2021 8:13:35 PM

1.1 Attributes of living organisms Reproduction
The attributes of living organisms are given Reproduction is one of the fundamental
below and is represented in Figure 1.1. characteristic features of living organisms.
It is the tendency of a living organism to
Growth Nutrition Movement
perpetuate its own species. There are two
types of reproduction namely asexual and
ATTRIBUTES sexual (Figure 1.2).
Metabolism OF LIVING Reproduction
ORGANISMS Nucleus
Respiration Irritability Excretion
Figure 1.1: Attributes of living organisms

Growth (a) (b)
Growth is an intrinsic property of all living
organisms through which they can increase
cells both in number and mass. Unicellular
and multicellular organisms grow by cell
division. In plants, growth is indefinite and
occurs throughout their life. In animals,
growth is definite and occurs for some
period. Growth in non-living objects is
extrinsic. Mountains, boulders and sand
mounds grow by simple aggregation of (c) (d)
material on the surface. Living cells grow Figure 1.2: Types of Asexual Reproduction
by the addition of new protoplasm within (a) Conidia formation-Penicillium,
the cells. Therefore, growth in living thing (b) Budding-Yeast, (c) Fragmentation-
is intrinsic. In unicellular organisms like Spirogyra, (d) Regeneration-Planaria
Bacteria and Amoeba growth occurs by cell Asexual reproduction refers to the
division and such cell division also leads production of the progeny possessing
to the growth of their population. Hence,
features more or less similar to those of
growth and reproduction are mutually
parents. The sexual reproduction brings out
inclusive events.
variation through recombination. Asexual
Cellular structure reproduction in living organisms occurs
All living organisms are made up of cells by the production of conidia (Aspergillus,
which may be prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Penicillium), budding (Hydra and Yeast),
Prokaryotes are unicellular, lack binary fission (Bacteria and Amoeba)
membrane bound nuclei and organelles like fragmentation (Spirogyra), protonema
mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi (Mosses) and regeneration (Planaria).
bodies and so on (Example: Bacteria and Exceptions are the sterile worker bees
Blue green algae). In Eukaryotes a definite and mules.
nucleus and membrane bound organelles
Response to stimuli
are present. Eukaryotes may be unicellular
All organisms are capable of sensing their
(Amoeba) or multicellular (Oedogonium).
environment and respond to various physical,
chemical and biological stimuli. Animals sense
2

their surroundings by sense organs. This is Biosphere
called Consciousness. Plants also respond to
the stimuli. Bending of plants towards sunlight, Ecosystem III Ecosystem
the closure of leaves in touch-me-not plant Community
to touch are some examples for response to
stimuli in plants. This type of response is called Population
Irritability. Individual organism II Individual
Living
organism
Homeostasis Organ systems
Property of self-regulation and tendency to
maintain a steady state within an external Organs
environment which is liable to change Tissues

is called Homeostasis. It is essential for
Living cells
the living organism to maintain internal Living cells I
condition to survive in the environment. Colloids
Non Living
Organelles
Metabolism Molecules & Crystals

The sum of all the chemical reactions taking Compounds
Mixture
place in a cell of living organism is called Atoms
metabolism. It is broadly divided into
anabolism and catabolism. The difference Figure 1.3: The levels of organization
between anabolism and catabolism is given and integration in living organism
in Table 1.1.
Activity 1.1
Table 1.1: Difference between Collect Vallisneria leaves or Chara from nearby
anabolism and catabolism aquarium and observe a leaf or Chara thallus
Anabolism Catabolism (internodal region)under the microscope. You
Building up process Breaking down process could see cells clearly under the microscope.
Could you notice the movement of cytoplasm?
Smaller molecules
Larger molecule The movement of cytoplasm is called
combine together
break into smaller cytoplasmic streaming or cyclosis.
to form larger
units
molecule
The stored chemical
1.2 Viruses
Chemical energy is
energy is released Did you go through the
formed and stored
and used headlines of newspapers
Example: Synthesis Example: Breaking in recent times? Have
of proteins from down of glucose to you heard of the terms
amino acids CO2 and water EBOLA, ZIKA, AIDS,
SARS, H1N1 etc.? There
Movement, Nutrition, Respiration and are serious entities which are considered as
Excretion are also considered as the property “Biological Puzzle” and cause disease in man.
of living things. The levels of organization They are called viruses. We have learnt about
in living organism begin with atoms and the attributes of living world in the previous
end in Biosphere. Each level cannot exist chapter. Now we shall discuss about viruses
in isolation instead they form levels of which connect the living and nonliving world.
integration as given in Figure 1.3.
3

The word virus is derived from i. Cuboid symmetry – Example:
Latin meaning ‘Poison’. Viruses are sub- Adenovirus, Herpes virus.
microscopic, obligate intracellular parasites. ii. Helical symmetry – Example: Influenza
They have nucleic acid core surrounded by virus, TMV.
protein coat. Viruses in their native state iii. Complex or Atypical – Example:
contain only a single type of nucleic acid Bacteriophage, Vaccinia virus.
which may be either DNA or RNA. The
study of viruses is called Virology.
RNA
Head
Fibre DNA
Capsid Collar
DNA
Sheath
An American Scientist Protein
Basal plate
obtained virus in
Tail fibre
crystallised form from (a) (b)
(c)
infected tobacco juice (a) Adenovirus, (b) Tobacco Mosaic virus,

in the year 1935. He was (c) T4 Bacteriophage
jointly awarded “Nobel Figure 1.4: Shapes of Viruses
Prize” with Dr. J.H.
Northrop for Chemistry
1.2.3 Characteristic Features of Viruses
W.M. Stanley Living Characters
in 1946. (1904-1971)
• Presence of nucleic acid and protein.
1.2.1 Milestones in Virology • Capable of mutation
1796 Edward Jenner used vaccination for • Ability to multiply within living cells.
small pox • Able to infect and cause diseases in living
1886 Adolf Mayer demonstrated the beings.
infectious nature of Tobacco mosaic • Show irritability.
virus using sap of mosaic leaves • Host –specific
1892 Dimitry Ivanowsky proved that Non-living Characters
viruses are smaller than bacteria • Can be crystallized.
1898 M.W. Beijierink defined the • Absence of metabolism.
infectious agent in tobacco leaves as • Inactive outside the host.
῾Contagium vivum fluidum’ • Do not show functional autonomy.
1915 F.W.Twort identified Viral infection • Energy producing enzyme system is absent.
in Bacteria
1917 d’Herelle coined the term 1.2.4 Classification of Viruses
‘Bacteriophage’ Among various classifications proposed
1984 Luc Montagnier and Robert Gallo for viruses the classification given by David
discovered HIV (Human Immuno Baltimore in the year 1971 is given below. The
Deficiency Virus). classification is based on mechanism of RNA
production, the nature of the genome (single
1.2.2 Size and Shape stranded –ss or double stranded - ds), RNA or
Viruses are ultramicroscopic particles. They DNA, the use of reverse transcriptase (RT), ss
are smaller than bacteria and their diameter RNA may be (+) sense or (–) antisense. Viruses
range from 20 to 300 nm. (1nm = 10-9metres). are classified into seven classes (Table 1.2).
Bacteriophage measures about 10-100 nm
Viral genome
in size. The size of TMV is 300×20 nm.
Each virus possesses only one type of nucleic
Generally viruses are of three types acid either DNA or RNA. The nucleic acid
based on shape and symmetry (Figure 1.4). may be in a linear or circular form. Generally
4

nucleic acid is present as a helical virus measuring about 300x20nm
single unit but in wound with a molecular weight of 39x106 Daltons.
tumour virus and in The virion is made up of two constituents, a
influenza virus it is found protein coat called capsid and a core called
in segments. The viruses nucleic acid. The protein coat is made up
possessing DNA are called of approximately 2130 identical protein
‘Deoxyviruses’ whereas those possessing subunits called capsomeres which are
RNA are called ‘Riboviruses’. Majority of present around a central single stranded
animal and bacterial viruses are DNA viruses RNA molecule. The genetic information
(HIV is the animal virus which possess necessary for the formation of a complete
RNA). Plant viruses generally contain RNA TMV particle is contained in its RNA. The
(Cauliflower Mosaic virus possess DNA). The RNA consists of 6,500 nucleotides.
nucleic acids may be single stranded or double
stranded. On the basis of nature of nucleic 1.2.6 Bacteriophage
acid viruses are classified into four Categories. Viruses infecting bacteria are called
They are Viruses with ssDNA (Parvo viruses), Bacteriophages. It literally means ‘eaters
dsDNA (Bacteriophages), ssRNA (TMV)and of bacteria’ (Gr: Phagein = to eat). Phages
dsRNA(Wound Tumour Virus). are abundant in soil, sewage water, fruits,
vegetables, and milk.
Table 1.2: Different Classes of viruses
Class Example Structure of T4 bacteriophage
Class 1 – Viruses with dsDNA Adeno viruses The T4 phage is tadpole shaped and consists
Class 2 –Viruses with (+) sense ssDNA Parvo viruses
Class 3 – Viruses with dsRNA Reo viruses of head, collar, tail, base plate and fibres
Class 4 – Viruses with (+)sense ssRNA Toga viruses (Figure 1.4). The head is hexagonal which
Class 5 – Viruses with (–)sense ssRNA Rhabdo viruses consists of about 2000 identical protein
Class 6 – V
iruses with (+) sense ssRNA Retro viruses
–RT: that replicate with DNA subunits. The long helical tail consists of
intermediate in life cycle an inner tubular core which is connected
Class 7 – V
iruses with ds DNA –RT: Hepadna
viruses
to the head by a collar. There is a base plate
that replicate with RNA
intermediate in life cycle attached to the end of tail. The base plate
contains six spikes and tail fibres. These
1.2.5 Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) fibres are used to attach the phage on the
Tobacco mosaic virus was discovered in 1892 cell wall of bacterial host during replication.
by Dimitry Ivanowsky from the Tobacco A dsDNA molecule of about 50 µm is tightly
plant. Viruses infect healthy plants through packed inside the head. The DNA is about
vectors like aphids, locusts etc. The first 1000 times longer than the phage itself.
visible symptom of TMV is discoloration of 1.2.7 Multiplication or Life Cycle of
leaf colour along the veins and show typical Phages
yellow and green mottling which is the Phages multiply through two different types
mosaic symptom. The downward curling of life cycle. a. Lytic or Virulent cycle b.
and distortion of young apical leaves occurs, Lysogenic or Avirulent life cycle.
plant becomes stunted and yield is affected. a. Lytic Cycle
Structure During lytic cycle of phage, disintegration
Electron microscopic studies have revealed of host bacterial cell occurs and the progeny
virions are released (Figure 1.5a). The steps
that TMV is a rod shaped (Figure 1.4b)
involved in the lytic cycle are as follows:
5

(i) Adsorption (v) Release
Phage (T4) particles interact with cell wall of The phage particle gets accumulated inside
host (E. coli). The phage tail makes contact the host cell and are released by the lysis of
between the two, and tail fibres recognize the host cell wall.
specific receptor sites present on bacterial cell Capsid Phage
DNA
surface. The lipopolysaccharides of tail fibres Bacterial
Phage DNA
Adsorption
act as receptor in phages. The process involving genome Bacterial
chromosome
the recognition of phage to bacterium is called Phage

landing. Once the contact is established Penetration DNA Circular
phage DNA
between tail fibres and bacterial cell, tail fibres
bend to anchor the pins and base plate to the Synthesis
Host cell
cell surface. This step is called pinning.
(ii) Penetration Assembly and
maturation
Prophage
The penetration process involves mechani-

cal and enzymatic digestion of the cell wall Release Reproducing
of the host. At the recognition site phage Release of bacterial cell
new phage
digests certain cell wall structure by viral particle
(a) Lytic cycle
enzyme (lysozyme). After pinning the tail (b) Lysogenic cycle
Figure 1.5: Multiplication cycle of phage
sheath contracts (using ATP) and appears
shorter and thicker. After contraction of the b. Lysogenic Cycle
base plate enlarges through which DNA is In the lysogenic cycle the phage DNA gets
injected into the cell wall without using met- integrated into host DNA and gets multiplied
abolic energy. The step involving i njection of along with nucleic acid of the host. No independent
DNA particle alone into the bacterial cell is viral particle is formed (Figure 1.5b).
called Transfection. The empty protein coat
leaving outside the cell is known as ‘ghost’. As soon as the phage injects its linear
DNA into the host cell, it becomes circular
(iii) Synthesis and integrates into the bacterial chromosome
This step involves the degradation of
by recombination. The integrated phage DNA
bacterial chromosome, protein synthesis
is now called prophage. The activity of the
and DNA replication. The phage nucleic
acid takes over the host biosynthetic prophage gene is repressed by two repressor
machinery. Host DNA gets inactivated and proteins which are synthesized by phage genes.
breaks down. Phage DNA suppresses the This checks the synthesis of new phages within
synthesis of bacterial protein and directs the host cell. However, each time the bacterial
the metabolism of the cell to synthesis
the proteins of the phage particles and Viruses infecting blue
simultaneously replication of Phage DNA green algae are called
also takes place. Cyanophages and are first
(iv) Assembly and Maturation reported by Safferman
The DNA of the phage and protein coat are and Morris in the year 1963(Example LPP1
synthesized separately and are assembled - Lyngbya, Plectonema and Phormidium).
to form phage particles. The process of Similarly, Hollings(1962) reported viruses
infecting cultivated Mushrooms and causing
assembling the phage particles is known as
die back disease. The viruses attacking fungi
maturation. After 20 minutes of infection,
are called Mycoviruses or Mycophages.
about 300 new phages are assembled.

cell divides, the prophage multiplies along with 1.2.8 Viral diseases
the bacterial chromosome. On exposure to UV Viruses are known to cause disease in plants,
radiation and chemicals the excision of phage animals and Human beings (Figure 1.6). A list
DNA may occur and results in lytic cycle. of viral disease is given in Table 1.3.
Virion is an intact infective virus particle
which is non-replicating outside a host cell.
Viroid is a circular molecule of ssRNA
without a capsid and was discovered by
T.O.Diener in the year 1971. The RNA of viroid (a)
has low molecular weight. Viroids cause citrus
exocortis and potato spindle tuber disease in Blister like
plants. p
ustules
Virusoids were discovered by J.W.Randles
and Co-workers in 1981.They are the small
(b)
circular RNAs which are similar to viroids but
they are always linked with larger molecules of Figure 1.6: Viral diseases (a) Mosaic disease
of tomato, (b) Symptom of Chicken pox
the viral RNA.
Prions were discovered by Stanley Streaks on Tulip flowers
B. Prusiner in the year 1982 and are protein- are due to Tulip Breaking
aceous infectious particles. They are the caus- Virus which belong to
ative agents for about a dozen fatal degenerative Potyviridae group.
disorders of the central nervous system of Viruses of Baculoviridae group
humans and other animals. For example are commercially exploited as insecticides.
Creutzfeldt – Jakob Disease (CJD), Bovine Cytoplasmic Polyhedrosis Granulo viruses
and Entomopox viruses
Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) – com- were employed as potential
monly known as mad cow disease and scrapie insecticides.
disease of sheep.
Table 1.3: Viral diseases

Plant diseases Animal diseases Human diseases
1. Common cold
2. Hepatitis B
1.Tobacco mosaic 3. Cancer
2. Cauliflower mosaic 4. S ARS(Severe Acute
3. Sugarcane mosaic Respiratory Syndrome)
1. F
oot and mouth disease of
4. Potato leaf roll 5. A IDS(Acquired Immuno
cattle
5. Bunchy top of banana Deficiency Syndrome)
2. Rabies of dog
6. Leaf curl of papaya 6. Rabies
3. E
ncephalomyelitis of horse
7. V
ein clearing of Lady’s finger 7. Mumps
8. Rice Tungro disease 8. Polio
9. Cucumber mosaic 9. Chikungunya
10. Tomato mosaic disease 10. Small Pox
11. Chicken pox
12. Measles

1.3 Classification of Living World on morphological characters. His classification
From the previous chapter we know that the faced major setback because Prokaryotes and
planet earth is endowed with living and non Eukaryotes were grouped together. Similarly
-living things. In our daily life we see several fungi, heterotrophic organisms were placed
things in and around us. Imagine, you are along with the photosynthetic plants. In course
on a trip to Hill station. You are enjoying the of time, the development of tools compelled
beauty of mountains, dazzling colour of the taxonomists to look for different areas like
flowers, and melodious sound of the birds. You cytology, anatomy, embryology, molecular
may be capturing most of the things you come biology, phylogeny etc., for classifying
across in the form of photography. Now, from organisms on earth. Thus, new dimensions to
this experience can you mention the objects classifications were put forth from time to time.
you have come across? Can you record your 1.3.1 Need of Classification
observations and tabulate them?. How will you Classification is essential to achieve
organize the things? Will you place mountain following needs.
and flowers together or tall trees and trailing
• To relate things based on common
herbs in one category or place it in different
characteristic features.
category? If you place it in different category,
• To define organisms based on the salient
what made you to place them in different
features.
category? So classification is essential and could
be done only by understanding and comparing • Helps in knowing the relationship
the things based on some characters. In this amongst different groups of organisms.
chapter we shall learn about classification of • It helps in understanding the evolutionary
living world. relationship between organisms.
Many attempts have made in the past to 1.3.2 Classification of Living World
classify the organisms on earth. Theophrastus, A comparison of classification proposed
“Father of Botany” used the morphological for classification of living world is given in
characters to classify plants into trees, shrubs Table 1.4.
and herbs. Aristotle classified animals into
1.3.3 Five Kingdom Classification
two groups. i.e., Enaima (with red blood) and
Anaima (without red blood). R.H.Whittaker, an American taxonomist
Carl Linnaeus classified living world into proposed five Kingdom classification in the
two groups namely Plants and Animals based year 1969. The Kingdoms include Monera,
Table 1.4: Systems of Classification

Two Kingdom Three Kingdom Four Kingdom Five Kingdom
Carl Linnaeus (1735) Ernst Haeckel (1866) Copeland (1956) R.H. Whittaker (1969)
1. Plantae 1. Protista 1. Monera 1. Monera
2. Animalia 2. Plantae 2. Protista 2. Protista
3. Animalia 3. Plantae 3. Fungi
4. Animalia 4. Plantae
5. Animalia

Table 1.5: Comparison of Five Kingdoms
Kingdom
XIth_BIO-BOTANY_Ch_1-EM.indd 9
Criteria Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
Level of Mostly Unicellular, Unicellular Multicellular Tissue/organ Tissue/organ/organ

organization rarely multicellur and unicellular system
Cell wall Present Present in some Present (made up of Present (made up of absent
(made up of (made up of chitin or cellulose) cellulose)
Peptidoglycan and cellulose), absent in
Mucopeptides) others
Nutrition Autotrophic Autotrophic- Heterotrophic- Autotrophic Heterotrophic
9
(Phototrophic, Photosynthetic. parasitic or (Photosynthetic) (Holozoic)
Chemoautotrophic) Heterotrophic Saprophytic
Heterotrophic
(parasitic and
saprophytic)
Motility Motile or Motile or Non-motile Mostly Non-motile Mostly motile
non-motile non-motile
Organisms Archaebacteria, Chrysophytes, Yeast, Mushrooms Algae, Bryophytes, Sponges,
Eubacteria, Dinoflagellates, and Molds Pteridophytes, Invertebrates and
Cyanobacteria, Euglenoids, Slime Gymnosperms and Vertebrates
Actinomycetes and molds, Amoeba, Angiosperms
Mycoplasma Plasmodium,
Trypanosoma,
Paramecium
12/09/2021 8:13:49 PM
Fungi Ruggierio et al., 2015 published
Animalia
Plantae a seven Kingdom classification
Basidiomycota
a Arthropoda
Spe
permatophyta
pe
which is a practical extension of
Anne
nelida
ne d Mollusca Thomas Cavalier’s six Kingdom
Ascomom
mycoota Vertebrate
e
Pteridophyta
scheme. According to this
a
ycete
cot
Nem
e atoda
my
Protocho
o
ordata classification there are two
e
Myxom
go
iida
s
Zy
Super Kingdoms. (Prokaryota
inthe
Echinodermataa
stel
Bry
ryo
yophyta Chaetognatha
an Dictyo
Charophyta a
and Eukaryota) Prokaryota
helm
Oomycete
Phaeoph hyta
Platy
Chlorophyta
Coelenterata includes two Kingdoms
or
Rhodophyt
hyta Porifer
fera
era namely Archaebacteria and
ph
go
Bacillariophyta
a
Ma
sti
Eubacteria. Eukaryota includes
Cilioph
phora
pho
the Protozoa, Chromista,
Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
Rhizopod
hizopoda
Cyanophyta A new Kingdom, the Chromista
Bacterria
r Protista was erected and it included
all algae whose chloroplasts
Monera contain chlorophyll a and c, as
Figure 1.7: Five Kingdom Classification well as various colourless forms
Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia that are closely related to them.
(Figure 1.7). The criteria adopted for the Diatoms, Brown algae, Cryptomonads and
classification include cell structure, thallus Oomycetes were placed under this Kingdom.
organization, mode of nutrition, reproduction
and phylogenetic relationship. A comparative Activity 1.2
account of the salient features of each Kingdom Visit to a pond and record the names of the
is given in Table 1.5 biotic components of it with the help of your
teacher. Tabulate the data and segregate them
Merits
• The classification is based on the complexity according to Five Kingdom Classification.
of cell structure and organization of thallus.
• It is based on the mode of nutrition Red tide is caused by toxic bloom of
• Separation of fungi from plants Dinoflagellates like Gymnodinium
breve and Gonyaulax tamarensis.
• It shows the phylogeny of the organisms
Demerits A major red tide
incident in west
• The Kingdom Monera and protista coast of Florida in
accommodate both autotrophic and the year 1982 killed
heterotrophic organisms, cell wall lacking Hundreds and
and cell wall bearing organisms thus making thousands of fishes.
these two groups more heterogeneous.
• Viruses were not included in the system. 1.4 Bacteria
Carl Woese and co-workers in the year 1990 Bacteria Friends or Foes?
introduced three domains of life viz., Bacteria, Have you noticed the preparation of curd
Archaea and Eukarya based on the difference in our home? A little drop of curd turns
in rRNA nucleotide sequence, lipid structure the milk into curd after some time. What is
of the cell membrane. A revised six Kingdom
responsible for this change? Why it Sours?
classification for living world was proposed
The change is brought by Lactobacillus
by Thomas Cavalier-Smith in the year 1998
and the Kingdom Monera is divided in to lactis, a bacterium present in the curd. The
Archaebacteria and Eubacteria. Recently sourness is due to the formation of Lactic
10

acid. Have you been a victim of Typhoid? It but some are autotrophic and possess
is a bacterial disease caused by Salmonella Bacteriochlorophyll (Chromatium)
typhi, a bacterium. So we can consider this • They reproduce vegetatively by Binary
prokaryotic organism as friend and foe, due fission and endospore formation.
to their beneficial and harmful activities. • They exhibit variations which are due to
Robert Koch (1843–1910) genetic recombination and is achieved
Robert Heinrich Hermann Koch
through conjugation, transformation
was a German physician and and transduction.
microbiologist. He is considered
as the founder of modern
The shape and flagellation of the bacteria
bacteriology. varies and is given in Figure 1.8.
He identified the causal
organism for Anthrax, Cholera
and Tuberculosis. The experimental evidence Coccus Diplococcus
Monotrichous
for the concept of infection was proved by him Staphylococcus

Tetracoccus
(Koch’s postulates). He was awarded Nobel prize

in Medicine/Physiology in the year 1905. Lophotrichous
Sarcina
Streptococcus
1.4.1 Milestones in Bacteriology Amphitrichous
1829 C.G. Ehrenberg coined the term

Bacterium Bacillus Diplobacillus
1884 Christian Gram introduced Gram

staining method
1923 David H. Bergy published First edition Peritrichous
of Bergey’s Manual
Vibrio
1928 Fredrick Griffith discovered Bacterial Spirillum Atrichous
transformation Figure 1.8: Shape and flagellation

1952 Joshua Lederberg discovered of Plasmid in bacteria
Bacteria are prokaryotic, unicellular, ubiq- 1.4.3 Ultrastructure of a Bacterial cell
uitous, microscopic organisms. The study The bacterial cell reveals three
of Bacteria is called Bacteriology. Bacteria layers (i) Capsule/Glycocalyx (ii) Cell
were first discovered by a Dutch scientist, wall and (iii) Cytoplasm (Figure 1.9).
Anton van Leeuwenhoek in 1676 and were Capsule/Glycocalyx
called “animalcules”. Some bacteria are surrounded by a
1.4.2 G
eneral characteristic features of gelatinous substance which is composed of
Bacteria polysaccharides or polypeptide or both. A
• They are Prokaryotic organisms and thick layer of glycocalyx bound tightly to the
Capsule
lack nuclear membrane and membrane Cell wall
bound organelles. Plasma membrane
Mesosom
• The Genetic material is called nucleoid Cytoplasm
or genophore or incipient nucleus Nucleoid (DNA)
Flagellum
• The cell wall is made up of Polysaccharides Plasmid
and proteins Inclusion
Polyribosome
• Most of them lack chlorophyll, hence Pilus
they are heterotrophic (Vibrio cholerae) Figure 1.9: Ultrastructure of a bacterial cell
11

cell wall is called capsule. It protects cell from uncoiled, contains all the genetic information of
desiccation and antibiotics. The sticky nature the organism. The DNA is not bound to histone
helps them to attach to substrates like plant proteins. The single chromosome or the DNA
root surfaces, Human teeth and tissues. It molecule is circular and at one point it is attached
helps to retain the nutrients in bacterial cell. to the plasma membrane and it is believed that
this attachment may help in the separation of
Duodenal and Gastric two chromosomes after DNA replication.
ulcers are caused by
Helicobacter pylori, Plasmid
a Gram negative Plasmids are extra chromosomal double
bacterium stranded, circular, self-replicating, autonomous
•
Bt toxin from Bacillus thuringiensis elements. The size of a plasmid varies from
finds application in raising insect 1 to 500 kb usually plasmids contribute to
resistant crops (Bt Crops). about 0.5 to 5.0% of the total DNA of bacteria.
They contain genes for fertility, antibiotic
Cell wall
resistant and heavy metals. It also help in the
The bacterial cell wall is granular and is rigid. It
production of bacteriocins and toxins which
provides protection and gives shape to the cell.
are not found in bacterial chromosome. The
The chemical composition of cell wall is rather
number of plasmids per cell varies. Plasmids
complex and is made up of peptidoglycan
are classified into different types based on
or mucopeptide (N-acetyl glucosamine,
the function. Some of them are F (Fertility)
N-acetyl muramic acid and peptide chain of
factor, R (Resistance) plasmids, Col (Colicin)
4 or 5 aminoacids). One of the most abundant
polypeptide called porin is present and it helps plasmids, Ri (Root inducing) plasmids and Ti
in the diffusion of solutes. (Tumour inducing) plasmids.
Plasma membrane Mesosomes
The plasma membrane is made up of These are localized infoldings of plasma
lipoprotein. It controls the entry and exit membrane produced into the cell in the form
of small molecules and ions. The enzymes of vesicles, tubules and lamellae. They are
involved in the oxidation of metabolites (i.e., the clumped and folded together to maximize
respiratory chain) as well as the photosystems their surface area and helps in respiration and
used in photosynthesis are present in the in binary fission.
plasma membrane. Polysomes / Polyribosomes
Cytoplasm The ribosomes are the site of protein
Cytoplasm is thick and semitransparent. It synthesis. The number of ribosome
contains ribosomes and other cell inclusions. per cell varies from 10,000 to 15,000.
Cytoplasmic inclusions like glycogen, poly-β- The ribosomes are 70S type and consists of two
hydroxybutyrate granules, sulphur granules subunits (50S and 30S). The ribosomes are held
and gas vesicles are present. together by mRNA and form polyribosomes
Bacterial chromosome or polysomes.
The bacterial chromosome is a single circular Flagella
DNA molecule, tightly coiled and is not Certain motile bacteria have numerous thin
enclosed in a membrane as in Eukaryotes. hair like projections of variable length emerge
This genetic material is called Nucleoid or from the cell wall called flagella. It is 20–30 μm
Genophore. It is amazing to note that the DNA in diameter and 15 μm in length. The flagella
of E.coli which measures about 1mm long when of Eukaryotic cells contain 9+2 microtubles
12

but each flagellum in bacteria is made up of a Prepare a smear of bacterial culture
single fibril. Flagella are used for locomotion.
Based on the number and position of flagella Stain with Crystal violet for 30 seconds
there are different types of bacteria (Figure 1.8)
Fimbriae or Pili Rinse in distilled water for 2 seconds
Pili or fimbriae are hair like appendages found
on surface of cell wall of gram-negative bacteria Grams Iodine for 1 minute
(Example: Enterobacterium). The pili are 0.2 to
20 µm long with a diameter of about 0.025µm. Rinse in distilled water
In addition to normal pili there are special type
of pili which help in conjugation called sex pili Wash in 95% ethanol or acetone
are also found. for 10 to 30 seconds
1.4.4 Gram staining procedure
Rinse in distilled water
The Gram staining method to differentiate
bacteria was developed by Danish Physician
Safranin for 30–60 seconds
Christian Gram in the year1884. It is a
differential staining procedure and it classifies
bacteria into two classes - Gram positive and Rinse in distilled water and blot
Gram negative. The steps involved in Gram
staining procedure is given in Figure 1.10. The Observe under microscope
Gram positive bacteria retain crystal violet and Figure 1.10: Steps involved in Gram Staining
appear dark violet whereas Gram negative type
loose the crystal violet and when counterstained polysaccharide molecules. The gram negative
by safranin appear red under a microscope. cell wall contains three components that lie
Most of the gram positive cell wall contain outside the peptidoglycan layer. 1. Lipoprotein
considerable amount of teichoic acid and 2. Outer membrane 3.Lipopolysaccharide.
teichuronic acid. In addition, they may contain Thus the different results in the gram stain
Table 1.6: Difference between Gram Positive and Gram Negative Bacteria
S. No. Characteristics Gram positive Bacteria Gram negative Bacteria
Thick layered with Thin layered with
1. Cell wall
(0.015 µm-0.02µm) (0.0075µm–0.012µm)
Rigid due to presence Elastic due to presence of lipoprotein-
2. Rigidity of cell wall
of Peptidoglycans polysaccharide mixture
Peptidoglycans-80% Peptidoglycans-3 to 12% rest is
3. Chemical composition Polysaccharide-20% polysaccharides and lipoproteins.
Teichoic acid present Teichoic acid absent
4. Outer membrane Absent Present
5. Periplasmic space Absent Present
6. Susceptibility to penicillin Highly susceptible Low susceptible
7. Nutritional requirements Relatively complex Relatively simple
8. Flagella Contain 2 basal body rings Contain 4 basal body rings
9. Lipid and lipoproteins Low High
10. Lipopolysaccharides Absent Present
13

are due to differences in the structure and Nutrition
composition of the cell wall. The difference On the basis of their mode of nutrition
between Gram Positive and Gram negative bacteria are classified into two types namely
bacteria is given in Table 1.6. autotrophs and heterotrophs.
What are Magnetosomes ? I Autotrophic Bacteria
Intracellular chains of 40-50 magnetite Bacteria which can synthesise their own food
(Fe3O4) particles are found in bacterium are called autotrophic bacteria. They may be
Aquaspirillum magnetotacticum. and it further subdivided as
help the bacterium to locate nutrient rich A. Photoautotrophic bacteria
sediments. Bacteria use sunlight as their source of energy
to synthesize food. They may be
1.4.5 Life processes in Bacteria
Respiration 1. Photolithotrophs
In photolithotrophs the hydrogen donor is an
Two types of respiration are found in
Bacteria. They are 1. Aerobic respiration inorganic substance.
2. Anaerobic respiration. a. Green sulphur bacteria: In this type of
1. Aerobic respiration bacteria the hydrogen donor is H2S and
These bacteria require oxygen as terminal possess pigment called Bacterioviridin.
acceptor and will not grow under anaerobic Example: Chlorobium.
conditions. (i.e. in the absence of O2) b. Purple sulphur bacteria: For bacteria
Example: Streptococcus. belong to this group the hydrogen donor is
Obligate aerobes thiosulphate, Bacteriochlorophyll is present.
Some Micrococcus species are obligate Chlorophyll containing chlorosomes are
aerobes (i.e. they must have oxygen to survive). present Example: Chromatium.
2. Anaerobic respiration 2. Photoorganotrophs
These bacteria do not use oxygen for growth They utilize organic acid or alcohol as
and metabolism but obtain their energy from hydrogen donor. Example: Purple non
fermentation reactions.Example: Clostridium. sulphur bacteria – Rhodospirillum.
Facultative anaerobes B. Chemoautotrophic bacteria
There are bacteria that can grow either They do not have photosynthetic pigment
using oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor hence they cannot use sunlight energy. This
or anaerobically using fermentation reaction type of bacteria obtain energy from organic
to obtain energy. When a facultative anaerobe or inorganic substance.
such as E. coli is present at a site of infection like
an abdominal a bscess, it can rapidly consume all 1. Chemolithotrophs
a vailable O2 and change to anaerobic metabolism This type of bacteria oxidize inorganic
producing an anaerobic environment and thus compound to release energy.
allow the anaerobic bacteria that are present to Examples:
grow and cause disease. Example: Escherichia 1. Sulphur bacteria - Thiobacillus thiooxidans
coli and Salmonella. 2. Iron bacteria - Ferrobacillus ferrooxidans
Capnophilic Bacteria 3. Hydrogen bacteria - Hydrogenomonas
Bacteria which require CO2 for their growth 4. Nitrifying bacteria - N
itrosomonas and
are called as capnophilic bacteria. Example: Nitrobacter
Campylobacter.
14

2. Chemoorganotrophs and Clostridium tetani. Endospores are thick
This type of bacteria oxidize organic walled resting spores. During favourable
compounds to release energy. condition, they germinate and form bacteria.
Examples: Sexual Reproduction
1. Methane bacteria – Methanococcus Typical sexual reproduction involving the
2. Acetic acid bacteria – Acetobacter formation and fusion of gametes is absent in
3. Lactic acid bacteria – Lactobacillus bacteria. However gene recombination can
II. Heterotrophic Bacteria occur in bacteria by three different methods
They are Parasites (Mycobacterium) Saprophytes they are
(Bacillus mycoides) or Symbiotic (Rhizobium 1. Conjugation
in root nodules of leguminous crops). 2. Transformation
3. Transduction
1.4.6 Reproduction in Bacteria
1. Conjugation
Bacteria reproduces asexually by binary
fission, conidia and endospore formation J. Lederberg and Edward L. Tatum
(Figure 1.11). Among these, binary fission demonstrated conjugation in E. coli. in the
is the most common one. year 1946. In this method of gene transfer
the donor cell gets attached to the recipient
Binary fission cell with the help of pili. The pilus grows
Under favourable conditions the cell divides in size and forms the conjugation tube.
into two daughter cells. The nuclear material The plasmid of donor cell which has the F+
divides first and it is followed by the formation (fertility factor) undergoes replication. Only
of a simple median constriction which finally one strand of DNA is transferred to the
results in the separation of two cells. recipient cell through conjugation tube. The
recipient completes the structure of double
stranded DNA by synthesizing the strand
that complements the strand acquired from
the donor (Figure 1.12).
Cell wall
Conjugation pilus
Nucleoid Endospore
Chromosome
F plasmid
F+ cell F- cell
Thick wall
Daughter
cells
(a) (b)
F+ cell F+ cell
Figure 1.11: Asexual Reproduction in
Bacteria (a) Binary fission, (b) Endospore Figure 1.12: Conjugation
Endospores 2. Transformation
During unfavourable condition bacteria Transfer of DNA from one bacterium to
produce endospores. Endospores are produced another is called transformation (Figure 1.13).
in Bacillus megaterium, Bacillus sphaericus In 1928 the bacteriologist Frederick Griffith
15

demonstrated transformation in Mice using DNA of another strain into the former is called
Diplococcus pneumoniae. Two strains of this Transformation.
bacterium are present. One strain produces 3. Transduction
smooth colonies and are virulent in nature Zinder and Lederberg (1952) discovered
(S-type). In addition another strain produce Transduction in Salmonella typhimurum.
rough colonies and are avirulent (R-type). Phage mediated DNA transfer is called
When S-type of cells were injected into the Transduction (Figure 1.14).
mouse, the mouse died. When R-type of
cells were injected, the mouse survived. He Transduction is of two types
injected heat killed S-type cells into the mouse. (i) Generalized transduction (ii) Special-
The mouse did not die. When the mixture of ized or Restricted transduction
heat killed S-type cells and R-type cells were (i) Generalized Transduction
injected into the mouse, the mouse died. The The ability of a bacteriophage to carry
avirulent rough strain of Diplococcus had been genetic material of any region of bacterial
transformed into S-type cells. The hereditary DNA is called generalised transduction.
material of heat killed S-type cells had (ii) S
pecialized or Restricted
transformed R-type cell into virulent smooth Transduction
strains. Thus the phenomenon of changing The ability of the bacteriophage to carry
the character of one strain by transferring the only a specific region of the bacterial DNA is
(a) Heat-Killed R-Strain and Heat-
called specialized or restricted transduction.
R-Strain S-Strain
S-Strain killed S- Strain
Phage Phage DNA
Bacterial chromosome
Mouse lilives
M Mouse di
M dies Mouse lilives
M Mouse di
M dies
(b) Donar DNA Virulent Defective

phage particle
Donar cell
Defective
Host DNA particle
Recipient cell Recipient

Cell
Integration
Figure 1.13: Transformation in Bacteria Generalised Transduction Specialised Transduction

(a) Griffith’s experiment on Transformation
(b) Mechanism of Transformation Figure 1.14: Transduction in Bacteria
16

1.4.7 Economic importance of Bacteria
Bacteria are both beneficial and harmful. The beneficial activities of bacteria are given in table 1.7.
Table 1.7: Economic importance of Bacteria
Beneficial aspects Bacteria Role
1. Soil fertility
1. Bacillus ramosus Convert complex proteins in the dead bodies
Ammonification of plants and animals into ammonia which is
2. Bacillus mycoides later converted into ammonium salt
1. Nitrobacter Convert ammonium salts into nitrites and
Nitrification
2. Nitrosomonas nitrates
(i) C onverting atmospheric nitrogen into
organic nitrogen
1. Azotobacter
(ii) T he nitrogenous compounds are also
Nitrogen fixation 2. Clostridium
oxidized to nitrogen
3. Rhizobium
(iii) A ll these activities of bacteria increase
soil fertility
2. Antibiotics
It cures urinary infections, tuberculosis,
1. Streptomycin Streptomyces griseus
meningitis and pneumonia
It is used as a medicine to treat whooping
2. Aureomycin Streptomyces aureofaciens
cough and eye infections
3. Chloromycetin Streptomyces venezuelae It cure typhoid fever
4. Bacitracin Bacillus licheniformis It is used to treat syphilis
5. Polymyxin Bacillus polymyxa It cure some bacterial diseases
3. Industrial Uses
Lactobacillus lactis and
1. Lactic acid Convert milk sugar lactose into lactic acid
Lactobacillus bulgaricus
Lactococcus lactis, Leuconostoc
2. Butter
citrovorum
Lactobacillus acidophilus,
3. cheese
Lactobacillus lactis Convert milk into butter, cheese, curd and
4. Curd Lactobacillus lactis yoghurt
5. Yoghurt Lactobacillus bulgaricus
6. Vinegar This bacteria oxidizes ethyl alcohol
Acetobacter aceti obtained from molasses by fermentation to
(Acetic acid) vinegar(acetic acid)
7. A
lcohol and
Acetone Alcohols and acetones are prepared from
Clostridium acetobutylicum molasses by fermentation activity of the
(i) B
utyl alcohol anaerobic bacterium.
(ii) M
ethyl alcohol
The fibres from the fibre yielding plants are
8. R
etting of fibres Clostridium tertium separated by the action of Clostridium is
called retting of fibres.
Living in the intestine of human beings
9. Vitamins Escherichia coli produce large quantities of vitamin K and
vitamin B complex.
Vitamins B2 is prepared by the fermentation
Clostridium acetobutylicum
of sugar.
10. C
uring of Tea Micrococcus candicans, Bacillus The special flavor and aroma of the tea and
and Tobacco megatherium tobacco are due to fermentation.
17

Bacteria are known to cause disease in plants, animals and Human beings. The List is given in
Table 1.8, 1.9, 1.10 and Figure 1.15.
Table 1.8: Plant diseases caused by Bacteria
S.No. Name of the Host Name of the disease Name of the pathogen
1 Rice Bacterial blight Xanthomonas oryzae
2 Apple Fire blight Erwinia amylovora
3 Carrot Soft rot Erwinia caratovora
4 Citrus Citrus canker Xanthomonas citri
5 Cotton Angular leaf spot Xanthomonas malvacearum
Clavibacter michiganensis subsp.
6 Potato Ring rot
sepedonicus
7 Potato Scab Streptomyces scabies
Table 1.9: Animal diseases caused by Bacteria

S. No Name of the Animal Name of the disease Name of the pathogen
1. Sheep Anthrax Bacillus anthracis
2. Cattle Brucellosis Brucella abortus
3. Cattle Bovine tuberculosis Mycobacterium bovis
4. Cattle Black leg Clostridium chauvoei
Table 1.10: Human diseases caused by Bacteria Have you heard about the
Serial Name of the word “Probiotics”
Name of the pathogen
No. disease Probiotic milk products and
1. Cholera Vibrio cholerae tooth paste are available in
the market. Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium are
2. Typhoid Salmonella typhi used to prepare probiotic yoghurt and tooth paste
3. Tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Activity 1.3
4. Leprosy Mycobacterium leprae
Collect some root nodules of leguminous
5. Pneumonia Diplococcus pneumoniae
crops. Draw diagram. Wash it in tap water and
6. Plague Yersinia pestis
prepare a smear by squeezing the content into
7. Diphtheria Corynebacterium diptheriae a clean slide. Follow Gram staining method
8. Tetanus Clostridium tetani and identify the bacteria.
Food
9. Clostridium botulinum Bacteria forms Biofilms
poisoning
10. Syphilis Treponema pallidum and leads to dental caries
and Urinary tract infection
(UTI)
Ralstonia synthesize
PHB (Poly-β-hydroxyl butyrate) a
microbial plastic which is biodegradable.
1.4.8 Archaebacteria
(a) (b) Archaebacteria are primitive prokaryotes and
Figure 1.15: Plant diseases caused by are adapted to thrive in extreme environments
bacteria (a) Citrus canker (b) Potato scab like hot springs, high salinity, low pH and so
18

on. They are mostly chemoautotrophs. The are marine (Trichodesmium and Dermacarpa)
unique feature of this group is the presence of Trichodesmium erythraeum a cyanobacterium
lipids like glycerol & isopropyl ethers in their imparts red colour to Red sea. Species of
cell membrane. Due to the unique chemical Nostoc, Anabaena lead an endophytic life in the
composition the cell membrane show resistance coralloid root of Cycas, leaves of aquatic fern
against cell wall antibiotics and lytic agents. Azolla by establishing a symbiotic association
Example: Methanobacterium, Halobacterium, and fix atmospheric nitrogen. Members like
Thermoplasma. Gloeocapsa, Nostoc, Scytonema are found as
phycobionts in lichen thalli.
1.4.9 Cyanobacteria (Blue Green Algae)
How old are Cyanobacteria ? Salient features
Stromatolites reveals the truth. • The members of this group are prokaryotes
Stromatolites are deposits and lack motile reproductive structures.
formed when colonies of • The thallus is unicellular in Chroococcus,
cyanobacteria bind with Colonial in Gloeocapsa and filamentous
calcium carbonate. They have trichome in Nostoc.
a geological age of 2.7 billion • Gliding movement is noticed in some
years. Their abundance in species (Oscillatoria).
the fossil record indicates that cyanobacteria • The protoplasm is differentiated into
helped in raising the level of free oxygen in central region called centroplasm and
the atmosphere. peripheral region bearing chromatophore
called chromoplasm.
• Pseudomonas putida is
a superbug genetically • The photosynthetic pigments include
engineered which c-phyocyanin and c-phycoerythrin along
breakdown hydrocarbons. with myxoxanthin and myxoxanthophyll.
• “Pruteen” is a single cell protein derived from • The reserve food material is Cyanophycean
Methylophilus methylotrophus. starch.
• Agrobacterium tumefaciens cause crown gall • In some forms a large colourless cell is found
disease in plants but its inherent tumour
inducing principle helps to carry the
in the terminal or intercalary position
desired gene into the plant through Genetic called Heterocysts. They are involved in
engineering. nitrogen fixation.
• Thermus aquaticus is a thermophilic gram • They reproduce only through vegetative
negative bacteria which produces Taq methods and produce Akinetes (thick wall
Polymerase a key enzyme for Polymerase dormant cell formed from vegetative cell),
Chain Reaction (PCR).
Hormogonia (a portion of filament get
• Methanobacterium is employed in biogas
production. Halobacterium, an extremophilic detached and reproduce by cell division),
bacterium grows in high salinity. It is exploited fission and endospores.
for the production β carotene. • The presence of mucilage around the
thallus is characteristic feature of this
Cyanobacteria are popularly called as group. Therefore, this group is also called
'Blue green algae' or 'Cyanophyceae'. They Myxophyceae.
are photosynthetic, prokaryotic organisms. • Sexual reproduction is absent.
According to evolutionary record Cyanobacteria • Microcystis aeruginosa, Anabaena
are primitive forms and are found in different flos-aquae cause water blooms and release
habitats. Most of them are fresh water and few toxins and affect the aquatic organism.
19

Most of them fix atmospheric nitrogen and
are used as biofertilizers (Example: Nostoc, Cell membrane
Anabaena). Spirulina is rich in protein
hence it is used as single cell protein.
The thallus organisation and methods of Ribosome
reproduction is given in Figure 1.16.
A prokaryote DNA Strand
takes a joy ride
on polar bear
(Aphanocapsa
montana - a cynobacterium Figure 1.17: Structure of Mycoplasma
grow on the fur of polar bear). 1.4.11 Actinomycetes (Actinobacteria)
Chroococcus
Actinomycetes are also called ‘Ray fungi’ due to
Gloeocapsa Nostoc
their mycelia like growth. They are anaerobic
or facultative anaerobic microorganisms and
are Gram positive. They do not produce an
aerial mycelium. Their DNA contains high
Spirulina guanine and cytosine content (Example:
Streptomyces).
Fission Akinete Endospore Frankia is a symbiotic actinobacterium
(Synechocystis) (Anabaena) (Dermacarpa)
which produces root nodules and fixes
nitrogen in non – leguminous plants such
as Alnus and Casuarina. They produce
multicellular sporangium. Actinomyces bovis
grows in oral cavities and cause lumpy jaw.
Streptomyces is a mycelial forming
Actinobacteria which lives in soil, they impart
Figure 1.16: Structure and reproduction “earthy odour” to soil after rain which is due
to the presence of Geosmin (volatile organic
in cyanophyceae
compound). Some important antibiotics
1.4.10 Mycoplasma or Mollicutes namely, Streptomycin, Chloramphenicol, and
The Mycoplasma are very small (0.1–0.5µm), Tetracycline are produced from this genus.
pleomorphic gram negative microorganisms.
They are first isolated by Nocard and co- 1.5 Fungi
workers in the year 1898 from pleural fluid of World War II and Penicillin
cattle affected with bovine pleuropneumonia. History speaks on fungi
They lack cell wall and appear like “Fried Egg” Sir Alexander Fleming
in culture. The DNA contains low Guanine Discovery of Penicillin
and Cytosine content than true bacteria. They in the year 1928 is a
cause disease in animals and plants. Little leaf serendipity in the world
of brinjal, witches broom of legumes phyllody of medicine. The History
of cloves, sandal spike are some plant diseases of World War II recorded
caused by mycoplasma. Pleuropneumonia is the use of Penicillin in the form of yellow
caused by Mycoplasma mycoides. The structure powder to save lives of soldiers. For this
of Mycoplasma is given in Figure 1.17. discovery - The wonderful antibiotic he
20

shared Nobel Prize in Medicine in the year hyphae. A number of hyphae get
1945 along with Ernest Boris chain and Sir interwoven to form mycelium.The cell wall
Howard Walter Florey. of fungi is made up of a polysaccharide
1.5.1 Milestones in Mycology called chitin (polymer of N-acetyl
1729 P.A.Micheli conducted spore culture glucosamine) and fungal cellulose.
experiments • The fungal mycelium is categorised
1767 Fontana proved that Fungi could into two types based on the presence or
cause disease in plants absence of septa (Figure 1.18). In lower
1873 C.H. Blackley proved fungi could fungi the hypha is aseptate, multinucleate
cause allergy in Human beings and is known as coenocytic mycelium
1904 A.F.Blakeslee reported heterothallism (Example: Albugo). In higher fungi a
in fungi septum is present between the cells of
1952 Pontecorvo and Roper reported the hyphae. Example: Fusarium.
Parasexual cycle
The word ‘fungus’ is derived from Latin
meaning ‘mushroom’. Fungi are ubiquitous,
eukaryotic, achlorophyllous heterotrophic
organisms. They exist in unicellular or
multicellular forms. The study of fungi is
called mycology. (Gr. mykes – mushroom:
logos – study). P.A. Micheli is considered
as founder of Mycology. Few renowned
mycologists include Arthur H.R. Buller, John Septate mycelium Coenocytic mycelium
Webster, D.L.Hawksworth, G.C.Ainsworth, Figure 1.18: Types of mycelium
B.B.Mundkur, K.C.Mehta, C.V. Subramanian
• The mycelium is organised into loosely
and T.S. Sadasivan.
or compactly interwoven fungal tissues
called plectenchyma. It is further
E.J. Butler is the Father divided into two types prosenchyma and
of Indian Mycology. He
pseudoparenchyma. In the former type
established Imperial
Agricultural Research the hyphae are arranged loosely but parallel
Institute at Pusa, Bihar. to one another. In the latter hyphae are
It was later shifted compactly arranged and loose their identity.
to New Delhi and at • In holocarpic forms the entire thallus is
present known as Indian converted into reproductive structure
Agricultural Research E.J. Butler
(1874-1943) whereas in Eucarpic some regions of the
Insitute (IARI).
thallus are involved in the reproduction
He published a book, ‘Fungi and Disease
other regions remain vegetative. Fungi
in Plants’ on Indian plant diseases in the
reproduce both by asexual and sexual
year 1918.
methods. The asexual phase is called
Anamorph and the sexual phase is called
1.5.2 General characteristic features Teleomorph. Fungi having both phases are
• Majority of fungi are made up of thin, called Holomorph.
filamentous branched structures called
21

General sexual reproduction in fungi includes 3. Gametangial copulation: Fusion of
three steps 1. Fusion of two protoplasts gametangia to form zygospore (Example:
(plasmogamy) 2. Fusion of nuclei (karyogamy) Mucor, Rhizopus).
and 3. Production of haploid spores through 4. Spermatization: In this method a uninucleate
meiosis. Methods of reproduction in fungi is pycniospore/microconidium is transferred
given in Figure 1.19. to receptive hyphal cell (Example: Puccinia,
1.5.3 Methods of Reproduction in Fungi Neurospora)
Asexual Reproduction 5. Somatogamy: Fusion of two somatic cells of
1.
Zoospores: They are flagellate structures the hyphae (Example: Agaricus)
produced in zoosporangia (Example:
Chytrids).
2.
Conidia: The spores produced on (a) Fission - Yeast
condiophores (Example: Aspergillus,
Penicillium). Nucleus
3. Oidia/Thallospores/Arthrospores: The
hypha divided and developed in to spores
called oidia (Example: Erysiphe).
4.
Fission: The vegetative cell divides
into 2 daughter cells. (Example:
Schizosaccharomyces-yeast). (b) Budding - Yeast
5. Budding: A small outgrowth is developed on
parent cell, which gets detached and becomes Oidium
Conidium
independent. (Example: Saccharomyces-
Sterigma
yeast) Metula
6. Chlamydospore: Thick walled resting Ramus
spores are called chlamydospores (Example: Conidiophore Chlamydospore

Fusarium).
Sexual Reproduction
1. Planogametic copulation: Fusion of motile (d) (e)
(c) Conidia formation Thallospore - Chlamydospore
gamete is called planogametic copulation. - Penicillium Erysiphe - Fusarium
a. Isogamy – Fusion of morphologically and
physiologicall similar gametes. (Example:
Antheridium
Synchytrium). b. Anisogamy – Fusion
of morphologically or physiologically
dissimilar gametes (Example: Allomyces).
c. Oogamy – Fusion of both morphologically
and physiologically dissimilar gametes.
(Example: Monoblepharis). Oogonium Fertilization
tube
2. Gametangial contact: During sexual
reproduction a contact is established (f) Gametangial contact (g) Sporangia -
between antheridium and Oogonium - Albugo Mucor
(Example: Albugo). Figure 1.19: Reproduction in Fungi
22

oogamous. Example: Albugo.
‘+’ Strain ‘_’ Strain
Zygomycetes
Trichogyne
Progametangium • Most of the species are saprophytic and
Microconidium live on decaying plant and animal matter
in the soil. Some lead parasitic life
(Example: Entomophthora on housefly).
Zygospore
• Bread mold fungi (Example: Mucor,
Rhizopus) and coprophilous fungi (Fungi
Zygosporangium
growing on dung Example: Pilobolus)
Archicarp
belong to this group (Figure 1.20).
Sporangium
Columella
Sporangiospore
(h) Gametangial (i) Spermatisation -
copulation - Rhizopus Neurospora
Sporangiophore
Figure 1.19: Reproduction in Fungi
1.5.4 Classification of Fungi

Many mycologists have attempted to classify
fungi based on vegetative and reproductive
characters. Traditional classifications
Rhizoids
categorise fungi into 4 classes – Phycomycetes,
Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes and
Deuteromycetes. Among these ‘Phycomycetes’
include fungal species of Oomycetes, Figure 1.20: Zygomycetes – Rhizopus
Chytridiomycetes and Zygomycetes which • The mycelium is branched and coenocytic.
are considered as lower fungi indicating algal • Asexual reproduction by means of spores
origin of fungi. Constantine J. Alexopoulos and produced in sporangia.
Charles W. Mims in the year 1979 proposed • Sexual reproduction is by the fusion of
the classification of fungi in the book entitled the gametangia which results in thick
‘Introductory Mycology’. They classified fungi walled zygospore. It remains dormant for
into three divisions namely Gymnomycota, long periods. The zygospore undergoes
Mastigomycota and Amastigomycota. There meiosis and produce spores.
are 8 subdivisions, 11 classes, 1 form class and Ascomycetes
3 form subclasses in the classification proposed • Ascomycetes include a wide range of
by them. fungi such as yeasts, powdery mildews,
The salient features of some of the cup fungi, morels and so on (Figure 1.21).
classes – Oomycetes, Zygomycetes, • Although majority of the species live in
Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes and Form terrestrial environment, some live in aquatic
class Deuteromycetes are discussed below. environments both fresh water and marine.
Oomycetes • The mycelium is well developed, branched
Coenocytic mycelium is present. The cell with simple septum.
wall is made up of Glucan and Cellulose. • Majority of them are saprophytes but few
Zoospore with one whiplash and one tinsel parasites are also known (Powdery mildew
flagellum is present. Sexual reproduction is – Erysiphe).
23

penultimate cell of the hypha fuse to form
a diploid nucleus. This cell forms young
Ostiole ascus.
• The diploid nucleus undergo meiotic
Ascus
Ascospore division to produce four haploid nuclei,
Paraphysis
(a) Peziza (b) Cleistothecium which further divide mitotically to form

Ostiole
eight nuclei. The nucleus gets organised
Ascus
Paraphysis into 8 ascospores.
Ascospore
Ascus
Ascospore • The ascospores are found inside a bag like
Paraphysis
structure called ascus. Due to the presence
of ascus, this group is popularly called "Sac
(c) V.S. of Perithecium
Ascus
(d) V.S. of Apothecium fungi".
Paraphysis
Ascospore • Asci gets surrounded by sterile hyphae
forming fruit body called ascocarp.
• There are 4 types of ascocarps namely
Cleistothecium (Completely closed),
Perithecium (Flask shaped with ostiole),
Ascospore
Apothecium (Cup shaped, open type) and
Pseudothecium.
Basidiomycetes
• Basidiomycetes include puff balls,
toad stools, Bird’s nest fungi, Bracket
fungi, stink horns, rusts and smuts
(Figure 1.22).
(e) Steps involved in the development of Ascus

Figure 1.21: Structure and reproduction in
Ascomycetes
• Asexual reproduction takes place by (b) Dolipore septum
(a) Geaster
fission, budding, oidia, conidia, and
chlamydospore.
• Sexual reproduction takes place by the
fusion of two compatible nuclei.
• Plasmogamy is not immediately followed
by karyogamy, instead a dikaryotic
condition is prolonged for several
Nucleus
generations.
• A special hyphae called ascogenous hyphae (c) Clamp connection
is formed. Figure 1.22: Structure and Reproduction
• A crozier is formed when the tip of the in Basidiomycetes
ascogenous hyphae recurves forming
• The members are terrestrial and lead a
a hooked cell. The two nuclei in the
saprophytic and parasitic mode of life.
24

• The mycelium is well developed, septate reproduction takes place by the production of
with dolipore septum(bracket like). conidia, chlamydospores, budding, oidia etc.,
Three types of mycelium namely primary Conidia are also produced in special structures
(Monokaryotic), secondary (Dikaryotic) called pycnidium, acervulus, sporodochium
and tertiary are found. and synnemata (Figure 1.23). Parasexual cycle
• Clamp connections are formed to maintain operates in this group of fungi. This brings
dikaryotic condition. genetic variation among the species.
• Asexual reproduction is by means of 1.5.5 Economic importance
conidia, oidia or budding.
Fungi provide delicious and nutritious food
• Sexual reproduction is present but sex called mushrooms. They recycle the minerals
organs are absent. Somatogamy or by decomposing the litter thus adding fertility
spermatisation results in plasmogamy. to the soil. Dairy industry is based on a single
Karyogamy is delayed and dikaryotic celled fungus called yeast. They deteriorate
phase is prolonged. Karyogamy takes place the timber. Fungi cause food poisoning due
in basidium and it is immediately followed the production of toxins. The Beneficial and
by meiotic division. harmful activities of fungi are discussed below:
• The four nuclei thus formed are
Beneficial activities
transformed into basidiospores which are
Food
borne on sterigmata outside the basidium
Mushrooms like Lentinus edodes, A garicus
(Exogenous ). The basidium is club shaped
bisporus, Volvariella volvaceae are c onsumed
with four basidiospores, thus this group of
for their high nutritive value. Yeasts provide
fungi is popularly called “Club fungi”. The
vitamin B and Eremothecium ashbyii is a rich
fruit body formed is called Basidiocarp.
source of Vitamin B12.
Deuteromycetes or Fungi Imperfecti
Medicine
Fungi produce antibiotics which arrest the
growth or destroy the b acteria. Some of the
Pycniospore Conidia antibiotics produced by fungi include Peni-
cillin (Penicillium notatum) Cephalosporins
(Acremonium chrysogenum) Griseofulvin
(Penicillium griseofulvum). Ergot alkaloids
(a) Pycnidium - Phoma
(Ergotamine) p roduced by Claviceps purpurea
Conidium is used as vasoconstrictors.
Seta
Conidiophore Industries
Production of Organic acid: For the
(b) Acervulus - (c) Synnema - commercial production of organic acids fungi
Colletotrichum Graphium are employed in the Industries. Some of the
Figure 1.23: Reproduction in organic acids and fungi which help in the
Deuteromycetes production of organic acids are: citric acid and
The fungi belonging to this group gluconic acid – Aspergillus niger, Itaconic acid
lack sexual reproduction and are – Aspergillus terreus, Kojic acid – Aspergillus
called imperfect fungi. A large number of oryzae.
species live as saprophytes in soil and many Bakery and Brewery
are plant and animal parasites. Asexual Yeast(Saccharomyces cerevisiae) is used for
25

fermentation of sugars to yield alcohol.Bakeries Aspergillus, Rhizopus, Mucor and
utilize yeast for the production of Bakery Penicilium are involved in spoilage of food
products like Bread, buns, rolls etc., Penicillium materials. Aspergillus flavus infest dried
roquefortii and Penicillium camemberti were foods and produce carcinogenic toxin called
employed in cheese production. aflatoxin.
Production of enzymes Patulin, ochratoxin A are some of the
Aspergillus oryzae, Aspergillus niger were toxins produced by fungi.Fungi cause diseases
employed in the production of enzymes in Human beings and plants (Table 1.11).
like amylase, protease, lactase etc. Activity 1.4
Rennet which helps in the coagulation of Get a button mushroom. Draw diagram
milk in cheese manufacturing is derived from of the fruit body. Take a thin longitudinal
Mucor spp. section passing through the gill and observe
Agriculture the section under a microscope. Record your
Mycorrhiza forming fungi like observations.
Rhizoctonia, Phallus, Scleroderma helps in
absorption of water and minerals. Dermatophytes are fungi
Fungi like Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium which cause infection
anisopliae are used as Biopesticides to eradicate in skin. Example:

Trichophyton, Tinea,
the pests of crops. Gibberellin, produced by a Microsporum and Epidermophyton
fungus Gibberella fujikuroi induce the plant The late blight disease of Potato by
growth and is used as growth promoter. Phytophthora infestans caused a million
Harmful activities deaths, and drove more to emigrate
Fungi like Amanita phalloides, Amanita verna, from Ireland (1843-1845). In India
Boletus satanus are highly poisonous due to Helminthosporium oryzae, Blight of
Paddy is also a factor for Bengal famine
the production of Toxins. These fungi are in 1942-1943.
commonly referred as “Toad stools”.
Table 1.11: Diseases caused by fungi

Name of the disease Causal organism
Plant diseases
Blast of Paddy Magnaporthe grisea
Red rot of sugarcane Colletotrichum falcatum
Anthracnose of Beans Colletotrichum lindemuthianum
White rust of crucifers Albugo candida
Peach leaf curl Taphrina deformans
Rust of wheat Puccinia graminis tritici
Human diseases
Athlete’s foot Epidermophyton floccosum
Candidiasis Candida albicans
Coccidioidomycosis Coccidioides immitis
Aspergillosis Aspergillus fumigatus
26

Activity 1.5 forming fungi helps the plant to absorb
Keep a slice of bread in a clean plastic tray or water and mineral nutrients from the soil
plate. Wet the surface with little water. Leave (Figure 1.24). Mycorrhizae is classified into
the setup for 3 or 4 days. Observe the mouldy three types (Table 1.12)
growth on the surface of the bread. Using a Importance of Mycorrhizae
needle remove some mycelium and place it on a • Helps to derive nutrition in Monotropa,
slide and stain the mycelium using lactophenol a saprophytic angiosperm,
cotton blue. Observe the mycelium and
• Improves the availability of minerals and
sporangium under the microscope and record
water to the plants.
your observation and identify the fungi and its
• Provides drought resistance to the plants
group based on characteristic features.
• Protects roots of higher plants from the
1.5.6 Mycorrhizae attack of plant pathogens
1.5.7 Lichens
The symbiotic association between algae and
fungi is called lichens. The algal partner is
called Phycobiont or Photobiont., and the
fungal partner is called Mycobiont. Algae
Vesicle
provide nutrition for fungal partner in turn
Fungal fungi provide protection and also help to
Epiblema sheath
Arbuscle Cortex fix the thallus to the substratum through
Mycelium rhizinae. Asexual reproduction takes
Endomycorrhizae Ectomycorrhizae place through fragmentation, Soredia and
Figure 1.24: T.S. of root showing Isidia. Phycobionts reproduce by akinetes,
mycorrhizae hormogonia, aplanospore etc., Mycobionts
The symbiotic association between fungal undergo sexual reproduction and produce
mycelium and roots of plants is called as ascocarps.
mycorrhizae. In this relationship fungi Classification
absorb nutrition from the root and in • Based on the habitat lichens are classified
turn the hyphal network of mycorrhizae into following types: Corticolous(
Table 1.12: Types of Mycorrhizae

Ectomycorrhizae Endomycorrhizae Ectendomycorrhizae
The fungal myceli- The hyphae grows mainly inside the roots, The fungi form both
um forms a dense penetrate the outer cortical cells of the plant mantle and also pen-
sheath around the root. A small portion of the mycelium is etrates the cortical
root called mantle. found outside the root. This form is also called cells.
The hyphal net- Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizal fungi (VAM
work penetrate the Fungi) due to the presence of Vesicle or arbuscle
intercellular spac- like haustoria
es of the epidermis 1. Arbuscular mycorrhizae(AM)
and cortex to form Example: Gigaspora
Hartig net. Exam- 2. Ericoid mycorrhizae -Example: Oidiodendron
ple: Pisolithus tinc-
torius 3. Orchid mycorrhizae -Example: Rhizoctonia
27

on Bark) Lignicolous(on Wood) Summary
Saxicolous(on rocks) Terricolous(on Earth is endowed with living and nonliving
ground) Marine(on siliceous rocks of things. The attributes of living things
sea) Fresh water(on siliceous rock of fresh include growth, metabolism, reproduction,
water). irritability and so on. Viruses are considered
• On the basis of morphology of the thallus as Biological puzzle and exhibit both living
they are divided into Leprose (a distinct and non living characteristic features. They
fungal layer is absent) Crustose-crust like; are ultramicroscopic, obligate parasites and
Foliose-leaf like; Fruticose- branched cause disease in plants and animals. They
pendulous shrub like (Figure 1.25). multiply by lytic and lysogenic cycle.
Five Kingdom classification was
proposed by Whittaker, which include
Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and
Animalia. Carl woese divided the living
(a) Crustose lichen world into 3 domains- Bacteria, Archaeae
and Eukarya. The domain Eukarya include
Plantae, Animalia and Fungi. A new
Kingdom called Chromista was erected
to include Diatoms, Cryptomonads and
(b) Foliose Lichen (c) Fruticose Lichen Oomycetes. Bacteria are microscopic,
Figure 1.25: Types of Lichens prokaryotic organisms and possess
• The distribution of algal cells peptidoglycan in their cell wall. Based on
distinguishes lichens into two forms Gram Staining method they are classified
namely Homoiomerous (Algal cells into Gram positive and Gram negative
evenly distributed in the thallus) and type. They reproduce asexually by binary
Heteromerous (a distinct layer of algae and fission. Sexual reproduction occurs
fungi present). through conjugation, transformation
• If the fungal partner of lichen belongs and transduction. Archaebacteria are
to ascomycetes, it is called Ascolichen prokaryotic and are adapted to thrive in
and if it is basidiomycetes it is called extreme environments.
Basidiolichen. Cyanobacteria are prokaryotic organisms
and are also called Blue Green Algae. The
Lichens secrete organic acids like Oxalic
members of this group are ensheathed by
acids which corrodes the rock surface and
mucilage cover. They reproduce by vegetative
helps in weathering of rocks, thus acting as
and asexual methods.
pioneers in Xerosere. Usnic acid produced
Fungi are eukaryotic, heterotrophic,
from lichens show antibiotic properties.
unicellular or multicellular organisms. The
Lichens are sensitive to air pollutants
cell wall is made up of chitin. They reproduce
especially to sulphur-di-oxide. Therefore,
asexually by producing sporangiospores,
they are considered as pollution indicators.
conidia, thallospores, chlamydospores etc.,
The dye present in litmus paper used as
The sexual reproduction is isogamous,
acid base indicator in the laboratories is
ansiogamous and oogamous. In addition,
obtained from Roccella montagnei. Cladonia
gametic copulation, gametic fusion,
rangiferina (Reindeer mose) is used as food
spermatisation are also found. They are
for animals living in Tundra regions.
28

beneficial to mankind. Some are known to 3. Identify the Archaebacterium
cause disease in plants and human beings. a. Acetobacter b. Erwinia
The symbiotic association between the c. Treponema d. Methanobacterium
roots of higher plants and fungal mycelium is 4. The correct statement regarding Blue
called mycorrhizae. Lichen thallus includes green algae is ____________
both phycobiont and mycobiont. It is an a. lack of motile structures
example for symbiotic association. b. presence of cellulose in cell wall
Evaluation c. a bsence of mucilage around the thallus
d. presence of floridean starch
1. Which one of the
following statement 5. Identify the correctly matched pair
about virus is correct? a. Actinomycete – a) Late blight
a. Possess their own b. Mycoplasma – b) lumpy jaw
metabolic system c. Bacteria – c) Crown gall
b. They are facultative d. Fungi – d) sandal spike
parasites
c. They contain DNA or RNA 6. Differentiate homoiomerous and
d. Enzymes are present heteromerous lichens.
7. Write the distinguishing features of
2. Identify the incorrect statement about monera.
the Gram positive bacteria
8. Why do farmers plant leguminous crops
a. Teichoic acid absent
in crop rotations/mixed cropping?
b. High percentage of peptidoglycan is
found in cell wall 9. Briefly discuss on five Kingdom
c. Cell wall is single layered classification. Add a note on merits and
d. Lipopolysaccharide is present in cell demerits.
wall 10. Give a general account on lichens.
29

ICT Corner
Bacteria
Let’s explore the structure

and shapes of Bacteria.
Steps
• Scan the QR code or go to google play store and type bacteria interactive
educational VR 3D
• Download the app and install it
• Follow the above steps and explore the interactives of each part and its functions.
Activity
• Select structure tap and note the internal structure of bacteria

• Click cell wall and note the difference between different shapes
Step 2 Step 3
Step 1 Step 4 Step 5
URL:
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.rendernet.bacteria&hl=en
* Pictures are indicative only
30

Unit I: Diversity of
Living World
Chapter
2 Plant Kingdom
with the aid of molecular characteristics.

Learning Objectives Bacteria and Fungi were segregated
and placed under separate kingdoms.
The learner will be able to, Botany is one of the oldest science in the
• Outline the classification of plants world because its origin was from time
immemorial as early men explored and
• Illustrate the life cycles in plants
identified plants for the needs of food,
• Recognize the general characteristic clothing, medicine, shelter etc., Plants are
features and reproduction of Algae unique living entities as they are endowed
• Recognize the general characteristic with the power to harvest the light energy
from the sun and to convert it to chemical
features of Bryophytes energy in the form of food through the
• Recognize the general characteristic astounding reaction, photosynthesis. They
features of Pteridophytes not only supply nutrients to all living things
• Describe the general characteristic on earth but sequester carbon-di-oxide
during photosynthesis, thus minimizing
features of Gymnosperms the effect of one of the major green house
• Recognize the salient features of gases that increase the global temperature.
Angiosperms Plants are diverse in nature, ranging
from microscopic algae to macroscopic
highly developed angiosperms. There are
Chapter Outline mysteries and wonders in the plant world
in terms of size, shape, habit, habitat,
2.1 Classification of Plants reproduction etc., Although plants are all
2.2
Life Cycle patterns in made up of cells there exists high diversity
Plants in form and structure (Table 2.1).
2.3 Algae 2.1 Classification of Plants
2.4 Bryophytes Classification widely accepted for plants
now include Embryophyta which is divided
2.5 Pteridophytes
into Bryophyta and Tracheophyta. The
2.6 Gymnosperms latter is further d
ivided into Pteridophyta
2.7 Angiosperms and Spermatophyta (Gymnospermae and
Angiospermae). An outline Classification of
Traditionally organisms existing on the Plant Kingdom is given in Figure 2.1
earth were classified into plants and
animals based on nutrition, locomotion and 2.2 Life Cycle Patterns in Plants
presence or absence of cell wall. Bacteria, Alternation of Generation
Fungi, Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes,
Gymnosperms and Angiosperms were Alternation of generation is common
included under plant group. Recently, in all plants. Alternation of the haploid
31

Table 2.1: Total Number of Plant groups in the World and India
Number of known species
Plant group
World# India*
Algae 40,000 7,357
Bryophytes 16,236 2,748
Pteridophytes 12,000 1,289
Gymnosperms 1,012 79
Angiosperms 2,68,600 18,386
* Singh, P. and Dash, S.S. 2017-Plants discoveries 2016-New Genera, species and new records, BSI, India.
# Chapman, A.D. 2009. Number of living species in Australia and the world 2nd edition. Australian government,
Department of environment, water Heritage and Arts.
KINGDOM - PLANTAE gametophytic phase (n) with diploid

Sub Kingdom - Cryptogamae Sub Kingdom - Phanerogamae sporophytic phase (2n) during the life
(Non-flowering/ Non seed producing plants) (Flowering/ Seed producing plants)
cycle is called alternation of generation.
Algae Bryophyta Pteridophyta Gymnospermae Angiospermae
Following type of life cycles are found in
Unicellular Liverworts Club mossess Cycads Dicots plants (Figure 2.2).
Begining of Terrestrial Colonisation - Amphibious
Colonial
Haplontic Life Cycle
Gametophytic phase is dominant,
Culmination of Terrestrial Colonisation
Naked - seeded plants

Mainly Aquatic habitat
Horsetails Conifers
Closed - seeded plants
photosynthetic and independent,

Thalloid
whereas sporophytic phase is represented
Mosses Ferns Gnetales
Monocots
by the zygote. Zygote undergoes meiosis
to restore haploid condition. Example:
Parenchymatous
Volvox, Spirogyra.
Diplontic Life Cycle
Sporophytic phase (2n) is dominant,
photosynthetic and independent. The
gametophytic phase is represented by
the single to few celled gametophyte.
The gametes fuse to form zygote which
develops into sporophyte. Example:
Fucus, gymnosperms and angiosperms
Figure 2.1: Classification of Plant Kingdom
Sy Zygote Sporophyte
ng M
Meiosis
am (2n) (2n)
y
Spores
S
(
(n)
Gamettogenesis
Diplontic
Haplontic
Zyg
ygote (2n) my
n ga Gametoge
genesis
Sy
M
Meiosis
Gametophyte
(n) (n)
(a) (b)
Figure 2.2: Life cycle patterns in plants a) Haplontic, b) Diplontic, c) Haplo-diplontic
32

Haplodiplontic Life Cycle Algae are autotrophs, and grow in a
This type of life cycle is found in bryophytes wide range of habitats. Majority of them
and pteridophytes which is intermediate are aquatic, marine (Gracilaria, and
between haplontic and diplontic type. Both Sargassum) and freshwater (Oedogonium, and
the phases are multicellular. but they differ Ulothrix) and also found in soils (Fritschiella,
in their dominant phase. and Vaucheria). Chlorella lead an endozoic
In bryophytes dominant independent life in hydra and sponges whereas Cladophora
phase is gametophyte and it alternates with crispata grow on the shells of molluscs. Algae
are adapted to thrive in harsh environment too.
short-lived multicellular sporophyte totally
Dunaliella salina grows in salt pans
or partially dependent on the gametophyte.
(Halophytic alga). Algae growing in snow
In pteridophytes sporophyte is the
are called Cryophytic algae. Chlamydomonas
independent phase. It alternates with
nivalis grow in snow covered mountains
multicellular saprophytic or autotrophic,
and impart red colour to the snow (Red
independent, short lived gametophyte(n). snow). A few algae grow on the surface of
2.3 Algae aquatic plants and are called epiphytic algae
Rain brings joy (Coleochaete, and Rhodymenia). The study of
and life to various algae is called algology or phycology. Some
organisms on earth. of the eminent algologists include F.E. Fritsch,
Have you noticed F.E. Round, R.E. Lee, M.O.Parthasarathy
some changes in Iyengar, M.S. Randhawa, Y. Bharadwaja, V.S.
and around you after the rain? Could you Sundaralingam and T.V.Desikachary.
identify the reason for the slippery nature of 2.3.1 General Characteristic features
the terrace and green patches on the wall of our The algae show a great diversity in size,
home, green colour of puddles and ponds? Why shape and structure. A wide range of
should we clean our water tanks very often? thallus organisation is found in algae.
The reason is algae. Algae are simple plants Unicellular motile (Chlamydomonas),
that lack true roots, true stems and true leaves. unicellular non-motile (Chlorella), Colonial
Two-third of our earth’s surface is covered by motile (Volvox), Colonial non motile
oceans and seas. The photosynthetic plants (Hydrodictyon), siphonous (Vaucheria),
called algae are present here. More than half unbranched filamentous (Spirogyra),
of the total primary productivity of the world branched filamentous (Cladophora), discoid
depends on this plant group. Further, other (Coleochaete) heterotrichous (Fritschiella),
aquatic organisms also depend upon them for F
oliaceous (Ulva) to giant kelps (Laminaria
their existence. and Macrocystis). The thallus organization
in algae is given in Figure 2.3.
M.O.Parthasarathy (1886-1963)
Algae are eukaryotes except blue green
‘Father of Indian Phycology’. algae. The plant body does not show
He conducted research on differentiation into tissue systems. The cell
structure, cytology, reproduction wall of algae is made up of cellulose and
and taxonomy of Algae. He hemicellulose. Siliceous walls are present in
published a Monograph on Volvocales. New diatoms. In Chara the thallus is encrusted
algal forms like Fritschiella, Ecballocystopsis, with calcium carbonate. Some algae possess
Charasiphon and Cylindrocapsopsis. were algin, polysulphate esters of polysaccharides
reported by him. which are the sources for the alginate,
agar agar and carrageenan. The cell has a
33

membrane bound nucleus and cell organelles pigmentation, reserve food material and
like chloroplast, mitochondria, endoplasmic flagellation differ among the algal groups.
reticulum, golgi bodies etc., Pyrenoids are Algae reproduces by vegetative, asexual
present. They are proteinaceous bodies and sexual methods (Figure 2.4). Vegetative
found in chromatophores and assist in reproduction includes fission (In unicellular
the synthesis and storage of starch. The forms the cell divides mitotically to produce
Flagella
Oogonium
Chloroplast Antheridium
Nucleus
Cap cell
Central Vacuole
Pyrenoid
a) Chlorella b) Chlamydomonas c) Vaucheria
Seta
Air vesicle
Air bladder Hold fast

Lateral branch
Stipe
Hold fast d) Oedogonium
e) Coleochaete f) Fritschiella g) Ulva h) Fucus i) Sargassum
Figure 2.3: Thallus organization in Algae
b) Zoospore c) Isogamy
a) Fragmentaion-Spirogyra
formation-Cladophora
f) Scalariform
d) Anisogamy e) Oogamy conjugation-Zygnema
Figure 2.4: Reproduction in Algae
34

two daughter cells Example: Chlamydomonas); in the book “The structure and reproduction
Fragmentation (fragments of parent thallus of the Algae”(1935). He classified algae
grow into new individual Example: Ulothrix) into 11 classes namely Chlorophyceae,
budding (A lateral bud is formed in some Xanthophyceae, Chrysophyceae,
members like Protosiphon and helps in Bacillariophyceae, Cryptophyceae,
reproduction) bulbils, (a wedge shaped Dinophyceae, Chloromonadineae,
modified branch develop in Sphacelaria) Euglenophyceae, Phaeophyceae,
akinetes (Thick walled spores meant for Rhodophyceae, Cyanophyceae.
perennation and germinates with the advent The salient features of Chlorophyceae,
of favourable condition Example: Pithophora) Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae are given
and Tubers (Structures found on the rhizoids below.
and the lower nodes of Chara which store food Chlorophyceae
materials). The members are commonly called ‘Green
Asexual reproduction takes place by algae’. Most of the species are aquatic(Fresh
the production of zoospores motile spores water-Spirogyra, Marine -Ulva). A few are
(Ulothrix, Oedogonium) aplanospore (thin terrestrial(Trentipohlia). Variation among the
walled non motile spores Example: Vaucheria); shape of the chloroplast is found in members
autospores (spores which look similar to of algae. It is cup shaped (Chlamydomonas),
parent cell Example: Chlorella); hypnospore discoid (Chara), girdle shaped, (Ulothrix),
(thick walled aplanospore – Example: reticulate (Oedogonium), spiral (Spirogyra),
Chlamydomonas nivalis) and Tetraspores stellate (Zygnema) and plate like (Mougeoutia).
(Diploid thallus of Polysiphonia produce
Chlorophyll ‘a’ and Chlorophyll ‘b’ are
haploid spores after meiosis).
the major photosynthetic pigments. Storage
Sexual reproduction in algae is of three
bodies called pyrenoids are present in the
types 1. Isogamy (Fusion of morphologically
and Physiologically similar gametes Example: chloroplast and store starch. They also contain
Ulothrix) 2. Anisogamy (Fusion of either proteins. The cell wall is made up of inner
morphologically or physiologically dissimilar layer of cellulose and outer layer of pectin.
gametes Example: Pandorina) 3. Oogamy Vegetative reproduction takes place by means
(Fusion of both morphologically and of fragmentation and asexual reproduction is
physiologically dissimilar gametes. Example: by the production of zoospores, aplanospores
Sargassum). The life cycle shows distinct and a kinetes. Sexual reproduction is present
alternation of generation. and may be isogamous, anisogamous or
oogamous. Examples for this group of algae
The Oldest recorded alga includes Chlorella, Chlamydomonas, Volvox,
is Grypania, which was Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Chara and Ulva.
discovered in the banded
iron formations of northern Michigan Phaeophyceae
and dated to approximately 2100Ma The members of this class are called ‘Brown
algae’. Majority of the forms are found in
2.3.2. Classification marine habitats. Pleurocladia is a fresh water
F.E. Fritsch proposed a classification for form. The thallus is filamentous (Ectocarpus)
algae based on pigmentation, types of flagella, frond like (Dictyota)or may be giant kelps
reserve food materials, thallus structure and (Laminaria and Macrocystis). The thallus is
reproduction. He published his classification differentiated into leaf like photosynthetic
35

part called fronds, a stalk like structure called macroscopic and diverse in form. Porphyridium
stipe and a holdfast which attach thallus to the is the unicellular form. Filamentous
substratum. (Goniotrichum) ribbon like (Porphyra) are
The Pigments include Chlorophyll a, c, also present. Corallina and Lithothamnion are
Carotenoids and Xanthophylls. A golden heavily impregnated with lime and form coral
brown pigment called fucoxanthin is present reefs. Apart from chlorophyll a, r-phycoerythrin
and it gives shades of colour from olive green and r-phycocyanin are the photosynthetic
to brown to the algal members of this group. pigments. Asexual reproduction takes place
Mannitol and Laminarin are the reserve food by means of monospores, neutral spores and
materials. Motile reproductive structures tetraspores.
are present. Two laterally inserted unequal The storage product is floridean starch.
flagella are present. Among these one is Sexual reproduction is oogamous. Male sex
whiplash and another is tinsel. Although
organ is spermatangium which produces
sexual reproduction ranges from isogamy to
spermatium. Female sex organ is called
oogamy, Most of the forms show oogamous
type. Alternation of generation is present carpogonium. The spermatium is carried
(isomorphic, heteromorphic or diplontic). by the water currents and fuse with egg
Examples for this group include Sargassum, nucleus to form zygote. The zygote develops
Laminaria, Fucus and Dictyota. into carpospores. Meiosis occurs during
carpospore formation. Alternation of
Rhodophyceae
generation is present. Examples for this group
Members of this group include ‘Red algae’ and of algae include Ceramium, Polysiphonia,
are mostly marine. The thallus is multicellular, Gelidium, Cryptonemia and Gigartina.
2.3.3 Economic Importance
The Economic importance of Algae is given in Table 2.2
Table 2.2: Economic importance of Algae
Name of the Algae Economic importance
Beneficial activities
Chlorella, Laminaria, Sargassum, Ulva, Food
Enteromorpha
Gracilaria, Gelidiella, Gigartina Agar Agar – Cell wall material used for media
preparation in the microbiology lab.
Packing canned food, cosmetic, textile paper industry
Chondrus crispus Carrageenan – Preparation of tooth paste, paint,
blood coagulant
Laminaria, Ascophyllum Alginate – ice cream, paints, flame proof fabrics
Laminaria, Sargassum, Ascophyllum, Fucus Fodder
Diatom (Siliceous frustules) Diatomaceous earth– water filters, insulation
material, reinforcing agent in concrete and rubber.
Lithophyllum, Chara, Fucus Fertilizer
Chlorella Chlorellin -Antibiotic
Chlorella, Scenedesmus, Chlamydomonas Sewage treatment, Pollution indicators
Harmful activity
Cephaleuros virescens Red rust of coffee
36

shady habitats. They lack vascular tissue and
A green alga Botryococcus hence called ‘Non- vascular cryptogams’.
braunii is employed in Bio- They are also called as ‘amphibians of
fuel production.
plant kingdom’ because they need water for
Algae in Health care
completing their life cycle.
Kelps are the rich source of Iodine Chlorella
is used as single cell Protein (SCP).
Dunaliella salina an alga, growing Shiv Ram Kashyap
in salt pan is complement to our health (1882-1934)
and provide β carotene. Father of Indian Bryology.
He published a book-
‘Liverworts of Western
A Productive Cultivation Himalayas and Punjab
in Sea Plains’ He identified new genera like
Algae like Kappaphycus Atchinsoniella, Sauchia, Sewardiella and
Stephansoniella.
alvarezii, Gracilaria edulis
and Gelidiella acerosa 2.4.1 General characteristic features
are commercially grown
• The plant body of bryophyte is
in the sea for harvesting
gametophyte and is not differentiated
the phycocolloids. into root, stem and leaf like structure.
Sea Palm It is Postelia • Most of them are primitive land dwellers.
palmaeformis a brown alga. Some of them are aquatic (Riella,
Ricciocarpus).
2.4 Bryophytes • The gametophyte is conspicuous, long
Amphibians of Plant Kingdom lived phase of the life cycle. Thalloid forms
In the previous chapter, we noticed a wide are present in liverworts and Hornworts.
range of thallus organization in Algae. In Mosses leaf like, stem like structures
Majority of them are aquatic. The development are present. In Liverworts thallus grows
of heterotrichous habit, development prostrate on the ground and is attached
of parenchyma tissue and dichotomous to the substratum by means of rhizoids.
branching in some Two types of rhizoids are present namely
algae supports the smooth walled and pegged or tuberculate.
view that colonization Multicellular scales are also present.
of plants in land In Moss the plant body is erect with
occurred in the central axis bearing leaf like expansions.
past. Bryophytes are Multicellular rhizoids are present. The
simplest and most structure and reproduction in Bryophytes
primitive plant groups is given in Figure 2.5.
descended from alga – • Vascular tissue like xylem and phloem
like ancestors. They are simple embryophytes. are completely absent, hence called ‘Non
Let us learn about the structure and vascular cryptogams’.
reproduction of these primitive land plants • Vegetative reproduction takes place by
called Bryophytes in detail. the formation of adventitious buds (Riccia
Bryophytes are simplest land inhabiting fluitans) tubers develop in Anthoceros. In
cryptogams and are restricted to moist, some forms small detachable branches
37

Capsule • It is differentiated into three
recognizable parts namely
foot, seta and capsule.
• Foot is the basal portion
and is embedded in the
Leaf gametophyte through which
water and nutrients are
Rhizoids supplied for the sporophyte.
a) Anthoceros b) Funaria c) Pegged and
The diploid spore mother
smooth d) Sphagnum
walled Rhizoids cells found in the capsule
region undergoes meiotic
Tuber
division and give rise to
haploid spores. Bryophytes
Thallus Gemma Cup
are homosporous. In some
sporophytes elaters are present
f) Tubers- g) Gemmae-
e) Fragmentation-Riccia and help in dispersal of spores
Anthoceros Marchantia
Figure 2.5: Structure and reproduction in Bryophytes (Example: M archantia). The
spores germinate to produce
or brood bodies are formed, they help in gametophyte.
vegetative reproduction as in Bryopteris • The zygote, embryo and the
fruticulosa. In Marchantia propagative sporogonium constitute sporophytic
organs called gemmae are formed and phase. The green long living haploid
help in reproduction. phase is called gametophytic phase. The
• Sexual reproduction is oogamous. haploid gametophytic phase alternates
Antheridia and Archegonia are with diploid sporophyte and shows
produced in a protective covering and heterologous alternation of generation.
are multicellular.
Proskauer in the year 1957 classified
• The antheridia produces biflagellate Bryophytes into 3 Classes namely
antherozoids which swims in thin film
of water and reach the archegonium and i. H
epaticopsida (Riccia, Marchantia,
fuse with the egg to form diploid zygote. Porella and Riella)
• Water is essential for fertilization. ii. A
nthocerotopsida (Anthoceros and
• The zygote is the first cell of the Dendroceros)
sporophyte generation. It undergoes iii. B
ryopsida
mitotic division to form multicellular (Funaria, Polytrichum and
undifferentiated embryo. The Sphagnum).
embryogeny is exoscopic (the first 2.4.2 Economic importance
division of the zygote is transverse and
Dead thalli of Sphagnum gets accumulated
the apex of the embryo develops from
and compressed, hardened to form peat.
the outer cell). The embryo divides and In northern Europe (Netherlands)peat is
give rise to sporophyte. used as fuel in commercial scale. Apart
• The sporophyte is dependent on from this nitrates, brown dye and tanning
gametophyte. materials are derived from peat. Sphagnum
38

and peat are also used in horticulture as 2.5.1 General characteristic features of
packing material because of their water Pteridophytes:
holding capacity. Marchantia polymorpha • Plant body is sporophyte (2n) and it is the
is used to cure pulmonary tuberculosis. dominant phase. It is differentiated into
Sphagnum, Bryum and Polytrichum are used root, stem and leaves.
as food. Bryophytes play a major role in soil
• Roots are adventitious.
formation through succession and help in
• Stem shows monopodial or dichotomous
soil conservation.
branching.
Buxbaumia aphylla and • Leaves may be microphyllous or
Cryptothallus mirabilis are m
egaphyllous.
• Stele is protostele but in some forms
saprophytic bryophytes
siphonostele is present (Marsilea)
2.5 Pteridophytes • Tracheids are the major water conducting
Seedless Vascular Cryptogams elements but in Selaginella vessels are
From the previous found.
section, we are • Sporangia, spore bearing bag like
aware of the structures are borne on special leaves
salient features of called sporophyll. The Sporophylls get
amphibious plants organized to form cone or strobilus.
called bryophytes. Example: Selaginella, Equisetum .
But there is a • They may be homosporous (produce
plant group called pteridophytes which are one type of spores-Lycopodium) or
considered as first true land plants. Further, Heterosporous (produce two types of
they were the first plants to acquire vascular spores-Selaginella). Heterospory is the
tissue namely xylem and phloem, hence origin for seed habit.
called vascular cryptogams. Club moss, • Development of sporangia may be
horsetails, quill worts, water ferns and tree eusporangiate (development of
ferns belong to this group. This chapter sporangium from group of initials)
deals with the characteristic features of or leptosporangiate (development of
Pteridophytes. sporangium from single initial).
Pteridophytes are the vascular • Spore mother cells undergo meiosis and
cryptogams and were abundant in the produce spores (n).
Devonian period of Palaeozoic era (400 • Spore germinates to produce haploid,
million years ago). These plants are multicellular green, cordate shaped
mostly small, herbaceous and grow well in independent gametophytes called prothallus.
moist, cool and shady places where water • Fragmentation, resting buds, root tubers
is available. The photographs for some and adventitious buds help in vegetative
pteridophytes are given in Figure 2.6. reproduction.
• Sexual reproduction is oogamous. Sex organs,
namely antheridium and archegonium are
produced on the prothallus.
• Antheridium produces spirally coiled
and multiflagellate antherozoids.
a) Lycopodium b) Equisetum c) Azolla
(Water fern)
• Archegonium is flask shaped with broad
(club moss) (Horse tail)
Figure 2.6: Pteridophytes venter and elongated narrow neck. The
39

venter possesses egg or ovum and neck 2.5.3 Types of Stele
contain neck canal cells. The term stele refers to the central cylinder
• Water is essential for fertilization. After of vascular tissues consisting of xylem,
fertilization a diploid zygote is formed phloem, pericycle and sometimes medullary
and undergoes mitotic division to form rays with pith (Figure 2.7).
embryo.
• Pteridophytes show apogamy and
apospory. Cambium
Reimer (1954) proposed a classification Atactostele

for pteridophytes. In this classification,
the pteridophytes are divided into
Eustele
five subdivisions. 1. Psilophytopsida
2. Psilotopsida 3. Lycopsida 4. Sphenopsida
5. Pteropsida. There are 19 orders and Dictyostele
48 families in the classification.
Plectostele Solenostele
he success and dominance
T
of vascular plants is due to
the development of Amphiphloic
• Extensive root system. Siphonostele Pith
• Efficient conducting tissues.

Actinostele Ectophloic
• Cuticle to prevent desiccation. Siphonostele
• Stomata for effective gaseous e xchange.
- Xylem
Protostele - Phloem
2.5.2 Economic Importance
The Economic importance of Pteridophyte Figure 2.7: Types of Stele
is given in Table 2.3. There are two types of steles
Table 2.3: Economic importance of 1. Protostele 2. Siphonostele
Pteridophyte 1. Protostele:
Pteridophyte Uses In protostele phloem surrounds xylem.
Rumohra adiantiformis Cut flower The type includes Haplostele, Actinostele,
(leather leaf fern) arrangements.
Plectostele, and Mixed protostele.
Marsilea Food
Biofertilizer. (i) Haplostele: Xylem surrounded by phloem
Azolla
Treatment for
is known as haplostele. Example: Selaginella.
Dryopteris filix–mas (ii) Actinostele: Star shaped xylem core
tapeworm.
Removal of heavy is surrounded by phloem is known as
Pteris vittata metals from soils - actinostele. Example: Lycopodium serratum.
Bioremediation
Leaves yield green (iii) Plectostele: Xylem plates alternates
Pteridium sp. with phloem plates. Example: Lycopodium
dye.
Equisetum sp. Stems for scouring. clavatum.
Psilotum, Lycopodium, Ornamental plants (iv) Mixed prototostele: Xylem groups
Selaginella, Angiopteris, uniformly scattered in the phloem. Example:
Marattia Lycopodium cernuum.
40

2. Siphonostele: might have noticed insects embedded in a
In siphonostele xylem is surrounded by transparent substance called amber which
phloem with pith at the centre. It includes preserves the extinct forms. What is amber?
Ectophloic siphonostele, Amphiphloic Which group of plants produces Amber?
siphonostele,
Solenostele, Eustele,
Atactostele and Polycylic stele.
(i) Ectophloic siphonostele: The phloem
is restricted only on the external side of the
xylem. Pith is in centre. Example: Osmunda. Amber is a plant secretion which is
(ii) Amphiphloic siphonostele: The phloem an efficient preservative that doesn’t get
is present on both the sides of xylem. The degraded and hence can preserve remains
pith is in the centre. Example: Marsilea. of extinct life forms. The amber is produced
by Pinites succinifera, a Gymnosperm.
(iii) Solenostele: The stele is perforated at a In this chapter we shall discuss in detail
place or places corresponding the origin of about one group of seed producing plants
the leaf trace. called Gymnosperms.
(a) Ectophloic solenostele – Pith is in the Gymnosperms (Gr. Gymnos = naked;
centre and the xylem is surrounded by sperma= seed) are naked seed producing
phloem Example Osmunda. plants. They were dominant in the Jurassic
(b) Amphiphloic solenostele – Pith is in and Cretaceous periods of Mesozoic era.
the centre and the phloem is present on The members are distributed throughout
both sides of the xylem. Example: Adiantum the temperate and tropical region of the
pedatum. world
(c) Dictyostele – The stele is separated 2.6.1 General characteristic features
into several vascular strands and each one • Most of the gymnosperms are evergreen,
is called meristele. Example: Adiantum woody trees or shrubs. Some are lianas
capillus-veneris. (Gnetum)
(iv) Eustele: The stele is split into distinct • The plant body is sporophyte and is
collateral vascular bundles around the pith. differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
Example: Dicot stem. • A well developed tap root system
(v) Atactostele: The stele is split into distinct is present. Coralloid roots of Cycas
collateral vascular bundles and are scattered have symbiotic association with blue
in the ground tissue. Example: Monocot green algae. In Pinus the roots have
stem. m
ycorrhizae.
(vi) Polycyclicstele: The vascular tissues • The stem is aerial, erect and branched or
are present in the form of two or more unbranched (Cycas) with leaf scars.
concentric cylinders. Example: Pteridium. • In conifers two types of branches namely
branches of limited growth (Dwarf
2.6 Gymnosperms
shoot) and Branches of unlimited growth
Naked seed producing Plants (Long shoot) is present.
Michael Crichton’s Science Fiction is a book • Leaves are dimorphic, foliage and scale
transformed into a Film of Steven Spielberg leaves are present. Foliage leaves are
(1993) called Jurassic Park. In this film you green, photosynthetic and borne on
41

branches of limited growth. They show Sporne (1965) classified gymnosperms into
xerophytic features. 3 classes, 9 orders and 31 families. The classes
• The xylem consists of tracheids but in include i) Cycadospsida ii) Coniferopsida
Gnetum and Ephedra vessels are present. iii) Gnetopsida.
• Secondary growth is present. The wood

may be Manoxylic (Porous, soft, more
parenchyma with wide medullary ray
-Cycas) or Pycnoxylic (compact with
narrow medullary ray-Pinus).
• They are heterosporous. The plant may
a) Taxus b) Ginkgo
be monoecious (Pinus) or dioecious
Figure 2.8: Gymnosperms
(Cycas).
2.6.2 Comparison of Gymnosperm with
• Microsporangia and megasporangia
Angiosperms
are produced on microsporophyll and
Gymnosperms resemble with angiosperms
megasporophyll respectively.
in the following features
• Male and female cones are produced. • Presence of well organised plant body
• Anemophilous pollination is present. which is differentiated into roots, stem
and leaves.
• Fertilization is siphonogamous and
• Presence of cambium in gymnosperms
pollen tube helps in the transfer of male
as in dicotyledons.
nuclei.
• Flowers in Gnetum resemble the male
• Polyembryony (presence of many flower of the angiosperm. The zygote
embryo) is present. The naked ovule
represent the first cell of sporophyte.
develops into seed. The endosperm is • Presence of integument around the ovule.
haploid and develop before fertilization. • Both plant groups produce seeds.
• The life cycle shows alternation of • Pollen tube helps in the transfer of male
generation. The sporophytic phase is nucleus in both.
dominant and gametophytic phase is • Presence of eustele.
highly reduced. The photograph of
some of the gymnosperms is given in The difference between Gymnosperms and
Angiosperms were given in Table 2.4.
Figure 2.8
Table 2.4: Difference between Gymnosperms and Angiosperms

S.No Gymnosperms Angiosperms
1. Vessels are absent [except Gnetales] Vessels are present
2. Phloem lacks companion cells Companion cells are present
3. Ovules are naked Ovules are enclosed within the ovary
4. Wind pollination only Insects, wind, water, animals etc., act as
pollinating agents
5. Double fertilization is absent Double fertilization is present
6. Endosperm is haploid Endosperm is triploid
7. Fruit formation is absent Fruit formation is present
8. Flowers absent Flowers present
42

2.6.3 Economic importance of Gymnosperms
Table 2.5: Economic importance of Gymnosperms

S.No Plants Products uses
1. Cycas circinalis, Cycas revoluta Sago Starch used as food
2. Pinus gerardiana Roasted seed Used as a food
3. Abies balsamea Resin (Canada Used as mounting medium in
balsam) permanent slide preparation
4. Pinus insularis, Pinus Rosin and Paper sizing and varnishes
roxburghii Turpentine
5. Araucaria (Monkey's puzzle), Tannins Bark yield tannins and is used in
Picea and Phyllocladus Leather industries
6. Taxus brevifolia Taxol Drug used for cancer treatment
7. Ephedra gerardiana Ephedrine For the treatment of asthma,
bronchititis
8. Pinus roxburghii Oleoresin Used to make soap, varnishes
and printing ink
9. Pinus roxburghii, Picea smithiana Wood pulp Used to make papers
10. Cedrus deodara wood Used to make doors, boats and
railway sleepers
11. Cedrus atlantica oil Used in perfumery
12 Thuja, Cupressus, Araucaria, whole plant Ornamental plants/Floral
and Cryptomeria Decoration
Palaeobotany in India Fossil Pteridophytes – Cooksonia, Rhynia,,

The National wood fossil park is situated in Baragwanthia, Calamites
Tiruvakkarai, a Village of Villupuram district Fossil Gymnosperms – Medullosa, Lepido-
of Tamil Nadu. The park contains petrified carpon, Williamsonia, Lepidodendron
wood fossils approximately 20 million years Fossil Angiosperms – Archaeanthus, Furcula
old. The term ‘form genera’ is used to name
the fossil plants because the whole plant is Prof. Birbal Sahni (1891-1949)
not recovered as fossils instead organs or Father of Indian Palaeobotany.
parts of the extinct plants are obtained in He described Fossil plants from
fragments. Shiwalik fossil park-Himachal Rajmahal Hills of Eastern Bihar.
Pentoxylon sahnii, Nipanioxylon
Pradesh, Mandla Fossil park-Madhya are some of the form genera
Pradesh, Rajmahal Hills–Jharkhand, described by him. Birbal Sahni
Ariyalur – Tamilnadu are some of the fossil Institute of Palaebotany is located in Lucknow.
rich sites of India.
2.7 Angiosperms
Some of the fossil representatives of
In the previous section,
different plant groups are given below
the characteristic
Fossil Algae - Palaeoporella, Dimorphosiphon features of one of the
Fossil Bryophytes – Naiadita, Hepaticites, spermatophyte called
Muscites Gymnosperms were
43

discussed. Spermatophytes also include Flowers trimerous.
plants bearing ovules enclosed in a protective Monocolpate (1 furrow) Pollen is present.
cover called ovary, such plants are called Anatomical features
Angiosperms. They constitute major plant • Vascular bundles are scattered in the stem
group of our earth and are adapted to the • Vascular bundles are closed (Cambium
terrestrial mode of life. This group of plants absent).
appeared during the early cretaceous period • Secondary growth is absent.
(140 million years ago) and dominates the
vegetation on a global scale. The sporophyte Current Angiosperm Phylogeny Group
is the dominant phase and gametophyte is (APG) System of classification doesn’t
highly reduced. recognize dicots as a monophyletic group.
Plants that are traditionally classified under
2.7.1 Salient features of Angiosperms dicots are dispersed in several clades such as
• Vascular tissue (Xylem and Phloem) is early Magnolids and Eudicots.
well developed.
• Flowers are produced instead of cone Summary
• The Ovule remains enclosed in the ovary. Plant Kingdom includes Algae, Bryophytes,
• Pollen tube helps in fertilization, so water Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and
is not essential for fertilization. Angiosperms
• Double fertilization is present. The The life cycle in plants fall under three types
endosperm is triploid. 1. Haplontic,2. Diplontic and 3. Haplodiplontic
• Angiosperms are broadly classified into Algae are autotrophic, chlorophyll
two classes namely Dicotyledons and bearing organisms. The Plant body is
Monocotyledons. not differentiated into root like, stem
2.7.2 Characteristic features of like or leaf like structures. A wide range
Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons of thallus organization is found in algae.
Dicotyledons They reproduce vegetatively through
Morphological features fragmentation, tuber and akinete formation.
Reticulate venation is present in the leaves. Zoospores, autospores and hypnospores
Presence of two cotyledons in the seed. are produced during asexual reproduction
Primary root radicle persists as tap root. and sexual reproduction occurs through
Flowers tetramerous or pentamerous. isogamy, anisogamy and oogamy.
Tricolpate (3 furrow) pollen is present. Bryophytes are the simplest land
plants. They are called amphibians of
Anatomical features plant kingdom or nonvascular cryptogams.
• Vascular bundles are arranged in the form The plant body is gametophyte. The
of a ring in stem. sporophyte depends upon gametophyte.
• Vascular bundles are open (Cambium Conducting tissues like xylem and phloem
present). is absent. Vegetative reproduction takes
• Secondary growth is present. place through fragmentation, formation
Monocotyledons of adventitious bud and gemmae. Sexual
Morphological features reproduction is oogamous. Water is
Parallel venation is present in the leaves. essential for fertilization.
Presence of single cotyledon in the seed. Radicle Pteridophytes are also called vascular
doesn’t persist and fibrous root is present. cryptogams. The plant body is sporophyte
44

and is long lived, which is differentiated 2. Which of following represents
into root, stem and leaves. They may gametophytic generation in
be homosporous or heterosporous. pteridophytes?
The sporangia with spores are found in a. Prothallus
sporophylls. The sporophylls organise b. Thallus
to form cones or strobilus. The spores c. Cone
germinates to produce haploid, multicellular
d. Rhizophore
heart shaped independent gametophyte
called prothallus. Sexual reproduction is 3. The haploid number of chromosome
oogamous. The life cycle shows alternation for an angiosperm is 14, the number
of generation. of chromosome in its endosperm
The term stele includes central cylinder would be
of vascular tissues comprising xylem, a. 7 b. 14 c. 42 d. 28
phloem, pericycle, endodermis and pith . 4. Endosperm in gymnosperm is formed
There are two major types of stele namely a. At the time of fertilization
protostele and siphonostele. b. Before fertilization
Gymnosperms are naked seed producing c. After fertilization
plants. The plant body is sporophyte and it d. Along with the development of
is the dominant phase. Coralloid roots are embryo
found in Cycas. The roots of Pinus possess 5. Differentiate halpontic and diplontic
mycorrhizal association. Two types of life cycle.
branches called long shoot and dwarf shoot 6. What is plectostele? give example.
are present. Stem shows secondary growth. 7. What do you infer from the term
Spores are produced in cones. Pollen tube p
ycnoxylic?
helps in fertilization. The endosperm is 8. Mention two characters shared by
haploid. Alternation of generation is present gymnosperms and angiosperms.
Angiosperms are highly evolved plant 9. Do you think shape of chloroplast
group and their ovules remain enclosed in is unique for algae. Justify your
an ovary. A wide range of habit is present. answer?
These include trees, shrubs, herbs, climbers, 10. Do you agree with the statement
lianas. Double fertilization is present. The ‘Bryophytes need water for fertilization’?
endosperm is triploid. They are classified Justify your answer.
into dicotyledons and monocotyledons.
Evaluation
1. Which of the plant
group has gametophyte
as a dominant phase?
a. Pteridophytes
b. Bryophytes
c. Gymnosperm
d. Angiosperm
45

ICT Corner
Different forms of plants
Is all the plants

are same?
Steps
• Scan the QR code or go to google play store
• Type online labs and install it.
• Select biology and select Characteristics of plants
• Click theory to know the basic about Characteristics of plants
• Register yourself with mail-id and create password to access online lab simulations
Activity
• Select video and record your observations of different forms of plant group.
Step 2 Step 3
Step 1 Step 4
URL:
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=in.edu.olabs.olabs&hl=en
Alternate web:
http://www.phschool.com/atschool/phbio/active_art/plant_life_cycle/
plantlifecycle.swf
46

Unit II: Plant Morphology and
Taxonomy of Angiosperm
Chapter
3 Vegetative Morphology
plants and help to correlate the distribution in

Learning Objectives space and time of fossil plants. Morphological
The learner will be able to, features are also significant for phylogeny.
• Explore the parts of the flowering plants Plant Morphology can be studied under two
broad categories:
• Differentiate vegetative morphology
A. Vegetative Morphology – It includes
and reproductive morphology
shoot system and root system
• Compare various Root systems and B. Reproductive Morphology – It includes
their modifications Flower/Inflorescence, Fruit and Seed
• Understand the stem modifications and A. Vegetative morphology
functions Vegetative morphology deals with the study
• Interpret the structure and functions of of shape, size and structure of plants and their
leaf parts like roots, stems and leaves. To understand
the vegetative morphology the following
important components are to be studied. They
Chapter Outline
are, 1) Habit, 2) Habitat and 3) Lifespan.
3.1 Habit 3.1 Habit
3.2 Plant habitat The general form of a plant is referred as habit.
3.3 Life Span Based on habit, plants are classified into herbs,
3.4 Parts of a flowering plant shrubs, climbers (vines) and trees.
3.5 Root System I. Herbs
3.6 Shoot system Herbs are soft stemmed plants with less wood
or no wood. Example: Phyllanthus amarus,
3.7 Leaf
Cleome viscosa. According to the duration of
The study of various external features of the their life they may be classified as annuals,
organism is known as Morphology. Plant biennials and perennials. Perennial herbs
Morphology is also known as external having a bulb, corm, rhizome or tuber as the
morphology that deals with the study of underground stem are termed as geophytes.
shape, size and structure of plants and their Example: Allium cepa
parts (roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits and
seeds). Study of Morphology is important II. Shrubs
in Taxonomy. Morphological features are A shrub is a perennial, woody plant with
important in determining productivity of several main stems arising from the ground
crops. Morphological characters indicate the level. Example: Hibiscus rosa sinensis
specific habitats of living as well as the fossil (shoe flower)
47

III. Climbers (Vine) Mango, Sapota. Some plants produce flowers
An elongated weak stem generally supported and fruits only once and die after a vegetative
by means of climbing devices are called growth of several years. These plants are called
Climbers (vines) which may be annual or monocarpic perennials. Example: Bambusa,
perennial, herbaceous or woody. Agave, Musa.
Liana is a vine that is perennial and woody. 3.4 Parts of a flowering plant
Liana’s are major components in the tree Flowering plants are called “Angiosperms”
canopy layer of some tropical forests. Example: or Magnoliophytes. They are sporophytes
Ventilago, Entada, Bougainvillea. consisting of an axis with an underground
IV. Trees “Root system” and an aerial “Shoot System”.
A tree is a stout, tall, perennial, woody plant The shoot system has a stem, branches and
having one main stem called trunk with many leaves. The root system consists of root and its
lateral branches. Example: Mango, Sapota, Jack, lateral branches.
Fig, Teak. If the trunk remains unbranched it is Flower
said to be caudex. Example: Palmyra, Coconut. Leaf Bud
3.2 Plant habitat
Depending upon where plants grow habitats
may be classified into two major categories: I.
Terrestrial and II.Aquatic. Stem
Shoot
I. Terrestrial
Root Primary root
Plants growing on land are called
Secondary root
terrestrial plants.
II. Aquatic
Plants that are living in water are called aquatic
plants or hydrophytes.
Figure: 3.1: Parts of a flowering plant
3.3 Life Span
Based on life span plants are classified into 3 3.5 Root System
types. They are annuals, biennials and perennials The root is non-green, cylindrical descending
axis of the plant that usually grows into the
I. Annuals
soil (positively geotropic). It develops from
A plant that completes its life cycle in one
the radicle which is the first structure that
growing season. Example: Maize, Water melon,
comes out when a seed is placed in the soil.
Groundnut, Rice.
Root is responsible for absorption of water and
II. Biennials nutrients and anchoring the plant.
A plant that lives for two seasons, growing
I. Characteristic features
vegetatively during the first season and
• Root is the descending portion of the plant
flowering and fruiting during the second
axis.
season. Example: Carrot, Radish, Cabbage.
• Generally non-green in colour as it lacks
III. Perennials chlorophyll.
A plant that grows for many years that flowers • Does not possess nodes, internodes and
and set fruits for several seasons during the life buds (Exception in sweet potato and
span. When they bear fruits every year, they members of Rutaceae, roots bear buds
are called polycarpic perennials. Example: which help in vegetative propagation)
48

• It bears root hairs (To absorb water and 3.5.1 Types of root system
minerals from the soil)
• It is positively geotropic and negatively
phototropic in nature.
II. Regions of root
Root tip is covered by a dome shaped structure
made of parenchymatous cells called root cap.
Root hair
Region of Cell
maturation
Tap root system Fibrous root system
Figure 3.3: Types of root system
I. Tap root system
Region of cell elongation Primary root is the direct prolongation of
the radicle. When the primary root persists
Region of cell division
and continues to grow as in dicotyledons, it
forms the main root of the plant and is called
Root cap
Figure 3.2: Regions of root the Tap root. Tap root produces lateral roots
that further branches into finer roots. Lateral
It protects the meristematic cells in the apex. In roots along with the branches together called
Pandanus multiple root cap is present. In Pistia as secondary roots.
instead of root cap, root pocket is present. A few
II. Adventitious root system
millimeters above the root cap the following
Root developing from any part of the plant other
three distinct zones have been classified based
than radicle is called adventitious root. It may
on their meristematic activity.
develop from the base of the stem or nodes or
1. Meristematic Zone
internodes. Example: Monstera deliciosa, Piper
2. Zone of Elongation
nigrum. In most of the monocots the primary
3. Zone of Maturation
root of the seedling is short lived and lateral
Table 3.1: Root zones
1. M eristematic Zone
Feature 2. Zone of Elongation 3. Zone of Maturation
(Region of cell division )
Position It lies just above the root It lies just above the It lies above the zone
cap meristematic zone of elongation.
Types of Meristematic cells, actively Elongated cells Mature differentiated cells
cells divide and continuously
increase in number
Functions This is the main growing The cells increase The cells differentiate
tip of the the length and cause into various tissues like
root enlargement of the root. epidermis, cortex and
vascular bundles. It also
produces root hairs which
absorb water and minerals
from the soil
49

Root modification
Tap root modifications Adventitious root modifications
Storage Breathing Storage Mechanical support Vital function
i. Conical i.Tuberous root i. Prop root i. Epiphytic root

ii. Fusiform ii. Fasciculated root ii. Stilt root ii. Foliar root
iii. Napiform iii. Nodulose root iii. Climbing root iii. Sucking root
iv. Moniliform root iv. Buttress root iv. Photosynthetic
v. Annulated root root
roots arise from various regions of the plant

body. These are bunch of thread-like roots
nearly equal in size which are collectively called
fibrous root system generally found in grasses.
Example: Oryza sativa, Eleusine coracana.
3.5.2 Functions of root
Root performs two kinds of functions namely
primary and secondary functions.
(a) (b) (c)
Primary function
1. Absorb water and minerals from soil.
2. Help to anchor the plant firmly in the soil.
Secondary function
In some plants roots perform additional
functions. These are called secondary
(d)
functions. To perform additional functions,
structure of roots are modified.
3.5.3 Modifications of root
I. Tap root modification
a. Storage roots
Figure 3.4: Tap root modifications
1. Conical Root
(a) Daucus carota (b) Raphanus sativus
These are cone like, broad at the base (c) Beta vulgaris (d) Avicennia -
and gradually tapering towards the apex. pneumatophores
Example: Daucus carota.
b. Breathing root
2. Fusiform Root Some mangrove plants like Avicennia,
These roots are swollen in the middle and Rhizophora, Bruguiera develop special kinds
tapering towards both ends. Example: of roots (Negatively geotropic) for respiration
Raphanus sativus because the soil becomes saturated with water
3. Napiform Root and aeration is very poor. They have a number
It is very broad at the apex and suddenly tapers of breathing pores on pneumatophores for
like a tail at the base. Example: Beta vulgaris exchange of gases.
50

II. Adventitious root modification the lateral branches into the soil. Example: Ficus
a. Storage roots benghalensis (banyan tree), Indian rubber.
1. Tuberous root 2. Stilt (Brace) root
These roots are swollen without any definite These are thick roots growing obliquely
shape. Tuberous roots are produced singly and from the basal nodes of the main stem.
not in clusters. Example: Ipomoea batatas. These provide mechanical support.
2. Fasciculated root Example: Saccharum officinarum,
These roots are in cluster from the base of the Zea mays, Pandanus and Rhizophora.
stem Example: Dahlia, Asparagus.
3. Climbing (clinging) roots
3. Nodulose root
These roots are produced from the nodes
In this type of roots, swelling occurs only
of the stem which attach themselves to the
near the tips. Example: Maranta (Arrow root)
support and help in climbing. To ensure a
Curcuma amada (Mango ginger), Curcuma
foothold on the support they secrete a sticky
longa (Turmeric)
juice which dries up in air, attaching the roots
4. Moniliform or Beaded root to the support. Example: Piper betel.
These roots swell at frequent intervals giving
4. Buttress root
them a beaded appearance. Example: Vitis,
In certain trees broad plank like outgrowths
Portulaca, Momordica.
develop towards the base all around the trunk.
5. Annulated root They grow obliquely downwards and give
These roots have a series of ring- like swelling support to huge trunks of trees. This is an
on their surface at regular intervals. Example: adaptation for tall rain forest trees. Example:
Psychotria (Ipecac) Bombax ceiba (Red silk cotton tree), Ceiba
b. Mechanical support pentandra (white silk cotton tree), Delonix
1. Prop (Pillar) root regia, Bombax.
These roots grow vertically downward from
Ipomoea batatas Dahlia Maranta Psychotria

Figure 3.5: Adventitious Root Modification for Storage
Ficus benghalensis Saccharum officinarum Epipremnum pinnatum Bombax

Figure 3.6: Adventitious root modifications for mechanical support
51

c. Vital functions leaf arises is called node. The region between
1. Epiphytic or velamen root two adjacent nodes is called internode.
Some epiphytic orchids develop a special kind I. Characteristic features of the stem
of aerial roots which hang freely in the air. 1. The stem is aerial, green, photosynthetic
These roots develop a spongy tissue called and has nodes and internodes.
velamen which helps in absorption of moisture 2. It is positively phototropic and negatively
from the surrounding air. Example: Vanda, geotropic.
Dendrobium. 3. It has nodes and internodes.
2. Foliar root 4. Stem bears vegetative bud for vegetative
Roots are produced from the veins or lamina growth of the plant, and floral buds for
of the leaf for the formation of new plant. reproduction, and ends in a terminal bud.
Example: Bryophyllum, Begonia. 5. The young stem is green and thus carries
3. Sucking or Haustorial roots out photosynthesis
These roots are found in parasitic plants. 6. During reproductive growth stem bears
Parasites develop adventitious roots from stem flowers and fruits.
which penetrate into the tissue of host plant 7. Branches arise exogenously
and suck nutrients. 8. Some stems bears multicellular hairs of
Example: Cuscuta (dodder), Cassytha, different kinds.
Orobanche (broomrape), Viscum (mistletoe), II. Functions of the stem
Dendrophthoe.
Primary functions
4. Photosynthetic or assimilatory roots 1. It provides support and bears leaves,
Roots of some climbing or epiphytic plants flowers and fruits.
develop chlorophyll and turn green which help 2. It transports water and mineral nutrients to
in photosynthesis. Example: Tinospora, Trapa other parts from the root.
natans (water chestnut), Taeniophyllum. 3. It transports food prepared by leaves to
3.6 Shoot system other parts of the plant body.
The plumule of the embryo of a germinating Secondary functions
seed grows into stem. The epicotyl elongates 1. Food storage- Example: Solanum
after embryo growth into the axis (the stem) tuberosum, Colocasia and Zingiber officinale
that bears leaves from its tip, which contain the
2. Perennation / reproduction – Example:
actively dividing cells of the shoot called apical
Zingiber officinale, Curcuma longa
meristem. Further cell divisions and growth
3. Water storage – Example: Opuntia
result in the formation of mass of tissue called
a leaf primordium. The point from which the 4. Bouyancy – Example: Neptunia
clinging
root Photosynthetic
root
hanging
root
Vanda Bryophyllum Cuscuta Tinospora

Figure 3.7: Adventitious Root Modification for Vital Functions
52

5. Photosynthesis – Example: Opuntia, Example: Begonia (Elephant ear plant) and
Ruscus, Euphorbia. Bryophyllum (Sprout leaf plant). Cauline
6. Protection – Example: Citrus, buds arise directly from the stem either
Bougainvillea, Acacia. from cut, pruned ends or from branches.
7. Support - Example: Passiflora, Vitis, Cissus Adventitious buds function as propagules
quadrangularis. which are produced on the stem as tuberous
3.6.1 Buds structures. Example: Dioscorea, Agave.
Buds are the growing points surrounded by 6. Bulbils (or specialized buds) : Bulbils
protective scale leaves. The bud primordium are modified and enlarged bud, meant for
matures into bud. They have compressed axis propagation. When bulbils detach from
in which the internodes are not elongated parent plant and fall on the ground, they
and the young leaves are closed and crowded. germinate into new plants and serve as a
When these buds develop, the internodes means of vegetative propagation. Example
elongate and the leaves spread out. Buds have Agave and Allium proliferum.
architecture identical to the original shoot and 3.6.2 Types of Stem
develop into lateral branches or may terminate Majority of angiosperm possess upright,
by developing into a flower or inflorescence. vertically growing erect stem. They may
Based on origin, buds are classified into be many types they are (i) Excurrent,
(a) Terminal or Apical bud (b) Lateral or (ii) Decurrent, (iii) Caudex and (iv) Culm.
Axillary or Axil bud. Based on function buds i. Excurrent
are classified into (a) Vegetative bud (b) Floral The main axis shows continuous growth and
or Reproductive bud. the lateral branches gradually becoming shorter
1. Terminal bud or apical bud: These buds towards the apex which gives a conical
are present at the apex of the main stem appearance to the trees. Example: Monoon
and at the tips of the branches. longifolium(Polyalthia longifolia), Casuarina.
2. Lateral bud or Axillary bud: These buds ii. Decurrent
occur in the axil of the leaves and develop The growth of lateral branch is more
into a branch or flower. vigorous than that of main axis. The tree
3. Extra axillary bud : These buds are formed has a rounded or spreading appearance.
at nodes but outside the axil of the leaf as in Example: Mangifera indica.
Solanum americanum. iii. Caudex
4. Accessory Bud: An extra bud on either side It is an unbranched, stout, cylindrical
(collateral bud) or above (superposed bud stem, marked with scars of fallen leaves.
or serial bud) the axillary bud. Example: Example: Cocos nucifera.
Citrus and Duranta. iv. Culm
Erect stems with distinct nodes and usually
5. Adventitious buds: Buds arising at
hollow internodes clasped by leaf sheaths.
any part other than stem are known as
Example: Majority of grasses including Bamboo.
adventitious buds. Radical buds are those
that arises from the lateral roots which 3.6.3 Modification of Stem
grow into plantlets. Example: Millingtonia, I. Aerial modification of stem
Bergera koenigii (Murraya koenigii), 1. Creepers
Coffea arabica and Aegle marmelos. These are plants growing closer (horizontally)
Foliar buds are those that grow on leaves to the ground and produce roots at each node.
from veins or from margins of the leaves. Example: Cynodon dactylon, Centella.
53

2. Trailers (Stragglers) v. Lianas (woody stem climber)
It is a weak stem that spreads over the surface Woody perennial climbers found in tropical
of the ground without rooting at nodes. They forests are lianas. They twine themselves
are divided into 3 types, around tall trees to get light. Example: Hiptage
i. Prostrate (Procumbent): A stem that benghalensis, Bauhinia vahlii.
grows flat on the ground. Example:
vi. Tendril climbers
Indigofera prostrata.
Tendrils are thread-like coiling structures
ii. Decumbent: A stem that grows flat but
which help the plants in climbing. Tendrils
becomes erect during reproductive stage.
may be modifications of Stem – as in Vitis
Example: Tridax.
and Cissus quadrangularis; Inflorescence axis
iii. Diffuse: A trailing stem with spreading
– Antigonon; Leaf – Lathyrus; Leaflets - Pisum
branches. Example: Boerhavia diffusa.
sativum; Petiole – Clematis; Leaftip – Gloriosa;
3. Climbers Stipules – Smilax. In pitcher plant (Nepenthes)
These plants have long weak stem and produce the midrib of the leaf often coils around a
special organs for attachment for climbing over support like a tendril and holds the pitcher in a
a support. Climbing helps to display the leaves vertical position.
towards sunlight and to position the flower for
4. Phylloclade
effective pollination.
This is a green, flattened cylindrical or angled
i. Root climbers stem or branch of unlimited growth, consisting
Plants climbing with the help of adventitious of a series of nodes and internodes at long or
roots (arising from nodes) as in species of Piper short intervals. Phylloclade is characteristic
betel, Piper nigrum, Pothos. adaptation of xerophytes where the leaves often
ii. Stem climbers (Twiners) fall off early and modified into spines or scales
These climbers lack specialised structure for to reduce transpiration. The phylloclade takes
climbing and the stem itself coils around the over all the functions of leaves, particularly
support. Example: Ipomoea, Clitoria, Quisqualis. photosynthesis. The phylloclade is also called
Stem climbers may coil around the support as cladophyll. Example: Opuntia, Phyllocactus,
either clockwise or anti-clockwise. Clockwise Muehlenbeckia (flattened phylloclade)
coiling climbers are called dextrose. Example: Casuarina, Euphorbia tirucalli, Euphorbia
Dioscorea alata. Anti-clockwise coiling
antiquorum (cylindrical phylloclade).
climbers are called sinistrose. Example:
Dioscorea bulbifera.
Cladode
iii. Hook climbers
These plants produce specialized hook like
structures which are the modification of Phylloclade
Scaly leaf
various organs of the plant. In Artabotrys
inflorescence axis is modified into hook. In Spine
Calamus (curved hook) leaf tip is modified

into hook. In Bignonia unguis-cati the leaflets (a) (b)
are modified into curved hook (figure: 3.17). In Figure 3.8: (a) Phylloclade-Opuntia
Hugonia the axillary buds modified into hook. (b) Cladode-Asparagus
iv. Thorn climbers 5. Cladode
Climbing or reclining on the support with the Cladode is a flattened or cylindrical stem
help of thorns as in Bougainvillea and Carissa. similar to Phylloclade but with one or two
54

Stem modification
Aerial Sub-Aerial Underground

modification modification modification
Runner Stolon Sucker Offset
Creepers Trailer Climber Phylloclade Cladode Thorns Bulb Corm Rhizome Tuber
Procumbent Root Climber

Decumbent Stem Climber (Twiner)
Tendril Climber
Diffuse
Hook climber
Lianas
Thorn climber
internodes only. Their stem nature is evident by

the fact that they bear buds, scales and flowers.
Example: Asparagus (cylindrical cladode), Runner
Ruscus (flattened cladode).
6. Thorns
Thorn is a woody and sharp pointed modified Root
(a)
stem. Either the axillary bud or the terminal
bud gets modified into thorns. In Citrus and
Atalantia axillary bud is modified into thorns.
II. Sub aerial stem modifications
Sub aerial stem found in plants with weak
Stolon
stem in which branches lie horizontally on
the ground. These are meant for vegetative
(b) Root
propagation. They may be sub aerial or partially
sub terranean. Figure 3.9: (a) Runner-Oxalis
1. Runner (b) Stolon-Fragaria
This is a slender, prostrate branch creeping on the 3. Sucker
ground and rooting at the nodes. Example: Oxalis Sucker develops from an underground stem
(Wood sorrel), lawn grass (Cynodon dactylon). and grows obliquely upwards and gives rise
New plant
2. Stolon to a separate plantlet or new plant. Example:
This is also a slender, lateral branch originating Chrysanthemum, Bambusa. Root
from the base of the stem. But it first grows Sucker
4. Offset
obliquely above the ground, produces a loop
Offset is similar to runner but found in aquatic
and bends down towards the ground. When
plants especially in rosette leaved forms. A
touches the ground it produces roots and
short thick lateral branch arises from the lower
becomes an independent plantlet. Example: Offset
axil and grows horizontally leafless for a short
Mentha piperita (peppermint), Fragaria indica
distance, then it produces a bunch of rosette
(wild strawberry).
55
Root pocket

Stolon
leaves and root at nodes. Example: Eichhornia scale leaves and exhibit nodes and internodes.
Root
(water hyacinth), Pistia (water lettuce). Example: Amorphophallus, Colocasia,
Colchicum
New plant
(c) Root
Sucker
Offset
Bulb- Rhizome
Allium cepa Zingiber officinale
(d)
Root pocket
Figure 3.9: (c) Sucker-Chrysanthemum

(d) Offset-Eichhornia
III. Underground stem modifications
Perennial and some biennial herbs have
underground stems, which are generally
known as root stocks. Rootstock functions Corm- Tuber
as a storage and protective organ. It remains Colocasia esculenta Solanum tuberosum
alive below the ground during unfavourable Figure 3.10: Underground Stem
conditions and resumes growth during the Modification
favourable conditions. 3. Rhizome
Underground stems are not roots because This is an underground stem growing
they possess nodes, internodes, scale-leaves horizontally with several lateral growing
and buds. Rootstock also lack root cap and tips. Rhizome posses conspicuous nodes and
root hairs but they possess terminal bud which internodes covered by scale leaves. Example:
is a characteristics of stem. Zingiber officinale, Canna, Curcuma longa,
Musa.
1. Bulb
It is a condensed conical or convex stem 4. Tuber
surrounded by fleshy scale leaves. They are of This is a succulent underground spherical
two types 1. Tunicated (coated) bulb: In which or globose stem with many embedded
the stem is much condensed and surrounded axillary buds called “eyes”. Example: Solanum
by several concentric layers of scale leaves. The tuberosum, Helianthus tuberosus.
inner scales commonly fleshy, the outer ones IV. Stem Branching
dry. They can be classified into two types (a) Branching pattern is determined by the
Simple Tunicated bulb Example: Allium cepa relative activity of apical meristems. The
(b) Compound Tunicated bulb. Example: mode of arrangement of branches on a stem
Allium sativum. is known as branching. There are two main
types of branching, 1. Lateral branching and
2. Corm
2. Dichotomous branching. Based on growth
This is a succulent underground stem with an pattern stems may show indeterminate or
erect growing tip. The corm is surrounded by determinate growth.
56

1. Indeterminate: The terminal bud grows i. Leaf base (Hypopodium)
uninterrupted and produce several ii. Petiole (Mesopodium)
lateral branches. This type of growth is iii. Lamina (Epipodium)
also known as monopodial branching. I. Leaf base (hypopodium)
Example: Polyalthia, Swietenia. The part of the leaf attached to the node of the
2. Determinate: The terminal bud caese stem is called leaf base. Usually it protects the
to grow after a period of growth and the growing buds at its axil.
further growth is taken care by successive
Pulvinus: In legumes leaf base become broad
or several lateral meristem or buds.
and swollen which is known as pulvinus.
This type of growth is also known as
Example: Clitoria, Lablab, Cassia, Butea.
sympodial branching. Example: Cycas.
Sheathing leafbase: In many monocot families
3.7 Leaf such as Arecaceae, Musaceae, Zingiberaceae
Leaves are green, thin flattened lateral and Poaceae the leafbase extends into a sheath
outgrowths of the stem. Leaves are the primary and clasps part or whole of the internode. Such
photosynthetic organs and the main site of leafbase also leave permanent scars on the stem
transpiration. All the leaves of a plant together when they fall.
are referred to as phyllome. II. Petiole (stipe or mesopodium)
I. Characteristics of leaf It is the bridge between lamina and stem. Petiole
1. Leaf is a lateral appendage of the stem. or leaf stalk is a cylindrical or sub cylindrical
2. It is borne at the node of the stem. or flattened structure of a leaf which joins the
3. It is exogenous in origin. lamina with the stem. A leaf with petiole are
4. It has limited growth. said to be petiolate. Example: Ficus, Hibiscus.
5. It does not posses apical bud. Leaves that do not possess petiole is said to be
6. It has three main parts namely, leaf base, sessile. Example: Calotropis.
petiole and lamina.
7. Lamina of the leaf is traversed by vascular
strands, called veins.
II. Functions of the leaf
Primary functions
1. Photosynthesis
2. Transpiration
3. Gaseous exchange
4. Protection of buds
5. Conduction of water and dissolved solutes.
Secondary functions
1. Storage – Example: Aloe, Agave.
2. Protection – Example: Opuntia, Argemone
mexicana.
Figure 3.11: (a) Parts of the leaf
3. Support – Example: Gloriosa, Nepenthes. (b) Pulvinus leaf base (c) Sheathing leaf base
4. Reproduction - Example: Bryophyllum,
Begonia, Zamia. III. Lamina (Leaf blade)
3.7.1 Parts of the leaf The expanded flat green portion of the leaf is the
Three main parts of a typical leaf are: blade or lamina. It is the seat of photosynthesis,
57

gaseous exchange, transpiration and most
of the metabolic reactions of the plant. The
lamina is traversed by the midrib from which
arise numerous lateral veins and thin veinlets.
The lamina shows great variations in its shape,
margin, surface, texture, colour, venation and
incision.
Stipules (a) Ficus (b) Cucurbita (c) Cinnamomum
In most of the dicotyledonous plants, the Figure 3.12: Types of reticulate venation
leaf base bears one or two lateral appendages (a) Pinnately reticulate
called the stipules. Leaves with stipules are (b) Palmately reticulate (Divergent)
called stipulate. The leaves without stipules are (c) Palmately reticulate (Convergent)
called exstipulate or estipulate. The stipules outwards or upwards. The two types of
are commonly found in dicotyledons. In some palmate reticulate venation are
grasses (Monocots) an additional out growth i. Divergent type: When all principal
is present between leaf base and lamina. It is veins originate from the base and
called Ligule. Sometimes, small stipule like diverge from one another towards
outgrowths are found at the base of leaflets of the margin of the leaf as in Carica
a compound leaf. They are called stipels. The papaya.
main function of the stipule is to protect the ii. Convergent: When the veins converge
leaf in the bud condition. to the apex of the leaf, as in Indian plum
3.7.2 Venation (Zizyphus), bay leaf (Cinnamomum).
The arrangement of veins and veinlets on
II. Parallel venation
the leaf blade or lamina is called venation.
Internally, the vein contains vascular tissues. Veins run parallel and do not form a prominent
Conventionally venation is classified into two reticulum. It is a characteristic feature of monocot
types namely, Reticulate venation and Parallel leaves. It is classified into two sub types.
venation. 1. Pinnately Parallel Venation (Unicostate)
I. Reticulate venation When there is a prominent midrib in
In this type of venation leaf contain a prominent the center, from which arise many veins
midrib from which several secondary veins perpendicularly and run parallel to each
arise that branch and anastomose like a other. Example: Musa, Zinger.
network. This type of venation is common in 2. Palmate Parallel Venation (Multicostate)
all dicot leaves. It is of two types. In this type several veins arise from the tip of the
1. Pinnately reticulate venation (unicostate): petiole and they all run parallel to each other
In this type of venation there is only and unite at the apex. It is of two sub types.
one midrib in the centre which forms i. Divergent type: All principal veins
many lateral branches to form a network. originate from the base and diverge
Example: Mangifera indica. towards the margin, the margin of the leaf
as in fan palm (Borassus flabelliformis)
2. Palmately reticulate venation
ii. Convergent type: All principal veins run
(multicostate): In this type of venation
parallel to each other from the base of the
there are two or more principal veins
lamina and join at the apex as in Bamboos,
arising from a single point and they proceed
rice, water hyacinth.
58

2. Opposite phyllotaxy
In this type each node possess two leaves
opposite to each other. They are organized in
Rctcnngn"xgpcvcvkqp
two different types.
i. Opposite superposed: The pair of leaves
arranged in succession are in the same
direction, that is two opposite leaves
(a) Canna (b) Bamboo (c) Borassus at a node lie exactly above those at the
Figure 3.13: Types of Parallel venation
lower node. Example: Psidium (Guava),
(a) Pinnately parallel venation (b) Palmately Quisqualis (Rangoon creeper).
parallel(Convergent) (c) Palmately parallel (Divergent) ii. Opposite decussate: In this type of
3.7.3 Phyllotaxy phyllotaxy one pair of leaves is placed at
The mode of arrangement right angles to the next upper or lower pair
of leaves on the stem is of leaves. Example: Calotropis, Ocimum
known as phyllotaxy (Gk. 3. Ternate phyllotaxy
Phyllon = leaf ; taxis = In this type there are three leaves attached at
arrangement). Phyllotaxy each node. Example: Nerium
is to avoid over crowding of leaves and 4. Whorled (verticillate) type of phyllotaxy
expose the leaves maximum to the sunlight In this type more than three leaves are present
for photosynthesis. The four main types of in a whorl at each node forming a circle or
phyllotaxy are (1) Alternate (2) Opposite (3) whorl. Example: Allamanda.
Ternate (4) Whorled. 3.7.4 Leaf mosaic
1. Alternate phyllotaxy In leaf mosaic leaves tend to fit in with one
In this type there is only one leaf per node and another and adjust themselves in such a
the leaves on the successive nodes are arranged way that they may secure the maximum
alternate to each other. Spiral arrangement amount of sunlight with minimum amount
of leaves show vertical rows are called of overlapping. The lower leaves have longer
orthostichies. They are of two types. petioles and successive upper leaves possess
shorter petioles. Example: Acalypha.
a) Alternate spiral: In which the leaves are
3.7.5 Leaf type
arranged alternatively in a spiral manner.
The pattern of division of a leaf into discrete
Example: Hibiscus, Ficus.
components or segments is termed leaf type.
b) Alternate distichous or Bifarious: In which Based on the number of segments
the leaves are organized alternatively in two
I. Simple leaf
rows on either side of the stem. Example:
A leaf is said to be simple when the petiole
Monoon longifolium (Polyalthia longifolia).
bears a single lamina; lamina may be entire
Alternate Opposite Opposite Decussate Ternate Whorled

Polyalthia Superposed Guava Calotropis Nerium Allamanda
Figure 3.14: Phyllotaxy
59

(undivided) Example: Mango or incised to b. when the leaflets are odd in number,
any depth but not upto the midrib or petiole. the leaf is said to be imparipinnate.
Example: Cucurbita. Example: Azadirachta (Neem).
II. Compound leaf ii. Bipinnate: The primary rachis produces
Compound leaf is one in which the main secondary rachii which bear the leaflets.
rachis bears more than one lamina surface, The secondary rachii are known as pinnae.
called leaflets. Compound leaves have evolved Number of pinnae varies depending on
to increase total lamina surface. There is one the species. Example: Delonix.
axillary bud in the axil of the whole compound iii. Tripinnate: When the rachis branches
leaf. The leaflets however, do not possess thrice the leaf is called tripinnate. (i.e) the
axillary buds. secondary rachii produce the tertiary rachii
1. Pinnately compound leaf which bear the leaflets. Example: Moringa.
A pinnately compound leaf is defined as one iv. Decompound: When the rachis of leaf
in which the rachis, bears laterally a number is branched several times it is called
of leaflets, arranged alternately or in an decompound. Example: Daucus carota,
opposite manner, as in Tamarindus, Cassia. Coriandrum sativum.
i. Unipinnate: The rachis is simple and 2. Palmately compound leaf
unbranched which bears leaflets directly A palmately compound leaf is defined as one
on its sides in alternate or opposite manner. in which the petiole bears terminally, one or
Example: Rose, Neem. Unipinnate leaves more leaflets which seem to be radiating from
are of two types. a common point like fingers from the palm.
a. when the leaflets are even in number, i. Unifoliolate: When a single leaflet is
the leaf is said to be paripinnate. articulated to the petiole is said to be
Example: Tamarindus. unifoliolate. Example: Citrus.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Figure 3.15: Types of pinnately compound leaves
(a) Unipinnate (Paripinnate)-Tamarindus (b) Unipinnate (Imparipinnate)-Azadirachta
(c) Bipinnate-Caesalpinia (d) Tripinnate-Moringa (e) Decompound-Coriandrum
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Figure 3.16: Types of palmately compound leaves
(a) Unifoliolate - Citrus (b) Bifoliolate – Zornia (c) Trifoliolate – Aegle marmelos
(d) Quadrifoliolate – Paris quadrifolia (e) Multifoliolate – Bombax
60

ii. Bifoliolate: When there are two leaflets
articulated to the petiole it is said to be Spines
bifoliolate. Example: Zornia diphylla (Opuntia)
Tendrils Hooks
iii. Trifoliolate: There are three leaflets (Pisum) (Bignonia)
articulated to the petiole it is said to be
trifoliolate. Example: wood apple (Aegle Floral Leaf
Leaf blader
marmelos), Clover (Trifolium). leaves
modifications
(Delonix) (Utricularia)
iv. Quadrifoliolate: There are four leaflets
articulated to the petiole it is said to
Storage
be quadrifoliolate. Example: Paris Phyllode
leaves
(Acacia)
quadrifolia, Marsilia Pitcher (Aloe)
v. Multifoliolate or digitate: Five or more (Nepenthes)
leaflets are joined and spread like fingers
from the palm, as in Cleome pentaphylla,
III. Leaf Spines and Prickles
Bombax ceiba
Leaves of certain plants develop spinesent
3.7.6 Modification of Leaf structures. Either on the surface or on the
The main function of the leaf is food margins as an adaptation to herbivory
preparation by photosynthesis. Leaves and xeric conditions. Example: Zyzypus
modified to perform some specialized Argemone mexicana (Prickly poppy),
functions. They are described below. Solanum trilobatum. In xerophytes such as
I. Leaf tendrils Opuntia (Prickly pear) and Euphorbia leaves
In some plants stem is very weak and and stipules are modified into spines.
hence they have some special organs for Prickles are small, sharp structure which
attachment to the support. So some leaves are the outgrowths from epidermal cells of
are partially or wholly modified into tendril. stem or leaf. It helps the plant in scrambling
Tendril is a slender wiry coiled structure over other plants. It is also protective against
which helps in climbing the support. Some herbivory. Example: Rosa spp.
of the modification of leaf tendrils are given
IV. Storage Leaves
below:
Some plants of saline and xerophytic habitats
Entire leaf—Lathyrus, stipules—Smilax,
and members of the family Crassulaceae
terminal leaflet—Naravelia, Leaf tip— Gloriosa,
commonly have fleshy or swollen leaves.
Apical leaflet—Pisum, petiole— Clematis.
These succulent leaves store water, mucilage
II. Leaf hooks or food material. Such storage leaves
In some plants, leaves are modified into resist desiccation. Example: Aloe, Agave,
hook-like structures and help the plant to Bryophyllum.
climb. In cat,s nail (Bignonia unguis-cati)
V. Phyllode
an elegant climber, the terminal leaflets
become modified into three, very sharp, Phyllodes are flat, green-coloured leaf-
stiff and curved hooks, very much like the like modifications of petioles or rachis.
nails of a cat. These hooks cling to the bark The leaflets or lamina of the leaf are highly
of a tree and act as organs of support for reduced or caducous. The phyllodes perform
climbing. The leaf spines of Asparagus also photosynthesis and other functions of leaf.
act as hooks. Example: Acacia auriculiformis (Australian
Acacia), Parkinsonia.
61

Leaf hooks-Bignonia Leaf spines- Opuntia Phyllode-Acacia Pitcher-Nepenthes
Figure 3.17: Leaf Modification
VI. Pitcher Deciduous
The leaf becomes modified into a pitcher in Falling at the end of growing season so that
Nepenthes and Sarracenia. In Nepenthes the the plant (tree or shrub) is leafless in winter/
basal part of the leaf is laminar and the midrib summer season. Example: Maple, Plumeria,
continues as a coiled tendrillar structure. Launea, Erythrina.
The apical part of the leaf is modified into a Evergreen
pitcher the mouth of the pitcher is closed by Leaves persist throughout the year, falling
a lid which is the modification of leaf apex. regularly so that tree is never leafless. Example:
VII. Bladder Mimusops, Calophyllum.
In bladderwort (Utricularia), a rootless free- Marcescent
floating or slightly submerged plant common Leaves not falling but withering on the plant as
in many water bodies, the leaf is very much in several members of Fagaceae.
segmented. Some of these segments are Summary
modified to form bladder-like structures, Flowering plants consist of two major organ
with a trap-door entrance that traps aquatic systems: Underground root system and aerial
animalcules. shoot system. Roots perform the functions of
VIII Floral leaves anchoring and absorbing nutrients from the
Floral parts such as sepals, petals, stamens soil. However some roots perform additional
and carpels are modified leaves. Sepals functions for which they undergo various
and petals are leafy. They are protective modifications in shape, form and structure.
in function and considered non-essential Tap root continue the growth from the radicle
reproductive parts. Petals are usually which further branches into secondary roots.
coloured which attract the insects for Adventitious roots arise from different parts
pollination. Stamens are considered pollen of the plant other than radicle. Stem helps to
bearing microsporophylls and carpels are display the leaves to get maximum sunlight
ovule bearing megasporophylls. and positioning flowers and fruits to attract
pollination and dispersal agents. Apart from
3.7.7 Leaf duration
the normal functions the stems are modified
Leaves may stay and function for few days
to perform various functions such as food
to many years, largely determined by the
storage, perennation and protection. Leaves
adaptations to climatic conditions.
are exogenous in origin and function as food
Caducuous (Fagacious) synthesizing and gaseous exchange sites. Some
Falling off soon after formation. Example: leaves also perform additional functions for
Opuntia, Cissus quadrangularis. which they are modified in their morphology.
62

Leaves possess vascular tissues in the form of Bryophyllum and Dioscorea are example for
3.
veins which render support to the lamina and a. Foliar bud, apical bud
help in transport of water, nutrients and food in b. Foliar bud, cauline bud
and out of leaves. Phyllotaxy is the arrangement c. Cauline bud, apical bud
or distribution of leaves on the stem or its d. Cauline bud, foliar bud
branches in such a way that they receive 4.
Which of the following is the correct
maximum sunlight to perform photosynthesis. statement?
a. In Pisum sativum leaflets modified into
Activity tendrils
1. Collection of medicines prepared b. In Atalantia terminal bud is modified
from root, stem, leaf of organic plants. into thorns
2. Prepare a report of traditional c. In Nepenthes midrib is modified into lid
medicines. d. In Smilax inflorescence axis is modified
3. Classroom level exhibition on Siddha into tendrils
and Ayurvedic medicine prepared 5. Select the mismatch pair
from root, leaf, stem.
a. Musa - Unicostate
4. Growing micro greens in class room
– project work. (Green seed sprouts) b. Lablab - Trifoliolate
c. Acalypha - Leaf mosaic
Evaluation d. Allamanda - Ternate phyllotaxy
1. Which of the following is 6. Draw and label the parts of regions of root.
polycarpic plant? 7.
Write the similarities and differences
a. Mangifera between
b. Bambusa 1. Avicennia and Trapa
c. Musa 2. Radical buds and foliar buds
d. Agave 3. Phylloclade and cladode
2. Roots are 8.
How root climbers differ from stem
a. Descending, negatively climbers?
geotropic, positively phototropic
9.
Compare sympodial branching with
b. Descending, positively geotropic, monopodial branching.
negatively phototropic
c. Ascending, positively geotropic, 10.
Differentiate pinnate unicostate with
negatively phototropic palmate multicostate venation
d. Ascending, negatively geotropic,
positively phototropic
63

ICT Corner
Monocot and Dicot plants
Is plants differ
morphologically?
Steps
• Select biology and select Characteristics of plants
• Click theory to know the basic about Characteristics of plants
Activity
• Select video and record your observations of different forms of plant group.
Step 4
URL:
64

Chapter
4 Reproductive Morphology
its own kind. This chapter discusses flowers,

Learning Objectives their arrangement, fruits and seeds which are
the reproductive units of a plant.
• List the types of Inflorescence. Floriculture
• Distinguish Racemose and Cymose Floriculture is a branch of Horticulture.
inflorescence It deals with the cultivation of flowers
and ornamental crops. The Government
• Dissect a flower and explore the parts
of India has identified floriculture as a
of a flower.
sunrise industry and accorded the status
• Compare various types of Aestivation. of 100% export oriented. Agriculture
• Explore various types of Placentation. and Processed Food Product Export
• Understands the types of Fruits and Development Authority (APEDA) is
seeds responsible for export promotion of
• To differentiate Monocot and Dicot agricultural and horticultural products
seeds from India.
Chapter Outline
4.1. Inflorescence
4.2. Flower
4.3. Accessory organs
4.4. Androecium
4.5. Gynoecium
4.6. Construction of floral diagram
and floral formula 4.1 Inflorescence
4.7. Fruits Have you seen a bouquet being used during
4.8. Seed functions? Group of flowers arranged
Flowers have been a universal cultural together on our preference is a bouquet. But
object for millennia. They are an important an inflorescence is a group of flowers arising
aesthetic element in everyday life, and have from a branched or unbranched axis with a
played a highly symbolic role in our culture definite pattern. Function of inflorescence
throughout the ages. Exchange of flowers is to display the flowers for effective
marks respect, affection, happiness, and love. pollination and facilitate seed dispersal. The
However, the biological purpose of the flower grouping of flowers in one place gives a better
is very different from the way we use and attraction to the visiting pollinators and
perceive. Flower helps a plant to reproduce maximize the energy of the plant.
65

4.1.1 Types of Inflorescence Racemose Cymose
Based On Position Main axis of Main axis of limited
Have you ever noticed the inflorescence unlimited growth growth.
arising from different positions? Where is the Flowers arranged Flowers arranged
inflorescence present in a plant? Apex or axil? in an acropetal in a basipetal
Based on position of inflorescences, it may succession succession
Opening of flowers Opening of flowers
be classified into three major types. They are,
is centripetal is centrifugal
Terminal: Inflorescence grows as a Usually the oldest Usually the oldest
part of the terminal shoot. Example: Raceme flower at the base flower at the top of
of Nerium oleander of the inflorescence the inflorescence
Axillary: Inflorescence presents in the axis. axis.
axile of the nearest vegetative leaf. Example: I. Racemose
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
The central axis of the inflorescence
Cauliflorous: Inflorescence developed di (peduncle) possesses terminal bud which
rectly from a woody trunk. Example: Theobro- is capable of growing continuously and
ma cocoa, Couraupita guinensis produce lateral flowers is called Racemose
Observe the inflorescence of Jackfruit and inflorescence. Old flowers are at the base
Canon ball tree. Where does it arise? and younger flowers and buds are towards
4.1.2 Based on branching pattern and other the apex. It is further divided into 3 types
characters based on growth pattern of main axis.
Inflorescence may also be classified based Ukorng"Tgegog
on branching, number and arrangement of
Urkmg
flowers, and some specialized structures.
I. Indeterminate (Racemose) Ockp"Czku
Gnqpicvgf
Ecvmkp
T
II. Determinate (Cymose) Urkmgngv
C
III. Mixed inflorescence: Inflorescence E Urcfkz
of some plants show a combination of G
Rcpkeng
O
indeterminate and determinate pattern Q
IV. Special inflorescence: Inflorescence U
Ockp"Czku
Eqt{od
which do not confine to these patterns G Ujqtvgpgf
Wodgn
Old flower
Ockp"Czku"
Young Hncvvgpgf"qt Jgcf
flower Inqdqug
Figure 4.2: Racemose

1. Main axis elongated
The axis of inflorescence is elongated and
Old flower
contains pedicellate or sessile flowers on it. The
following types are discussed under main axis
elongated type.
Figure 4.1: (a) Figure 4.1: (b)
Racemose Cymose inflorescence a. Simple raceme: The inflorescence with
an unbranched main axis bears pedicellate
66

flowers in acropetal succession. Example: e. Spadix: An inflorescence with a fleshy
Crotalaria retusa, Mustard. or thickened central axis that possesses many
b. Spike: Spike is an unbranched unisexual sessile flowers in acropetal succession.
indeterminate inflorescence with sessile Usually female flowers are found towards the
flowers. Example: Achyranthes. base and male flowers are found at the apex.
c. Spikelet: Literally it is a small spike. Entire inflorescence is covered by a brightly
The Inflorescence is with branched central coloured or hard bract called a spathe. Example:
axis. Each branch is a spikelet. Sessile flowers Amorphophallus, Colocasia.
are formed in acropetal succession on the axis. f. Panicle: A branched raceme is called
A pair of inflorescence bracts called glumes is panicle. Example: Mangifera, neem. It is also
present at the base. Each sessile flower has a called Compound raceme or Raceme of
lemma (bract) and a palea (bracteole). Tepals Racemes.
reduced to colourless scaly leaves (lodicule). 2. Main axis shortened:
Each flower has stamen and pistil only. Inflorescence with reduced growth of central
Example: Paddy, Wheat. axis. There are two types, namely corymb and
d. Catkin: Pendulous spikes with a long umbel.
and drooping axis bearing small unisexual a. Corymb: An inflorescence with shorter
or bisexual flowers. It is also called ament. pedicellate flowers at the top and longer
Example: Acalypha hispida, Prosopis juliflora. Lemma
Spikelet
Young flower
Sessile flower
Lodicules
Rachilla
Old flower Palea

Sessile flower
Glumes
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Rachis
(e)
m (f ) (g)
Hkiwtg"606"*o+"Eqt{od (h)
Figure 4.4 (o) Compound corymb
Hkiwtg"606"*m+"Urcfkz
Figure 4.3: Diagrammatic
representation of
(a) Simple raceme,
(b) Spike, (c) Spiklet, (d) Catkin,
(e) Spadix, (f) Panicle, (g) Corymb,
(h) Compound corymb,
(i) Umbel (j) Compound umbel
(i)
Hkiwtg"606"*s+"Wodgn (j)
Hkiwtg"606"*u+"Eqorqwpf"wodgn
67

pedicellate flowers at the bottom. All flowers found at the margin of the head which are
appear at the same level to form convex or ligulate and pistilate (unisexual).
flat topped racemose inflorescence. Example:
The flower and inflorescence are
Caesalpinia. Compound corymb: A branched subtended by a lateral appendage called
corymb is called Compound corymb. bract. In sunflower, you may notice that the
Example: Cauliflower. whorl of bracts forms a cup like structure
b. Umbel: An inflorescence with beneath mimicking the calyx. Such whorl
indeterminate central axis and pedicellate of bracts is called involucre. A group of
flowers arise from a common point of peduncle bracts present beneath the sub unit of
inflorescence is known as Involucre.
at the apex. Example: Allium cepa. Compound
umbel: It is a branched umbel. Each smaller
II. Cymose inflorescence.
unit is called umbellule.Example: Daucas
Central axis stops growing and ends in a
carota, Coriandrum sativum.
flower, further growth is by means of axillary
3. Main axis flattened:
buds. Old flowers present at apex and young
The main axis of inflorescence is mostly flowers at base
flattened (convex or concav) or globose. A head
or capitulum is determinate or indeterminate, Ukorng
group of sessile or sub sessile flowers arising on E{og
a receptacle, often subtended by an involucre. E Jgnkeqkf

Oqpqejcukcn
a. Head: A head is a characteristic [ E{og
O Ueqtrkqkf
inflorescence of Asteraceae and is also found in
Q
some members of Rubiaceae and Mimosaceae. U
Ukorng
Fkejcukwo
Torus contains two types of florets: G
1. Disc floret or tubular floret. 2. Ray floret Rqn{ejcukcn
E{og
or ligulate floret. Based on the type of florets
present, the heads are classified into two types. Figure 4.4: Cyme
i. Homogamous head: This type of 1. Simple cyme (solitary): Determinate
inflorescence exhibits single kind of florets. inflorescence consists of a single flower. It may
Inflorescence has disc florets alone. Example: be terminal or axillary. Example: terminal in
Vernonia, Ray florets alone. Example: Launaea. Trillium grandiflorum and axillary in Hibiscus.
ii. Heterogamous head: The inflorescence
2. Monochasial Cyme (uniparous): The
possesses both types of florets. Example:
main axis ends with a flower. From two lateral
Helianthus, Tridax.
bracts, only one branch grows further. It may
Disc florets at the centre of the head are
be Helicoid or Scorpioid.
tubular and bisexual, whereas the ray florets
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Figure 4.5: Diagrammatic representation of (a) Helicoid, (b) Scorpioid, (c) Simple
dichasium, (d) Compound dichasium, (e) Polychasial Cyme
68

a. Helicoid: Axis develops on only one side
Mixed inflorescence
and forms a coil structure atleast at the earlier
development stage. Example: Hamelia, potato.
b. Scorpioid: Axis develops on alternate Thyrsus
Verticillaster
sides and often becomes a coiled structure.
Example: Heliotropium. Special inflorescence
3. Simple dichasium (Biparous): A central
axis ends in a terminal flower; further growth
is produced by two lateral buds. Each cymose Cyathium Hypanthodium Coenanthium
unit consists of three flowers of which central Figure 4.6: Mixed and special inflorescence
one is old one. This is true cyme. Example: are crowded around the node. Example:
Jasminum. Leucas.
4. Compound dichasium: It has many flowers. Figure 4.7:
A terminal old flower develops lateral simple Diagrammatic
dichasial cymes on both sides. Each compound representation of,
dichasium consists of seven flowers. Example: (a) Thyrsus,
(b) (b) Verticillaster
Clerodendron.
A small,simple dichasium is called cymule (a)
5. Polychasial Cyme (multiparous): The Hkiwtg"60:"*e+"Xgtvkeknncuvgt"kphnqtguegpeg"fkcitco
central axis ends with a flower. The lateral axis IV. Special Inflorescence
branches repeatedly. Example: Nerium The inflorescence that do not show any of the
development pattern types are classified under
Sympodial Cyme: special type of inflorescence.
In monochasial cyme,
successive axis at first 1. Cyathium: Cyathium inflorescence consists
develop in a zigzag of small unisexual flowers enclosed by a
manner and later it common involucre which mimics a single
develops into a straight flower. Male flowers are organised in a scorpioid
pseudo axis. Example: manner. Female flower is solitary and centrally
Solanum americanum. located on a long pedicel. Male flower is
represented only by stamens and female flower
III. Mixed Inflorescence is represented only by a pistil. Cyathium may
Inflorescences in which both racemose be actinomorphic (Example: Euphorbia) or
and cymose patterns of development occur zygomorphic (Example: Pedilanthus). Nectar
in a mixed manner. It is of the following is present in involucre.
two types.
1. Thyrsus: It is a ‘Raceme of cymes’. Male flower
Indefinite central axis bears lateral
pedicellate cymes, (simple or compound
dichasia). Example: Ocimum.
2. Verticillaster: Main axis bears two
opposite lateral sessile cymes at the axil of
Female flower
the node,each of it produces monochasial
scorpioid lateral branches so that flowers Figure 4.8: Cyathium
69

4.2.2 Flower sex
Rctvu"qh"Hnqygt
Rkuvkn: The female reproductive Uvcogp< Male organ of a Flower sex refers to the presence or
organ of a flower is Gynoecium or
pistil. Each member is carpel.
flower is androecium. Each
member is stamen. absence of androecium and gynoecium
within a flower.
Rgvcn: Innermost Vjcncowu"
accessory whorl of *vqtwu"qt"tgegrvceng+<
The part of the flower on
1. Perfect or bisexual: If a flower contains
flower is corolla. Each
member is called petal.
which other floral parts are
attached.
both androecium and gynoecium it is
Ugrcn< Outermost
called as a perfect flower.
whorl of flower is calyx.
Each member is called
Dtcevgqng< A smaller bract present 2. Imperfect or unisexual: When the
on the side of pedicel is called
sepal. dtcevgqng or dtcevngv0" flower contains only one of the essential
A whorl of bracteoles at the base of
Rgtkcpvj(perigonium): calyx is called grkecn{z0 whorls is called Imperfect flower. It is of
Undifferentiated calyx and
corolla. Individual members are
Rgfkegn: stalk of the flower. Flower is
two types:
called tepal.
Dtcev< Subtending leaf or leaf like

rgfkegnncvg or uguukng depending upon i) Staminate flowers: Flowers with
presence or absence. The flowers with a short,
structure of any flower is called rudimentary pedicel are called uwduguukng" androecium alone.
Bract. hnqygtu.
ii) Pistillate flowers: Flowers with
Figure 4.9: Parts of flower gynoecium alone.
2. Hypanthodium: Receptacle is a hollow,
globose structure consisting of unisexual
flowers present on the inner wall of the
receptacle. Receptacle is closed leaving a small
opening called ostiole which is covered by a Figure 4.10: (a) Figure 4.10: (b) Figure 4.10: (c)
series of bracts. Male flowers are present nearer Bisexual flower Male flower Female flower
to the ostiole, female and neutral flowers are c0"Dkugzwcn"hnqygt" d0"Ocng"hnqygt e0"Hgocng"hnqygt
c0"Dkugzwcn"hnqygt"c0"Dkugzwcn"hnqygt"
d0"Ocng"hnqygt d0"Ocng"hnqygt e0"Hgocng"hnqygt e0"Hgocng"hnqygt
found in a mixed manner from middle below. Female
Female
Female Female
Hkiwtg"6033"Hnqygt"ugz
Example: Ficus sp. (Banyan, Fig and Pipal). Female
Female
flower
flower
flower
flower
flower
flower
Male Male Bisexual
Male Male
Male Bisexual
Bisexual
3. Coenanthium: Circular disc like fleshy open flower
flower
flower
flower
flower flower
flower
flower
receptacle that bears pistillate flowers at the Figure 4.11: (a) Figure 4.11: (b) Figure 4.11: (c)
c0"Oqpqgekqwu "d0"Fkqgekqwu e0"Rqn{icoqwu
c0"Oqpqgekqwu
c0"Oqpqgekqwu "d0"Fkqgekqwu
"d0"Fkqgekqwu e0"Rqn{icoqwu
e0"Rqn{icoqwu
Monoecious Dioecious
Hkiwtg"6034"Rncpv"ugz"" Polygamous
center and staminate flowers at the periphery.
Hkiwtg"6034"Rncpv"ugz""
Hkiwtg"6034"Rncpv"ugz""
Example: Dorstenia 4.2.3 Plant sex

4.2 Flower Plant sex refers to the presence and
In a plant, which part would you like the most? distribution of flowers with different sexes in
Of course, it is a flower, because of its colour an individual plant.
and fragrance. The flower is a significant 1. Hermaphroditic: All the flowers of the plant
diagnostic feature of angiosperms. It is a are bisexual.
modified condensed reproductive shoot. The 2. Monoecious: Both male and female
growth of the flower shoot is determinate. flowers are present in the same plant
Example: Coconut.
4.2.1 Whorls of flower
There are two whorls, accessory and essential. 3. Dioecious: Male and Female flowers are
Accessory whorl consists of calyx and corolla present on separate plants. Example: Papaya,
and essential whorl comprises of androecium Palmyra.
and gynoecium. 4. Polygamous: The condition in which
Flower is said to be Complete when it bisexual and unisexual (staminate/pistillate)
contains all four whorls. An Incomplete flower flowers occur in a same plant is called
is devoid of one or more whorls. polygamous. Example: Musa, Mangifera.
70

4.2.4 Flower symmetry 4.3 Accessory organs
What is the radius of a circle? Cut a paper 4.3.1 Arrangement of whorls
into round shape, fold it so as to get two The position of perianth (sepals, petals,
equal halves. In how many planes will you tepals) parts relative to one another is called
get equal halves? In how many planes you perianth arrangement.
can divide a cucumber in two equal halves? A 1. Cyclic or whorled: All the floral parts
flower is symmetrical when it is divided into are arranged in definite whorls. Example:
equal halves in any plane running through Brassica.
the center. Flower symmetry is an important 2. Acyclic or spiral: The floral parts are
structural adaptation related to pollination arranged in spirals on the elongated fleshy
systems. torus. Example: Magnolia.
1. Actinomorphic (or) radial or 3. Spirocyclic or hemicyclic: Some parts
polysymmetric: The flower shows two are in whorls and others parts are in spirals.
mirror images when cut in any plane or Example:Annona, Polyalthia
radius through the centre.Normally there
are more than two planes of symmetry. 4.3.2 Calyx
xample: Hibiscus, Datura.
E Calyx protects the flower in bud stage.
Outermost whorl of flower is calyx.
Unit of calyx is sepal. Normally green in
colour.
1. Fusion: a. Aposepalous (polysepalous):
The flower with distinct sepals. Example:
Brassica, Annona.
b. Synsepalous: The flower with united
Figure 4.12: (a) Figure 4.12: (b) or fused sepals. Example: Hibiscus.
Actinomorphic Zygomorphic 2. Duration of floral parts:
What is the green part of brinjal fruit? Have
you seen similar to this in any other fruits?
a. Caducous or fugacious calyx: Calyx
that withers or falls off during the early
development stage of flower. Example:
Papaver.
Figure 4.12: (c) Asymmetric

2. Zygomorphic (bilateral symmetry)
or monosymmetric: The flower can be
divided into 2 equal halves in only one
plane. Zygomorphic flower can efficiently
transfer pollen grains to visiting pollinators. Figure 4.13: (a) Figure 4.13: (b)
Example: Pisum, Bean. Caducous bud Caducous flower
with sepal without sepal
3. Asymmetric (amorphic): Flower lacks any
plane of symmetry and cannot be divided into b. Deciduous: Calyx that falls soon after
equal halves in any plane. Parts of such flowers the opening of flower (anthesis) Example:
are twisted. Example: Canna indica. Nelumbo.
71

4.3.3 Corolla
Corolla is the most attractive part in majority
of the flowers and is usually brightly coloured.
Corolla helps to display the flower and attracts
the pollinators.
Figure 4.13: (c) Deciduous
1. Fusion:
c. Persistant: Calyx that persists and a. Apopetalous (polypetalous): Petals are
continues to be along with the fruit and forms distinct. Example: Hibiscus.
a cup at the base of the fruit. Example: Brinjal. b. Sympetalous (gamopetalous): Petals
d. Accrescent: Calyx that is persistent, are fused. Example: D atura.
grows along with the fruit and encloses the
4.3.4 Perianth
fruit either completely or partially. Example:
Can you recall the term homochlamydeous?
Physalis.
Undifferentiated calyx and corolla in a flower
is called perianth. Each member is called
tepal. If the tepals are distinct they are called
Apotepalous (Polyphyllous). Example: Allium
sativum. Fused tepals are called Syntepalous.
(Gamophyllous). Example: Allium cepa.
Figure 4.13: (d) Figure 4.13: (e) Lodicule: Reduced scale like perianth in
Persistant calyx Accrescent the members of Poaceae is called lodicule.
3. Shapes of calyx
Have you noticed the shoe flower’s calyx? It is 4.3.5 Aestivation: Arrangement of sepals and
bell shaped called Campanulate. The fruiting petals in the flower bud is said to be aestivation.
calyx is urn shaped in Withania and it is called
urceolate. In Datura calyx is tube like and it is
known as tubular. Two lipped calyx is present
in Ocimum. Sometimes calyx is coloured
and called petaloid. Example: Saraca and
Mussanda. In Tridax, calyx is modified into
hair like structures are called pappus.
A.Valvate B.Twisted C.Imbricate
Figure 4.14: (a) Figure 4.14: (b)

Companulate Pappus
D.Quincuncial E.Vexillary
Figure 4.14: (c)Mussaenda Figure 4.15: Aestivation
72

A. Valvate: Margins of sepals or petals do not B. Twisted or Convolute or Contorted: One
overlap but just touch each other. margin of each petal or sepal overlapping on the
Example: Calyx in members of Malvaceae, other petal.
Calotropis, Annona. Example: Petals of Chinarose.
Aestivation: Arrangement of Sepals and Petals in the

flower bud
C. Imbricate: Sepals and petals

D. Quincuncial: It is a type irregularly overlap on each other; E. Vexillary: Large posterior
of imbricate aestivation in one member of the whorl is exterior, petals both margins overlap
which two petals are external one interior and rest of the three lateral petals. Lateral petals
and two internal and one petal having one margin exterior and other margin overlaps anterior
with one margin internal and other interior. petals.
the other margin external. Example: Cassia, Delonix Example: Pea, Bean.
Example: Guava, Calyx of There are 3 types: 1. Ascendingly
Ipomoea, Catharanthus. imbricate; 2. Quincuncial;
3. Vexillary.
Essential Parts of Flower Anther typically contains two com

partments called thecae (singular theca).Each
4.4 Androecium
theca consists of two microsporangia.Two
Androecium: Third
microsporangia fused to form a locule.
whorl of flower is the male
reproductive part of the Sterile stamens are called Staminodes.
flower. It is composed of Example: Cassia. Distinct: stamens which
stamens(microsporophylls). do not fuse to one another. Free: stamens
Each Stamen consist of 3 which do not fuse with other parts of flower.
parts, Apostemonous: flowers with stamens that are
a. Filament b. Anther c. Connective free and distinct.
Anther
4.4.1 Fusion of stamens: The fusion of
Connective stamens fusing among themselves or with
other parts of flower. They are of two types.
1. Connation and 2. Adnation
Filament
1. Connation: Refers to the fusion of stamens
Ventral view
among themselves. It is of 3 types. a. Adelphy.
Dorsal view
b. Syngenecious. c. Synandrous.
Figure 4.16: Stamen a. Adelphy: Filaments connate into one or
more bundles but anthers are free. It may be
Anther: Upper swollen part with the following types.
microsporangia.
1. Monadelphous: Filaments of stamens
Filament: Stalk of stamen
connate into a single bundle.Example:
Connective: Tissue connecting anther Malvaceae (Chinarose, Cotton).
lobes with filament
73

2. Diadelphous: Filaments of stamens 3. Heterostemonous: stamens are of
connate into two bundles. Example: Fabaceae different lengths in the same flower.
(pea) and Clitoria. Example: Cassia.
3. Polyadelphous: Filaments connate into 4.4.3 Anther types
many bundles. Example: Citrus, Bombax 1. Monothecal: One lobe with two
b. Syngenesious: Anthers connate, microsporangia. They are kidney shaped in a
filaments free. Example: Asteraceae. cross section. Example: Malvaceae
c. Synandrous: Filaments and anthers
are completely fused. Example: Coccinea.
2. Adnation: Refers to the fusion of stamens
with other floral parts. Epipetalous : Stamens
are adnate to petals .Example: brinjal, Datura.
a. Episepalous: stamens are adnate to Figure 4.19: (a) Figure 4.19: (b)
sepals. Example: Grevillea (Silver oak) Monothecal Dithecal
b. Epitepalous (epiphyllous): stamens 2. Dithecal: It is a typical type,having two
are adnate to tepals. Example: Asparagus. lobes with four microsporangia.They are
c. Gynostegium:Connation product of butterfly shaped in cross section. Example:
stamens and stigma is called gynostegium. Solanaceae.
Example: Calotropis and Orchidaceae. 4.4.4 Anther attachment
d. Pollinium: Pollen grains are fused 1. Basifixed:(Innate) Base of anther is
together as a single mass Example: Calotropis attached to the tip of filament. Example:
4.4.2 Arrangement of stamens relate to Datura.
length of stamens: 2. Dorsifixed: Apex of filament is attached
1. Didynamous: Four stamens of which to the dorsal side of the anther. Example:
two with long filaments and two with short Hibiscus.
filaments. Example: Ocimum 3. Versatile: Filament is attached to the
2. Tetradynamous: Six stamens of which anther at midpoint. Example: Grasses.
four with long filaments and two with short 4. Adnate: Filament is continued from the
filaments. Example: Brassica. base to the apex of anther. Example: Nelumbo
(a) (b) (c)

Anthers (united) Figure 4.17:
(a) Monadelphous,
(d) (b) Diadelphous,
(c) Polyadelphous
Filaments (free) Stamen Figure 4.18:
(d) Syngenesious Petal
Epipetalous
74

Apocarpous Syncarpous
A pistil contains A pistil contains two
two or more or more carpels which
Filament distinct carpels. are connate. Example:
A. Basifixed B. Dorsifixed Example: Annona. Citrus, tomato.
Filament
C. Versatile D. Adnate c0"Crqectrqwu
Figure 4.20: Anther attachment Carpels 3 locules 1
4.5 Gynoecium
Gynoecium or pistil is the Stigma
female reproductive part of the

flower.
d0"U{pectrqwu"wpknqewnct
A pistil consists of an
expanded basal portion called Style
Septum
the ovary, an elongated section C.S.

called a style and an apical Stipe
Carpels 4 locules 4
structure that receives pollen e0"u{pectrqwu"vgvtcnqewnct
called a stigma. Ovary with Figure 4.22: Fusion of carpels
Ovary
stipe is called stipitate ovary.
4.5.3 Number of locules
Carpel: They are Figure 4.21:
components of a gynoecium. Ovary bears ovules on a specialized tissue called
Pistil
Gynoecium is made of one or placenta. A septum is a crosswall or partition
more carpels. Carpels may be distinct or connate. of ovary. The walls of ovary and septa form a
cavity called locule. Like that tetralocular and
4.5.1 Number of carpel pentalocular ovaries are present according to
the locule numbers four or five. More than
Unicarpellary Bicarpellary
(monocarpellary) Two carpels one locule ovaries are called plurilocular.
Single carpel Example: Rubiaceae
Example: Fabaceae
Tricarpellary Tetracarpellary
Three carpels Four carpels
Example: Example: Lamiaceae. Ovule
Cucurbitaceae A. Bilocular B.Trilocular
Crossandra Banana
Multicarpellary
Many carpels L L L L
Example: Nymphaeceae.
L
L
4.5.2 Fusion of carpels L L
L
Ovule
It is an important systematic character. C. Tetralocular D. Pentalocular
Apocarpous gynoecium is generally thought Brassica Hibiscus
to be ancestral condition in Angiosperms. Figure 4.23: Locules

75

4.5.4 E
xtension of the condensed
internode of the receptacle
1. Anthophore:The internodal elongation
between calyx and corolla. Example:
caryophyllaceae (Silene conoidea)
Figure 4.24: (c) Gynophore

Corolla 4. Gynandrophore or Androgynophore:
The unified internodal elongation between
Anthophore corolla and androecium and androecium and
Calyx gynoecium. Example: Gynandropsis.
Corolla
Anthophore
Calyx
Figure 4.24: (a) Anthophore
C0"Cpvjqrjqtg
2. Androphore: The internodal elongation
Androecium
between the Corolla
corolla and androecium.
Example: Grewia.
C0"Cpvjqrjqtg
Androecium Corolla Figure 4.24: (d) Androgynophore

4.5.5 Ovary position
The position or attachment of ovary relative to
the other floral parts. It may be classified into
Androphore 1. Superior ovary: It is the ovary with the
D0"Cpftqrjqtg sepals, petals and stamens attached at the base
of the ovary.
Androphore
2. Inferior ovary: It is the ovary with the
Figure 4.24: (b) Androphore
D0"Cpftqrjqtg sepals, petals and stamens attached at the apex
of the ovary.
3. Gynophore: The internodal elongation
3. Half-inferior ovary: It is the ovary with
between androecium and gynoecium.
the sepals, petals and stamens or hypanthium
Example: Capparis.
attached near the middle of the ovary.
Hypanthium Hypanthium Hypanthium

absent present absent
Hypanthium
Hypogynous Perigynous Epiperigynous Epigynous Epihypogynous

Ovary Ovary
Ovary
superior inferior
half-inferior
Figure 4.25: Perianth / Androecial position on thalamus
Figure 4.40 Perianth/androecial position on thalamus
76

Hypogynous: Epihypogynous: Epigynous:
The term is used for sepals, The term is used for sepals, The term is used for sepals,
petals and stamens attached petals and stamens attached petals and stamens attached
at the base of a superior at the middle of the ovary at the tip of an inferior
ovary. Example: Malvaceae (half-inferior). Example: ovary. Example: Cucumber,
Fabaceae, Rosaceae. Apple, Asteraceae.
Perigynous: Epiperigynous:
The term is used for a hypanthium attached The term is used for hypanthodium
at the base of a superior ovary. attached at the apex of an inferior ovary.
4.5.6 Perianth / Androecial position on

Placentation thalamus:
The mode of distribution of placenta
It describes placement of the perianth and
inside the ovary
androecium relative to the ovary and to a
Marginal hypanthium, if present ( Figure 4.25).
It is with the placentae along the
margin of a unicarpellate ovary.
Example: Fabaceae. Hypanthium ( Staminal disk) : a fleshy
elevated often nectariferous cup like
thalamus
Superficial
Ovules arise from the
surface of the septa. 4.6 Construction of floral diagram and
Example: floral formula
Nymphaeaceae.
A floral formula is a simple way to explain
Free-central the salient features of a flower. The floral
It is with the placentae along the diagram is a representation of the cross
column in a compound ovary
without septa.
section of the flower. It represents floral
Example: whorls arranged as viewed from above.
Caryophyllaceae, Dianthus, Primerose. Floral diagram shows the number and
arrangement of bract, bracteoles and floral
Axile
The placentae arises from the parts, fusion, overlapping and placentation.
column in a compound ovary The branch that bears the flower is called
with septa.
mother axis.
Example:
Hibiscus, Tomato Lemon. The side of the flower facing the mother
axis is called posterior side. The side facing
Parietal the bract is the anterior side.
It is the placentae on the ovary
walls or upon intruding The members of different floral whorls
partitions of a unilocular, are shown arranged in concentric rings.
compound Ovary.
Example:
Br : Bracteate.
Mustard, Argemone, Cucumber. Ebr : Ebracteate
Brl : Bracteolate
Basal
It is the placenta at the base of
Ebrl : Ebracteolate
the ovary. : Actinomorphic
Example: Sunflower
(Asteraceae) Marigold % : Zygomorphic
77

: Staminate G – superior ovary
: Pistillate G inferior ovary
: Bisexual flower G– – semi-inferior ovary
∞ – Indefinite number of units
K : Calyx, K5 five sepals, aposepalous, K(5)
five sepals synsepalous. 4.7 Fruits
C : Corolla, C5 five petals, apopetalous, We know about several kinds of fruits, but by
C(5) five petals sympetalous C(2+3) corolla botanical study we will be surprised to know
bilabiate with upper lib two lobes. the types of fruits and how they are produced
A : Androecium A3 three stamens free, by plants. Fruits are the products of pollination
A2+2, Stamens 4, two whorls (didynamous) and fertilization, usually containing seeds
each whorl two stamens (free) inside. In common person's perspective a fruit
A(9)+1 – stamens ten, two bundles may be defined as an edible product of the
(diadelphous) 9 stamens unite to form one entire gynoecium and any floral part which
bundle,1 stamen form another bundle. is sweet, juicy or fleshy, coloured, aromatic
and enclosing seeds. However the fruit is a
C5A5—Epipetalous represented by an arc.
fertilized and ripened ovary. The branch of
A0 :Staminode(sterile stamen) horticulture that deals with the study of fruits
G. Gynoecium or pistil – G2 – Carpels two, and their cultivation is called pomology.
free (apocarpous) 4.7.1 Structure of Fruit
G(3) – Carpels three, united (syncarpous) Fruit has a fruit wall. It is otherwise called
G0 – pistillode (sterile carpel) pericarp. It is differentiated into outer
epicarp, middle mesocarp and inner
endocarp. The inner
part of the fruit is
occupied by the seed.
4.7.2 Types of Fruit
Fruits are classified into
three types:
Simple Fruits
Figure 4.26: (a) Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Figure 4.26: (b) Ixora coccinea The fruits are derived
from a single ovary of a
Br Brl K (5) C 5 A(∞)G(5) Br Ebrl K (4)C (4) A 4 G (2)
• • flower Example: Mango,
Tomato. Simple fruits
are classified based on
the nature of pericarp as
follows.
A. Fleshy Fruit
The fruits are derived
Ocng"hnqygt Hgocng"hnqygt
Male Flower Female Flower
Figure 4.26: (c) Phyllanthus amarus
Figure 4.26: (d) Cocos nucifera from single pistil
Br Ebrl P3+3 A (3) G 0 Br Ebrl P 3+3 A3+3 G 0
where the pericarp is
fleshy, succulent and
Br Ebrl P3+3A 0 G(3) Br Ebrl P 3+3A0G(3) differentiated into
78

Fruits
True fruit False fruit Parthenocarpic fruit
Ovary develops into In addition to the ovary the Development of fruits

fruit without any non- carpellary (floral) parts like without fertilization.
non-carpellary part. thalamus (Apple), perianth ( Jack They are seedless fruits.
Example: Tomato, Mango fruit) and involucre and perianth Example: Banana
(Walnut) develop into fruit.
Figure 4.27: Classification of fruits based on formation
epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. It is c) Pepo: Fruit develops from tricarpellary

subdivided into the following. inferior ovary. Pericarp turns leathery or woody
a) Berry: Fruit develops from bicarpellary or which encloses, fleshy mesocarp and smooth
multicarpellary, syncarpous ovary. Here the endocarp. Example: Cucumber, Watermelon,
epicarp is thin, the mesocarp and endocarp Bottle gourd, Pumpkin.
remain undifferentiated. They form a pulp d) Hesperidium: Fruit develops from
in which the seeds are embedded. Example: multicarpellary, multilocular, syncarpous,
Tomato, Grapes, Brinjal. superior ovary. The fruit wall is differentiated
b) Drupe: Fruit develops from into leathery epicarp with oil glands, a middle
monocarpellary, superior ovary. It is usually fibrous mesocarp. The endocarp forms distinct
one seeded. Pericarp is differentiated into chambers, containing juicy hairs. Example:
outer skinny epicarp, fleshy and pulpy Orange, Lemon.
mesocarp and hard and stony endocarp e) Pome: It develops from multicarpellary,
around the seed. Example: Mango, Coconut. syncarpous, inferior ovary. The receptacle
Berry (Tomato) Drupe (Mango) Pepo (Cucumber)
Hesperidium (Orange) Pome (Apple) Balausta (Pomegranate)

Figure 4.28: Simple fleshy fruits
79

also develops along with the ovary and
becomes fleshy, enclosing the true fruit.
In pome the epicarp is thin skin like
and endocarp is cartilagenous. Example:
Apple, Pear.
f) Balausta: A fleshy indehiscent
fruit developing from multicarpellary, Follicle (Calotropis) Legume (Pisum)
multilocular inferior ovary whose pericarp
is tough and leathery. Seeds are attached
irregularly with testa being the edible
portion. Example: Pomegranate.
B. Dry Fruit
They develop from single ovary where the
pericarp is dry and not differentiated into Siliqua (Brassica) Silicula (Capsella)
epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. It is further
subdivided into three types.
1) Dry dehiscent fruit
Pericarp is dry and splits open
along the sutures to liberate seeds.
They can be classified into following types.
Loculicidal (Abelmoschus) Septifragal (Datura)
a) Follicle: Fruit develops from mono-
Figure 4.29: Dry dehiscent fruit
carpellary, superior ovary and dehisces along
one suture. Example: Calotropis. ii) Loculicidal: Capsule splitting along
b) Legume or pod: Fruit develops from locules and valves remaining attached to septa.
monocarpellary, superior ovary and dehisces Example: Abelmoschus.
through both dorsal and ventral sutures. iii) Poricidal: Dehiscence through terminal
Example: Pisum. pores. Example: Papaver.
c) Siliqua: Fruit develops from
2) Dry indehiscent fruit
bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary
Dry fruit which does not split open at maturity.
initially one chambered but subsequently
It is subdivided into.
becomes two chambered due to the formation
of false septum (replum). The fruit dehisces a) Achene: Single seeded dry fruit
along two suture. Example: Brassica. developing from single carpel with superior
ovary. Achenes commonly develop from
d) Silicula: Fruit similar to siliqua but
apocarpous pistil, Fruit wall is free from
shorter and broader. Example: Capsella.
seed coat. Example: Clematis, Delphinium.
e) Capsule: Fruit develops from b) Cypsela: Single seeded dry fruit,
multicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary. develops from bicarpellary, syncarpous,
Based on the dehiscence pattern they are inferior ovary with reduced scales, hairy or
divided into. feathery calyx lobes. Example: Tridax.
i) Septicidal: Capsule splitting along septa c) Caryopsis: It is a one seeded fruit
and valves remaining attached to septa. which develops from a monocarpellary,
Example: Aristolochia.
80

Achene (Clematis) Cypsela (Tridax) Cremocarp (Coriandrum) Carcerulus (Leucas)
Caryopsis (Oryza) Nut (Anacardium) Lomentum (Mimosa) Regma (Ricinus)

Figure 4.31: Schizocarpic Fruit
a) Cremocarp: Fruit develops from

bicarpellary, syncarpous, inferior ovary and
splitting into two one seeded segments known
as mericarps. Example: Coriander.
b) Carcerulus: Fruit develops from
Samara (Acer) Utricle (Chenopodium)
bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior ovary
Figure 4.30: Dry indehiscent fruit
and splitting into four one seeded segments
superior ovary. Pericarp is inseparably fused known as nutlets. Example: Leucas.
with seed. Example: Oryza. c) Lomentum: The fruit is derived
d) Nut: They develop from mulicarpellary, from monocarpellary, unilocular ovary.
syncarpous, superior ovary with hard, woody A leguminous fruit, constricted between
or bony pericap. It is a one seeded fruit. the seeds to form a number of one seeded
Example: Anacardium. compartments that separate at maturity.
e) Samara: A dry indehiscent, one Example: Mimosa.`
seeded fruit in which the pericarp devlops d) Regma: They develop from tricarpellary,
into thin winged structure around the fruit. syncarpous, superior, trilocular ovary and splits
Example: Acer. into one-seeded cocci which remain attached
f) Utricle: They develop from to carpophore. Example: Ricinus.
bicarpellary, unilocular, syncarpus, superior Aggregate Fruits
ovary with pericarp loosely enclosing the Aggregate fruits develop from a single flower
seeds. Example: Chenopodium. having an apocarpous pistil. each of the free
3) Schizocarpic Fruit carpel develops into a simple fruitlet. A collection
This fruit type is intermediate between of simple fruitlets makes an Aggregate fruit.
dehiscent and indehiscent fruit. The fruit An individual ovary develops into a drupe,
instead of dehiscing, splits into number of achene, follicle or berry. An aggregate of these
segments, each containing one or more seeds. fruits borne by a single flower is known as an
They are of following types. etaerio. Example: Annona, Polyalthia.
81

fused together by their succulent perianth and
at the same time the axis bearing them become
fleshy or juicy and the whole inflorescence
forms a compact mass. Example: Pine apple,
Jack fruit.
Annona Polyalthia
Figure 4.32: Aggregate Fruits
Multiple or Composite Fruit
A Multiple or composite fruit develops from
the whole inflorescence along with its peduncle
on which they are borne.
a) Sorosis: A fleshy multiple fruit which Sorosis (Jack fruit) Syconus (Ficus)
develops from a spike or spadix. The flowers Figure 4.33: Multiple or Composite fruit
Fruits
Simple Aggregate Multiple
Etaerio of follicle (Calotropis)

Etaerio of achena (Clematis) Sorosis (Jack fruit)
Etaerio of drupe (Raspberry) Syconus (Ficus)
Etaerio of berries (Polyalthia)
Fleshy fruit Dry fruit
a. Berry (Tomato)
b. Drupe (Mango)
c. Pepo (Cucumber)
d. Hesperidium (Orange) Dry Indehiscent Schizocarpic
e. Pome (Apple)
dehiscent (Achenial) (Splitting)
f. Balausta ( Pomegranate)
a. Follicle (Calotropis) Achene (Clematis) Cremocarp

b. Legume (Pisum) Cypsela (Tridax) (Coriandrum)
c. Siliqua (Brassica) Caryopsis (Oryza) Carcerulus (Leucas)
d. Silicula (Capsella) Nut (Anacardium) Lomentum
e. Capsule Samara (Acer) (Mimosa)
i. Septicidal (Linum) Utricle (Chenopodium) Regma (Ricinus)
ii. L
oculicidal (Lady’s finger)
iii. Poricidal (Papaver)
Figure 4.34: Types of fruits

82

Edible Parts of Fruit
Type of Fruit Common Name Botanical Name Edible Part
Berry Tomato Lycopersicon esculentum Whole fruit
Brinjal Solanum melongena Tender fruit
Guava Psidium guajava Whole fruit
Drupe Mango Mangifera indica Mesocarp
Coconut Cocos nucifera Endosperm (both cellular
and liquid)
Date Phoenix dactylifera Pericarp
Pepo Cucumber Cucumis sativus Whole fruit
Hesperidium Citrus (Orange, Lemon) Citrus sinensis Juicy hairs on the endocarp
Pome Apple Pyrus malus Thalamus (false fruit) and a
part of pericarp
Balausta Pomegranate Punica granatum Succulent testa of the seeds
Legume Pea Pisum sativum Seed
Siliqua Mustard Brassica campestris Seed
Poricidal capsule Poppy Papaver somniferum Seeds
Loculicidal capsule Lady’s finger Abelmoschus esculentus Tender fruit
Cypsela Sunflower Helianthus annuus Seed (for oil)
Caryopsis Maize Zea maize Seed
Paddy Oryza sativa Seed
Nut Cashew nut Anacardium occidentale Pedicel (false fruit) and
cotyledons (true fruit)
Cremocarp Coriander Coriandrum sativum Mericarps
Lomentum Touch-me-not Mimosa pudica Seed
Aggregate fruit Custard apple Annona squamosa Pericarps
Composite fruits
Sorosis Jack fruit Artocarpus heterophyllus Perianth, seeds
Pine apple Ananas comosus Perianth, rachis
Mulberry Morus alba Whole fruit
Syconus Fig Ficus carica Whole inflorescence
• Lodoicea maldivica is of true fruit or achenes which develops

the world's largest fruit. from female flower of hypanthodium
The size of mature fruit inflorescence. Example: Ficus
is 40–50 cm in diameter
and weights 15–30 kg. 4.7.3 Functions of Fruit
• Progesterone which supports pregnancy is 1. Edible part of the fruit is a source of food
obtained naturally from a fruit of Balanites and gives energy for animals.
aegyptiaca and Trigonella foenum - graecum. 2. They are source of many chemicals like
sugar, pectin, organic acids, vitamins
b) Syconus: A multiple fruit which develops and minerals.
from hypanthodium inflorescence. The 3. The fruit protects the seeds from
receptacle develops further and converts unfavourable climatic conditions and
into fleshy fruit which encloses a number animals.
83

4. Both fleshy and dry fruits help in the 4.8.2 Significance of Seeds:
dispersal of seeds to distant places.  The seed encloses and protects the embryo
5. In certain cases, fruit may provide for next generation.
nutrition to the developing seedling.  It contains food for the development of
6. Fruits provide source of medicine to embryo.
human.  It is a means for the dispersal of new
• Lupinus arcticus individuals of the species.
(legume family) of Artic  A seed is a means for perpetuation of
Tundra is the oldest the species. It may lie dormant during
viable seed remained unfavorable conditions but germinates on
dormant for 10,000 years. getting suitable conditions.
• Pheonix dactylifera (date palm) of king
Herod's palace near dead sea has viable  Seeds of various plants are used as food,
seed for 20,000 years. both for animals and men.
• Powdered seeds of Moringa oleifera is  They are the basis of agriculture.
used to purify water.  Seeds are the products of sexual
reproduction so they provide genetic
4.8 Seed variation and recombination in a plant.
Do all fruits contain seeds? No, triploid fruits
do not. The seed is a fertilized mature ovule Activity
which possess an embryonic plant, usually Prepare a diet chart to provide balanced diet
stores food material and has a protective coat. to an adolescent (a school going child) which
After fertilization, changes occur in various includes food items (fruits, vegetable and
parts of the ovule and transforms into a seed. seeds) which are non - expensive and are
commonly available.
4.8.1 Types of Seed
I. Based on the number of cotyledons Summary
two types of seeds are recognized. Inflorescence is a group of flowers present on a
i. Dicotyledonous seed: Seed with two common stalk. Inflorescence may be classified
cotyledons. into 3 types based on position. Inflorescence
classified into racemose, cymose, mixed and
ii. Monocotyledonous seed: Seed with special type based on the flower arrangement
one cotyledon. and branching of axis. Flower is a modified shoot
II. Based on the presence or absence of the and meant for sexual reproduction. Flower has
endosperm the seed is of two types. various parts to enhance reproduction. Flower
i. Albuminous or Endospermous seed: can be explained by its sex and symmetry. Calyx
The cotyledons are thin, membranous and is outermost whorl of flower and many types.
Corolla is second whorl of flower and used for
mature seeds have endosperm persistent pollination. Corolla may be united or free and has
and nourishes the seedling during its early various forms in different flowers. Aestivation is
development. Example: Castor, sunflower, arrangement of sepals, petals in bud condition
maize. and is of many types. Androecium is the male
ii. Ex-albuminous or non- part of flower and made up of stamens. Stamens
endospermous seed: Food is utilized by contain filament,anther and connective.
Gynoecium is the female part of flower. Ovary,
the developing embryo and so the mature
style and stigma are parts of pistil.According to
seeds are without endosperm. In such seeds, number of carpels it is divided into monocarpellary,
colyledons store food and become thick and bicarpellary etc. It may be apocarpous or
fleshy. Example: Pea, groundnut. syncarpous. Locule number may be one to many.
84

The ovary is superior or inferior or semi inferior. c. Multicarpellary ovary
Mode of distribution of placenta inside the ovary d. Whole inflorescence
is placentation. Construction of floral diagram and 4. In an inflorescence where flowers are
floral formula for given flower with some examples. borne laterally in an acropetal succession
Fruits are the products of pollination and the position of the youngest floral bud
fertilization. Fruit developed from single ovary of
shall be
flower is called simple fruit. Simple fruits are two
a. Proximal b. Distal
types based on the fruit wall as simple fleshy and
c. Intercalary d. Anywhere
simple dry. An intermediate between dehiscent
and indehiscent fruit is called schizocarpic fruit. 5. A true fruit is the one where
The simple fruits could be fleshy or dry which a. Only ovary of the flower develops
could again be dehiscent or indehiscent. Fruits that into fruit
are developed from multicarpellary, apocarpus b. Ovary and calyx of the flower
pistil is called aggregate. Multiple or composite develops into fruit
fruit develops from the flowers of the complete c. Ovary, calyx and thalamus of the
inflorescence. Seed is a ripened ovule which flower develops into fruit
contains the embryo or the miniature of plant d. All floral whorls of the flower
body. Seeds with one cotyledon are develops into fruit
monocotyledonous and with two 6. Find out the floral formula for a bisexual
cotyledons are dicotyledonous. flower with bract, regular, pentamerous,
Evalution distinct calyx and corolla, superior ovary
1. Vexillary aestivation is without bracteole.
characteristic of the family 7. Give the technical terms for the following: -
a. Fabaceae b. Asteraceae a. A sterile stamen
c. Solanaceae d. Brassicaceae b. Stamens are united in one bunch
2. Gynoecium with united carples is c. Stamens are attached to the petals
termed as 8. Explain the different types of placentation
a. Apocarpous b. Multicarpellary with example.
c. Syncarpous d. None of the above 9. Differentiate between aggregate fruit
3. Aggregate fruit develops from with multiple fruit.
a. Multicarpellary, apocarpous ovary 10. Explain the different types of fleshy fruit
b. Multicarpellary, syncarpous ovary with suitable example.
ICT Corner
Let’s generate
Floral Diagram and Floral diagram and Floral
Floral Formula formula.
Steps Activity
• Scan the QR code • Make floral diagram and formula of various flower by
• Enter sepal, petal, androecium & Gynoecium changing numbers and positions of floral parts.
• Select enable colour • You can edit the floral diagram using Inkscape, which is
• Select shape of sepal & petal, fused (if so) denoted in help tap.
• Enter carpel number & position submit the from
• Click formula to generate floral formula

URL: http://kvetnidiagram.8u.cz/index_en.php * Pictures are indicative only
85

Chapter
5 Taxonomy and
Systematic Botany
Plants are the prime companions of human

Learning Objectives beings in this universe. Plants are the
The learner will be able to, source of food, energy, shelter, clothing,
drugs, beverages, oxygen and the aesthetic
• Differentiate systematic botany from
taxonomy. environment. Taxonomic activity of human
• Explain the ICN principles and to is not restricted to living organisms alone.
discuss the codes of nomenclature. Human beings learn to identify, describe,
• Compare the national and international name and classify food, clothes, books,
herbaria. games, vehicles and other objects that they
• Appreciate the role of morphology, come across in their life. Every human being
anatomy, cytology, DNA sequencing in thus is a taxonomist from the cradle to the
relation to Taxonomy, grave.
• Describe diagnostic features of Taxonomy has witnessed various
families Fabaceae, Solanaceae and phases in its early history to the present day
Liliaceae.
modernization. The need for knowledge
on plants had been realized since human
existence, a man started utilizing plants
Chapter Outline for food, shelter and as curative agent for
5.1 Taxonomy and Systematics ailments.
5.2 Taxonomic Hierarchy Theophrastus (372 – 287 BC), the
5.3 Concept of species – Morphological, Greek Philosopher known as “Father of
Biological and Phylogenetic Botany”. He named and described some 500
5.4 International Code of plants in his “De Historia Plantarum”. Later
Botanical Nomenclature Dioscorides (62 – 127 AD), Greek physician,
5.5 Taxonomic Aids described and illustrated in his famous
5.6 Botanical Gardens “Materia medica” and described about 600
5.7 Herbarium – Preparation and uses medicinal plants. From 16th century onwards
5.8 Classification of Plants Europe has witnessed a major developments
5.9 Need for classification in the field of Taxonomy. Some of the key
5.10 Types of classification contributors include Andrea Caesalpino, John
5.11 Modern trends Ray, Tournefort, Jean Bauhin and Gaspard
in taxonomy Bauhin. Linnaeus ‘Species Plantarum' (1753)
5.12 Cladistics laid strong foundation for the binomial
nomenclature.
5.13 Selected Families
Taxonomy is no more classical morphology
of Angiosperms
based discipline but become a dynamic
86

and transdisciplinary subject, making use classification including the bases, principles,
of many branches of botany such as Cell rules and procedures”.
Biology, Physiology, Biochemistry, Ecology, Simpson (1961) defined Systematics as,
Pharmacology and also Modern Biotechnology, “Scientific study of the kinds and diversity of
Molecular Biology and Bioinformatics. It organisms and all relationships among them”.
helps to understand biodiversity, wildlife, Though there are two terms are used in an
forest management of natural resources for interchangeable way, they differ from each
sustainable use of plants and eco restoration. other.
5.1 Taxonomy and Systematics 5.2 Taxonomic Hierarchy
The word taxonomy is derived from Greek Taxonomic hierarchy was introduced by
words “taxis” (arrangement) and “nomos” Carolus Linnaeus. It is the arrangement of
(rules or laws). Taxonomy is defined as various taxonomic levels in descending order
as “the science dealing with the study of starting from kingdom up to species.
Differences between Taxonomy and Systematics
Taxonomy Systematics
• D iscipline of classifying organisms into • B road field of biology that studies the
taxa. diversification of species.
• Governs the practices of naming, • Governs the evolutionary history and
describing, identifying and specimen phylogenetic relationship in addition to
preservation. taxonomy.
• Classification + Nomenclature = • Taxonomy + Phylogeny = Systematics
T
axonomy
Species is the lowest of classification and Kingdom is the highest level or rank of the
shows the high level of similarities among the classification. Example: Plantae
organisms. For example, Helianthus annuus Rank Ending Example
and Helianthus tuberosus. These two species Kingdom - Plantae
differ in their morphology. Both of them are Phylum =
herbs but Helianthus tuberosus is a perennial -phyta Magnoliophyta
Division
herb. Subphylum =
-phytina Magnoliophytina
Genus consists of multiple species which Sub division
have similar characters but differ from the Class -opsida Asteropsida
species of another genus. Example: Helianthus, Sub class -idea Asteridea
Tridax. Order -ales Asterales
Family comprises a number of genera Suborder -ineae Asterineae
which share some similarities among them. Family -aceae Asteraceae
Example: Asteraceae. Sub family -oideae Asteroideae
Order includes group of families which Tribe -eae Heliantheae
show less similarities among them. Genus - Helianthus
Class consists of group of orders which Sub genus -
Helianthus subg.
share few similarities. Helianthus
Division is the next level of classification Helianthus ser.
Series -
Helianthus
that consists of number of classes.
Example: Magnoliophyta. Species - Helianthus annuus
87

5.3 C
oncept of species-Morphological, 5.4 International Code of Botanical
Biological and Phylogenetic Nomenclature (ICBN)
Species is the fundamental unit of taxonomic Assigning name for a plant is known as
classification. Species is a group of individual Nomenclature. This is based on the rules
organisms which have the following characters. and recommendations of the International
1. A population of organisms which closely Code of Botanical Nomenclature. ICBN
resemble each other more than the other deals with the names of existing (living) and
population. extinct (fossil) organisms. The elementary
2. They descend from a common ancestor. rule of naming of plants was first proposed by
3. In sexually reproducing organisms, they Linnaeus in 1751 in his Philosophia Botanica.
interbreed freely in nature, producing In 1813 a detailed set of rules regarding plant
fertile offspring. nomenclature was given by A.P. de Candolle
Species concepts can be classified into two in his famous work “Theorie elementaire
general groups. Concept emphasizing process de la botanique”. Then the present ICBN
of evolution that maintains the species as a unit was evolved by following the same rules
and that can result in evolutionary divergence of Linnaeus, A.P. de Candolle and his son
and speciation. Another concept emphasises Alphonse de Candolle.
the product of evolution in defining a species.
ICBN due to specific reasons and in order to
Types of Species separate plant kingdom from other organisms,
There are different types of species and they are is redesignated as ICN. The International
as follows: Botanical Congress held in Melbourne in July
1. Process of evolution - Biological Species 2011 brought this change. The ICN stands
2. Product of evolution - Morphological Species for International Code of Nomenclature for
Algae, Fungi and Plants.
and Phylogenetic Species
Morphological Species (Taxonomic species) ICN Principles
When the individuals are similar to one International Code of Nomenclature is based
another in one or more features and different on the following six principles.
from other such groups, they are called 1. Botanical nomenclature is independent
morphological species. of zoological and bacteriological
Biological Species (Isolation Species) nomenclature.
According to Ernest Mayr 1963,“ these are 2. Application of names of taxonomic group
groups of populations that interbreed and is determined by means of nomenclatural
are reproductively isolated from other such types.
groups in nature”. 3. Nomenclature of a taxonomic group is
based on priority of publication.
Phylogenetic Species
4. Each taxonomic group with a particular
This concept was developed by Meglitsch
circumscription, position and rank can
(1954), Simpson (1961) and Wiley (1978).
bear only one correct name.
Wiley defined phylogenetic species as “an
5. Scientific names of taxonomic groups
evolutionary species is a single lineage of
are treated as Latin regardless of their
ancestor descendent populations which
derivation.
maintains its identity from other such lineages
6. The rules of nomenclature are retroactive
which has its own evolutionary tendencies
unless expressly limited.
and historical fate”.
88

Codes of Nomenclature refer to more than one plant or many plants
ICN has formulated a set of rules and may have same common name. These names
recommendations dealing with the botanical are regional or local and are not universal.
name of plants. International Botanical Example: Albizia amara . L belongs to
Congress is held at different places every six Mimosaceae is called as Usilai in South
years. Proposals for nomenclatural changes Tamilnadu and Thurinji in North Tamilnadu.
and changes in rules are discussed and Activity
implemented. Changes are published in their
Write common name and scientific name of
website. 10 different plants around your home.
18th International Botanical Congress
held in 2011at Melbourne, Australia made Scientific Names / Botanical Names
the following major changes. Each and every taxon as per the ICN (species,
1. The code now permits electronic genus, family etc) can have only one correct
publication of names of new taxa. scientific name. Scientific name of a species
is always a binomial. These names are
2. Latin diagnosis or description is not
universally applied. Example: Oryza sativa L.
mandatory and permits the use of English
is the scientific name of paddy.
or Latin for the publication of a new name
(Art-39). Polynomial
3. “One fungus, one name” and “one fossil Polynomial is a descriptive phrase of a plant.
one name” are important changes, the Example: Ranunculus calycibus retroflexis
concept of anamorph and teleomorph pedunculis falcatis caule erecto folius
(for fungi) and morphotaxa (for fossils) compositis. It means butter cup with reflexed
have been eliminated. (Previously, sexual sepals, curved flower stalks, erect stem and
and asexual stages of the fungus/ fossils compound leaves. Polynomial system of
were provided with different names). naming a plant is replaced by a binomial
system by Linnaeus.
Anamorph – Asexual reproductive stage Binomial
of fungus.
Binomial nomenclature was first introduced
Teleomorph – Sexual reproductive stage of by Gaspard Bauhin and it was implemented
fungus.
by Carolus Linnaeus. Scientific name of a
4. As an experiment with “registration of species consists of two words and according
names” new fungal descriptions require to binomial nomenclature, the first one is
the use of an identifier from a “recognized called genus name and second one is specific
repository”. There are two recognized epithet. Example: Mangifera indica. Mangifera
repositories Index fungorum and Myco is a genus name and indica is specific epithet.
Bank. This system is in vogue even now.
19th International Botanical Congress was Author citation
held in Shenzhen in China in 2017. Changes This refers to valid name of the taxa
accepted by International Botanical Congress accompanied by the author’s name who
are yet to be published. published the name validly. Example: Solanum
Vernacular names (Common names) nigrum L. There are two types of author
Vernacular names are known as common citation.
names. They are very often descriptive and Single author: When a single author proposed
poetic references to plants. Common name a valid name, the name of the author alone
89

is accompanied by his abbreviated name. Example:
Example: Pithecellobium cinereum Benth.
1. a) F
lowers cream-coloured; fruiting calyx
Multiple authors: When two or more authors enclosing the berry ......Physalis
are associated with a valid publication of name, b) F
lowers white or violet; fruiting calyx
their names should be noted with the help of not enclosing the berry ....2
Latin word et or &. 2. a) C
orolla rotate;
Example: Delphinium viscosum Hook. f. et fruit a berry .....Solanum
Thomson. b) C
orolla funnel-form or salver-form;
Standard form of author’s abbreviations fruit a capsule: ....3
has to be followed. 3. a) R
adical leaves present; flowers in
racemes; fruits without prickles
Standard form of ...Nicotiana
Author
Abbreviation
Linnaeus L.
b) R
adical leaves
absent; flowers solitary; fruits with
G.Bentham Benth. prickles.....Datura
William Hooker Hook.
Another type of key for identification is
Robert Brown R.Br.
the Polyclave or Multi-entry key. It consists
J.P.Lamarck Lamk.
of a list of numerous character states. The
A.P.de Candolle DC.
user selects all states that match the specimen.
Wallich Wall.
Polyclave keys are implemented by a computer
Alphonse de Candolle A. DC.
algorithm.
5.5 Taxonomic Aids
Taxonomic aids are the tools for the taxonomic 5.6 Botanical Gardens
study. Some techniques, procedures and stored In true sense all gardens are not botanical
information that are useful in identification gardens. Botanical gardens are centres
and classification of organisms are called for collection of plants in their various
taxonomical aids. They are required in stages of living. Gardens existed for
almost all branches of biological studies for growing ornamental plants for aesthetic
their proper identification and for finding value, religious and status reasons. The
their relationship with others. Some of the famous “hanging gardens” of Babylon in
taxonomical aids are keys, flora, revisions, Mesopotamia is an example. For the purpose
monograph, catalogues, herbarium, botanical of science and education the first garden was
gardens etc. maintained by Theophrastus in his public
lecture hall at Athens.
Keys First modern botanical garden was
Taxonomic keys are the tools for the established by Luca Ghini (1490-1556) a
identification of unfamiliar plants. These professor of Botany at Pisa, Italy in 1544.
keys are based on characters which are stable Botanical garden contains special plant
and reliable. The most common type of key is collections such as cacti, succulent, green
a dichotomous key. It consists of a sequence house, shade house, tropical, alpine and
of two contrasting statements. A pair of exotic plants. Worldwide there are about
contrasting statements is known as couplet. 1800 botanical gardens and arboreta.
Each statement is known as lead. The plant Role of Botanical Garden: Botanical
is correctly identified with keys by narrowing Gardens play the following important roles.
down the characters found in plant. 1. Gardens with aesthetic value which attract
90

National Botanical Gardens
AJCB
National
Indian
Botanical garden Botanical garden
Lucknow Kolkata
Established in Established in
1948 1786 by
Arboretum- Lt. Col. Robert Kyd
500 species of trees
JNTBGRI The National

Trivandrum Orchidarium
Kerala Yercaud Largest and
500 species Established in Established in oldest
of Rose hybrids 1979 1963
Conserving Maintained by 15,000
tropical plant: Southern circle species of
Genetic resources of BSI plants
p
3,000 trees and
4,000 species
1,800 shrubs
plants & Major Attraction-
Major attraction- Insectivorous plants
germ plasm
collection &
ex-situ
conservation
on Major Attraction-
300 species of The Great
Banyan Tree
plants
Major attraction-
Bambusetum
(69 species)
Figure 5.1: National Botanical Garden
91

a large number of visitors. For example, Preparation of herbarium Specimen
the Great Banyan Tree (Ficus benghalensis) Herbarium Specimen is defined as a pressed
in the Indian Botanical Garden at Kolkata. and dried plant sample that is permanently
2. Gardens have a wide range of species and glued or strapped to a sheet of paper along with
supply taxonomic material for botanical a documentation label.
research. Preparation of herbarium specimen
3. Garden is used for self-instruction or includes the following steps.
demonstration purposes. 1. Plant collection: Field collection, Liquid
4. It can integrate information of diverse preserved collection, Living collection,
fields like Anatomy, Embryology, Phyto- Collection for molecular studies.
chemistry, Cytology, Physiology and 2. Documentation of field site data
Ecology. 3. Preparation of plant specimen
5. Act as a conservation centre for diversity, 4. Mounting herbarium specimen
rare and endangered species.
5. Herbarium labels.
6. It offers annual list of available species
6. Protection of herbarium sheets against
and a free exchange of seeds.
mold and insects
7. Botanical garden gives information about
method of propagation, sale of plant Uses of Herbarium
material to the general public. 1. Herbarium provides resource material
Royal Botanic garden, Kew- England for systematic research and studies.
2. It is a place for orderly arrangement of
voucher specimens.
3. Voucher specimen serves as a reference
for comparing doubtful newly collected
fresh specimens.
4. Voucher specimens play a role in studies
like floristic diversity, environmental
Figure 5.2: Royal Botanic garden, Kew - England assessment, ecological mechanisms and
Royal Botanic garden Kew- England is a survey of unexplored areas.
non- departmental public body in the United 5. Herbarium provides opportunity for
Kingdom. It is the largest botanical garden in documenting biodiversity and studies
the world, established in 1760, but officially related to the field of ecology and
opened in the year 1841. conservation biology.
Plant collections include Aquatic garden, Kew Herbarium
Arboretum with 14,000 trees, Bonsai Kew Garden is situated in South West
collection, Cacti collection and Carnivorous London that houses the “largest and
plant collection. most diverse botanical and mycological
5.7 Herbarium – Preparation and uses collections in the world” founded in the
Herbaria are store houses of preserved plant year 1840. Living collection includes more
collections. Plants are preserved in the form than 30,000 different kinds of plants. While
of pressed and dried specimens mounted on herbarium which is one of the largest in
a sheet of paper. Herbaria act as a centre for the world has over seven million preserved
research and function as sources of material plant specimens. The library contains
for systematic work. more than 7,50,000 volumes and the
92

Preparation of herbarium Specimen
Plant Collection
Plant specimen with flower or fruit is collected
Documentation of field site data

Certain data are to be recorded at the
time of plant collection. It includes date,
time, country, state, city, specific locality
information, latitude, longitude, elevation
and land mark information. These data
will be typed onto a herbarium label.
Preparation of plant specimen

Plant specimen collected from the field
is pressed immediately with the help of
portable field plant press. plant specimen
is transferred to a standard plant press
(12” x 18”) which between two outer
12” x 18” frames and secured by two straps.
Mounting herbarium specimen

The standard size of herbarium sheet is used
for mounting the specimen (29cm x 41cm).
specimens are affixed to herbarium
sheet with standard white glue
or solution of Methyl cellulose.
Herbarium label
Herbarium label size is generally 4-5’’ wide
and 2-3’’ tall. A typical label contains all in-
formation like habit, habitat, vegetation type,
land mark information, latitude, longitude,
image document, collection number, date
of collection and name of the collector.
World’s smallest water
– lily Nymphaea
Protection of herbarium sheets against thermarum was saved
mold and insects
Apply cation of 2% Mercuric chloride, f r o m
Naphthalene, DDT, carbon disulphide. Fu- extinction when it was
migation using formaldehyde. Presently deep
grown from seed at Kew
freezing(-20oC) method is followed through-
out the world. in 2009.
93

International Herbarium
Number of
S.No Herbarium Year Established Acronym
specimens
1. Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, 1635 P ,PC 10,000,000
France
2. New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, New 1891 NY 72,00,000
York, U.S.A
3. Komarov Botanical Institute, St.Petersburg 1823 LE 71,60,000
(Leningrad), Russia
4. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, U.K 1841 K 70,00,000
National Herbarium
Number of
S.No Herbarium Year Established Acronym
specimens
1. Madras Herbarium 1955 MH 4,08,776
BSI campus, Coimbatore
2. Central National Herbarium 1795 CAL 2,00,000
West Bengal
3. Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanical 1979 TBGRI 30,500
Garden and Research Institute
Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala
4. Presidency College Herbarium, Chennai. 1844 PCM 15,000
illustrations and also a collection of more Similarly there is a vast assemblage of

than 1,75,000 prints, books, photographs, group of plants in the world. Is it possible
letters, manuscripts, periodicals, maps and to study and understand all of these? No.
botanical illustrations. Since it is difficult to study all these plants
together, it is necessary to device some
5.8 Classification of Plants
means to make this possible.
Imagine walking into a library and
looking for a Harry Potter story book. Classification is essential to biology
As you walk into the library you notice because there is a vast diversity of
that it is under renovation and all the organisms to sort out and compare.
books are scattered. Will it not be hard Unless they are organized into manageable
to find the exact book you are looking categories it will be difficult for
for? It might take hours. So you decide identification. Biological classifications are
to come the next day when all the books the inventions of biologists based upon the
are arranged according to the genres. One best evidence available. The scientific basis
rack for adventure, another for Detective, for cataloguing and retrieving information
Fantasy, Horror, Encyclopaedia and so about the tremendous diversity of flora is
on. You automatically know Harry Potter known as classification.
is in the fantasy section and it takes less Classification paves way for the
than ten minutes for you to find it. That arrangement of organisms into groups on the
is because the books have been classified basis of their similarities, dissimilarities and
and arranged according to a system. relationships. The purpose of classification
is to provide a systematic arrangement
94

Botanical Survey of India 5.10 Types of classification
Taxonomic entities are classified in three
On 13 February 1890, a survey was
ways. They are artificial classification,
formally constituted and designated
natural classification and phylogenetic
as the Botanical Survey of India. After
classification.
independence, the need was felt for a
more comprehensive documentation of 5.10.1 Artificial system of classification
the country’s plant resources to boost the
24 classes recognized by Linnaeus in his
economy. Padmashree Dr.E.K.Janaki Species Plantarum (1753) on the basis of
Ammal was appointed as officer on stamens.
special Duty on 14th Oct 1952. Then No. Classes Characters
reorganization plan was finally approved 1 Monandria stamen one
by the Govt. of India on 29 March 1954,
2 Diandria stamens two
with Calcutta as the headquarters of BSI.
Jammu Tavi Botanical Garden has been 3 Triandria stamens three
named after Dr. E. K. Janaki Ammal. 4 Tetrandria stamens four
5 Pentandria stamens five
up to 24th class flowerless plants
Cryptogamia
Carolus Linnaeus (1707 -1778) was a great
Swedish Botanist and said to be the “Father of
Taxonomy.” He outlined an artificial system
Figure 5.3: Dr. E.K. Janaki Ammal of classification in
“Species Plantarum”
expressing the relationship between the in 1753, wherein he
organisms. listed and described
Taxonomists have assigned a method of 7,300 species and
classifying organisms which are called ranks. arranged in 24
These taxonomical ranks are hierarchical. classes mostly on
the basis of number, Figure 5.4:
The scheme of classification has to be flexible, Carolus Linnaeus
allowing newly discovered living organisms union (adhesion
to be added where they fit best. and cohesion), length, and distribution of
stamens. The classes were further subdivided
5.9 Need for Classification on the basis of carpel characteristics into
• Understanding the classification of orders. Hence the system of classification
organisms can give an insight into other is also known as sexual system of
fields and has significant practical value. classification.
• Classification helps us to know about This system of classification though
different taxa, their phylogenetic artificial, was continued for more than
relationship and exact position. 100 years after the death of Linnaeus, due to
• It helps to train the students of plant its simplicity and easy way of identification
sciences with regard to the diversity of of plants.
organisms and their relationship with However the system could not hold good
other biological branches. due to the following reasons.
95

1. Totally unrelated plants were kept in a 97,205 species. In this system the seeded
single group, whereas closely related plants plants were classified into 3 major classes
were placed in widely separated groups. such as Dicotyledonae, Gymnospermae and
Example: Monocotyledonae.
a. Zingiberaceae of monocotyledons and Class I Dicotyledonae: Plants contain
Anacardiaceae of dicotyledonous were two cotyledons in their seed, leaves with
placed under the class Monandria reticulate venation, tap root system and
since these possess single stamens. tetramerous or pentamerous flowers come
b. Prunus was classified along with Cactus under this class. It includes three sub-
because of the same number of stamens. classes – Polypetalae, Gamopetalae and
Monochlamydeae.
No attempts were made to classify plants
based on either natural or phylogenetic Sub-class 1. Polypetalae: Plants with
relationships which exist among plant free petals and dichlamydeous flowers come
groups. under polypetalae. It is further divided into
three series – Thalamiflorae, Disciflorae
5.10.2 Natural system and Calyciflorae.
Botanists who came after Linnaeus realised Series (i) Thalamiflorae: Plants having
that no single character is more important flowers with dome or conical shaped
than the other characters. Accordingly an thalamus and superior ovary are included
approach to a natural system of classification in this series. It includes 6 orders and 34
sprouted in France. The first scheme of families.
classification based on overall similarities Series (ii) Disciflorae: Flowers having
was presented by Antoine Laurent de prominent disc shaped thalamus with
Jessieu in 1789. superior ovary come under this series. It
Bentham and Hooker system of includes 4 orders and 23 families.
classification Series (iii) Calyciflorae: It includes
plants having flowers with cup shaped
thalamus and with inferior or sometimes
with half inferior ovary. Calyciflorae
includes 5 orders and 27 families.
Sub-class 2. Gamopetalae: Plants with
united petals, which are either partially
or completely fused to one another
and dichlamydeous are placed under
Gamopetalae. It is further divided into
Figure 5.5: George Bentham and J.D. Hooker three series – Inferae, Heteromerae and
Bicarpellatae.
A widely followed natural system of Series (i) Inferae: The flowers are
classification considered the best was epigynous and with inferior ovary. Inferae
proposed by two English botanist George includes 3 orders and 9 families.
Bentham (1800 – 1884) and Joseph Dalton Series (ii) Heteromerae: The flowers are
Hooker (1817–1911). The classification hypogynous, superior ovary and with more
was published in a three volume work than two carpels. Heteromerae includes 3
as “Genera Plantarum” (1862–1883) orders and 12 families.
describing 202 families and 7569 genera and
96

Seed plants
Class I Class II Class III

Dicotyledonae Gymnospermae Monocotyledonae
3 families 7series and 34 families
1. Gnetaceae
2. Coniferae
3. Cycadaceae
Sub-classI Sub-class II Sub-class III

Polypetalae Gamopetalae Monochlamydeae
8 series and 36 families
Series (i) Thalamiflorae Series (i) Inferae
6 orders and 34 families 3 orders and 9 families
Series (ii) Disciflorae Series (ii) Heteromerae

4orders and 23 families 3 orders and 12 families
Series (iii) Calyciflorae Series (iii) Bicarpellatae

5orders and 27 families 4 orders and 24 families
Figure 5.6: Bentham and Hooker system of classification
Series (iii) Bicarpellatae: The flowers The Bentham and Hooker system of
are hypogynous, superior ovary and with classification is still supposed to be the best
two carpels. Bicarpellatae includes 4 orders system of classification. It has been widely
and 24 families. practiced in colonial countries and herbaria
Sub-class 3. Monochlamydeae: Plants of those countries were organised based on
with incomplete flowers either apetalous or this system and is still used as a key for the
with undifferentiated calyx and corolla are identification of plants in some herbaria of the
placed under Monochlamydeae. The sepals world due to the following reasons:
and petals are not distinguished and they are • Description of plants is quite accurate
called perianth. Sometimes both the whorls and reliable, because it is mainly based on
are absent. Monochlamydeae includes 8 series personal studies from actual specimens
and 36 families. and not mere comparisons of known facts.
Class II Gymnospermae: Plants that • As it is easy to follow, it is used as a key
contain naked seeds come under this class. for the identification of plants in several
Gymnospermae includes three families – herbaria of the world.
Gnetaceae, Coniferae and Cycadaceae. Though it is a natural system, this system
Class III Monocotyledonae: Plants was not intended to be phylogenetic.
contain only one cotyledon in their seed,
5.10.3 Phylogenetic system of classification
leaves with parallel venation, fibrous root
The publication of the Origin of Species
system and trimerous flowers come under
(1859) by Charles Darwin has given stimulus
this class. The Monocotyledonae has 7 series
for the emergence of phylogenetic system of
and 34 families.
classification.
97

I Adolph Engler and Karl A Prantl system based on a wide range
of classification of taxonomic characters
including anatomical and
phytochemical characters
of phylogenetic importance.
He has presented his
Figure 5.9:
classification in 1968 in his
Arthur Cronquist
book titled “The evolution
and classification of flowering plants.” His
Figure 5.7: Adolph Engler and Karl A Prantl classification is broadly based on the Principles
One of the earliest phylogenetic system of of phylogeny that finds acceptance with major
classification of the entire plant Kingdom was contemporary authors.
jointly proposed by two German botanists Cronquist classified the angiosperms
Adolph Engler ( 1844 -1930) and Karl A into two main classes Magnoliopsida
Prantl (1849 - 1893). They published their (=dicotyledons) and Liliopsida
classification in a monumental work “Die (= monocotyledons). There are 6 subclasses,
Naturelichen Pflanzen Familien” in 23 64 orders, 320 families and about 165,000
volumes (1887-1915) species in Magnoliopsida, whereas in
In this system of classification the plant Liliopsida there are 5 sub classes, 19 orders,
kingdom was divided into 13 divisions. The 66 families and about 50,000 species.
first 11 divisions are Thallophytes, twelfth
Cronquist system of classification also
division is Embryophyta Asiphonogama
could not persist for a long time because, the
(plants with embryos but no pollen tubes;
system is not very useful for identification
Bryophytes and Pteridophytes) and the
and cannot be adopted in herbaria due to its
thirteenth division is Embryophyta
high phylogenetic nature.
Siphonogama (plants with embryos and
pollen tubes) which includes seed plants. 5.10.4 Angiosperm phylogeny group
II Arthur Cronquist system of classification (APG) classification
Arthur Cronquist (1919 - 1992) an The most recent classification of flowering
plants based on phylogenetic data was set
eminent American taxonomist proposed
in the last decade of twentieth century. Four
phylogenetic classification of flowering plants
versions of Angiosperm Phylogenetic Group
classification (APG I, APG II, APG III &
Division: Embryophyta (Siphonogama) APG IV) have been published
in 1998, 2003, 2009 and 2016
Sub-division: Gymnospermae Sub-division: Angiospermae respectively. Each version supplants
the previous version. Recognition
of monophyletic group based
Class: Monocotyledonae Class: Dicotyledonae
(includes 11 orders 45 families) (includes 44 orders) on the information received
from various disciplines such
Archichlamydeae Metachlamydeae as gross morphology, anatomy,
(Apetalae) (Sympetalae) embryology, palynology, karyology,
(i) Corolla polypetalous (i) Corolla Gamopetalous
(ii) Perianth single or double (ii) Perianth in two whorls
phytochemistry and more strongly
(iii) Includes 33 orders 201 families (iii) Includes 11 orders 57 families on molecular data with respect to
Figure 5.8: Outline of Engler and Prantl classification DNA sequences of two chloroplast
98

Rosidae (5)
)
(6
ae
rid
te
4. Zingiberidae
As
)
a e (4
leniid 3. Commelinidae 5. Lilidae
Dil
Hamamelidae (2)
ss
c la
Magnoliidae Caryophyllidae (3) 2. Arecidae b-
(1) Su
1. Alismatidae
Sub-class
Class: Magnoliopsida Class: Liliopsida
Figure 5.10: Diagramatic representation of class Magnoliopsida and Liliopsida.

genes (atpB and rbcL) and one nuclear gene
Amborellales
ANGIOSPERMS
(nuclear ribosomal 18s DNA).
The most recent updated version, APG EARLY
Nymphaeales
IV (2016) recognised 64 orders and 416 Austrobaileyales
families. Of these, 416 families 259 are Magnoliids
represented in India. Chloranthales
The outline of APG IV classification is MONOCOTS Monocots
Family: Musaceae
given below. Liliaceae
EUDICOTS
Ceratophyllales
Angiosperms are classified into three Ranunculales
diverging
clades early angiosperms, monocots and

eudicots
Proteales
Early
eudicots. Early angiosperms are classified Torchodendrales

into 8 orders and 26 families (ANA- Buxales
clade + magnoliids + Chloranthales) Gunnerales
Amborellales Dilleniales
Saxifragales
asterids rosids
Super Super
Nymphaeales
Austrobaileyales Rosids
Family: Fabaceae
Euphorbiaceae
➢ Seeds generally always with two Berberidopsidales
cotyledons. Santalales
➢ Presence of ethereal oils. Caryophyllales
➢ Leaves are always simple net-veined. Asterids
➢ Each floral whorls with many parts. Family: Apocynaceae
Solanaceae
➢ Perianth usually spirally arranged or
Figure 5.11: Simplified version of APG IV
parts in threes. (Source: Plant Gateway's The Global Flora, Vol. I January 2018)
➢ Stamens with broad filaments.
➢ Anthers tetrasporangiate. Monocots are classified into 11 orders
➢ Pollen monosulcate. and 77 families (basal monocots + lilioids +
➢ Nectaries are rare. commelinids)
➢ Carpels usually free and ➢ Seeds with single cotyledon.
➢ Embryo very small. ➢ Primary root short-lived.
99

Families
202 303 386 462 457 413 416
Bentham and Engler and Arthur Cronquist APG I APG II APG III APG IV
Hooker 1883 Prantl1915 1981 1998 2003 2009 2016
Figure 5.12: A timeline showing the history of classifying flowering plants into families.
( Source: Royal Botanic Gardens Kew State of World's Plant 2017 )
➢ Single adaxial prophyll. Classification reflects the state of our

➢ Ethereal oils rarely present. knowledge at a given point of time. It will
➢ Mostly herbaceous, absence of vascular continue to change as we acquire new
cambium. information.
➢ Vascular bundles are scattered in the stem.
A significant number of
➢ Leaf simple with parallel-veined. major herbaria, including
➢ Floral parts usually in threes. Kew are changing the
➢ Perianth often composed of tepals. order of their collections
➢ Pollen monosulcate. in accordance with APG.
➢ Styles normally hollow and The influential world checklist of
➢ Successive microsporogenesis. selected plant families (also from kew) is
Eudicots are divided into 45 orders and 313 being updated to the APG III system.
families (early diverging eudicots + super A recent photographic survey of the
plants of USA and Canada is organized
rosids + super asterids).
according to the APG III system.
➢ Seeds with always two cotyledons.
In UK, the latest edition of the standard
➢ Nodes trilacunar with three leaf traces. flora of the British Isles written by Stace is
➢ Stomata anomocytic. based on the APG III system.
➢ Ethereal oils rarely present.
➢ Woody or herbaceous plants. 5.11 Modern trends in taxonomy
➢ Leaves simple or compound, usually net- Taxonomists now accept that, the
veined. morphological characters alone should not
➢ Flower parts mostly in twos, fours or be considered in systematic classification
fives. of plants. The complete knowledge of
➢ Microsporogenesis simultaneous. taxonomy is possible with the principles of
➢ Style solid and various disciplines like Cytology, Genetics,
➢ Pollen tricolpate. Anatomy, Physiology, Geographical
APG system is an evolving system that Distribution, Embryology, Ecology,
might undergo change periodically based on Palynology, Phenology, Bio-Chemistry,
the new sets of data from various disciplines Numerical Taxonomy and Transplant
of Botany. It is the currently accepted system Experiments. These have been found to be
across the world and followed by all the useful in solving some of the taxonomical
leading taxonomic institutions and practising problems by providing additional
taxonomists. However, it is yet to percolate characters. It has changed the face of
into the Indian botanical curriculum. classification from alpha (classical) to omega
100

(modern kind). Thus the new systematic 3. To involve any type of data gathering
has evolved into a better taxonomy. based on modern concepts and not only
5.11.1 Chemotaxonomy on morphology and anatomy.
Proteins, amino acids, nucleic acids, peptides 4. To recognize the various groups as separate
etc. are the most studied chemicals in biosystematic categories such as ecotypes,
chemotaxonomy. Chemotaxonomy is the ecospecies, cenospecies and comparium.
scientific approach of classification of plants 5.11.3 Karyotaxonomy
on the basis of their biochemical constituents. Chromosomes are the carriers of genetic
As proteins are more closely controlled by information. Increased knowledge about the
genes and less subjected to natural selection, chromosomes have been used for extensive
it has been used at all hierarchical levels biosystematic studies and resolving many
of classification starting from the rank of taxonomic problems. Utilization of the
‘variety’ up to the rank of division in plants. characters and phenomena of cytology for the
The chemical characters can be divided explanation of taxonomic problem is known
into three main categories. as cytotaxonomy or karyotaxonomy. The
1. Easily visible characters like starch characters of chromosome such as number,
grains, silica. size, morphology and behaviour during
2. Characters detected by chemical tests meiosis have proved to be of taxonomic value.
like phenolics, oil, fats, waxes. 5.11.4 Serotaxonomy (Immunotaxonomy)
3. Proteins. Systematic serology or serotaxonomy had its
Aims of chemotaxonomy origin towards the end of twentieth century
1. To develop taxonomic characters with the discovery of serological reactions and
which may improve existing system development of the discipline of immunology.
of plant classification. The classification of very similar plants by
2. To improve present day knowledge of means of differences in the proteins they
phylogeny of plants. contain, to solve taxonomic problems is
5.11.2 Biosystematics called serotaxonomy. Smith (1976) defined
Biosystematics is an “Experimental, it as “the study of the origins and properties
ecological and cytotaxonomy” through of antisera.”
which life forms are studied and their Importance of serotaxonomy
relationships are defined. The term It determines the degree of similarity between
biosystematics was introduced by Camp species, genera, families etc. by comparing the
and Gilly in 1943. Many authors feel reactions of antigens from various plant taxa
Biosystematics is closer to Cytogenetics and with antibodies raised against the antigen of
Ecology and much importance given not to a given taxon.
classification but to evolution. Example: 1. The assignment of Phaseolus
Aims of biosystematics aureus and P. mungo to the genus Vigna is
The aims of biosystematics are as follows: strongly supported by serological evidence
1. To delimit the naturally occurring biotic by Chrispeels and Gartner.
community of plant species. 5.11.5 Molecular taxonomy (molecular
2. To establish the evolution of a group of systematics / molecular phylogenetics)
taxa by understanding the evolutionary Molecular Taxonomy is the branch of
and phylogenetic trends. phylogeny that analyses hereditary molecular
101

differences, mainly in DNA sequences, to nucleotide sequence due to the action of
gain information and to establish genetic restriction enzymes.
relationship between the members of AFLP is largely used for population
different taxonomic categories. The advent of genetics studies, but has been used in studies of
DNA cloning and sequencing methods have closely related species and even in some cases,
contributed immensely to the development of for higher level cladistic analysis.
molecular taxonomy and population genetics
over the years. These modern methods Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD)
have revolutionised the field of molecular It is a method to identify genetic markers using
taxonomy and population genetics with a randomly synthesized primer that will anneal
improved analytical power and precision. (recombine (DNA) in the double stranded
The results of a molecular phylogenetic form) to complementary regions located in
analysis are expressed in the form of a tree various locations of isolated DNA. If another
called phylogenetic tree. Different molecular complementary site is present on the opposing
markers like allozymes, mitochondrial DNA, DNA strand at a distance that is not too great
microsatellites, RFLP (Restriction Fragment (within the limits of PCR) then the reaction
Length Polymorphism), RAPD (Random will amplify this region of DNA.
amplified polymorphic DNA), AFLPs RAPDs like microsatellites may often be
(Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism), used for genetic studies within species but may
single nucleotide polymorphism- (SNP), also be successfully employed in phylogenetic
microchips or arrays are used in analysis. studies to address relationships within a species
Uses of molecular taxonomy or between closely related species. However
1. Molecular taxonomy helps in establishing RAPD analysis has the major disadvantage
the relationship of different plant groups that results are difficult to replicate and in that
at DNA level. the homology of similar bands in different taxa
2. It unlocks the treasure chest of information may be nuclear.
on evolutionary history of organisms. Significance of Molecular Taxonomy
1. It helps to identify a very large number of
RFLP (Restriction Fragment Length
species of plants and animals by the use of
Polymorphism)
conserved molecular sequences.
RFLPs is a molecular method of genetic
2. Using DNA data evolutionary patterns of
analysis that allows identification of taxa
biodiversity are now investigated.
based on unique patterns of restriction
sites in specific regions of DNA. It refers 3. DNA taxonomy plays a vital role in
to differences between taxa in restriction phytogeography, which ultimately helps
sites and therefore the lengths of fragments in genome mapping and biodiversity
of DNA following cleavage with restriction conservation.
enzymes. 4. DNA- based molecular markers used for
designing DNA based molecular probes,
Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism
have also been developed under the branch
(AFLP)
of molecular systematics.
This method is similar to that of identifying
RFLPs in that a restriction enzyme is used 5.11.6 DNA Barcoding
to cut DNA into numerous smaller pieces, Have you seen how scanners are used in
each of which terminates in a characteristic supermarkets to distinguish the Universal
102

Product Code (UPC)? In the same way Classical Taxonomy Modern Taxonomy
we can also distinguish one species from Classification is Classification is based
another. DNA barcoding is a taxonomic mainly based on on morphological, re-
method that uses a very short genetic morphological productive characters
sequence from a standard part of a genome. characters and phylogenetic (evo-
lutionary) relationship
The genetic sequence used to identify a of the organism
plant is known as “DNA tags” or “DNA
This system is based This system is based
barcodes”. Paul Hebert in 2003 proposed on the observation of a on the observation of
‘DNA barcoding’ and he is considered as few samples/ large number of sam-
‘Father of barcoding’. individuals ples/individuals
The gene region that is being used as an
effective barcode in plants is present in two 5.12 Cladistics
genes of the chloroplast, matK and rbcL, and Analysis of the taxonomic
have been approved as the barcode regions data, and the types of
for plants. characters that are used in
classification have changed
Sequence of unknown species can
from time to time. Plants
be matched from submitted sequence in
have been classified based
GenBank using Blast (web-programme for
on the morphology before the advancement
searching the closely related sequence).
of microscopes, which help in the inclusions
Significance of DNA barcoding of sub microscopic and microscopic features.
1. DNA barcoding greatly helps in A closer study is necessary while classifying
identification and classification of closely related plants. Discovery of new finer
organism. molecular analytical techniques coupled with
2. It aids in mapping the extent of advanced software and computers has ushered
biodiversity. in a new era of modern or phylogenetic
classification.
DNA barcoding techniques require a
The method of classifying organisms into
large database of sequences for comparison
monophyletic group of a common ancestor
and prior knowledge of the barcoding region.
based on shared apomorphic characters
However, DNA barcoding is a helpful tool is called cladistics (from Greek, klados-
to determine the authenticity of botanical branch).
material in whole, cut or powdered form.
The outcome of a cladistic analysis is
5.11.7 D
ifferences between classical and a cladogram, a tree-shaped diagram that
modern taxonomy represent the best hypothesis of phylogenetic
relationships. Earlier generated cladograms
Classical Taxonomy Modern Taxonomy
were largely on the basis of morphological
It is called old It is called
characters, but now genetic sequencing data
systematics or Alpha Neosystematics or
(ἀ) taxonomy or Biosystematics or and computational softwares are commonly
Taxonomy Omega (Ω) taxonomy used in phylogenetic analysis.
It is pre Darwinean It is post D
arwinean Cladistic analysis
species is considered Cladistics is one of the primary methods of
Species is considered as
as dynamic entity and constructing phylogenies, or evolutionary
basic unit and is static
ever changing histories. Cladistics uses shared, derived
103

characters to group organisms into clades. Need for cladistics
These clades have atleast one shared, derived 1. Cladistics is now the most commonly
character found in their most recent common used and accepted method for creating
ancestor that is not found in other groups phylogenetic system of classifications.
hence they are considered more closely related 2. Cladistics produces a hypothesis about
to each other. These shared characters can be the relationship of organisms to predict
morphological such as, leaf, flower, fruit, seed the phylogeny
and so on; behavioural, like opening of flowers
3. Cladistics helps to elucidate mechanism
nocturnal/diurnal; molecular like, DNA or
of evolution.
protein sequence and more.
Cladistics accept only monophyletic 5.13 Selected Families of Angiosperms
groups. Paraphyletic and polyphyletic taxa Dicot Families
are occasionally considered when such taxa 5.13.1 Family: Fabaceae (Pea family)
conveniently treated as one group for practical Systematic position
purposes. Example: dicots, sterculiaceae.
Bentham and Hooker
Polyphyletic groups are rejected by cladistics. APG classification
classification
i. Monophyletic group; Taxa comprising Kingdom Plantae Kingdom Plantae
all the descendants of a common Angio-
Clade Class Dicotyledonae
ancestor. sperms
Clade Eudicots Sub-class Polypetalae
C A D B Clade Rosids Series Calyciflorae
Order Fabales Order Rosales
Family Fabaceae Family Fabaceae
General characters
Distribution: Fabaceae includes about 741
ii. Paraphyletic group; Taxon that genera and more than 20,200 species. The
includes an ancestor but not all of the members are cosmopolitan in distribution
descendants of that ancestor. but abundant in tropical and subtropical
A C B D regions.
Habit: All types of habits are represented
CB, CBD in this family. Mostly herbs (Crotalaria),
and ACB are prostrate (Indigofera enneaphylla) erect
paraphyletic (Crotalaria verrucosa), shrubs (Cajanus
group cajan), small trees (Sesbania), climbers
(Clitoria), large tree (Pongamia, Dalbergia),
iii. Polyphyletic group; Taxa that woody climber (Mucuna), hydrophyte
includes members from two different (Aeschynomene aspera)
lineages. commonly called
C A D B W X Z Y pith plant.
Root: Tap root
system, roots are
nodulated, have
tubercles containing Root nodule
104

nitrogen – fixing bacteria (Rhizobium Gynoecium: Monocarpellary, unilocular,
leguminosarum) ovary superior, with two alternating rows of
Stem: Aerial, herbaceous, woody ovules on marginal placentation. Style simple
(Dalbergia) twining or climbing (Clitoria). and bent, stigma flattened or feathery.
Leaf: Leaf simple or unifoliate Fruit: The characteristic fruit of Fabaceae
(Desmodium gangeticum) bifoliate (Zornia is a legume (Pisum sativum), sometimes
diphylla,), Trifoliate (Lablab purpureus), indehiscent and rarely a lomentum
alternate, stipulate, leaf base, pulvinate, (Desmodium). In Arachis hypogea the fruit
reticulate venation terminal leaflet modifies is geocarpic (fruits develops and matures
into a tendril in Pisum sativum. under the soil). After fertilization the stipe
Inflorescence: Raceme (Crotalaria of the ovary becomes meristematic and
verrucosa), panicle (Dalbergia latifolia) grows down into the soil. This ovary gets
axillary solitary (Clitoria ternatea) buried into the soil and develops into fruit.
Flowers: Bracteate, bracteolate, Seed: Endospermic or non-endospermic
pedicellete, complete, bisexual, pentamerous, (Pisum sativum), mostly reniform.
heterochlamydeous, zygomorphic Botanical description of Clitoria
hypogynous or sometimes perigynous. ternatea (Sangu pushpam)
Calyx: Sepals 5, green, synsepalous, more Habit: Twining climber
or less united in a tube and persistant, valvate Root: Branched tap root system having
or imbricate, odd sepal is anterior in position. nodules.
Corolla: Petals 5, apopetalous, unequal and
Stem: Aerial, weak stem and a twiner
papilionaceous, vexillary or descendingly
imbricate aestivation, all petals have claw at Leaf: Imparipinnately compound,
the base. The outer most petal is large called alternate, stipulate showing reticulate
standard petal or vexillum, Lateral 2 petals venation. Leaflets are stipellate. Petiolate
are lanceolate and curved. They are called and stipels are pulvinated.
wing petals or alae. Anterior two petals are Inflorescence: Solitary and axillary
partly fused and are called keel petals or Flower: Bracteate, bracteolate, bracteoles
carina which encloses the stamens and pistil. usually large, pedicellate, heterochlamydeous,
Androecium: Stamens 10, diadelphous, complete, bisexual, pentamerous, zygomor-
usually 9+1 (Clitoria ternatea). The odd stamen phic and hypogynous.
is posterior in position. In Aeschynomene Calyx: Sepals 5, synsepalous, green
aspera, the stamens are fused to form two showing valvate aestivation. Odd sepal is
bundles each containing five stamens (5)+(5). anterior in position.
Stamens are monadelphous and dimorphic Corolla: Petals 5, white or blue
ie. 5 stamens have longer filaments and apopetalous, irregular papilionaceous
other 5 stamens have shorter filaments thus corolla showing descendingly imbricate
the stamens are found at two levels and the aestivation.
shape of anthers also varies in (Crotalaria Androecium: Stamens 10, diadelphous
verrucosa). (5 anthers are long and lanceolate, (9)+1, nine stamens fused to form a bundle
and the other 5 anthers are short and and the tenth stamen is free. Anthers are
blunt). Anthers are dithecous, basifixed and dithecous, basifixed, introse and dechiscing
dehiscing longitudinally. by longitudinal slits.
105

Gynoecium: Monocarpellary, uni- Fruit: Legume
locular, with many ovules on mariginal Seed: Non-endospermous, reniform.
placentation, ovary superior, style simple Floral Formula:
and incurved with feathery stigma. Dt0.Dtn0.'.""."M*7+.E7.C*;+-3.I3
Standard petal
Stigma
Stamen
Style
Ovary
Calyx
Stipe
L.S of flower
Anther
Filament
Habit
Single stamen
Sepal
Standard
petal
Androecium
Wing petal
Calyx
Keel petal
Stigma
Corolla
Style
Ovule
Ovary
Locule
Stipe
Gynoecium C.S.of Ovary
Floral formula
Br.,Brl.,%, , K(5),C5,A(9)+1,G1
Floral diagram
Figure 5.13: Clitoria ternatea
106

Economic Importance
Economic Useful
Binomial Uses
importance part
Pulses Cajanus cajan (Pigeon Pea) Seeds Sources of protein and starch of our food.
Phaseolus vulgaris (French bean)
Cicer arietinum
(Chick pea / Channa /
க�ொண்டைக்கடலை)
Vigna mungo
(black gram / உளுந்து)
Vigna radiata
(green gram / பாசிப்பயறு)
Vigna unguiculata
(cow pea / தட்டைப்பயறு)
Glycine max (soya bean)
Macrotyloma uniflorum
(Horse gram / க�ொள்ளு)
Food plants Lablab purpureus (field bean) Tender Vegetable
fruits
Sesbania grandiflora (agathi) Leaves Greens
Cyamopsis tetragonoloba Tender Vegetable

(cluster bean) fruits
Oil Plants Arachis hypogea (ground nut) Seeds Oil extracted from the seeds is edible and
used for cooking.
Pongamia pinnata (pungam) Seeds Pongam oil has medicinal value and is used
in the preparation of soap.
Timber Dalbergia latifolia (rose wood) Timber Timber is used for making furniture, cabi-
Plants Pterocarpus santalinus net articles and as building materials.
(red sandalwood)
P.marsupium (வேங்கை)
Medicinal Crotalaria albida Roots Used as purgative

Plants Psoralea corylifolia Seeds Used in leprosy and leucoderma
(கார்போக அரிசி)
Glycyrrhiza glabra Roots Immuno modulater
(Licorice root / அதிமதுரம்)
Mucuna pruriens (பூனைக்காலி) Seeds Neurological remedy
Fibre Plants Crotalaria juncea Stem Used for making ropes.
(sunhemp / சணப்பை) fibres
Sesbania sesban (aegyptiaca) (Bast)
Pith Plant Aeschynomene aspera Stem pith Used for packing, handicraft and fishing
floats
Dye Plants Indigofera tinctoria (Avuri) Leaves Indigo dye obtained from leaves is used to
colour printing and in paints.
Clitoria ternatea Flowers Blue dye is obtained
and seeds
Butea monosperma Flowers Natural dye
107

Economic Useful
Binomial Uses
importance part
Ornamental Butea frondosa Entire Grown as ornamental plants.
Plants (Flame of the forest), plant
Clitoria ternatea,
Lathyrus odoratus
(Sweet pea) and
Lupinus hirsutus (Lupin)
Diabetes Remedy The seeds of Abrus

The aerial parts of Galega precatorius are used in
officinalis (Fabaceae) necklaces and rosaries,
contains Metformin but are extremely
(dimethyl biguanide). It is poisonous and can be
now reputed to be the most fatal if ingested.
widely prescribed agent in
the treatment of diabetes all
over the world.
The attractive seeds of INTERNATIONAL
YEAR OF PULSES
Adenanthera pavonina
(Family: Caesalpiniaceae) The Food and Agriculture Organization
have been used as units of (FAO) of the United Nations has been
weight for the measures of declared 2016 as the year for pulses,
gold throughout India. to make people more aware of the
nutritional value of pulses.
5.13.2 Family: Solanaceae the largest genus of the family with about
(Potato Family / Night shade 1500 species. Plants are worldwide in
family) distribution but more abundant in South
Systematic Position America.
APG system of Bentham and Hooker Habit: Mostly annual herbs, shrubs, small
classification system of classification trees (Solanum violaceum) lianas with prickles
Kingdom Plantae Kingdom Plantae
(Solanum trilobatum)
Clade Angiosperms Class Dicotyledonae Root: Branched tap root system.

Clade Eudicot Subclass Gamopetalae Stem: Herbaceous or woody; erect or
twining, or creeping; sometimes modified into
Clade Asterids Series Bicarpellatae
tubers (Solanum tuberosum) it is covered with
Clade Solanales Order Polemoniales Spines (Solanum tuberosum)
Family Solanaceae Family Solanaceae Leaves: Alternate, simple, rarely pinnately
compound (Solanum tuberosum and
General Characters Lycopersicon esculentum, exstipulate, opposite
Distribution: or sub-opposite in upper part, unicostate
Family Solanaceae includes about 88 genera reticulate venation. Yellowish verbs present in
and about 2650 species, of these Solanum is Solanum tuberosum
108

Inflorescence: Generally axillary or Stem: Stem is hollow, green and
terminal cymose (Solanum) or solitary herbaceous with strong odour.
flowers (Datura stramonium). Extra axillary Leaf: Simple, alternate, petiolate, entire
scorpiod cyme called rhiphidium (Solanum or deeply lobed, glabrous exstipulate
americanum) solitary and axillary (Datura showing unicostate reticulate venation.
and Nicotiana) umbellate cyme (Withania
Inflorescence: Solitary and axillary
somnifera).
cyme.
Flowers: Bracteate or ebracteate, pedicellate, Flower: Flowers are large, greenish white,
bisexual, heterochlamydeous, pentamerous bracteate, ebracteolate, pedicellate, complete,
actinomorphic or weakly zygomorphic due to heterochlamydeous, pentamerous, regular,
oblique position of ovary, hypogynous. actinomorphic, bisexual and hypogynous.
Calyx: Sepals 5, Synsepalous, valvate Calyx: Sepals 5, green synsepalous
persistent (Solanum americanum), often showing valvate aestivation. Calyx is
accrescent. (Physalis) mostly persistent, odd sepal is posterior in
Corolla: Petals 5, sympetalous, rotate, position.
tubular (Solanum) or bell- shaped (Atropa) or Corolla: petals 5, greenish white,
infundibuliform (Petunia) usually alternate sympetalous, plicate (folded like a fan)
with sepals; rarely bilipped and zygomorphic showing twisted aestivation, funnel shaped
(Schizanthus) usually valvate, sometimes with wide mouth and 10 lobed.
convolute (Datura). Androecium: Stamens 5, free from one
Androecium: Stamens 5, epipetalous, another, epipetalous, alternipetalous and
filaments usually unequal in length, stamens are inserted in the middle of the corolla
only 2 in Schizanthus (others 3 are reduced tube. Anthers are basifixed, dithecous, with
to staminode), Anthers dithecous, dehisce long filament, introse and longitudinally
longitudinally or poricidal. dehiscent.
Gynoecium: Ovary bicarpellary,
Gynoecium: Bicarpellary, syncarpous
syncarpous superior ovary, basically
obliquely placed, ovary superior, bilocular but
bilocular but tetralocular due to the
looks tetralocular due to the formation of false
formation of false septum. Carpels are
septa, numerous ovules in each locule on axile
obliquely placed and ovules on swollen
placentation.
axile placentation. Style simple long and
Fruit: A capsule or berry. (Datura & filiform, stigma two lobed.
Petunia, Lycopersicon esculentum, Capsicum) Fruit: Spinescent capsule opening by
Seed: Endospermous. four apical valves with persistent calyx.
Seed: Endospermous.
Botanical description of Datura metel
Floral Formula:
Habit: Large, erect and stout herb.
Dt0.Gdtn0.""".""".M *7+.E*7+.C7.I*4+
Root: Branched tap root system.
109

Leaf Stamen
Corolla
Stamen
Corolla
Calyx
Calyx
Habit Flower entire
Corolla Stigma
Sepal Anther
Style Ovule
Swollen
Epipetalous placenta
stamens
Ovary C.S. of Ovary
Calyx Corolla cut open Gynoecium
Valve
Spiny Seed
outgrowth Spiny
Persistent outgrowth
calyx
Persistent
calyx
Fruit: Spinescent Fruit - After
capsule dehiscence
Floral formula
Br.,Ebrl., , ,K(5),C(5),A5,G(2) Floral Diagram
Figure 5.14: Datura Metel

Economic importance
Economic importance of the family solanaceae
Economic
S.No. Binomial Useful part Uses
importance
1. Food plant Solanum tuberosum (potato) Underground Used as vegetables and also used
stem tubers for the production of starch.
Lycopersicon esculentum Ripened fruits Used as delicious vegetable
(tomato) and eaten raw.
Solanum melongena Tender fruits Cooked and eaten as
(brinjal) vegetable.
Capsicum annuum (bell Fruits Used as vegetables and
peppers & chilli papers) powdered chilli is the dried
C. frutescens (மிளகாய்) pulverized fruit which is used
as spice to add pungency or
piquancy and flavour to dishes.
Physalis peruviana (cape Fruit Used as delicious fruit.
gooseberry / ச�ொடக்கு
தக்காளி)
110

Economic importance of the family solanaceae
Economic
S.No. Binomial Useful part Uses
importance
2. Medicinal Atropa belladonna Roots A powerful alkaloid ‘atropine’
plant (deadly nightshade) obtained from root is used in
belladonna plasters, tinctures
etc. for relieving pain and also
for dialating pupils of eyes for
eye –testing.
Datura stramonium Leaves and roots Stramonium drug obtained
(ஊமத்தை) from the leaves and roots of
this is used to treat asthma
and whooping cough.
Solanum trilobatum Leaves, flowers Used to treat cough.
(தூதுவளை) and berries
Withania somnifera Roots Used in curing cough and
(Ashwagandha / அமுக்காரா) rheumatism.
3. Tobacco Nicotiana tabaccum Leaves are dried Used in cigarette, beedi,
(tobacco / புகையிலை) and made into hukkah, pipes as well as
tobacco. for chewing and snuffing,
alkaloids like nicotine,
nornicotine and anabasin are
present in tobacco.
4. Ornamental Cestrum diurnum Plant Grown in garden as

plants (Day Jasmine) ornamental plants for their
Cestrum nocturnum (Night aesthetic nature.
Jasmine) Nicotiana alata Do tomatoes come from a tree?
Petunia hybrida, Schizanthus
pinnatus
Solanum betaceum
(Tree tomato)
5.13.3 Family: Liliaceae

(Lily Family) Note: Liliaceae of Bentham and Hooker
included Allium, Gloriosa, Smilax,
Systematic position Asparagus, Scilla, Aloe, Dracaena etc.
Bentham and Hooker
Now under APG, it includes only Lilium
APG Classification and Tulipa. All others are placed under
Classification
different families.
Kingdom Plantae Kingdom Plantae
Clade Angiosperms Class Monocotyledons General Characters
Clade Monocots Series Coronarieae Distribution: Liliaceae are fairly large family
Order Liliales Order Liliales comprising about 15 genera and 550 species.
Family Liliaceae Family Liliaceae Members of this family are widely distributed
over most part of the world.
111

Habit: Mostly perennial herbs 12, apostamenous, opposite to the tepals,
persisting by means of a sympodial rhizome sometimes epitepalous; filaments distinct
(Polygonatum), by a bulb (Lilium) corm or connate, anthers dithecous, basifixed or
(Colchicum), shrubby or tree like (Yucca and versatile, extrose, or introse, dehiscing usually
Dracaena). Woody climbers, climbing with by vertical slit and sometimes by terminal
the help of stipular tendrils in Smilax. Trees pores; rarely synstamenous (Ruscus).
in (Xanthorrhoea), succulents (Aloe). Gynoecium: Tricarpallary, syncarpous,
Root: Adventitious and fibrous, and the odd carpel usually anterior, ovary
typically contractile. superior, trilocular, with 2 rows of numerous
Stem: Stems usually bulbous, rhizomatous ovules on axile placextation; rarely unilocular
in some, aerial, erect (Dracaena) or climbing with parietal placentation, style usually one;
(Smilax) in Ruscus the ultimate branches are stigmas 1 or 3; rarely the ovary is inferior
modified into phylloclades, In Asparagus (Haemodorum), nectar – secreting septal
stem is modified into cladodes and the leaves glands are present in the ovary.
are reduced to scales. Fruit: Fruit usually a septicidal or
loculicidal capsule or a berry as in Asparagus
Leaf: Leaves are radical (Lilium) or cauline
and Smilax.
(Dracaena), usually alternate, opposite
(Gloriosa), sometimes fleshy and hollow, Botanical description of Allium cepa
reduced to scales (Ruscus and Asparagus). The (In APG classification, Allium cepa is placed
venation is parallel but in species of Smilax it is under the family Amaryllidaceae)
reticulate. Leaves are usually exstipulate, but in Habit: Perennial herb with bulb.
Smilax, two tendrils arise from the base of the Root: Fibrous adventitious root system
leaf, which are considered modified stipules. Stem: Underground bulb
Inflorescence: Flowers are usually borne Leaf: A cluster of radical leaves emerges
in simple or branched racemes (Asphodelus) from the underground bulb, cylindrical and
spikes in Aloe, huge terminal panicle in Yucca, fleshy having sheathy leaf bases with parallel
solitary and axillary in Gloriosa, solitary and venation.
terminal in Tulipa.
Inflorescence: Scapigerous i.e. the
Flowers: Flowers are often showy, inflorescence axis (peduncle) arising from
pedicellate, bracteate, ebracteolate,
the ground bearing a cluster of flowers at
except Dianella and Lilium, bisexual,
its apex. Pedicels are of equal length, arising
actinomorphic, trimerous, hypogynous,
from the apex of the peduncle which brings
rarely unisexual (Smilax) and are dioecious,
all flowers at the same level.
rarely tetramerous (Maianthemum), slightly
Flower: Small, white, bracteate,
zygomorphic (Lilium) and hypogynous.
ebracteolate, pedicellate, complete, trimerous,
Perianth: Tepals 6 biseriate arranged in
actinomorphic and hypogynous. Flowers are
two whorls of 3 each, apotepalous or rarely
protandrous.
syntepalous as in Aloe. Usually petaloid or
sometimes sepaloid, odd tepal of the outer whorl Perianth: Tepals 6, white, arranged in two
is anterior in position, valvate or imbricate, whorls of three each, syntepalous showing
tepals more than six in Paris quadrifolia. valvate aestivation.
Androecium: Stamens 6, arranged Androecium: Stamens 6, arranged
in 2 whorls of 3 each, rarely stamens are in two whorls of three each, epitepalous,
3 (Ruscus), 4 in Maianthemum, or up to apostamenous /free and opposite to tepals.
112

Anthers dithecous, basifixed, introse, and Fruit: A loculicidal capsule.
dehiscing longitudinally. Seed: Endospermous
Gynoecium: Tricarpellary and Floral Formula:
syncarpous. Ovary superior, trilocular with
Br.,Ebrl., , ,P(3+3) A 3+3,G(3)
two ovules in each locule on axile placentation.
Style simple, slender with simple stigma.
Inflorescence
Pedicel
Bract
Flower
Peduncle
Cylindrical fleshy leaf Bract

Peduncle
Inflorescence
Epitepalous stamen
Filament
Ovary
Perianth
Bulbose
stem Pedicel
Habit Flower entire
Stigma
Style Locule
Anther
Ovule
Stigma Ovary
Style
Ovary Carpel
Pedicel
L.s of flower Gynoecium C.S. of ovary
Floral formula
Br.,Ebrl., , ,P(3+3) A3+3,G(3)
Floral diagram
Figure 5.15: Allium cepa
113

Economic importance of the family Liliaceae
S.No Economic Binomial Useful part Uses
importance
1 Food plant Allium cepa Bulbs Used as vegetable, stimulative,
diuretic, expectorant with
bactericidal properties.
Allium sativum Bulbs Used as condiment and also
good for heart.
Asparagus officinalis Fleshy shoots Used as vegetables.
2. Medicinal plant Aloe vera Leaves Gelatinous glycoside called aloin
from succulent leaves are used
in soothing lotions, piles and
inflammations, hemorrhoidal
salves and shampoos.
Asparagus racemosus Roots Medicinal oil is prepared from
the root is used for nervous and
rheumatic complaints and also
in skin diseases.
Colchichum luteum Roots Used in the treatment of gout
and rheumatism.
Gloriosa superba Tubers Tubers helpful in promoting
labour pains in women.
3. Fibre yielding Phormium tenax Fibre Used for cordage, fishing net,
plant mattings, twines.
4. Raticides Urginea indica Bulbs Used for killing rats.
Insecticides Veratrum album Bulbs Used as insecticide.
5. Polyploidy Colchicum luteum Corm Colchicine (alkaloid) used to
induce polyploidy.
6. Ornamental Agapanthus africanus Plant Some of the well known garden
plants (African Lily) ornamentals.
Gloriosa superba Can you identify this?
(Malabar glory lily) a. Name the family.
Lilium giganteum b. Write the binomial.
c. List the economic uses.
Ruscus aculeatus
(Butchers Broom)
Yucca alcifolia and
Y.gloriosa
114

In Yucca the cross-pollination is carried out by special moth,
Pronuba yuccasella. Fully opened flowers emit perfumes and
are visited by the female moth, especially during nights. This
moth collects a lot of pollen grains from one flower and visits
another flower. Life history of this moth is intimately associated with the
pollination mechanism in Yucca.
State Flower of Tamil Nadu biological and phylogenetic

Gloriosa superba species. Taxonomic aids are the
tools for the taxonomic study
such as keys, flora, revisions,
catalogues, botanical gardens
Anthers extrose and herbaria. Botanical gardens
and versatile.
A scrambling or serve different purposes. They
climbing plant.
have aesthetic value, offers
scope for botanical research,
conservation of rare species
leaves subopposite, the
leaf tip is modified into
and propagation of many
tendril. species. Botanical survey of
The flower petals, wavy on
the edges, greenish yellow India explores and documents
when bloom, turn flame red biodiversity all over India.
at the tips when matures
It has 11 regional centres in
India. Herbarium preparation
The plant contain the
alkaloid colchicine. It
includes plant collection,
is widely used as an documentation of field data,
experimental tool
in the study of cell
preparation of plant specimens,
division. mounting and labelling.
There are several national and
Petals have wavy edges international herbaria. National
and are strongly turned
Fruit is a fleshy capsule. backwards. herbaria include MH, PCM,
CAL etc. Kew herbarium is the
The name of Gloriosa superba is composed of two greek words world’s largest one.
Gloriosa means full of glor y, superba means superb. Classification is the
This plant was placed earlier in Liliaceae. basis for cataloguing and
retrieving information about
Summary the tremendous diversity of flora. It helps us to
Taxonomy deals with the identification, know about different varieties, their phylogenetic
naming and classification of plants. But systematics relationship and exact position. Some important
deals with evolutionary relationship between the systems of classification are fall in to three
organisms in addition to taxonomy. Taxonomic types; artificial, natural and phylogenetic.
hierarchy was introduced by Carolus Linnaeus. Carolus Linnaeus outlined an artificial system
It also includes ranks. Species is the fundamental of classification in “Species Plantarum” in 1753.
unit of taxonomic classification. Species concept The first scheme of classification based on overall
can be classified into two groups based on the similarities was presented by Antoine Laurent De
process of evolution and product of evolution. Jessieu in 1789. A widely followed natural system
There are three types of species, morphological, of classification was proposed by George Bentham
115

(1800 - 1884) and Joseph Dalton Hooker. This Evaluation
system was not intended to be phylogenetic. One 1. P h y l o g e n e t i c
of the earliest phylogenetic systems of classification
classification is
was jointly proposed by Adolf Engler and Karl A
the most favoured
Prantl in a monumental work “Die Naturelichen
classification because
Pflanzen Familien”. Arthur Cronquist proposed
phylogenetic classification of flowering plants it reflects
based on a wide range of taxonomic characters a. Comparative Anatomy
including anatomical and phytochemical of b. Number of flowers produced
phylogenetic importance in his book titled “The c. Comparative cytology
evolution and classification of flowering plants.” d. Evolutionary relationships
Angiosperm phylogeny group (APG) classification 2. The taxonomy which involves the
is the most recent classification of flowering plants similarities and dissimilarities among
based on phylogenetic data. APG system is an the immune system of different taxa is
evolving and currently accepted system across the termed as
world and followed by all the leading taxonomic
a. Chemotaxonomy
institutions and practising taxonomists.
Cladistics is the methodology, used to classify b. Molecular systematics
organisms into monophyletic groups, consisting c. Serotaxonomy
of all the descents of the common ancestors. The d. Numerical taxonomy
outcome of a cladistic analysis is a cladogram and 3. Which of the following is a flowering
is constructed to represent the best hypothesis of plant with nodules containing
phylogenetic relationships. Chemotaxonomy is filamentous nitrogen fixing micro -
the scientific approach of classification of plants on organisms?
the basis of their biochemical constituents in them.
a. Crotalaria juncea
Utilization of the characters of chromosome for the
taxonomic inference is known as karyotaxonomy. b. Cycas revoluta
The application of serology in solving taxonomic c. Cicer arietinum
problems is called serotaxonomy. Molecular d. Casuarina equisetifolia
Taxonomy is the branch of phylogeny that 4. Flowers are zygomorphic in
analyses hereditary molecular differences, mainly a. Ceropegia b. Thevetia
in DNA nuclear and chloroplast sequences, to gain
c. Datura d. Solanum
information and to establish genetic relationship
between the members of different taxonomic 5. What is the role of national gardens in
categories. Different molecular markers like conserving biodiversity – discuss
allozymes, mitochondrial DNA, microsatellites, 6. Where will you place the plants which
RAPDs, AFLPs, single nucleotide polymorphism- contain two cotyledons with cup shaped
(SNP), microchips or arrays are used in analysis. thalamus?
Molecular Taxonomy unlocks the treasure
7. Give the floral characters of Clitoria
chest of information on evolutionary history of
ternatea.
organisms. It plays a vital role in phytogeography,
which ultimately helps in genome mapping and 8. How will you distinguish Solanaceae
biodiversity conservation. DNA barcoding is a members from Liliaceae members?
taxonomic method that uses a very short genetic
sequence from a standard part of a genome. It
helps in identification of organisms.
116

ICT Corner
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Look inside the Flower.
Steps

• Select biology and select Character of flower
• Click theory to know the basic about Character of flower
Activity
• Select simulation and dissect the different flowers
• Record your observations
Step 2
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117

Unit III: Cell biology and
Biomolecules
Chapter
6 Cell: The Unit of Life
structural units but unable to explain what

Learning Objectives it was. In 1660’s Robert Hooke observed
The learner will be able to, something which looks like ‘honeycomb with
a great numbers of little boxes’ which was later
• Understand the ideas of cell theory
called as ‘cell’ from the cork tissue. In 1665,
and the different concepts associated
He compiled his work as Micrographia.
with it
Later, Anton Van Leeuwenhoek observed
• Recognize the basic structure of cell unicellular particles which he named as
and differentiate the cells of animals, ‘animalcules’. Robert Brown (1831-39)
plants, bacteria and viruses described the spherical body in plant cell as
• Explain the structure and functions nucleus. H. J. Dutrochet (1824), a French
of cell organelles including nucleus scientist, was the first to give an idea on cell
• Recognize the structure of theory. Later, Matthias Schleiden (German
chromosome and its types Botanist) and Theodor Schwann (German
Zoologist) (1833) outlined the basic features
Chapter Outline of the cell theory. Rudolf Virchow (1858)
6.1. Discovery explained the cell theory by adding a
6.2. Microscopy feature stating that all living cells arise from
pre-existing living cells by ‘cell division’.
6.3. Cell theory
6.4. Types of Cell Scientist
6.5. Plant and Animal cell
6.6. Cell organelles
6.7. Nucleus
6.8. Flagella
The word ‘cell’ comes from the Latin word Aristotle Robert Hooke Antonie von
‘Celle” which means ‘a small compartment’. (384–322BC) (1635–1703) Leeuwenhoek
(1632–1723)
The word cell was first used by Robert
Hooke (1662) therefore the term ‘cell’ is as
old as 300 years.
6.1. Discovery
Aristotle (384-322BC), was the Schleiden (1804–1881) & Rudolf Virchow
Schwann (1810–1882) (1821–1902)
one who first recognised that
animals and plants consists of organised Figure 6.1
118

6.2. Microscopy
Resolution: The term resolving
Microscope is an inevitable instrument in
power or resolution refers to the
studying the cell and subcellular structures. It ability of lenses to show the details
offers scope in studying microscopic organisms of object lying between two points. It
therefore it is named as microscope (mikros – is the finest detail available from an
small; skipein – to see) in Greek terminology. object. It can be calculated using the
Compound microscope was invented by following formula.
0.61λ
Z. Jansen. Resolution =
Microscope basically works on the NA
lens system and its properties of light and Where, λ= wavelength of the light and
NA is the numerical aperture.
lens such as reflection, magnification and
numerical aperture. The common light Numerical Aperture: It is an important
optical constant associated with the
microscope which has many lenses are called optical lens denoting the ability to resolve.
as compound microscope. The microscope Higher the NA value greater will be the
transmits visible light from sources to eye or resolving power of the microscope.
camera through sample. Magnification: The optical
increase in size of an image is called
6.2.1 Bright field Microscope magnification. It is calculated by the
Bright field microscope is the routinely used following formula
microscope in studying various aspects of Magnification =
cells. It allows light to pass directly through size of image seen with the microscope
specimen and shows a well distinguished size of the image seen with normal eye
image from different portions of the
specimen. The contrast can be increased
magnification of the microscope is obtained
by staining the specimen with reagent that
through eye piece lens called as secondary
reacts with cells and tissue components of
magnification and it is virtual and inverted
the object.
image (Figure 6.2 a, b and c).
The light rays are focused by condenser
on to the specimen on a microslide placed 6.2.2 Electron Microscope
upon the adjustable platform called stage. Electron Microscope was first introduced
Light comes from the Compact Flourescent by Ernest Ruska (1931) and developed
Lamp (CFL) or Light Emitting Diode (LED). by G Binning and H Roher (1981). It is
Then it passes through two lens systems used to analyse the fine details of cell and
namely objective lens (closer to the object) organelles called ultrastructure. It uses
and the eye piece (closer to eye). There are beam of accelerated electrons as source of
four objective lenses (5X, 10X, 45X and illumination and therefore the resolving
100X) which can be rotated and fixed at power is 1,00,000 times greater than that of
certain point to get required magnification. light microscope.
It works on the principle of numerical The specimen to be viewed under
aperture value and its own resolving power. electron microscope is dehydrated and
The first magnification of the impregnated with electron opaque
microscope is done by the objective lens chemicals like gold or palladium. This is
which is called primary magnification essential for withstanding electrons and
and it is real, inverted image. The second also for contrast of the image.
119

Eye
Eye Lens
Initial image
Fi
Objective Lens
na
lI
m
ag
Object
e
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 6.2: a. Light microscope; b. Ray diagram - light path; c. Image taken using light microscope;
There are two kinds of electron mycoplasma, cellular organelles, etc (Figure
microscopes namely: 6.3 a and b).
1. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) 2. Scanning Electron Microscope:
2. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
This is used to obtain three dimensional
1. Transmission electron microscope: image and has a lower resolving power than
This is the most commonly used electron TEM. In this, electrons are focused by means
microscope which provides two dimensional of lenses into a very fine point. The interaction
image. The components of the microscope of electrons with the specimen results in the
are as follows: release of different forms of radiation (such
a. Electron generating system as auger electrons, secondary electrons, back
b. Electron condensor scattered electrons) from the surface of the
c. Specimen objective specimen. These radiations are then captured
d. Tube lens by an appropriate detector, amplified and
e. Projector then imaged on fluorescent screen. The
A beam of electron passes through the magnification is 2,00,000 times and resolution
specimen to form an image on fluorescent is 5–20 nm (Figure 6.4 a and b).
screen. The magnification is 1–3 lakhs times
and resolving power is 2–10 Å. It is used
for studying detailed structrue of viruses,
(a) (b)
Figure 6.4: a. Scanning electron
microscope; b. Image of SEM
6.3. Cell Theory
In 1833, German botanist Matthias
Schleiden and German zoologist Theodor
(a) (b) Schwann proposed that all plants and
Figure 6.3: a. Transmission electron animals are composed of cells and that cells
microscope; b. Image of TEM were the basic building blocks of life.
120

Microscopic measurements:
The microscope also has facility
to measure microscopic objects 0 10 20 30 40 50
through a technique called

‘micrometry’. There are two scales
involved for measuring. (a)
1. Ocular Micrometre
2. Stage Micrometre
Ocular Micrometre: It is fixed inside the eye piece lens.
It is a thin transparent glass disc where there are lines
divided into 100 equal units. The scale has no value.
Stage Micrometre:This is a slide with a line divided (b)
Figure 6.5: a. Ocular micrometre;
into 100 units. The line is about 10mm. The distance
b. Stage micrometre
between two adjacent lines is 10 µm. The known
value of the stage micrometre is transferred to the ocular micrometre, thereby the
measurement can be made using ocular micrometre.
The distance between two adjacent line of ocular meter= Number of stage divisions × 10
Number of ocular divisions
These observations led to the formulation Max Schultze (1861) established

of modern cell theory. similarity between Protoplasm and Sarcode
• All organisms are made up of cells. and proposed a theory which later on called
• New cells are formed by the division of “Protoplasm Theory” by O. Hertwig
pre-existing cells. (1892). Huxley (1868) proposed Protoplasm
• Cells contains genetic material, which is as a “physical basis of life”.
passed on from parents to daughter cells. Protoplasm as a Colloidal System
• All metabolic reactions take place Protoplasm is a complex colloidal system which
inside the cells. was suggested by Fisher in 1894 and Hardy in
6.3.1 Exception to Cell Theory 1899. It is primarily made of water and various
Viruses are puzzle in biology. Viruses, other solutes of biological importance such
viroids and prions are the exception to cell as glucose, fatty acids, amino acids, minerals,
theory. They lack protoplasm, the essential vitamins, hormones and enzymes.
part of the cell and exists as obligate parasites These solutes may be homogeneous
which are sub-cellular in nature. (soluble in water) or heterogeneous mass
6.3.2 Protoplasm Theory (insoluble in water) which forms the basis
for its colloidal nature.
Corti first observed protoplasm. Felix
Dujardin (1835) observed a living juice in Physical Properties of Protoplasm
animal cell and called it “Sarcode”. Purkinje The protoplasm exists either in semisolid
(1839) coined the term protoplasm for sap (jelly-like) state called ‘gel᾿ due to suspended
inside a plant cell. Hugo Van Mohl (1846) particles and various chemical bonds or
indicated importance of protoplasm. may be liquid state called ‘sol᾿.The colloidal
121

protoplasm which is in gel form can change forces, such as Van der Waal’s bonds, that
into sol form by solation and the sol can hold long chains of molecules together.
change into gel by gelation. These gel-sol This property varies with the strength of
conditions of colloidal system are prime basis these forces.
for mechanical behaviour of cytoplasm. 8. Contractility: The contractility of proto
1. Protoplasm is translucent, odourless and plasm is important for the absorption and
polyphasic fluid. removal of water especially for stomatal
2. It is a crystal colloid solution which is a operations.
mixture of chemical substances forming 9. Surface tension: The proteins and lipids of
crystalloid i.e. true solution (sugars, salts, the protoplasm have less surface tension,
acids, bases) and others forming colloidal hence they are found at the surface forming
solution (Proteins and lipids) the membrane. On the other hand the
3. It is the most important property of the chemical substances (NaCl) have high
protoplasm by which it exhibits three main surface tension, so they occur in deeper
phenomena namely Brownian movement, parts of the protoplasm.
amoeboid movement and cytoplasmic
6.3.3 Cell sizes and shapes
streaming or cyclosis. Viscosity of
Cell greatly vary in size, shape and also in
protoplasm is 2–20 centipoises. The
function. Group of cells with similar structures
Refractive index of the protoplasm is 1.4.
are called tissue they integrate together to
4. The pH of the protoplasm is around 6.8,
perform similar function, group of tissue
contain 90% water (10% in dormant seeds)
join together to perform similar function
5. Approximately 34 elements are present
called organ, group of organs with related
in protoplasm but only 13 elements are
function called organ system, organ system
main or universal elements i.e. C, H, O, N,
coordinating together to form an organism.
Cl, Ca, P, Na, K, S, Mg, I and Fe. Carbon,
Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen form the Shape
96% of protoplasm. The shape of cell vary greatly from organism
6. Protoplasm is neither a good nor a to organism and within the organism itself. In
bad conductor of electricity. It forms a bacteria, cell shape vary from round (cocci)
delimiting membrane in contact with to rectangular (rod). In virus, shape of the
water and solidifies when heated. envelope varies from round to hexagonal or
7. Cohesiveness: Particles or molecules of ‘T’ shaped. In fungi, globular to elongated
protoplasm are adhered with each other by cylindrical cells and the spores of fungi vary
1 cm = 1/100 metre
1 mm = 1/1000 metre =1/10 cm
1 µm = 1/1000,000 metre = 1/10,000 cm
1 nm = 1/1,000,000,000 metre = 1/10,000,000 cm
1 Aº = 1/10,000,000,000 metre =1/100,000,000 cm
or
1 m = 102cm = 103mm = 106µm = 109nm = 1010 Aº
m = metre cm = centimetre mm = millimetre µm = micrometre
nm = nanometre Aº =Angstrom
122

Size:
Mycoplasma RBC Plant cell
0.15 - 0.3 µm 7 -8 µm 10 - 100 µm
Ostrich Egg
Chicken Egg 50 - 150 mm
65mm
Virus Bacteria BGA

0.004 - 0.1 µm 0.5 - 5 µm 1 -60 µm
Ultra microscope Light microscope Naked Eye

Figure 6.6: Cell size variation of few organisms
greatly in shape. In plants and animals cells these are organisms intermediate between
vary in shape according to cell types such as pro and eukaryotes. These contains well
parenchyma, mesophyll, palisade, tracheid, organized nucleus with nuclear membrane
fiber, epithelium and others (Figure 6.6). and the DNA is organized into chromosomes
but without histone protein components
6.4. Types of cells
divides through amitosis similar with
On the basis of the cellular organization and prokaryotes. Certain Protozoa like
the nuclear characteristics, the cell can be Noctiluca, some phytoplanktons like
classified into Gymnodinium, Peridinium and Dinoflagellates
• Prokaryotes are representatives of mesokaryotes.
• Mesokaryotes and
• Eukaryotes 6.4.3 Eukaryotes
6.4.1 Prokaryotes Those organisms which have true nucleus
are called Eukaryotes (Eu – True; karyon –
Those organisms with primitive nucleus are
nucleus). The DNA is associated with histones
called as prokaryotes (pro – primitive; karyon
forming the chromosomes. Membrane bound
– nucleus). The DNA lies in the ‘nucleoid’
organelles are present. Few organelles may
which is not bound by the nuclear membrane have risen by endosymbiosis which is a cell
and therefore it is not a true nucleus and is living inside another cell. The Organelles like
also a primitive type of nuclear material. The mitochondria and chloroplast well support
DNA is without histone proteins. Example: this theory.
Bacteria, blue green algae, Mycoplasma,
Origin of Eukaryotic cell:
Rickettsiae and Spirochaetae.
6.4.2 Mesokaryotes Endosymbiont theory: Two eukaryotic
organelles believed to be the descendants
In the year 1966, scientist Dodge and his
of the endosymbiotic prokaryotes. The
coworkers proposed another kind of organisms
ancestors of the eukaryotic cell engulfed
called mesokaryotes. These organisms a bacterium and the bacteria continued
which shares some of the characters of both to function inside the host cell.
prokaryotes and eukaryotes. In other words
123

Comparison between types of cellular organisation
Features Prokaryotes Mesokaryotes Eukaryotes
Size of the cell ~1-5µm ~5-10µm ~10-100µm
Nuclear character Nucleoid, no true Nucleus with nuclear True nucleus with
nucleus, membrane nuclear membrane
DNA Usually circular Usually linear but Usually linear with
without histone without histone histone proteins
proteins proteins
RNA/Protein Couples in Similar with RNA synthesis inside
synthesis cytoplasm eukaryotes nucleus/ Protein
synthesis in cytoplasm
Ribosomes 50S+ 30S 60S + 40S 60S + 40S
Organelles Absent Present Numerous
Cell movement Flagella Gliding and flagella Flagella and cilia
Organization Usually single cell Single and colony Single, colonial and
multicellular
Cell division Binary fission Binary fission Mitosis and meiosis
Examples Bacteria and Dinoflagellate, Fungi, plants and
Archaea Protozoa animals
6.5. Plant and Animal cell Plant cell

6.5.1 Ultra Structure of an Eukaryotic Cell A typical plant cell has prominent
An eukaryotic cell is highly distinct in its cell wall, a large central vacuole and plastids
organisation. It shows several variations in in addition to other organelles present in
different organisms. For instance, eukaryotic cells animal cell (Figure 6.8).
in plants and animals vary greatly (Figure 6.7).
Figure 6.7: Animal and Plant cell

Figure 6.8: Ultra Structure of Plant Cell
Animal Cell
6.5.2 Protoplasm
Animal cells are surrounded by cell membrane
Protoplasm is the living content of cell that
or plasma membrane. Inside this membrane
is surrounded by plasma membrane. It is a
a gelatinous matrix called protoplasm is
colourless material that exists throughout
seen to contain nucleus and other organelles
the cell together with cytoplasm, nucleus and
which include the endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria, golgi bodies, centrioles, other organelles. Protoplasm is composed
lysosomes, ribosomes and cytoskeleton. of a mixture of small particles, such as
124

Difference between plant and animal cells
S. No Plant cell Animal Cell
1 Usually they are larger than animal cells Usually smaller than plant cells
2 Cell wall present in addition to plasma Cell wall absent
membrane and consists of middle
lamellae, primary and secondary walls
3 Plasmodesmata present Plasmodesmata absent
4 Chloroplast present Chloroplast absent
5 Vacuole large and permanent Vacuole small and temporary
6 Tonoplast present around vacuole Tonoplast absent
7 Centrioles absent except motile cells of Centrioles present
lower plants
8 Nucleus present along the periphery of Nucleus at the centre of the cell
the cell
9 Lysosomes are rare Lysosomes present
10 Storage material is starch grains Storage material is a glycogen granules
ions, amino acids, monosaccharides, water, up of different complex material in various

macromolecules like nucleic acids, proteins, organism. In bacteria it is composed of
lipids and polysaccharides. It appears peptidoglycan, in fungi chitin and fungal
colourless, jelly like gelatinous, viscous cellulose, in algae cellulose, galactans and
elastic and granular. It appears foamy due mannans. In plants it is made up of cellulose,
to the presence of large number of vacuoles. hemicellulose, pectin, lignin, cutin, suberin
It responds to the stimuli like heat, electric and silica.
shock, chemicals and so on. In plant, cell wall shows three distinct
regions (a) Primary wall (b) Secondary wall
(c) Middle lamellae (Figure 6.10).
a. Primary wall
It is the first layer inner to middle lamella,
primarily consisting of loose network of
cellulose microfibrils in a gel matrix. It is
thin, elastic and extensible.In most plants the
microfibrils are made up of cellulose oriented
differently based on shape and thickness
of the wall. The matrix of the primary
Figure 6.9: Cell structure and components wall is composed of hemicellulose, pectin,
6.5.3 Cell Wall glycoprotein and water. Hemicellulose binds
Cell wall is the outermost protective cover the microfibrils with matrix and glycoproteins
of the cell. It is present in bacteria, fungi control the orientation of microfibrils while
and plants whereas it is absent in animal pectin serves as filling material of the matrix.
cell. It was first observed by Robert Hooke. Cells such as parenchyma and meristems
It is an actively growing portion. It is made have only primary wall.
125

b. Secondary wall Functions of cell wall
Secondary wall is laid during maturation of The cell wall plays a vital role in holding
the cell. It plays a key role in determining the several important functions given below
shape of a cell. It is thick, inelastic and is made 1. Offers definite shape and rigidity to the
up of cellulose and lignin. The secondary cell.
wall is divided into three sublayers termed as 2. Serves as barrier for several molecules to
S1, S2 and S3 where the cellulose microfibrils enter the cells.
are compactly arranged with different 3. Provides protection to the internal
orientation forming a laminated structure protoplasm against mechanical injury.
and the cell wall strength is increased. 4. Prevents the bursting of cells by
c. Middle lamellae maintaining the osmotic pressure.
It is the outermost layer made up of calcium 5. Plays a major role by acting as a
and magnesium pectate, deposited at the mechanism of defense for the cells.
time of cytokinesis. It is a thin amorphous 6.5.4 Cell Membrane
layer which cements two adjacent cells. It is The cell membrane is also called cell surface
optically inactive (isotropic). (or) plasma membrane. It is a thin structure
Plasmodesmata and Pits which holds the cytoplasmic content called
Plasmodesmata act as a channel between the ‘cytosol’. It is extremely thin (less than 10nm).
protoplasm of adjacent cells through which
many substances pass through. Moreover,
at few regions, the secondary wall layer is
laid unevenly whereas the primary wall and
middle lamellae are laid continuously such
regions are called pits. The Pits of adjacent
cells are opposite to each other. Each pit has
a pit chamber and a pit membrane. The pit
membrane has many minute pores and thus
they are permeable. The pits are of two types
namely simple and bordered pit. Figure 6.11: Model of Cell membrane
Middle lamella
Primary wall
Middle lamella
Secondary wall
S1
Primary wall S2
Secondary
S3
S1
wall
S2
S3
Cell Lumen
Cell Lumen
T.S. of a Plant cell (details of cell wall) Portion enlarged with adjacent cells
Figure 6.10: Plant cell wall
126

Fluid Mosaic Model Function of Cell Membrane
Jonathan Singer and Garth Nicolson The functions of the cell membrane is
(1972) proposed fluid mosaic model. enormous which includes cell signalling,
transporting nutrients and water, preventing
It is made up of lipids and proteins
unwanted substances entering into the cell,
together with a little amount of carbohydrate. and so on.
The lipid membrane is made up of
phospholipid. The phospholipid molecule Cytoplasm
has a hydrophobic tail and hydrophilic Cytoplasm is the main arena of various activities
head. The hydrophobic tail repels water and of a cell. It is the semifluid gelatinous substance
hydrophilic head attracts water. The proteins that fills the cell. It is made up of eighty percent
water and is usually clear and colourless. The
of the membrane are globular proteins which
cytoplasm is sometimes described as non
are found intermingled between the lipid
nuclear content of protoplasm. The cytoplasm
bilayer most of which are projecting beyond serves as a molecular soup where all the
the lipid bilayer. These proteins are called cellular organelles are suspended and bound
as integral proteins. Few are superficially together by a lipid bilayer plasma membrane. It
attached on either surface of the lipid bilayer constitutes dissolved nutrients, numerous salts
which are called as peripheral proteins. and acids to dissolve waste products. It is a very
The proteins are involved in transport of good conductor of electricity. It gives support
molecules across the membranes and also and protection to the cell organelles. It helps
act as enzymes, receptors (or) antigens. movement of the cellular materials around
the cell through a process called cytoplasmic
Water-loving polar streaming. Further, most cellular activities
molecule are called such as many metabolic pathways including
hydrophilic molecule. glycolysis and cell division occur in cytoplasm.
They have polar 6.6 Cell Organelles
phosphate group responsible for
attracting water. 6.6.1 Endomembrane System
System of membranes in a eukaryotic cell,
Water hating non-polar molecule are
comprises the plasma membrane, nuclear
called as hydrophobic molecule. They
membrane, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi
have fatty acid which is non-polar which
apparatus, lysosomes and vacuolar membranes
cannot attract water
(tonoplast). Endomembranes are made up of
phospholipids with embedded proteins that
Carbohydrate molecules of cell membrane
are similar to cell membrane which occur
are short chain polysaccharides. These are either within the cytoplasm. The endomembrane
bound with ‘glycoproteins’ or ‘glycolipids’ system is evolved from the inward growth
and form a ‘glyocalyx’ (Figure 6.11). of cell membrane in the ancestors of the first
The movement of membrane lipids from one eukaryotes (Figure 6.12).
side of the membrane to the other side by
vertical movement is called flip flopping or 6.6.2 Endoplasmic Reticulum
flip flop movement. This movement takes The largest of the internal membranes is called
place more slowly than lateral diffusion of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The name
lipid molecule. The Phospholipids can have endoplasmic reticulum was given by K.R.
flip flop movement because they have smaller Porter (1948). It consists of double membrane.
polar regions, whereas the proteins cannot flip Morphologically the structure of endoplasmic
flop because the polar region is extensive. reticulum consists of the following:
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1. Cisternae are long, broad, flat, sac like dictyosomes. Golgi apparatus is a stack of
structures arranged in parallel bundles or flat membrane enclosed sacs. It consist of
stacks to form lamella. The space between cisternae, tubules, vesicles and golgi vacuoles.
membranes of cisternae is filled with fluid. In plants, the cisternae are 10-20 in number
2. Vesicles are oval membrane bound placed in piles separated from each other by
vacuolar structure. a thin layer of inter cisternal cytoplasm often
3. Tubules are irregular in shape, branched, flat or curved. Peripheral edge of cisternae
smooth walled, enclose a space forms a network of tubules and vesicles.
Tubules interconnect cisternae and are
30-50nm in dimension. Vesicles are large
round or concave sac. They are pinched
off from the tubules.They are smooth/
secretary or coated type. Golgi vacuoles
are large spherical structures filled with
granular or amorphous substance, some
function like lysosomes. Golgi apparatus
compartmentalises a series of steps
leading to the production of functional
Figure 6.12: Structure of an Endoplasmic reticulum protein.
Endoplasmic reticulum is associated
with nuclear membrane and cell surface
membrane. It forms a network in cytoplasm
and gives mechanical support to the cell.
Its chemical environment enables protein
folding and undergo modification necessary
for their function. Misfolded proteins are
pulled out and are degraded in endoplasmic
reticulum. When ribosomes are present in the
outer surface of the membrane it is called as
rough endoplasmic reticulum(RER), when Figure 6.13: Structure of Golgi apparatus
the ribosomes are absent in the endoplasmic Small pieces of rough endoplasmic
reticulum it is called as smooth Endoplasmic
reticulum are pinched off at the ends to form
reticulum(SER). Rough endoplasmic
small vesicles. A number of these vesicles then
reticulum is involved in protein synthesis and
smooth endoplasmic reticulum are the sites join up and fuse together to make a Golgi
of lipid synthesis. The smooth endoplasmic body. Golgi complex plays a major role in post
reticulum contains enzymes that detoxify lipid translational modification of proteins and
soluble drugs, certain chemicals and other glycosylation of lipids (Figure 6.13 and 6.14).
harmful compounds.
Functions:
6.6.3 Golgi Body (Dictyosomes) • Production of glycoproteins and glycolipids
In 1898, Camillo Golgi visualized a netlike • Transporting and storing of lipids.
reticulum of fibrils near the nucleus, were • Formation of lysosomes.
named as Golgi bodies. In plant cells they • Production of digestive enzymes.
are found as smaller vesicles termed as
• Cell plate and cell wall formation
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• Secretion of carbohydrates for the formation membrane is impermeable to most ions,
of plant cell walls and insect cuticles. small molecules and maintains the
• Zymogen granules (proenzyme/precursor proton gradient that drives oxidative
of all enzyme) are synthesised. phosphorylation (Figure 6.15).
Figure 6.14: Exocytosis Figure 6.15: Structure of Mitochondria

6.6.4 Mitochondria
Mitochondria contain 73% of proteins,
It was first observed by A. Kolliker (1880). 25-30% of lipids, 5-7 % of RNA, DNA (in
Altmann (1894) named it as Bioplasts. Later traces) and enzymes (about 60 types).
Benda (1897, 1898), named as mitochondria. Mitochondria are called Power house of a
They are ovoid, rounded, rod shape and cell, as they produce energy rich ATP.
pleomorphic structures. Mitochondrion
All the enzymes of Kreb’s cycle are found
consists of double membrane, the outer and
in the matrix except succinate dehydrogenase.
inner membrane. The outer membrane is
Mitochondria consist of circular DNA and
smooth, highly permeable to small molecules
70S ribosome. They multiply by fission and
and it contains proteins called Porins, which
replicates by strand displacement model.
form channels that allows free diffusion
Because of the presence of DNAs it is semi-
of molecules smaller than about 1000
autonomous organelle. Unique characteristic
daltons and the inner membrane divides
of mitochondria is that they are inherited
mitochondrion into two compartments,
from female parent only. Mitochondrial
outer chamber between two membranes and
DNA comparisons are used to trace human
the inner chamber is filled with matrix.
origins. It is also used to track and date
The inner membrane is convoluted recent evolutionary time because it mutates
(infoldings), called crista (plural: cristae). 5 to 10 time faster than DNA in the nucleus.
Cristae contain most of the enzymes for
electron transport system. Inner chamber of
the mitochondrion is filled with proteinaceous 6.6.5 Plastids
material called mitochondrial matrix. The The term plastid is derived from the Greek
Inner membrane consists of stalked particles word Platikas (formed/moulded) and used
called elementary particles or Fernandez by A.F.U. Schimper in 1885. He classified
Moran particles, F1 particles or Oxysomes. plastids into following types according to
Each particle consists of a base, stem and a their structure, pigments and function.
round head. In the head, ATP synthase is Plastids multiply by fission.
present for oxidative phosphorylation. Inner
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Plastids Grana (singular: Granum) are formed
Chromoplasts Leucoplasts when many of these thylakoids are stacked
together like pile of coins. Light is absorbed
Coloured Plastids Colourless plastids
and converted into chemical energy in
store food materials
the granum, which is used in stroma to
Chloroplast Amyloplast – prepare carbohydrates. Thylakoid contain
Occurs in green stores – starch
chlorophyll pigments. The chloroplast
algae and higher contains osmophilic granules, 70s
plants.
ribosomes, DNA (circular and non histone)
Pigments and RNA. These chloroplast genome
chlorophyll a and b
encodes approximately 30 proteins involved
Phaeoplast Elaioplast – store – in photosynthesis including the components
Brown algae and lipids (oils).
of photosystem I & II, cytochrome bf complex
dinoflagellates. Seed of monocot and ATP synthase. One of the subunits of
Pigment- and dicots.
RuBisco is encoded by chloroplast DNA. It is
fucoxanthin the major protein component of chloroplast
Rhodoplast Aleuroplast (or) stroma, single most abundant protein on
Red algae Proteoplast earth. The thylakoid contain small, rounded
Pigment- Stores – Protein photosynthetic units called quantosomes.
Phycoerythrin Chloroplast is a semi-autonomous organelle
and divides by fission (Figure 6.16).
According to Schimper, different kind
of plastids can transform into one another. Functions:
• Photosynthesis
Chloroplasts • Light reactions takes place in granum,
• Dark reactions take place in stroma,
• Chloroplast is involved in photo
respiration.
Chromoplasts 6.6.7 Ribosome

(contains Leucoplasts Ribosomes were first observed by George
carotenoids) Palade (1953) as dense particles or granules
in the electron microscope. Electron
6.6.6 Chloroplast microscopic observation reveals that
Chloroplasts are vital organelle found in ribosomes are composed of two rounded
green plants. Chloroplast has a double sub units, united together to form a complete
membrane the outer membrane and the unit. Mg2+ is required for structural cohesion
inner membrane separated by a space called of ribosomes. Biogenesis of ribosome is a
periplastidial space. The space enclosed by de nova formation, auto replication and
the inner membrane of chloroplast is filled nucleolar origin. Each ribosome is made
with gelatinous matrix, lipo-proteinaceous up of one small and one large sub-unit
fluid called stroma. Inside the stroma there Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis
are flat interconnected sacs called thylakoid. in the cell. Ribosome is not a membrane
The membrane of thylakoid enclose a space bound organelle (Figure 6.17).
called thylakoid lumen.
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Figure 6.16: Structure of Chloroplast
are free in non-protein synthesising cells.
In protein synthesising cells they are linked
together with the help of Mg2+ ions.
Types of Ribosomes
70S Ribosomes (sub 80S Ribosomes (sub

unit 30S and 50S) units 40S and 60S)
3 RNA molecule
(i) 1 6SrRNA in 4 RNA molecule
30S subunit (i) 1 8SrRNA in
(ii) 2 3S and 5S 40S small
Figure 6.17: Structure of Ribosomes in 50S large subunit
subunit (ii) 2 8S, 5.8S and
Svedberg unit (s). 5S in larger
(Prokaryotic
The size of ribosomes cells of bluegreen 60S subunit
and their subunits algae bacteria, (Eukaryotic cells
are usually given in mitochondria and of plants and
Svedberg unit (named after Theoder chloroplast of animals)
Svedberg, Swedish Chemist Noble many algae and
Laureate 1929), a measure of a particle higher plants)
size dependent on the speed with which
particle sediment in the ultracentrifuge. 6.6.8 Lysosomes (Suicidal Bags of Cell)
Lysosomes were discovered by Christian
Ribosome consists of RNA and protein:
de Duve (1953), these are known as
RNA 60 % and protein 40%. During protein
suicidal bags. They are spherical bodies
synthesis, many ribosomes are attached to
enclosed by a single unit membrane. They
the single mRNA and is called polysomes or
are found in eukaryotic cell. Lysosomes
polyribosomes. The function of polysomes is
are small vacuoles formed when small
the formation of several copies of a particular
pieces of golgi body are pinched off from
polypeptide during protein synthesis. They
its tubules.
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They contain a variety of hydrolytic 6.6.9 Microbodies
enzymes, that can digest material within Eukaryotic cells contain many enzyme
the cell. The membrane around lysosome bearing membrane enclosed vesicles
prevent these enzymes from digesting the called microbodies. They are single unit
cell itself (Figure 6.18). membrane bound cell organelles. Example:
Peroxisomes and glyoxysomes.
6.6.10 Peroxisomes
Figure 6.18: Structure of Lysosome

Functions:
• Intracellular digestion: They digest
carbohydrates, proteins and lipids Figure 6.20: Structure of Peroxisome
present in cytoplasm. Peroxisomes were identified as organelles
• Autophagy: During adverse condition by Christian de Duve (1967). Peroxisomes
they digest their own cell organelles like are small spherical bodies and single
mitochondria and endoplasmic r eticulum membrane bound organelle. It takes part in
• Autolysis: Lysosome causes self photorespiration and associated with glycolate
destruction of cell. metabolism. In plants, leaf cells have many
• Ageing: Lysosomes have autolytic enzymes peroxisomes. It is also commonly found in liver
that disrupts intracellular molecules. and kidney of mammals. These are also found
in cells of protozoa and yeast (Figure 6.20).
Acid Hydrolases 6.6.11 Glyoxysomes
Nuclease, Proteases Glyoxysome was discovered by Harry
Glycosidases
Beevers (1961). It is a single membrane
Lipases
Phophatases bound organelle. It is a sub cellular organelle
Sulphatases and contains enzymes of glyoxylate pathway.
Phospholipidases β-oxidation of fatty acid occurs in glyoxysomes
pH 7.2 of germinating seeds Example: Castor seeds.
6.6.12 Sphaerosomes
ATP ADP + iP
Enzymes of Lysosome It is spherical in shape and enclosed by
Figure 6.19: Enzymes of Lysosome single unit membrane. Example: Storage
of fat in the endosperm cells of oil seeds.
• Phagocytosis: Large cells or contents
6.6.13 Centrioles
are engulfed and digested by
Centrioles consists of nine triplet peripheral
macrophages, thus forming a phagosome
fibrils made up of tubulin. The central part
in cytoplasm. These phagosome fuse
of the centriole is called hub, is connected to
with lysosome for further digestion. the tubules of the peripheral triplets by radial
• Exocytosis: Lysosomes release their spokes (9+0 pattern). The centriole form the
enzymes outside the cell to digest other basal body of cilia or flagella and spindle fibers
cells (Figure 6.19). which forms the spindle apparatus in animal
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cells. The membrane is absent in centriole the inner and outer membrane. The inner
(non-membranous organelle) (Figure 6.21). membrane is smooth without ribosomes and
the outer membrane is rough by the presence
of ribosomes and it continues with irregular
and infrequent intervals with the endoplasmic
reticulum. The membrane is perforated by
pores known as nuclear pores which allows
materials such as mRNA, ribosomal units,
proteins and other macromolecules to pass
in and out of the nucleus. The pores enclosed
by circular structures called annuli. The
pore and annuli form the pore complex.
The space between two membranes is called
Figure 6.21: Structure of Centriole perinuclear space.
6.6.14 Vacuoles Chromatin is a viscous

In plant cells vacuoles are large, bounded by gelatinous substance that
a single unit membrane called Tonoplast. contains DNA, histone &
The Vacuoles contain cell sap, which is a non–histone proteins and
solution of sugars, amino acids, mineral RNA. H1, H2A, H2B, H3 and H4 are the
salts, waste chemical and anthocyanin different histones found in chromatin. It is
pigments. Beetroot cells contain formed by a series of repeated units called
anthocyanin pigments in their vacuoles. nucleosomes. Each nucleosome has a core
Vacuoles accumulate products like tannins. of eight histone subunits.
The osmotic expansion of a cell kept in
water is chiefly regulated by vacuole and the Nuclear space is filled with nucleoplasm,
water enters the vacuole by osmosis. a gelatinous matrix has uncondensed
The major function of plant vacuole is chromatin network and a conspicuous
to maintain water pressure known as turgor nucleolius. The Chromatin network is an
pressure, which maintains the plant structure. uncoiled, indistinct and remain thread like
Vacuoles organises itself into a storage/ during the interphase. It has little amount of
sequestration compartment. Example: RNA and DNA bound to histone proteins in
Vacuoles store, most of the sucrose of the cell. eukaryotic cells (Figure 6.22).
i. Sugar in Sugar beet and Sugar cane.
ii. Malic acid in Apple.
iii. Acids in Citrus fruits.
iv. Flavonoid pigment cyanidin 3 rutinoside
in the petals of Antirrhinum.
6.7. Nucleus
Nucleus is an important unit of cell which
controls all activities of the cell. Nucleus
holds the hereditary information. It is the
largest among all cell organelles. It may be
spherical, cuboidal, ellipsoidal or discoidal.
It is surrounded by a double membrane
structure called nuclear envelope, which has Figure 6.22: Structure of a Nucleus
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During cell division chromatin is and kinetochore. Both the chromatids are
condensed into an organized form called united at centromere, whose number varies.
chromosome. The portion an eukaryotic The monocentric chromosome has one
chromosome which is transcribed into mRNA centromere and the polycentric chromosome
contains active genes that are nottightly has many centromeres. Centromere contains
condensed during interphase is called a complex system of protein fibres called
Euchromatin. The portion of an eukaryotic kinetochore. Kinetochore is the region of
chromosome that is not transcribed into chromosome which is attached to the spindle
mRNA which remains condensed during fibre during mitosis.
interphase and stains intensely is called Besides primary there are few secondary
Heterochromatin. Nucleolus is a small, constrictions, are present. Nucleoli develop
dense, spherical structure either present singly from these secondary constrictions are
or in multiples inside the nucleus and it’s not called nucleolar organizers. Secondary
membrane bound. Nucleoli possess genes for constrictions contain the genes for ribosomal
rRNA and tRNA. RNA which induce the formation of nucleoli
Functions of the nucleus and are called nucleolar organizer regions
• Controlling all cellular activities (Figure 6.23).
• Storing the genetic or hereditary A satellite or SAT Chromosome is a
i nformation. short chromosomal segment or rounded
• Coding the information from DNA for
the production of enzymes and proteins.
• DNA duplication and transcription
takes place in the nucleus.
• In nucleolus ribosomal biogenesis takes
place.
6.7.1 Chromosomes
Strasburger (1875) first reported its present
in eukaryotic cell and the term ‘chromosome’
was introduced by Waldeyer in 1888. Bridges
(1916) first proved that chromosomes are the
physical carriers of genes. It is made up of
DNA and associated proteins. Figure 6.23: Structure of a Chromosome
Structure of chromosome body separated from main chromosome by
The chromosomes are composed of thread a relatively elongated secondary constriction.
like strands called chromatin which is It is a morphological entity in certain
made up of DNA, protein and RNA. Each chromosomes.
chromosome consists of two symmetrical Telomere is the terminal part of
structures called chromatids. During cell chromosome. It offers stability to the
division the chromatids forms a well organized chromosome. DNA of the telomere has
chromosomes with definite size and shape. specific sequence of nucleotides. Telomere in
They are identical and are called sister all eukaryotes are composed of many repeats
chromatids. A typical chromosome has narrow of short DNA sequences (5’TTAGGG3’
zones called constrictions. There are two types sequence in Neurospora crassa and human
of constrictions, namely primary constriction beings). Maintenance of telomeres appears
and secondary constriction. The primary to be an important factor in determining
constriction is made up of centromere the life span and reproductive capacity of
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cells, so studies of telomeres and telomerase chromosomes.
have the promise of providing new insights Autosomes are present in all cells
into conditions such as ageing and cancer. controlling somatic characteristics of
Telomeres prevent the fusion of chromosomal an organism. In human diploid cell,
ends with one another. 44 chromosomes are autosomes whereas two
are sex chromosomes. Sex chromosomes are
Chromonema fibre: A involved in the determination of sex.
chromatin fibre, 100 – 130
nm in diameter, an element Special types of chromosomes
of higher order packing within the These chromosomes are larger in size
chromosome. During prophase the and are called giant chromosomes in
chromosomal material becomes visible as certain plants and they are found in the
very thin filament called chromonemata, suspensors of the embryo. The polytene
which is called as chromatids in early chromosome and lamp brush chromosome
stages of condensation. Chromatid and occur in animals and are also called as giant
chromonema are the two names for chromosomes.
the same structure a single linear DNA Polytene chromosomes observed in
molecule with its associated proteins the salivary glands of Drosophila (fruit fly)
Chromomeres: Chromomeres are by E.G. Balbiani in 1881. In larvae of many
bead like accumulations of chromatin flies, midges (Dipthera) and some insects
material which are visible along interphase the interphase chromosomes duplicates and
chromosomes. They can be seen in polytene reduplicates without nuclear division. A single
chromosomes. At metaphase they are not chromosome which is present in multiple
visible. copies form a structure called polytene
chromosome which can be seen in light
Types of Chromosomes microscope. They are genetically active. There
Satellite is a distinct alternating dark bands and light
inter-bands. About 95% of DNA are present
in bands and 5% in inter-bands. The polytene
chromosome has extremely large puff called
Centromere
Balbiani rings which is seen in Chironomous
Arm
larvae. It is also known as chromosomal puff.
Puffing of bands are the sites of intense RNA
Metacentric Sub-Metacentric Acrocentric Telocentric synthesis. As this chromosome occurs in the
Figure 6.24: Types of chromosomes salivary gland it is known as salivary gland
based on centromere chromosomes. Gene expression, transcription
of genes and RNA synthesis occurs in the
Based on the position of centromere,
bands along the polytene chromosomes.
chromosomes are called telocentric (terminal
centromere), acrocentric (terminal centromere Chromosome puff
capped by telomere), sub metacentric Inter band
(centromere subterminal) and metacentric
(centromere median). The eukaryotic
chromosome may be rod shaped (telocentric
and acrocentric), L-shaped (sub-metacentric)
and V-shaped (metacentric) (Figure 6.24).
Dark band
Based on the functions of chromosome Chromonemata
it can be divided into autosomes and sex Figure 6.25: Polytene chromosomes
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Lampbrush chromosomes occur at the and distal ring are connected by a central
diplotene stage of first meiotic prophase rod. They are L-Lipopolysaccharide ring,
in oocytes of an animal Salamandar and P-Peptidoglycan ring, S-Super membrane ring
in giant nucleus of the unicellular alga and M-membrane ring. The outer pair L and
Acetabularia. It was first observed by P rings is attached to cell wall and the inner
Flemming in 1882. The highly condensed pair S and M rings attached to cell membrane
chromosome forms the chromosomal axis, (Figure 6.27).
from which lateral loops of DNA extend as
a result of intense RNA synthesis.
Chromosome axis Matrix
Chromosomal fibre
Figure 6.26: Lampbrush chromosomes
Figure 6.27: Structure of Bacterial
6.8. Flagella Flagellum
6.8.1 Prokaryotic Flagellum Mechanism of flagellar movement –
Bacterial flagella are helical appendages helps proton motive force
in motility. They are much thinner than In flagellar rotation only proton movements are
flagella or cilia of eukaryotes. The filament involved and not ATP. Protons flowing back into
contains a protein called flagellin. The the cell through the basal body rings of each
structure consists of a basal body associated flagellum drives it to rotate. These rings constitute
with cytoplasmic membrane and cell wall the rotary motor.The proton motive force (The
with short hook and helical filament. Bacteria force derived from the electrical potential and
rotates their helical flagella and propels rings the hydrogen ion gradient across the cytoplasmic
present in the basal body which are involved membrane) drives the flagellar motor. For the
in the rotary motor that spins the flagellum. rotation of flagellum the energy is derived from
proton gradient across the plasma membrane
Check your grasp ? generated by oxidative phosphorylation. In
When E.coli are cultured in medium bacteria flagellar motor is located in the plasma
rich in glucose they lack flagella. When membrane where the oxidative phosphorylation
grown in nutritionally poor medium they takes place.Therefore, plasma membrane is a site
possess flagella. What does this indicate of generation of proton motive force.
about the value of flagella?
Flagella is essential to seek out a 6.8.2 Eukaryotic Flagellum– Cell Motility
nutritionally more favourable environment. Structure
Eukaryotic Flagella are enclosed by unit
Structure of flagella in Bacteria membrane and it arises from a basal body.
The gram positive bacteria contain only Flagella is composed of outer nine pairs
two basal rings. S-ring is attached to the of microtubules with two microtubules
inside of peptidoglycan and M-ring is in its centre (9+2 arrangement). Flagella
attached to the cell membrane. In Gram are microtubule projection of the plasma
negative bacteria two pairs of rings proximal membrane. Flagellum is longer than cilium
(as long as 200µm). The structure of flagellum
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has an axoneme made up microtubules and rootlets, basal plate and shaft. The shaft
protein tubulin (Figure 6.28). or axoneme consists of nine pairs of
microtubule doublets, arranged in a circle
along the periphery with a two central
tubules, (9+2) arrangement of microtubules
is present. Microtubules are made up of
tubulin. The motor protein dynein connects
the outer microtubule pair and links them to
the central pair. Nexin links the peripheral
doublets of microtubules (Figure 6.29).
Summary
Cell is the fundamental unit of all organisms
which was identified 300 years ago. Microscope
offers scope for observing smaller objects and
organisms. It works on the principle of light
and lenses. Different microscope offers clarity
in observing objects depending on the features
Figure 6.28: Structure of Eukaryotic flagellum to be observed. Micrometric techniques
Movement are used in measurement of microscopic
Outer microtubule doublet objects. Electron microscopes are used in
is associated with axonemal understanding the ultra-structural details of
dynein which generates force cell. Cell theory and doctrine states that all
for movement. The movement organism are made up of cell and it contains
is ATP driven. The interaction genetic material. Protoplasm theory explains
between tubulin and dynein nature and different properties of protoplasm.
is the mechanism for the Cell size and shape differ from type of tissue
contraction of cilia and flagella. Dynein or organs and organisms. Based on cellular
molecules uses energy from ATP to shift organization and nuclear characters the
the adjacent microtubules. This movement organisms are classified into prokaryote,
bends the cilium or flagellum. eukaryote and mesokaryote.
6.8.3 Cilia Key difference between plant cell and
animal cell is the cell wall. Protoplasm is
the colourless mass includes the cytoplasm,
cell organelles and nucleus. Cell wall is the
outermost protective covering with three
regions primary, secondary wall and middle
lamellae. Cell membrane holds the cytoplasmic
content called cytosol. Cytoplasm includes
the matrix and the cell organelles excluding
nucleus. Endomembrane system includes
Figure 6.29: Structure of Cilia & flagella endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus,
Cilia (plural) are short cellular, numerous chloroplast, lysosomes, vacuoles, nuclear
microtubule bound projections of plasma membrane and plasma membrane. Nucleus is
membrane. Cilium (singular) is membrane the control unit of the cell, it carries hereditary
bound structure made up of basal body, information. Chromosomes are made up
137

of DNA and associated proteins. Bacterial flagella are made up microtubules and protein
flagella are made up of helical polymers of a called dynein and nexin and the movement is
protein called flagellin. Proton motive force driven by ATP.
are involved in flagellar rotation. In Eukaryotes
Concept Map
Cell
(The basic unit of life)
Cell wall & Protoplasm

Plasmamembrane
Cytoplasm Nucleus
DNA
Cell organelles Cytoplasmic inclusions RNA
Proteins
Storage Secretory Excretory

Substance substance substance
carbohydrates, Pigments & glycosides,
fats & proteins Enzymes tannins & gums
Mitochondria Chloroplast Endoplasmic Golgi Ribosomes Centrosomes Vacuoles Microbodies

generation Photosynthesis Reticulum bodies Protein give rise spindle facilitate Peroxisomes
of ATP transport Packaging & Synthesis fiber in animal transport Glyoxysomes
substance Secretion cells of ions &
synthesis materials
lipoprotein & in plant cell
glycogen
Evaluation a. Plasma membrane b. cytoskeleton

1. The two subunits of c. mitochondria d. Plastids
ribosomes remain 4. Keeping in view the fluid mosaic model
united at critical ion for the structure of cell membrane,
level of which one of the following statements
a. Magnesium is correct with respect to the movement
b. Calcium of lipids and proteins from one lipid
c. Sodium monolayer to the other.
d. Ferrous a. Neither lipid nor proteins can
flip-flop
2. Sequences of which of the following is
used to know the phylogeny. b. Both lipid and proteins can flip flop
c. While lipids can rarely flip-flop
a. mRNA b. rRNA
proteins cannot
c. tRNA d. Hn RNA d. While proteins can flip-flop lipids
3. Many cells function properly and cannot
divide mitotically even though they do 5. Match the columns and identify the
not have. correct option:
138

Column-I Column-II 6. Bring out the significance of
Transmission Electron Microscope.
(a) Thylakoids (i) Disc-shaped sacs 7. State the protoplasm theory.
in Golgi apparatus 8. Distinguish between prokaryotes and
(b) Cristae (ii) Condensed eukaryotes.
structure of DNA 9. Difference between plant and animal
cell.
(c) Cisternae (iii) Flat membranous
10. Draw the ultra structure of plant cell.
sacs in stroma
(d) Chromatin (iv) Infoldings in
mitochondria
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(1) (iii) (iv) (ii) (i)
(2) (iv) (iii) (i) (ii)
(3) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
(4) (iii) (i) (iv) (ii)
ICT Corner
Cell structure
Cell-The unit of Life
Steps
• Scan the QR code & install the app from Android app store
• Open the app & move the cell organelles by moving left bottom button
• Select the cell organelles by pointer
• Play the audio notes of cell organelles by click the right center button
• Use pointer & observe the structure of cell organelles
Activity
• Observe the structures of cell organelles and record it.
Step 2 Step 4
URL: https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=in.edu.olabs.olabs&hl=en
139

Biomolecules
Chapter
7 Cell Cycle
Chapter Outline
Learning Objectives
7.1 Nuclear Divisions
The learner will be able to, 7.2 Cell cycle
• Outline the cell cycle and different 7.3 Cell Division
stages in cell division. 7.4 Difference between
• Recognise the importance of mitosis Mitosis and Meiosis
in the production of genetically
identical cells.
diploid (2n) state. Mitosis is the nuclear
• Have an insight on the significant
division that occurs when cells grow or when
of mitosis and meiosis.
cells need to be replaced and when organism
• Familiarize the behaviour of reproduces asexually.
chromosomes in plants and animal
In meiosis, the daughter cells contain half
cells during meiosis.
the number of chromosomes of the parent cell
and is known as haploid state (n).
Neurons can be
Whichever division takes place, it is
replaced!
normally followed by division of the cytoplasm
Stem cells in the human to form separate cells, called as cytokinesis.
brain - most neurons are
in G0 and do not divide. As neurons
Edouard Van Beneden,
and neuroglia die or injured they are
a Belgian cytologist,
replaced by neural stem cells
embryologist and marine
One of the most important features of the biologist. He was Professor
living cells is their power to grow and divide. of Zoology at the University of Liège.
New cells are formed by the division of pre- He contributed to cytogenetics by his
existing cells. Cells increase in number by cell works on the roundworm Ascaris. In his
division. The parent cell divides and passes work he discovered how chromosomes
on genetic material to the daughter cells. organized meiosis (the production of
gametes).
7.1 Nuclear Divisions
There are two types of nuclear division, as
mitosis and meiosis. In mitosis, the daughter
7.2 Cell Cycle
cells formed will have the same number of Definition: A series of events leading to the
chromosomes as the parent cell, typically formation of new cell is known as cell cycle.
The series of events include several phases.
140

History of a Cell
Table 7.1: History of Cell
Year Scientist Events
1665 Robert Hooke Coined word “Cell”
1670–74 Anthony van Leeuwenhoek First living cells observed in
microscope - Structure of bacteria
1831–33 Robert Brown Presence of nucleus in cells of orchid roots
1839 Jan Evangelista Purkyne Coined “protoplasm”
(J.E. Purkinje)
1838–39 Schleiden & Schwann Cell theory
1858 Rudolph Ludwig Carl Virchow Cell theory ‘omnis cellula e cellula’
1873 Anton Schneider Described chromosomes (Nuclear
filaments) for the first time
1882 Walther Flemming Coined the word mitosis; chromosome
behaviour
1883 Edouard Van Beneden Cell division in round worm
1888 Theodor Boveri Centrosome; Chromosome Theory
7.2.1 Duration of Cell Cycle the case at all. The chromosomes previously
Different kinds of cells have varied duration visible as thread like structure, have dispersed.
for cell cycle phases. Eukaryotic cell divides Now they are actively involved in protein
every 24 hours. The cell cycle is divided into synthesis, at least for most of the interphase.
mitosis and interphase. In a cell cycle 95%
is spent for interphase whereas the mitosis
and cytokinesis last only for an hour.
Table 7.2: Cell cycle of a proliferating

human cell
Phase Time duration (in hrs)

G1 11
S 8
G2 4 Figure 7.1: Cell cycle
M 1
C-Value is the amount in picograms of
The different phases of cell cycle are as DNA contained within a haploid nucleus.
follows (Figure 7.1).
7.2.2 Interphase 7.2.3 G1 Phase
Longest part of the cell cycle, but it is of The first gap phase – 2C amount of DNA
extremely variable length. At first glance the in cells of G1. Cells become metabolically
nucleus appears to be resting but this is not active and grows by producing proteins,
141

lipids, carbohydrates and cell organelles factors or other extracellular signals. G0 cells
including mitochondria and endoplasmic are not dormant.
reticulum. Many checkpoints control the
cell cycle. The check point are also called 7.2.5 S phase – Synthesis phase –
as the restriction point. First check point cells with intermediate amounts of DNA.
at the end of G1, determines a cells fate Growth of the cell continues as replication of
whether it will continue in the cell cycle and DNA occur, protein molecules called histones
divide or enter a stage called G0 a quiescent are synthesised and attach to the DNA. The
stage, probably as specified cell or die. Cells centrioles duplicate in the cytoplasm. DNA
are arrested in G1 due to: content increases from 2C to 4C.
• Nutrient deprivation
7.2.6 G2 – The second Gap phase – 4C
• Lack of growth factors or density
amount of DNA in cells of G2 and mitosis
dependant inhibition
• Undergo metabolic changes and enter Cell growth continues by protein and cell
into G0 state. organelle synthesis, mitochondria and
Biochemicals inside cell activates the chloroplasts divide. DNA content remains as
cell division. The proteins called kinases 4C. Tubulin is synthesised and microtubules
and cyclins activate genes and their proteins are formed. Microtubles organise to form
to perform cell division. Cyclins act as spindle fibre. The spindle begins to form
major checkpoint which operates in G1 to and nuclear division follows.
determine whether or not a cell divides. One of the proteins synthesized only
in the G2 period is known as Maturation
Dolly
Promoting Factor (MPF). It brings about
Since the DNA of cells condensation of interphase chromosomes
in G0, do not replicate. into the mitotic form.
Researchers are able
DNA damage checkpoints operates in G1
to fuse the donor cells
S and G2 phases of the cell cycle.
from a sheep’s mammary glands into
G0 state by culturing in the nutrient 7.3 Cell Division
free state. The G0 donor nucleus 7.3.1 Amitosis (Direct Cell Division)
synchronised with cytoplasm of the Amitosis is also called direct or incipient cell
recipient egg, which developed into division. Here there is no spindle formation
the clone Dolly. and chromatin material does not condense.
It consist of two steps: (Figure 7.2).
7.2.4 G0 Phase
Some cells exit G1 and enters a quiescent
stage called G0, where the cell remains
metabolically active without proliferation.
Cells can exist for long periods in G0 phase.
In G0, cells cease growth with reduced rate of
RNA and protein synthesis. The G0 phase is
not permanent. Mature neuron and skeletal
muscle cell remain permanently in G0. Many
cells in animals remains in G0 unless called
on to proliferate by appropriate growth Figure 7.2: Amitosis
142

Karyokinesis: Closed mitosis
Spindle
• Involves division of
nucleus.
• Nucleus develops a
constriction at the
center and becomes Open mitosis
dumbell shaped.
• Constriction deepens and divides the
nucleus into two.
Spindle
Cytokinesis: Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase
• Involves division of cytoplasm. Figure 7.3: Closed and Open mitosis
• Plasma membrane develops a
Mitosis is divided into four stages
constriction along nuclear constriction.
prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
• It deepens centripetally and finally telophase (Figure 7.6).
divides the cell into two cells.
Example: Cells of mammalian cartilage, Prophase
macronucleus of Paramecium and old Prophase is the longest phase in mitosis.
degenerating cells of higher plants. Chromosomes become visible as long
thin thread like structure, condenses to
Drawbacks of Amitosis
form compact mitotic chromosomes.
• Causes unequal distribution of In plant cells initiation of spindle fibres
chromosomes. takes place, nucleolus disappears. Nuclear
• Can lead to abnormalities in metabolism envelope breaks down. Golgi apparatus and
and reproduction. endoplasmic reticulum disappear.
7.3.2 Mitosis Inner
Mitosis occurs in shoot and root tips and kinetochore
other meristematic tissues of plants associated Outer
kinetochore
with growth. The number of chromosomes
in the parent and the daughter (Progeny)
cells remain the same so it is also called as
Fibrous Microtubule
equational division. corona
Inner
7.3.3 Closed and Open Mitosis centromere
In closed mitosis, the nuclear envelope

remains intact and chromosomes migrate
to opposite poles of a spindle within the Figure 7.4: Centromere
nucleus (Figure 7.3). In animal cell the centrioles extend a
Example: Many single celled eukaryotes radial array of microtubules (Figure 7.4) and
including yeast and slime molds. reach the poles of the cell. This arrangement
In open mitosis, the nuclear envelope of microtubules is called an aster. Plant cells
breaks down and then reforms around the 2 do not form asters.
sets of separated chromosome. Metaphase
Example: Most plants and animals Chromosomes (two sister chromatids) are
• Some animals are able to regenerate attached to the spindle fibres by kinetochore
whole parts of the body. of the centromere. The spindle fibres are made
up of tubulin. The alignment of chromosome
143

into compact group at the equator of the cell decondense. In plants, phragmoplast are
is known as metaphase plate. This is the formed between the daughter cells. Cell
stage where the chromosomal morphology plate is formed between the two daughter
can be easily studied. cells, reconstruction of cell wall takes place.
Kinetochore is a DNA–Protein complex Finally cells are separated by the distribution
present at the centromere where microtubules of organelles, macromolecules into two
are attached. It is a trilaminar disc like plate. newly formed daughter cells.
7.3.4 Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis in Animal Cells
It is a contractile process. The ring consists of
a bundle of microfilaments assembled from
actin and myosin. This fibril generates a
contractile force, that draws the ring inward
forming a cleavage furrow in the cell. Thus it
Figure 7.5: Anaphase promoting divides the cell into two.
complex cyclosome
Anaphase Check your grasp!
What effect does mitosis have on
Each chromosome splits simultaneously and two
transcription?
daughter chromatids begin to migrate towards During mitosis transcription stops.
two opposite poles of a cell. Each centromere
splits longitudinally into two, freeing the two Cytokinesis in Plant Cell
sister chromatids from each other. When sister Division of the cytoplasm often starts during
chromatids separate the actual partitioning of telophase. In plants, cell plate grows from
the replicated genome is complete. centre towards lateral walls.
APC (Anaphase Promoting Complex) is Phragmoplast contains microtubules, actin
a cluster of proteins that induces the breaking filaments and vesicles from golgi apparatus
down of cohesion proteins which leads to and ER. Microtubule of the pharagmoplast
the separation of chromatids during mitosis move to the equator, fuse to form a new plasma
(Figure 7.5). Thus it helps in the transition of membrane and the materials which are placed
metaphase to anaphase.
Telophase
Two sets of daughter
chromosomes reach opposite
poles of the cell and mitotic
spindle disappears. Division of
genetic material is completed
during karyokinesis, followed
by cytokinesis (division of
cytoplasm). Nucleolus and
nuclear membranes reforms.
Nuclear membrane form around
each set of chromosomes.
Now the chromosomes Figure 7.6: Mitosis
144

there becomes new cell wall. The first stage 4. Asexual reproduction – asexual reproduction
of cell wall construction is a line dividing the results in offspring that are identical to the
newly forming cells called a cell plate. The cell parent. Example Yeast and Amoeba.
plate eventually stretches right across the cell 5. In flowering plants, structure such
forming the middle lamella. Cellulose builds as bulbs, corms, tubers, rhizomes
up on each side of the middle lamella to form and runners are produced by mitotic
the cell walls of two new plant cells. division. When they separate from the
parent, they form a new individual.
Activity The production of large numbers of
Squash preparation offsprings in a short period of time,
of onion root tip to is possible only by mitosis. In genetic
visualize and study engineering and biotechnology, tissues
various stages of mitosis. are grown by mitosis (i.e. in tissue culture).
6. Regeneration – Arms of star fish.
7.3.6 Meiosis
A Culture of animal cells in which the cell In Greek meioum means to reduce. Meiosis
cycles were asynchronous was incubated is unique because of synapsis, homologous
with 3H-Thymidine for 10 minutes. recombination and reduction division.
Autoradiography showed that 50% of the Meiosis takes place in the reproductive
cells were labelled. If the cell cycle time organs. It results in the formation of gametes
(generation time) was 16 hrs how long with half the normal chromosome number.
was the S period? Haploid sperms are made in testes;
Length of the S period = Fraction of haploid eggs are made in ovaries of animals.
cells in DNA replication × generation time In flowering plants meiosis occurs
during microsporogenesis in anthers and
Length of the S period = 0.5 × 16
megasporogenesis in ovule. In contrast to
hours = 8 hours
mitosis, meiosis produces cells that are not
genetically identical. So meiosis has a key
Skin cells and the cells lining role in producing new genetic types which
our gut are constantly dying results in genetic variation.
and are being replaced by Stages in Meiosis
identical cells. Meiosis can be studied under two divisions
i.e., meiosis I and meiosis II. As with mitosis,
7.3.5 Significance of Mitosis the cell is said to be in interphase when it is
Exact copy of the parent cell is produced by not dividing.
mitosis (genetically identical).
1. Genetic stability – daughter cells are Prophase I is the longest and most complex
genetically identical to parent cells. stage in meiosis. Pairing of homologous
2. Growth – as multicellular organisms chromosomes (bivalents) take place.
grow, the number of cells making up
Meiosis I-Reduction Division
their tissue increases. The new cells must
Prophase I – Prophase I is of longer
be identical to the existing ones.
duration and it is divided into 5 substages –
3. Repair of tissues - damaged cells must be
Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene
replaced by identical new cells by mitosis.
and Diakinesis (Figure 7.7).
145

Figure 7.7: Prophase I
Leptotene – Chromosomes are visible to separate from each other but are held
under light microscope. Condensation of together by chiasmata. This substage may last
chromosomes takes place. Paired sister for days or years depending on the sex and
chromatids begin to condense. organism.
Zygotene – Pairing of homologous Diakinesis – Terminalisation of chiasmata,
chromosomes takes place and it is known homologous chromosomes become short and
as synapsis. Chromosome synapsis is made condensed. Nucleolus and nuclear envelope
by the formation of synaptonemal complex. disappears. Spindle fibres assemble.
The complex formed by the homologous Metaphase I
chromosomes are called as bivalent (tetrads). Spindle fibres are attached to the centromeres
Pachytene – At this stage bivalent of the two homologous chromosomes.
chromosomes are clearly visible as Bivalent (pairs of homologous chromosomes)
tetrads. Bivalent of meiosis I consists of 4 aligned at the equator of the cell known as
chromatids and 2 centromeres. Synapsis metaphase plate.
is completed and recombination nodules The random distribution of homologous
appear at a site where crossing over takes chromosomes in a cell in Metaphase I is
place between non-sister chromatids of called independent assortment.
homologous chromosome. Recombination Anaphase I
of homologous chromosomes is completed Homologous chromosomes are separated
by the end of the stage but the chromosomes from each other by shortening of spindle
are linked at the sites of crossing over. This is fibers. Each homologous chromosomes with
mediated by the enzyme recombinase. its two chromatids and undivided centromere
Diplotene – Synaptonemal complex move towards the opposite poles of the
disassembled and dissolves. The homologous cells. The actual reduction in the number
chromosomes remain attached at one or of chromosomes takes place at this stage.
more points where crossing over has taken Homologous chromosomes which move
place. These points of attachment where to the opposite poles are either paternal or
‘X’ shaped structures occur at the sites of maternal in origin. Sister chromatids remain
crossing over is called Chiasmata. Chiasmata attached with their centromeres.
are chromatin structures at sites where
Telophase I
recombination has been taken place. They
Haploid set of chromosomes are present at
are specialised chromosomal structures that
each pole. The formation of two daughter cells,
hold the homologous chromosomes together.
each with haploid number of chromosomes
Sister chromatids remain closely associated
takes place. Nuclei reassembled. Nuclear
whereas the homologous chromosomes tend
envelope forms around the chromosome
146

and the chromosomes becomes uncoiled. • Crossing over takes place and exchange of
Nucleolus reappears. genetic material leads to variations among
In plants after karyokinesis, cytokinesis species. These variations are the raw
takes place by which two daughter cells are materials to evolution. Meiosis leads to
formed by the cell plate between 2 groups genetic variability by partitioning different
of chromosomes known as dyad of cells combinations of genes into gametes
(haploid). through independent assortment.
The stage between the two meiotic
• Adaptation of organisms to various
divisions is called interkinesis which is
environmental stress.
short-lived.
Meiosis II – Equational division.
This division is otherwise called mitotic Table 7.3: Difference between mitosis
meiosis because it resembles mitosis. Since it in Plants and Animals
includes all the stages of mitotic divisions. Plants Animals
Prophase II Centrioles are Centrioles are
The chromosome with 2 chromatids becomes absent present
short, condensed, thick and becomes visible. Asters are not formed Asters are formed
New spindle develops at right angles to the Cell division Cell division
cell axis. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus involves the involves furrowing
disappear.
formation of a cell and cleavage of
Metaphase II plate cytoplasm
Chromosome arranged at the equatorial plane
Occurs mainly at Occurs in tissues
of the spindle. Microtubules of spindle gets
meristem throughout the
attached to the centromere of sister chromatids.
body
Anaphase II
Sister chromatids separate. The
daughter chromosomes move
to the opposite poles due to
shortening of spindle fibres.
Centromere of each chromosome
split, allowing to move towards
opposite poles of the cells holding
the sister chromatids.
Telophase II
Four groups of chromosomes are
organised into four haploid nuclei.
The spindle disappears. Nuclear
envelope, nucleolus reappear.
After karyokinesis,
cytokinesis follows and four
haploid daughter cells are
formed, called tetrads.
7.3.7 Significance of Meiosis
• This maintains a definite
constant number of
chromosomes in organisms. Figure 7.8: Meiosis
147

Table 7.4: Difference Between Mitosis and Meiosis (Figure 7.8)
Mitosis Meiosis
One division Two divisions
Number of chromosome remain the same Number of chromosomes is halved
Homologous chromosomes line up Homologous chromosomes line up in pairs at the
separately on the metaphase plate metaphase plate
Homologous chromosome do not pair up Homologous chromosome pairup to form bivalent
Chiasmata do not form and crossing over Chiasmata form and crossingover occurs
never occurs
Daughter cells are genetically identical Daughter cells are genetically different from parent cell
Two daughter cells are formed Four daughter cells are formed
Summary
272
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Evaluation 5. Centromere is required for
1. The correct sequence in a. transcription
cell cycle is b. crossing over
a. S-M-G1-G2 c. Cytoplasmic cleavage
b. S-G1-G2-M d. movement of chromosome towards
c. G1-S-G2-M pole
d. M-G-G2-S 6. Synapsis occur between
2. If mitotic division is restricted in G1 a. mRNA and ribosomes
phase of the cell cycle then the condition b. spindle fibres and centromeres
is known as c. two homologous chromosomes
a. S Phase b. G2 Phase d. a male and a female gamete
c. M Phase d. G0 Phase 7. In meiosis crossing over is initiated at
3. Anaphase promoting complex APC is a a. Diplotene c. Leptotene
protein degradation machinery necessary b. Pachytene d. Zygotene
for proper mitosis of animal cells. If APC 8. Colchicine prevents the mitosis of the
is defective in human cell, which of the cells at which of the following stage
following is expected to occur? a. Anaphase c. Prophase
a. Chromosomes will be fragmented b. Metaphase d. interphase
b. Chromosomes will not condense 9. The paring of homologous
c. Chromosomes will not segregate chromosomes on meiosis is known as
d. Recombination of chromosomes a. Bivalent c. Disjunction
will occur b. Synapsis d. Synergids
4. In S phase of the cell cycle 10. Write any three significance of mitosis.
a. Amount of DNA doubles in each cell 11. Differentiate between mitosis and meiosis.
b. Amount of DNA remains same in 12. Given an account of G0 phase.
each cell 13. Differentiate cytokinesis in plant cells
c. Chromosome number is increased and animal cells.
d. Amount of DNA is reduced to half 14. Write about Pachytene and Diplotene
in each cell of Prophase I.
ICT Corner
Cell Division
How do cells are multiply? Step 1 Step 3
Steps
• Scan the QR code
• Click Mitosis and start the animation press play Step 2 Step 4
• Select mitosis in the top of the page – play it - use forward button to slow down
• Select meiosis in the top of the page – play it - use forward button to slow down
Activity
• Select meiosis and cell cycle.
• Record your observations.
URL: https://www.cellsalive.com/ * Pictures are indicative only
149

Biomolecules
Chapter
8 Biomolecules
Having learnt the structure of the cell, we

Learning Objectives can now understand that each component
of the cell is responsible for a specific
function. The cell components are made
• Recognise the basic structure of of collection of molecules called as cellular
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and pool, which consists of both inorganic and
nucleic acids and differentiate the organic compounds. Inorganic compounds
various pattern of classification with include salts, mineral ions and water.
Organic compounds include
respect to structure. carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids, proteins,
• Familiarise with the general structure of nucleotides, hormones and vitamins. Some
organic molecules remain in colloidal form
amino acids and its classification based
in the aqueous intracellular fluid. Others
on the functional group. exist in non-aqueous phases like the lipid
• know the structure and classification of membrane and cell walls. The cell maintains
this pool by the intake and elimination of
enzymes properties
specific molecules (Figure 8.1).
• Understand lipids as a biomolecule and Biomolecules
Organic compounds:
discuss the properties of lipids. Biomolecules
• Have a deeper knowledge about Level 4:

The cell
Level 3: Level 2:
Supramolecular Macromolecules
Level 1:
Monomeric units
and its organelles complexes
structure of nucleic acids. O
O
N
NH
N
2
O P O CH
2
O
O
H H
H H
OH H
Chromosome DNA Nucleotides
Chapter Outline HN
2
H
CH
2
COO
8.1 Water Plasma membrane Protein Amino acids

CH OH
8.2 Primary and Secondary Metabolites

2 O H
H
OH H OH
HO
OH
H
CH OH
Cell wall Cellulose Sugars

8.3 Carbohydrates
o
2
H O
Figure 8.1: Components of cell

8.4 Lipids
The minerals essential for plant growth
8.5 Proteins are of two types: macronutrients, which are
8.6 Enzymes required in larger amounts (Eg. potassium,
8.7 Nucleic Acids phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, sulphur
and iron) and micronutrients, which are
required in trace amounts Eg. cobalt, zinc,
boron, copper, molybdenum and manganese
are essential for enzyme action. Example,
150
XIth_BIO-BOTANY_Ch_8-EM.indd 150 12-12-2021 6.24.15 PM

Manganese is required for activity of enzyme 8.1.2 Properties of Water
needed for synthesis of oligosaccharides and • Adhesion and cohesion property
glycoproteins. Molybdenum is necessary for • High latent heat of vaporisation
fixation of nitrogen by enzyme nitrogenase. • High melting and boiling point
Component % of the total • Universal solvent
cellular mass • Specific heat capacity
Water 70 8.2 Primary and Secondary Metabolites
Proteins 15 Most plants, fungi and other microbes
Carbohydrates 3 synthesizes a number of organic compounds
Lipids 2 called as metabolites which are intermediates
Nucleic acids 6 and products of metabolism. The term metabolite
Ions 4 is usually restricted to small molecules. It can be
catergorized into two types namely primary and
secondary metabolites based on their role in
8.1 Water metabolic process (Figure 8.4).
Water is the most abundant component in
living organisms. Life on earth is inevitably
linked to water. Water makes up 70% of
human cell and upto 95% of mass of a plant
cell (Figure 8.2).
(15
Pro %)
tein
s
Water
70%
Chemical
30%
(4%)
Small
cule
s Figure 8.4: Synthesis of metabolites during
m o le
growth
NA
(6%
)R
Primary metabolites are those that are
ids
required for the basic metabolic processes
70%
p
h oli
sp NA
ho
P )D es
30%
(2%) (1%
ch
a rid like photosynthesis, respiration, protein and
a
)P
ol
ys
lipid metabolism of living organisms.
%
(2
Secondary metabolites does not show
Figure 8.2: Percentage of biomolecules in cell
any direct function in growth and
8.1.1 Chemistry of Water development of organisms.
Water is a tiny polar
Morphine is the first
molecule that can readily
alkaloid to be found. It
pass through membranes.
Covalent comes from the plant
Two electronegative atoms Bond
O Opium poppy (Papaver
of oxygen share a hydrogen
somniferum).
bonds of two water H H
It is used as a pain reliever
molecule. Thus, they can
in patients with severe
stick together by cohesion Figure 8.3:
pain levels and cough
and results in lattice Water molecule
suppressant.
formation (Figure 8.3).
151

form large and complex molecules called
Metabolites Examples
macromolecules. These include four main
Primary classes – carbohydrates, lipids, proteins
Enzymes protease, lipase, and nucleic acids. All macromolecules
peroxidase except lipids are formed by the process
of polymerisation, a process in which
Amino acid proline, leucine
repeating subunits termed monomers are
Organic acid acetic acid, lactic acid bound into chains of different lengths.
Vitamins A, B, C These chains of monomers are called
polymers.
Secondary
Pigments carotenoids,
8.3 Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are organic compounds
anthocyanins
made of carbon and water. Thus one
Alkaloids morphine, codeine molecule of water combines with a carbon
Essential oil lemon grass oil, rose oil atom to form CH2O and is repeated several
(n) times to form (CH2O)n where n is an
Toxins abrin, ricin
integer ranging from 3–7. These are also
Lectins concanavalin A called as saccharides. The common term
Drugs vinblastin, curcumin sugar refers to a simple carbohydrate such
as a monosaccharide or disaccharide that
Polymeric rubber, gums, cellulose
tastes sweet are soluble in water (Figure 8.7).
substances
8.2.1 Organic Molecules 8.3.1 Monosaccharides – The Simple Sugars
Organic molecules may be small and simple. Monosaccharides are relatively small
These simple molecules assemble and molecules constituting single sugar unit.
Carbohydrates
(Saccharides or sugars)
Monosaccharides Oligosaccharides Polysaccharides

(simple sugars) ( 2 to 10 sugar units) ( more than10 sugar units)
Functional Number of Di - Tri - Tetra - Penta - Homo Hetero

group carbon atoms saccharides saccharides saccharides saccharides polysaccharides polysaccharides
Examples
Aldoses Trioses Maltose Raffinose Stachyose Verbascose Starch Peptidoglycan
Glucose Glyceraldehyde
Ketose Tetroses Lactose Glycogen Hyaluronic acid
Fructose Erythrose
Pentoses Sucrose Cellulose Chondroitin
Ribose sulphate
Hexose Chitin Keratan sulphate
Glucose
Inulin Agar agar
Classification of Carbohydrates
152

Glucose has a chemical formula of C6H12O6. 8.3.3 Polysaccharides
It is a six carbon molecule and hence is called These are made of hundreds of
as hexose. monosaccharide units. Polysaccharides also
All monosaccharides contain one or two called "Glycans". Long chain of branched
functional groups. Some are aldehydes, Eg: or unbranched monosaccharides are held
glucose and are referred as aldoses; other together by glycosidic bonds. Polysaccharide
are ketones, Eg: fructose and are referred as is an example of giant molecule, a
ketoses. macromolecule and consists of only one type
of monomer. Polysaccharides are insoluble
in water and are sweetless. Cellulose is an
Glucose is one of the most example built from repeated units of glucose
well-known molecules monomer (Figure 8.6).
due to its nature as an
essential nutrient for Amylose
human health. You ingest glucose in your
Amylopectin
food, and then your body uses blood to
carry the glucose to the cells of every organ
for the purpose of energy production. Starch Glycogen Cellulose (fibre)
Figure 8.6: Branched and linear

8.3.2 Disaccharides polysaccharides
Disaccharides are formed when two
Depending on the function, polysaccha-
monosaccharides join together. An example
rides are of two types - storage polysaccha-
is sucrose. Sucrose is formed from a
ride and structural polysaccharide.
molecule of α-glucose and a molecule of
fructose. This is a condensation reaction 8.3.4 Starch
releasing water. The bond formed between Starch is a storage polysaccharide made up of
the glucose and fructose molecule by repeated units of amylose and amylopectin.
removal of water is called glycosidic bond. Starch grains are made up of successive
This is another example of strong, covalent layers of amylose and amylopectin, which
bond. can be seen as growth rings. Amylose is a
linear, unbranched
polymer which
makes up 80% of
starch. Amylopectin
is a polymer with
some 1, 6 linkages
that gives it a
Figure 8.5: structure of carbohydrates branched structure.
In the reverse process, a disaccharide is 8.3.5 Test for Starch
digested to the component monosaccharide We test the presence of starch by adding a
in a hydrolysis reaction. This reaction solution of iodine in potassium iodide. Iodine
involves addition of a water (hydro) molecules fit nearly into the starch helix,
molecule and splitting (lysis) of the producing a blue-black colour.
glycosidic bond.
153

glucose derivative known as N-acetyl
glucosamine. It forms the exoskeleton
of insects and other arthropods. It is also
present in the cell walls of fungi (Figure 8.8).
a b
Glucose chain
Tri-iodide ion
c
Test for starch
a. Test on potato; b. test on starch at varied Figure 8.8: Structure of Chitin molecule
concentrations; c. starch – iodine reaction
8.3.6 Celluloses
Cellulose is a structural polysaccharide Do mushroom cells
made up of thousands of glucose units. have cell wall?
My hard
In this case, β-glucose units are held shells are
made of
together by 1,4 glycosidic linkage, forming My cell walls are made of
chitin too
chitin. Chitin is made of
long unbranched chains. Cellulose fibres glucose and chitin is primarily
are straight and uncoiled. It has many used as a structural

component, strengthening
industrial uses which include cellulose exoskeletons, shells, and

cell walls of fungus.
fibres as cotton, nitrocellulose for Mine

too
explosives, cellulose acetate for fibres of
multiple uses and cellophane for packing
(Figure 8.7).
8.3.8 Test for Reducing Sugars
Aldoses and ketoses are reducing sugars.
This means that, when heated with an
alkaline solution of copper (II) sulphate
(a blue solution called benedict’s solution),
the aldehyde or ketone group reduces
Cu2+ ions to Cu+ ions forming brick red
precipitate of copper(I) oxide. In the process,
the aldehyde or ketone group is oxidised to
a carboxyl group (–COOH). This reaction is
used as test for reducing sugar and is known
as Benedict’s test. The results of benedict’s
test depends on concentration of the sugar.
Figure 8.7: Cellulose molecule If there is no reducing sugar it remains blue.
8.3.7 Chitin • Sucrose is not a reducing sugar
Chitin is a homo polysaccharide with amino • The greater the concentration of reducing
acids added to form mucopolysaccharide. sugar, the more is the precipitate formed
The basic unit is a nitrogen containing and greater is the colour change.
154

Other Sugar Compounds
Other Structure Functions
Polysaccharides
Inulin Polymer of fructose It is not metabolised in the
human body and is readily
filtered through the kidney
Hyaluronic acid Heteropolymer of d glucuronic acid It accounts for the toughness and
and D-N acetyl glucosamine flexibility of cartilage and tendon
Agar Mucopolysaccharide from red algae Used as solidifying agent in
culture medium in laboratory
Heparin Glycosamino glycan contains variably Used as an anticoagulant
sulphated disaccharide unit present in
liver
Chondroitin Sulphated glycosaminoglycan composed Dietery supplement for
sulphate of altering sugars (N-acetylglucosamine treatment of osteoarthritis
and glucuronic acid)
Keratan Sulphated glycosaminoglycan and is a Acts as cushion to absorb
sulphate structural carbohydrate mechanical shock
The main groups of compounds classified

as lipids are triglycerides, phospholipids,
steroids and waxes.
8.4.1 Triglycerides
Triglycerides are composed of single
molecule of glycerol bound to 3 fatty acids.
These include fats and oils. Fatty acids are
long chain hydrocarbons with a carboxyl
Blue Green/yellow Orange Brick-red
group at one end which binds to one of the
Solution precipitate precipitate precipitate hydroxyl groups of glycerol, thus forming an
None Trace of Moderate Large ester bond. Fatty acids are structural unit of
reducing sugar reducing sugar amount of
reducing sugar lipids and are carboxylic acid of long chain
Test for sugar hydrocarbons. The hydrocarbon can vary in
length from 4 – 24 carbons and the fat may
8.4 Lipids be saturated or unsaturated. In saturated
The term lipid is derived from greek word fatty acids the hydrocarbon chain is single
lipos, meaning fat. These substances are bonded (Eg. palmitic acid, stearic acid) and
not soluble in polar solvent such as water in unsaturated fatty acids (Eg. oleic acid,
but soluble in non-polar solvents such as linoleic acid) the hydrocarbon chain is double
benzene, ether, chloroform. This is because bonded (one/two/three). In general solid fats
they contain long hydrocarbon chains that are saturated and oils are unsaturated, in
are non-polar and thus are hydrophobic. which most are globules.
155

Cellular Structure Polymer Monomer
Carbohydrate
CH2OH
H O H
H
OH H
HO OH
H OH
Starch grains in a
chloroplast Starch Monosaccharide
Nucleic acid
Nitrogenous base
P o
Phosphate 5-carbon
group sugar
Chromosome DNA strand Nucleotide
Ala
Protein
Ala Val H CH3

Val Ser N C C OH
H
H O
Intermediate Polypeptide Amino acid
H H
H C
H C
H C H
H C H
Lipid
H C H
H C H
H C H
H C H
O C H
C H
H
Adipose cell with HO
fat droplets Triglyceride Fatty acid
156

8.5 Proteins The amino group of one amino acid
Proteins are the most diverse of all reacts with carboxyl group of other amino
macromolecule. Proteins make up 2/3 of acid, forming a peptide bond. Two amino
total dry mass of a cell. The term protein was acids can react together with the loss of water
coined by Gerardus Johannes Mulder and to form a dipeptide. Long strings of amino
is derived form a greek word proteos which acids linked by peptide bonds are called
means of the first rank. polypeptides. In 1953, Fred Sanger first
Amino acids are building blocks of sequenced the Insulin protein (Figure 8.11 a
proteins. There are about 20 different and b).
amino acids exist naturally. All amino acids
have a basic skeleton consisting of a carbon
(a-carbon) linked to a basic amino group.
H H O
H N C C OH
Amino Group Carboxyl Acid
R Group
Variable
Side Chain
Figure 8.9: Structure of basic amino acid

Figure 8.11(a): Formation of peptide bond
(NH2), an acidic carboxylic group (COOH)
and a hydrogen atom (H) and side chain or
variable R group. The amino acid is both an
acid and a base and hence is called amphoteric.
A zwitterion also called as dipolar ion, is
a molecule with two or more functional
groups, of which at least one has a positive
and other has a negative electrical charge and
the net charge of the entire molecule is zero. Linus Pauling and Robert Corey in
The pH at which this happens is known as 1951 proposed the α-helix and β sheet
the isoelectric point (Figure 8.10). secondary structures of proteins.
They were awarded Nobel prize in
1954
Figure 8.10: Structure of amino acid

8.5.1 Classification of Amino acids First protein Insulin
was sequenced by
Based on the R group amino acids are
Fred Sange.
classified as acidic, basic, polar, non-polar.
157

Figure 8.11(b): Classification of Amino Acids
8.5.2 Structure of Protein • Secondary structure arises when various
Protein are synthesised on functional groups are exposed on outer
surface of the molecular interaction by
the ribosome as a linear
forming hydrogen bonds. This causes
sequence of amino acids
the aminoacid chain to twist into coiled
which are held together
configuration called α-helix or to fold
by peptide bonds. After
into a flat β-pleated sheets.
synthesis, the protein attains • Tertiary protein structure arises when
conformational change into the secondary level proteins fold into
a specific 3D form for proper functioning. globular structure called domains.
According to the mode of folding, four levels • Quaternary protein structure may be
of protein organisation have been recognised assumed by some complex proteins in
namely primary, secondary, tertiary and which more than one polypeptide forms
quaternary (Figure 8.12). a large multiunit protein. The individual
• The primary structure is linear polypeptide chains of the protein are
arrangement of amino acids in a called subunits and the active protein
polypeptide chain. itself is called a multimer.
158

For example: Enzymes serve as catalyst for (a)
chemical reactions in cell and are non-specific. Albumen
Antibodies are complex glycoproteins with

specific regions of attachment for various
Water _ soluble
organisms. Insoluble
(b) Protein thermal lrreversible denaturatio

Primary structure
HO O
Primary H H
structure N
Native albumen Denaturation Crosslinking

_ SH _ S-S
Secondary
Figure 8.13: Protein denaturation
H
structure C
C
8.5.4 Protein Bonding

N
C
H H O
H O H O H N C
N C
C
N C N C N O
There are four types of chemical bonds

C C C C C
C N C N C H O
C C
O H O H C H
O N C
O C N
H O H O H
C C O C
C C C H
N C N C N H
C N C N C C
C N
O H O H N C
O C O
C
H O Hydrophobic Interactions
b Pleated sheet
H
and van der Waals Interactions

C N C
C N
O
O CH
Alpha helix CH2

H3C CH3
H3C CH3 Polypeptide

O CH backbone
Hydrogen H
bond
O
Tertiary
structure OH C
CH2
CH2 S S CH2
Disulfide bond
Quaternary O
structure
CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 NH3 O C CH2
Ionic bond
Figure 8.12: Structure of Protein
8.5.3 Protein Denaturation
Denaturation is the loss of 3D structure of Figure 8.14: Protein bonding
protein. Exposure to heat causes atoms to vibrate Hydrogen Bond
violently, and this disrupts the hydrogen and It is formed between some hydrogen atoms
ionic bonds. Under these conditions, protein of oxygen and nitrogen in polypeptide chain.
molecules become elongated, disorganised The hydrogen atoms have a small positive
strands. Agents such as soap, detergents, acid, charge and oxygen and nitrogen have small
alcohol and some disinfectants disrupt the negative charge. Opposite charges attract to
interchain bond and cause the molecule to be form hydrogen bonds.
non-functional (Figure 8.13).
Though these bonds are weak, large
number of them maintains the molecule in
Christian Anfinsen
3D shape (Figure 8.14).
explained denaturation
of proteins by heat Ionic Bond
treatment leading to It is formed between any charged groups that
breakage of non-covalent are not joined together by peptide bond. It
bond. is stronger than hydrogen bond and can be
broken by changes in pH and temperature.
159

Disulfide Bond
he more the distance
T
Some amino acids like cysteine and
between the sulphur
methionine have sulphur. These form atoms, the more the
disulphide bridge between sulphur atoms proteins bend;
and amino acids. the more the
Hydrophobic Bond hair curls.
This bond helps some protein to maintain
8.6 Enzymes
structure. When globular proteins are in
Enzymes are globular proteins that catalyse
solution, their hydrophobic groups point
the many thousands of metabolic reactions
inwards away from water.
taking place within cells and organism. The
8.5.5 Test for Proteins molecules involved in such reactions are
The biuret test is used as an indicator for metabolites. Metabolism consists of chains
presence of protein as it gives a purple colour and cycles of enzyme-catalysed reactions,
in the presence of peptide bonds (–C–N–). such as respiration, photosynthesis, protein
To protein solution, an equal quantity of synthesis and other pathways. These reactions
sodium hydroxide solution is added and are classified as
mixed. Then a few drops of 0.5% copper • anabolic (building up of organic
(II) sulphate is added with gentle mixing. molecules). Synthesis of proteins
A distinct purple colour develops without from amino acids and synthesis of
polysaccharides from simple sugars are
heating (Figure 8.15 a and b).
examples of anabolic reactions.
• catabolic (breaking down of larger
molecules). Digestion of complex foods
and the breaking down of sugar in
respiration are examples of catabolic
reactions (Figure 8.16).
Figure 8.15(a): Biuret test
Figure 8.16: Enzyme reaction

Enzymes can be extracellular enzyme as
secreted and work externally exported from
Figure 8.15(b): Colour intensity increases cells. Eg. digestive enzymes; or intracellular
with increase in concentration enzymes that remain within cells and work
there. These are found inside organelles or
within cells. Eg. insulin.
160

8.6.1 Properties of Enzyme specially formed pocket in
• All are globular proteins. the enzyme – the active
• They act as catalysts and effective even in site, this is called lock and
small quantity. key mechanism of enzyme
• They remain unchanged at the end of the action. As the enzyme and
reaction. substrate form a ES complex,
• They are highly specific. the substrate is raised in energy to a transition
• They have an active site where the reaction state and then breaks down into products plus
takes place. unchanged enzyme (Figure 8.18).
• Enzymes lower activation energy of the Substrate Product
reaction they catalyse.
RUBISCO is the abundant

protein in the whole
biosphere
Enzyme Enzyme - Substrate Enzyme
complex
As molecules react, they become Figure 8.18: Enzyme mechanism
unstable, high energy intermediates. 8.6.3 Enzyme Cofactors
But they are in this transition state only Many enzymes require non-protein
momentarily. Energy is required to raise components called cofactors for their
molecules to this transition state and this efficient activity. Cofactors may vary from
minimum energy needed is called the simple inorganic ions to complex organic
activation energy. This could be explained molecules. They are of three types: inorganic
schematically by ‘boulder on hillside’ model ions, prosthetic groups and coenzymes
of activation energy (Figure 8.17). (Figure 8.19).
8.6.2 Lock and Key Mechanism of Enzyme • Holoenzyme – active enzyme with its
In a enzyme catalysed reaction, the starting non protein component.
substance is the substrate. It is converted • Apoenzyme – the inactive enzyme
to the product. The substrate binds to the without its non protein component.
Enzyme Activation energy

without enzymes
Activation energy
with enzymes
Energy in the reaction
Reactant
Product
Time
This graph shows the activation energies of a reaction with and without enzymes
Figure 8.17: Activation energy
161

Catalytic site enzyme. Flavin adenine dinucleotide
Cofactor (FAD) contains riboflavin (vit B2), the
function of which is to accept hydrogen.
Coenzyme
‘Haem’ is an iron-containing prosthetic
group with an iron atom at its centre.
• Coenzymes are organic compounds
Apoenzyme
which act as cofactors but do not
remain attached to the enzyme. The
Holoenzyme essential chemical components of many
Figure 8.19: Enzyme components coenzymes are vitamins. Eg. NAD,
NADP, Coenzyme A, ATP
• Inorganic ions help to increase the rate of
reaction catalysed by enzymes. Example: Ribozyme - Non Protein
Salivary amylase activity is increased in Enzyme - A Ribozyme, also
the presence of chloride ions. called as catalytic RNA; is a
• Prosthetic groups are organic molecules ribonucleic acid that acts as enzyme. It is
found in ribosomes
that assist in catalytic function of an
8.6.4 Classification of Enzymes

Enzymes are classified into six groups based on their mode of action.
Enzymes Mode of action General scheme of reaction Example
Oxidoreductase Oxidation and Ared + Box Aox + Bred Dehydrogenase
reduction (redox)
reactions
Transferase Transfer a group A–B+C A+C–B Transaminase,
of atoms from one phosphotransfer-
molecule to another ase
Hydrolases Hydrolysis of substrate A – B + H2O A – H + B – OH Digestive
by addition of water enzymes
molecule
Isomerase Control the conversion A – B – C A–C–B Isomerase
of one isomer to another
by transferring a group
of atoms from one
molecule to another
Lyase Break chemical bond A–B A+B Decarboxylase
without addition of
water
Ligase Formation of new A + B + ATP A – B + ADP + Pi DNA ligase
chemical bonds using
ATP as a source of
energy
162

8.6.5 Uses of Enzymes nucleotide. The nitrogen base is a heterocyclic
Enzyme Source Application compound that can be either a purine (two
rings) or a pyrimidine (one ring). There are 2
Bacterial Bacillus Biological
protease detergents types of purines – adenine (A) and guanine
(G) and 3 types of pyrimidines – cytosine
Bacterial Bacillus Fructose syrup
(C), thymine (T) and uracil (U) (Figure 8.20
glucose manufacture
and 21).
isomerase
Fungal Kluyvero- Breaking down A characteristic feature that differentiates DNA
lactase myces of lactose to from RNA is that DNA contains nitrogen bases
glucose and such as Adenine, guanine, thymine (5-methyl
galactose uracil) and cytosine and the RNA contains
Amylases Aspergillus Removal of nitrogen bases such as adenine, guanine,
starch in woven cytosine and uracil instead of thymine. The
cloth production nitrogen base is covalently bonded to the sugar
ribose in RNA and to deoxyribose (ribose
8.7 Nucleic Acids
with one oxygen removed from C2) in DNA.
As we know DNA and RNA are the two kinds Phosphate group is a derivative of (PO43-)
of nucleic acids. These were originally isolated phosphoric acid, and forms phosphodiester
from cell nucleus. They are present in all linkages with sugar molecule (Figure 8.22).
known cells and viruses with special coded
genetic programme with detailed and specific
instructions for each organism heredity.
DNA and RNA are polymers of monomers
called nucleotides, each of which is composed
of a nitrogen base, a pentose sugar and a
phosphate. A purine or a pyrimidine and
a ribose or deoxyribose sugar is called
nucleoside. A nitrogenous base is linked to
pentose sugar through n-glycosidic linkage
and forms a nucleoside. When a phosphate
group is attached to a nucleoside it is called a Figure 8.20: Position of DNA in the cell
Figure 8.21: Structure of

nucleic acid component
Telomerase -
A ribonucleic
Protein.
Te l o m e r e
protects the end of the
chromosomes from damage.
Telomerase is a ribonucleo
protein also called as terminal
transferase.
163

8.7.1 F
ormation of Dinucleotide and Rosalind Franklin (1920–1958) had earlier
Polynucleotide produced the first clear crystallographic
Two nucleotides join to form dinucleotide evidence for a helical structure. James Watson
that are linked through 3′-5′ phosphodiester and Francis Crick of Cavendish laboratory
linkage by condensation between phosphate in Cambridge built a scale model of double
groups of one with sugar of other. This is helical structure of DNA which is the most
repeated many times to make polynucleotide. prevalent form of DNA, the B-DNA. This is
the secondary structure of DNA.
Nucleoside Nucleotide
It is a combination of It is a combination
base and sugar. of nucleoside and
phosphoric acid.
Examples Examples
Adenosine = Adenine Adenylic acid =
+ Ribose Adenosine +
Phosphoric acid
Figure 8.23: Watson and Crick
Guanosine = Guanine Guanylic acid =
+ Ribose Guanosine + As proposed by James Watson and Francis
Phosphoric acid Crick, DNA consists of right handed double
helix with 2 helical polynucleotide chains that
Cytidine = Cytosine Cytidylic acid =
+ Ribose Cytidine + are coiled around a common axis to form
Phosphoric acid right handed B form of DNA. The coils are
held together by hydrogen bonds which occur
Deoxythymidine Uridylic acid =
between complementary pairs of nitrogenous
= Thymine + Uridine +
bases. The sugar is called 2′-deoxyribose
Deoxyribose Phosphoric acid
because there is no hydroxyl at position 2′.
Adenine and thiamine base pairs has two
Friedrich Miescher was the hydrogen bonds while guanine and cytosine
first to isolate a non-protein base pairs have three hydrogen bonds.
substance in nuclei of pus cells As published by Erwin Chargaff in 1949, a
and named it as ‘Nuclein’. purine pairs with pyrimidine and vice versa.
Adenine (A) always pairs with Thymine (T)
by double bond and Guanine (G) always
Figure 8.22: Basic pairs with Cytosine (C) by triple bond.
component of
DNA and RNA
8.7.2 Structure of DNA

Watson and Crick shared the Nobel Prize
in 1962 for their discovery, along with
Maurice Wilkins, who had produced the Figure 8.24: Figure 8.25:
crystallographic data supporting the model. Rosalind franklin Erwin Chargaff
164

3’
Blue bands - Two
In 1950s, Maurice sugar-phosphate
Wilkins and Rosalind chains
Franklin of Kings College, 5’
London studied the X-ray Complementary T A
base parings:
crystallography and revealed experimental A=T and C G
C
G
G
data on the structure of DNA A T

o
3.4A
The two chains run in T
G C
A
opposite direction
8.7.3 Features of DNA 5’ 3’
T
A
A
T
• If one strand runs in the 5′-3′ direction, G C
3’ 5’ T A
the other runs in 3′-5′ direction and thus C

A
G
T
are antiparallel (they run in opposite Minor Groove T A

Major Groove
o
direction). The 5′ end has the phosphate C
A
G
T
3.4A
group and 3’end has the OH group.

G C
• The angle at which the two sugars protrude 5’ 3’
from the base pairs is about 120°, for the 20A

o
narrow angle and 240° for the wide angle. The Figure 8.26: Structure of DNA
narrow angle between the sugars generates • Plectonemic coiling - the two strands
a minor groove and the large angle on the of the DNA are wrapped around each
other edge generates major groove. other in a helix, making it impossible
• Each base is 0.34 nm apart and a complete to simply move them apart without
turn of the helix comprises 3.4 nm or 10 breaking the entire structure. Whereas in
base pairs per turn in the predominant B paranemic coiling the two strands simply
form of DNA. lie alongside one another, making them
easier to pull apart.
• DNA helical structure has a diameter of
• Based on the helix and the distance between
20 A° and a pitch of about 34 A°. X-ray
each turns, the DNA is of three forms –
crystal study of DNA takes a stack of
A DNA, B DNA and Z DNA (Figure 8.27).
about 10 bp to go completely around the
helix (360°).
• Thermodynamic stability of the helix
and specificity of base pairing includes
(i) the hydrogen bonds between the
complementary bases of the double helix
(ii) stacking interaction between bases tend
to stack about each other perpendicular to
the direction of helical axis. Electron cloud
interactions (∏ – ∏) between the bases in
the helical stacks contribute to the stability
of the double helix.
• The phosphodiester linkages gives an
inherent polarity to the DNA helix. Figure 8.27: Forms of DNA
They form strong covalent bonds, 8.7.4 Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
gives the strength and stability to the
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a polymeric
polynucleotide chain (Figure 8.32).
molecule essential in various biological roles in
165

Feature B-DNA A-DNA Z-DNA
Type of helix Right-handed Right-handed Left-handed
Helical diameter (nm) 2.37 2.55 1.84
Rise per base pair (nm) 0.34 0.29 0.37
Distance per complete turn (pitch) (nm) 3.4 3.2 4.5
Number of base pairs per complete turn 10 11 12
Topology of major groove Wide, deep Narrow, deep Flat
Topology of minor groove Narrow, shallow Broad, shallow Narrow, deep
coding, decoding, regulation and expression of • tRNA (transfer RNA): Translates the code
genes. RNA is single stranded and is unstable from mRNA and transfers amino acids to
when compared to DNA. the ribosome to build proteins. It is highly
8.7.5 Types of RNA folded into an elaborate 3D structure and
• mRNA (messenger RNA): Single comprises about 15% of total RNA. It is
stranded, carries a copy of instructions also called as soluble RNA.
for assembling amino acids into proteins. • rRNA (ribosomal RNA): Single stranded,
It is very unstable and comprises 5% of metabolically stable, make up the two
total RNA polymer. Prokaryotic mRNA subunits of ribosomes. It constitutes 80%
(Polycistronic) carry coding sequences for of the total RNA. It is a polymer with
many polypeptides. Eukaryotic mRNA varied length from 120–3000 nucleotides
(Monocistronic) contains information and gives ribosomes their shape. Genes for
for only one polypeptide. rRNA are highly conserved and employed
for phylogenetic studies (Figure 8.28).
Messenger RNA (mRNA) Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) Transfer RNA (tRNA)

Figure 8.28: Types of RNA
Summary
Cells are composed of water, inorganic Lipids are the principle components of
compounds and organic molecules. cell membrane, and they serve as energy
The biomolecules of the cells include storage and signalling molecules.
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, enzymes Proteins are polymers of 20 different
and nucleic acids. amino acids, each of which has a distinct
Carbohydrates include simple sugars side chain with specific chemical
(monosaccharides) and polysaccharides. properties. Each protein has a unique
Polysaccharide serve as storage forms of aminoacid sequence which determines
sugar and structural components of cell. its 3D structure.
166

Nucleic acids are the principle c. Pigments making colours of flowers
information molecules of the cell. Both d. Hormones
DNA and RNA are polymers of purine 4. Given below is the diagrammatic
and pyrimidine nucleotides. representation of one of the categories
of small molecular weight organic
Evaluation
compounds in the living tissues.
1. The most basic amino acid is Identify the category shown & one blank
a. Arginine component “ X” in it.
b. Histidine O
c. Glycine
d. Glutamine HOH2C X
2. An example of feedback inhibition is

OH OH
a. Cyanide action on cytochrome
b. Sulpha drug on folic acid Category Compound
synthesiser bacteria Cholesterol Guanine
c. Allosteric inhibition of hexokinase
Amino acid NH2
by glucose-6-phosphate
d. The inhibition of succinic Nucleotide Adenine
dehydrogenase by malonate Nucleoside Uracil
3. Proteins perform many physiological 5. Distinguish between nitrogenous base
functions. For example some functions and a base found in inorganic chemistry.
as enzymes. One of the following
6. Write the characteristic feature of DNA.
represents an additional function that
some proteins discharge: 7. Explain the structure and function of
a. Antibiotics different types of RNA.
b. Pigment conferring colour to skin
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167

Unit IV: Plant Anatomy
(Structural Organisation)
Chapter
9 Tissue and Tissue System
Learning Objectives
The learner will be able to, Nehemiah Grew
• Study major types of plant tissues and Father of Plant
their functions. Anatomy
• Describes the various type of tissue
1641–1712
system
• Interpret cross sections and longitudinal Katherine Esau (1898–1997)
sections of dicot and monocot root, A legendary Role model for women in
stem and leaf. science. She was a scintillating Botany
• Compare the internal organization of teacher and pioneering researcher for six
dicot root and monocot root. decades. Her classic book Anatomy of
Seed Plants is the best
literature in Plant Anatomy.
Chapter Outline In recognition of her
9.1 Meristematic tissue distinguished service to
9.2 Permanent tissues science, she was awarded
9.3 The tissue system National Medal of Science
(1989) by USA.
9.4 Epidermal tissue system
9.5 Fundamental tissue system
9.6 Vascular tissue system
The Tissues
9.7 Comparision of primary structure
A Tissue is a group of cells that are alike in
origin, structure and function. The study of
This chapter introduces the internal structure
tissues is called Histology. A plant is made up
of higher plants. The study of internal
of different types of tissues.
structure and organisation of plant is called
Plant Anatomy (Gk: Ana = as under; temnein There are two principal groups:
= to cut). Plants have cells as the basic unit. The 1. Meristematic tissues
cells are organised into tissues. The tissues in 2. Permanent tissues
turn are organised into organs. The different
organs in a plant have different internal 9.1 Meristematic Tissue
structures. It is studied by means of dissection 9.1.1 Characteristics and classification
and microscopic examination. The characters of meristematic tissues:
(Gr. Meristos-Divisible)
168

Apical meristem • These are most actively dividing cells.
Intercalary
• Meristematic cells are self-perpetuating.
meristem Classification of Meristem
Meristem has been classified into several
types on the basis of position, origin,
Lateral meristem
function and division.
Figure 9.1: Different types of meristems on Theories of Meristem Organization and

the basis of position in plant body Function
Many anatomists illustrated the root
The term meristem was coined by
and shoot apical meristems on the basis
C. Nageli 1858.
of number and arrangement and accordingly
• The meristematic cells are isodiametric proposed the following theories – An extract
and they may be, oval, spherical or of which is discussed below.
polygonal in shape.
Shoot Apical Meristem
• They generally have dense cytoplasm with
Apical Cell Theory
prominent nucleus.
Apical cell theory is proposed by Hofmeister
• Generally the vacuoles are either small or
(1852) and supported by Nageli (1859).
absent.
A single apical cell is the structural and
• Their cell wall is thin, elastic and made up
functional unit.
of cellulose.
Classification of Meristem
Position Origin Function Plane of division
Apical meristem Primary Protoderm

Mass meristem
Present in apices of root Meristem It gives rise to
It divides in all
and shoot. It is responsible It is derived epidermal tissue
planes. Example:
for increase in the length from system and
endosperm,young
of the plant, it is called as embryonic develops into
embryo and
primary growth. initials and epidermis,stomata
sporangium
differentiated and hairs.
into primary
Intercalary meristem permanent
tissues. Rib meristem or
Occurs between the Procambium File meristem
permenant tissues. It is
It gives rise to It divides
responsible for elongation
Secondary primary vascular anticlinally in one
of internodes.
meristem tissues. Example: plane. Example:
It is derived xylem and phloem . development of
during later cortex and pith
Lateral meristem
stage of
Occurs along the
development
longitudinal axis of stem Plate meristem
of the plant Ground Meristem
and root. It is responsible
body. It It divides
for secondary tissues and It gives rise to
produces cork anticlinally in two
thickening of stem and all tissues except
cambium and planes. Example:
root. Example: vascular epidermis and
interfascicular development of
cambium and cork vascular strands.
epidermis
cambium. cambium.
169

Apical cell
Tunica
Leaf primodium Leaf primordia

Dermatogen
Periblem Histogen Corpus
Plerome
a. b. c.
Figure 9.2: Shoot apical meristem a) Apical cell theory, b) Histogen theory,
c) Shoot Tunica corpus theory
This apical cell governs the growth 2. The corpus: It is the inner zone of shoot
and development of whole plant body. It is apex,that forms cortex and stele of shoot.
applicable in Algae, Bryophytes and in some Root Apical Meristem
Pteridophytes. Root apex is present opposite to the shoot
apex. The roots contain root cap at their apices
Histogen Theory
and the apical meristem is present below the
Histogen theory is proposed by Hanstein root cap. The different theories proposed to
(1868) and supported by Strassburgur. The explain root apical meristem organization are
shoot apex comprises three distinct zones. given below.
1. Dermatogen: It is the outermost layer. Apical Cell Theory
It gives rise to epidermis. Apical cell theory is proposed by Nageli. The
2. Periblem: It is middle layer. That gives rise single apical cell or apical initial composes the
to cortex. root meristem. The apical initial is tetrahedral
3. Plerome: It is innermost layer. Which in shape and produces root cap from one side.
gives rise to stele The remaining three sides produce epidermis,
Tunica Corpus Theory cortex and vascular tissues. It is found in
vascular cryptogams.
Tunica corpus theory is proposed by
A. Schmidt (1924). Histogen Theory
Two zones of tissues are found in apical Histogen theory is proposed by Hanstein
meris tem. (1868) and supported by Strassburgur. The
histogen theory as appilied to the root apical
1. The tunica: It is the peripheral zone of meristem speaks of four histogen in the
shoot apex, that forms epidermis. meristem. They are respectively,
Epidermis Stele Cortex Cortex Stele Cortex
Protoderm
T
Ground tissue
Quiescent
Vascular cambium centre
Root
cap Inverted ‘T’
division
(Y division) Cap
Plerome
Periblem
b. Calyptrogen c.
Dermatogen / Calyptrogen
Figure 9.3: Root apical meristem
a) Histogen Theory, b) Korper kappe theory,
Root cap
a. c) Quiescent Centre Concept
170

i. Dermatogen: It is the outermost layer. It Simple Permanent Tissues
gives rise to root epidermis. Simple tissues are composed of one type
ii. Periblem: It is the middle layer. It gives rise of cells only. The cells are structurally and
to cortex. functionally similar. It is of three types.
iii. Plerome: It is innermost layer. It gives rise 1. Parenchyma
to stele 2. Collenchyma
iv. Calyptrogen: It gives rise to root cap. 3. Sclerenchyma
Korper Kappe Theory Parenchyma (Gk: Para-beside; enehein- to
Korper Kappe theory is proposed by pour)
Schuepp. There are two zones in root apex Parenchyma is generally present in all organs
– Korper and Kappe of the plant. It forms the ground tissue in a
plant. Parenchyma is a living tissue and made
1. Korper zone forms the body.
up of thin walled cells. The cell wall is made
2. Kappe zone forms the cap. This theory is
up of cellulose. Parenchyma cells may be oval,
equivalent to tunica corpus theory of shoot
polyhedral, cylindrical, irregular, elongated
apex.The two divisions are distinguished
or armed. The tissue normally has prominent
by the type of T (also called Y) divisions.
intercellular spaces and may store various types
Korper is characterised by inverted T
of materials like, water, air, ergastic substances.
divisions and kappe by straight T divisions.
Intercellular spaces
Quiescent Centre Concept
Quiescent centre concept was proposed by
Clowes (1961) to explain root apical meristem
activity. This centre is located between root
cap and differentiating cells of the roots. The
apparently inactive region of cells in root
promeristem is called quiescent centre. It is the
site of hormone synthesis and also the ultimate
source of all meristematic cells of the meristem. Figure 9.4: Parenchyma
9.2 Permanent Tissues Occsionally Parenchyma cells which store
The Permanent tissues develop from apical resin, tannins, crystals of calcium carbonate,
meristem. They lose the power of cell division calcium oxalate are called idioblasts.
either permanently or temporarily. They are Parenchyma is of different types and some
classified into two types: of them are discussed as follows.
1. Simple permanent tissues.
Intercellular Intercellular
2. Complex permanent tissues. Space Spaces
Chloroplasts
Starch Palisade
g
grains Parenchyma
Intercellular
Spongy
spaces
Parenchyma
a. b. c. d. e.
Figure 9.5: Types of Parenchyma
a) Aerenchyma, b) Storage parenchyma c) Stellate parenchyma, d) Chlorenchyma, e) Prosenchyma
171

1. Aerenchyma:
Parenchyma which contains air in its intercellular spaces. It helps in aeration and buoyancy.
Example: Nymphae and Hydrilla.
5. Prosenchyma:
Parenchyma cells became elongated, 2. Storage Parenchyma:
pointed and slightly thick walled. It Parenchyma stores food materials.
provides mechanical support. Parenchyma Example: Root and stem tubers.
4. Chlorenchyma 3. Stellate Parenchyma

Parenchyma cells with chloroplast.
Star shaped parenchyma. Example:
Function is photosynthesis. Example:
Petioles of Banana and Canna.
Mesophyll of leaves.
Collenchyma (Gk. Colla-glue; enchyma – an infusion)

Collenchyma is a simple, living mechanical tissue. Collenchyma generally occurs in
hypodermis of dicot stem. It is absent in the roots and also occurs in petioles and pedicels. The
cells are elongated and appear polygonal in cross section. The cell wall is unevenly thickened.
It contains more of hemicellulose and pectin besides cellulose. It provides mechanical support
and elasticity to the growing parts of the plant. Collenchyma consists of narrow cells. It has
only a few small chloroplast or none. Tannin maybe present in collenchyma.Based on pattern
of pectinisation of the cell wall, there are three types of collenchyma.
Types of Collenchyma Diagramatic structures
Thickened
1. Angular collenchyma corners
Protoplasm
It is the most common type of collenchyma
Vacuole
with irregular arrangement and Cell wall
thickening at the angles where cells meet.
Example: Hypodermis of Datura and
Nicotiana a.
Nucleus
Intercellular
2. Lacunar collenchyma thickenings
The collenchyma cells are irregularly
arranged. Cell wall is thickened on the walls
bordering intercellular spaces. Example:
Hypodermis of Ipomoea
b.
3. Lamellar collenchyma Lamellar

thickenings
The collenchyma cells are arranged
compactly in layers(rows). The Cell wall is
thickened only at tangential wall. devoid of
thickened at radial walls. These thickening c.
appear as successsive tangential layers. Figure 9.6: Types of Collenchyma
Example: Hypodermis of Helianthus a) Angular collenchyma, b) Lacunar collenchyma,
c) Lamellar collenchyma
172

Annular Collenchyma: Duchaigne (1955)
Macro
Sclereid
reported another type called Annular Lumen cell

Lumen
collenchyma in petiole of Nerium. The Thick cell wall
lumen is more or less circular in shape.

Pith
a. b.
Sclerenchyma (Gk. Sclerous- hard:
enchyma-an infusion)
Lumen
The sclerenchyma is dead cell and Thick
cell wall
Thick
lacks protoplasm. The cells are long or cell wall
Lumen
short, narrow thick walled and lignified
secondary walls. The cell walls of these
cells are uniformly and strongly thickened.
d.
sclerenchymatous cells are of two types: c.
1. Sclereids
2. Fibres Tricho
Sclereids
Sclereids (Stone Cells)
Sclereids are dead cells, usually these are
isodiametric but some are elongated too. The
cell wall is very thick due to lignification.
Lumen is very much reduced. The pits may e.
simple or branched. Sclereids are mechanical Figure 9.7: Types of sclereids

in function. They give hard texture to the a) Brachysclereids, b) Macrosclereids,
seed coats, endosperms etc., Sclereids are c) Osteosclereids, d) Astrosclereids,
classified into the following types. e) Trichosclereids
Types of Sclereids
1. Brachysclereids or Stone cells: 2. Macrosclereids:
Isodiametric sclereids, with hard cell Elongated and rod shaped cells, found in the
wall. It is found in bark, pith cortex, hard outer seed coat of leguminous plants. Example:
endosperm and fleshy portion of some fruits. Crotalaria and Pisum sativum.
Example: - Pulp of Pyrus.
3. Osteosclereids (Bone cells):

Rod shaped with dilated ends. They occur in leaves and seed coats. Example: seed coat of Pisum and Hakea
4. Astrosclereids: 5. Trichosclereids:
Star cells with lobes or arms diverging from a Hair like thin walled sclereids. Numerous small
central body. They occur in petioles and leaves. angular crystals are embedded in the wall of
Example: Tea, Nymphae and Trochodendron. these sclereids, present in stems and leaves of
hydrophytes. Example: Nymphaea leaf and
Aerial roots of Monstera.
Sclerenchyma Found in Some Fruits
Fibres
Fibres are very much elongated sclerenchyma
cells with pointed tips. Fibres are dead cells and
have lignified walls with narrow lumen. They
Figure 9.8: a) Pear fruit, have simple pits. They provide mechanical
b) Strawberry, c) Guava strength and protect them from the strong
173

wind. It is also called supporting tissues. Fibres a. Surface Fibres: Example: Cotton.
have a great commercial value in cottage and b. Soft Fibres: Example: Flax, Jute and
textile industries. Ramie
c. Hard fibres: Example: Sisal, Coconut,
Fibres are the longest Pineapple, Abaca etc.
plant cells. Longest Fibres 2. Brush fibre: Fibres utilized for the
occur in Boehmeria manufacture of brushes and brooms.
(Ramie fibre) 55 cm long
3. Rough weaving fibres: Fibres utilized in
making baskets, chairs, mats etc.
Fibres are of five types 4. Paper making fibres: Wood fibres utilized
1. Wood Fibres or Xylary Fibres for paper making.
Pointed
These fibres are associated end 5. Filling fibres: Fibres used for stuffing
with the secondary xylem cushions, mattresses, pillows, furniture etc.
tissue. They are also called Example: Bombax and Silk cotton.
xylary fibres. These fibres are Complex Tissues
derived from the vascular A complex tissue is a tissue with several types
cambium. These are of two of cells but all of them function together as
types. a. Libriform fibres a single unit. It is of two types – xylem and
b. Fibre tracheids phloem.
2. Bastfibres or Extra Xylary Lumen Xylem or Hadrome
Fibres The xylem is the principal water conducting
These fibres are present in the tissue in a vascular plant. The term xylem
phloem. Natural Bast fibres was introduced by Nageli(1858) and is
are strong and cellulosic. Figure 9.9 T.S of derived from the Gk. Xylos – wood. The
Fibres obtaining from the fibre xylem which is derived from Procambium is
phloem or outer bark of jute, kenaf, flax and called primary xylem and the xylem which
hemp plants. The so called pericyclic fibres are is derived from vascular cambium is called
actually phloem fibres. secondary xylem. Early formed primary
3. Surface Fibres xylem elements are called protoxylem,
These fibres are produced from the surface of whereas the later formed primary xylem
the plant organs. Cotton and silk cotton are the elements are called metaxylem.
examples.They occur in the testa of seeds. Protoxylem lies towards the periphery
and metaxylem that lies towards the centre is
4. Mesocarp Fibres called Exarch. It is common in roots.
Fibres obtained from the mesocarp of drupes Protoxylem lies towards the centre and
like coconut. meta xylem towards the periphery this
5. Leaf Fibres condition is called Endarch. It is seen in stems.
Fibres obtained from the leaf of Musa, Agave Protoxylem is located in the centre
and Sensciveria. surrounded by the metaxylem is called
Centrarch. In this type only one vascular
Fibres in Our Daily Life strand is developed. Example: Selaginella sp.
Economically fibres may be grouped as follows Protoxylem is located in the centre
1. Textile Fibres: Fibres utilized for the surrounded by the metaxylem is called
manufacture of fabrics, netting and Mesarch.In this type several vascular strands
cordage etc. are developed. Example: Ophioglossum sp.
174

Student Activity many pores, it is called multiple perforation
Cell lab: students prepare the slide and plate. Example Liriodendron.
identify the different types tissues. The secondary wall thickening of vessels
are annular, spiral, scalariform, reticulate, or
Xylem Consists of Four Types of Cells
pitted as in tracheids, Vessels are chief water
1. Tracheids 3. Xylem Parenchyma
conducting elements in Angiosperms and
2. Vessels or Trachea 4. Xylem Fibres
absent in Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms.
Tracheids In Gnetum of Gymnosperm, vessels occur.
Tracheids are dead, lignified and elongated The main function is conduction of water,
cells with tapering ends. Its lumen is broader minerals and also offers mechanical strength.
than that of fibres. In cross section, the
Xylem Fibre
tracheids are polygonal.
The fibres of sclerenchyma associated with
There are different types of cell wall the xylem are known as xylem fibres. Xylem
thickenings due to the deposition of fibres are dead cells and have lignified walls
secondary wall substances. They are annular
with narrow lumen. They cannot conduct
(ring like), spiral (spring like), scalariform
water but being stronger provide mechanical
(ladder like) reticulate (net like) and pitted
strength. They are present in both primary
(uniformly thick except at pits). Tracheids are
and secondary xylem. Xylem fibres are also
imperforated cells with bordered pits on their
called libriform fibres.
side walls. Only through this conduction takes
place in Gymnosperms. They are arranged The fibres are abundantly found in many
one above the other. Tracheids are chief water plants. They occur in patches, in continuous
conducting elements in Gymnosperms and bands and sometimes singly among other
Pteridophytes. They also offer mechanical cells. Between fibres and normal tracheids,
support to the plants. there are many transitional forms which are
neither typical fibres nor typical tracheids.
The transitional types are designated as fibre-
tracheids. The pits of fibre-tracheids are smaller
than those of vessels and typical tracheids.
Vessels are found in

Gymnosperms like Ephedra,
Gnetum and Welwitschia
Annular Spiral Scalariform Reticulate Pitted thickening
Vesselless angiospermic families Winteraceae,
Figure 9.10: Types of secondary wall Tetracentraceae and Trochodendracae.
thickenings in tracheids and vessels
Vessels or Trachea Xylem Parernchyma
Vessels are elongated tube like structure. They The parenchyma cells
are dead cells formed from a row of vessel associated with the xylem are
elements placed end to end. They are perforated known as xylem parenchyma.
at the end walls. Their lumen is wider than These are the only living
Tracheids. Due to the dissolution of entire cell cells in xylem tissue. The cell
wall, a single pore is formed at the perforation wall is thin and made up of
plate. It is called simple perforation plate, cellulose. Parenchyma arranged longitudinally
Example: Mangifera. If the perforation plate has along the long axis is called axial parenchyma.
175

Ray parenchyma is arranged in radial rows. protein (P. Protein = Phloem Protein) called
Secondary xylem consists of both axial and ray slime body is seen in it. In mature sieve
parenchyma, Parenchyma stores food materials tubes, the pores in the sieve plate are blocked
and also helps in conduction of water. by a substance called callose (callose plug).
Phloem to leptome The conduction of food material takes place
Phloem is the food conducting complex tissues through cytoplasmic strands. Sieve tubes
of vascular plants. The term phloem was occur only in Angiosperms.
coined by C. Nageli (1858). The Phloem which Sieve plate
is derived from procambium is called primary
phloem and the phloem which is derived from Sieve tube
vascular cambium is called secondary phloem.
Early formed primary phloem elements Phloem
parenchyma
are called protophloem whereas the later
formed primary phloem elements are called
metaphloem. Protophloem is short lived. It
Companian
gets crushed by the developing metaphloem. Cells
Phloem Consists of Four Types of Cells

1. Sieve elements 3. Phloem
2. Companion cells parenchyma
Figure 9.11: Different types of
4. Phloem fibres
phloemelements
Sieve Elements
Sieve elements are the conducting elements Companion Cells
of the phloem. They are of two types, namely The thin walled, elongated, specialized
sieve cells and sieve tubes. parenchyma cells, which are associated with
Sieve Cells the sieve elements, are called companion cells.
These are primitive type of conducting These cells are living and they have cytoplasm
elements found in Pteridophytes and and a prominent nucleus. They are connected
Gymnosperms. Sieve cells have sieve areas on to the sieve tubes through pits found in the
their lateral walls only. They are not associated lateral walls. Through these pits cytoplasmic
with companion cells. connections are maintained between these
elements. These cells are helpful in maintaining
Sieve Tubes
the pressure gradient in the sieve tubes.
Sieve tubes are long tube like conducting Usually the nuclei of the companion cells
elements in the phloem. These are formed serve for the nuclei of sieve tubes as they lack
from a series of cells called sieve tube elements. them. The companion cells are present only
The sieve tube elements are arranged one in Angiosperms and absent in Gymnosperms
above the other and form vertical sieve tube. and Pteridophytes. They assist the sieve tubes
The end wall contains a number of pores and in the conduction of food materials.
it looks like a sieve. So it is called as sieve plate.
Phloem Parenchyma
The sieve elements show nacreous thickenings
on their lateral walls. They may possess simple The parenchyma cells associated with the
or compound sieve plates The function of phloem are called phloem parenchyma. These
sieve tubes are believed to be controlled by are living cells. They store starch and fats. They
campanion cells. also contain resins and tannins in some plants.
In mature sieve tube, nucleus is absent. It Primary phloem consists of axial parenchyma
contains a lining layer of cytoplasm. A special and secondary phloem consists of both axial
176

and ray parenchyma. They are present in fibres. They are narrow, vertically elongated
Pteridophytes,Gymnosperms and Dicots. cells with very thick walls and a small lumen.
Phloem Fibres (or) Bast Fibres Among the four phloem elements, phloem
fibres are the only dead tissue. These are the
The fibres of sclerenchyma associated with
strengthening as well as supporting cells.
phloem are called phloem fibres or bast
Concept Map
Plant tissues
Meristematic tissue: Permanent tissues:

Capable of active cell division. Lose the power of cell division.
Thin walled and living. Have definite shape, size and form.
Compactly arranged.
Found in root and shoot apex.
Simple tissues: Complex tissues:
One type of cells. More than one type
Based on position: of cells.
1. Apical Parenchyma:
2. Intercalary Thin walled,isodiametric, found in
3. Lateral all the parts. Xylem: Water
Types: conducting tissue.
1. Aerenchyma. 1. Tracheids: Dead,
Based on origin:
2. Storage parenchyma. elongated with
1. Primary 3. Stellate parenchyma. tapering end
2. Secondary 4. Chlorenchyma. 2. Vessels: Made of row
5. Prosenchyma. of dead cells
Based on function: Collenchyma: 3. Xylem fibres:
1. Periderm (Epidermis ) Hypodermal position. Provide Lignified and
2. Procambium (Primary mechanical strength. sclerenchymatous.
vascular tissues) Types: 4. Xylem parenchyma:
3. Ground meristem (Cortex 1. Angular collenchyma. Living and cellulosic
and Pith) 2. Lacunar collenchyma.
3. Lamellar collenchyma.
Phloem: Food
Based on division: Sclerenchyma: Dead cells and conducting tissue
1. Mass meristem: Divides in lignified walls. 1. Sieve elements: Sieve
all planes Types: cells & sieve tubes
2. Rib meristem: Anticlinal 1. Sclereids 2. Companion cells:
division in one plane 2. Fibres Only in Angiosperms.
3. Plate meristem: Anticlinal Sclereids: 3. Phloem parenchyma:
division in two planes. 1. Brachysclereids: Stone cells Living & absent in
2. Macro sclereids: Rod shaped Monocots.
Syncyte: Cell 3. Osteosclereids: Bone shaped 4. Phloem fibres:
which is formed 4. Astrosclereids: Star shaped Thick walled &
5. Trichosclereids: Hair cells sclerenchymatous,
by fusion of
giving mechanical
cells is called Fibres: strength.
Syncyte. 1. Wood fibres: xylary fibres
Example: Vessels (Dead 2. Bastfibres: Extra xylary fibres
syncyte), sieve tube (living 3. Surface fibres: Cottan
4. Mesocarp fibres: Coconut
syncyte) 5. Leaf fibres: Agave
177

Table 9.1: Different types of tissues
Distribution Main functions Nature Cell shape Wall materials
Parenchyma Cortex, Pith Packing tissue, Living Usually Mainly Cellulose
medullary rays and support, gaseous Isodiametric and Pectin
Packing tissues in exchange, food
vascular system storage
Collenchyma Outer region of cortex Mechanical Living Elongated, Mainly Cellulose,
as in angles of stems, Polygonal Pectin and Hemi-
mid-rib of leaves cellulose
Sclerenchyma Outer region of Mechanical Dead Elongated and Mainly Lignin
(a) Fibre cortex, pericycle Polygonal with
of stems, vascular tapering ends
bundles
(b) Sclereids Cortex, Pith, Phloem Mechanical Dead Roughly Mainly lignin
shells and stones of Protection Isodiametric
fruits and seed coats with much
variation
Tracheids and Vascular System Translocation of Dead Elongated and Mainly lignin
Vessels water and mineral Tubular
salts
Phloem Sieve Vascular System Translocation of Living Elongated and Cellulose,
tubes organic solutes Tubular Pectin and
Hemicellulose
Companion Vascular System Work in Living Elongated and Cellulose,
Cells association with narrow Pectin and
sieve tubes Hemicellulose
Difference Between Meristematic Tissue and Permanent Tissue

Meristematic tissue Permanent tissue
• Cells divide repeatedly • Do not divide
• Cells are undifferentiated • Cells are fully differentiated
• Cells are small and Isodiametric • Cells are variable in shape and size
• Intercellular spaces are absent • Intercellular spaces are present
• Vacuoles are absent • Vacuoles are present
• Cell walls are thin • Cell walls maybe thick or thin
• Inorganic inclusions are absent • Inorganic inclusions are present
Difference Between Collenchyma and Sclerenchyma

Collenchyma Sclerenchyma
• Living Cells • Dead cells
• Contains Protoplasm • Do not have protoplasm
• Cell walls are cellulosic • Cell walls are lignified
• Thickening of cell wall is not uniform • Thickening of cell wall is uniform
• Keeps the plant body soft • Keeps plant body stiff and hard
• Sometimes it has chloroplast • Do not have chloroplast
178

Difference between Fibre and Sclereids
Fibre Sclereids
• Long cells • Short cells
• Narrow, Elongated pointed ends • Usually short and broad
• Occurs in bundles • Occurs individually or in small groups
• Commonly unbranched • Maybe branched
• Derived directly from meristematic • Develops from secondary sclerosis of
tissue parenchyma cells
Difference between Tracheids and Fibres
Tracheids Fibres
• Not much elongated • Very long cells
• Possess oblique end walls • Possess tapering end walls
• Cell walls are not as thick as Fibres • Cell wall are thick and lignified
• Possess various types of thickenings • Possess only pitted thickenings
• Responsible for the conduction and also • Provide only mechanical support
mechanical support
Difference Between Sieve Cells and Sieve Tubes
Sieve cells Sieve tubes
• Have no companion cells • Have companion cells
• The sieve areas do not form sieve plates • The sieve areas are confined to sieve plates
• The sieve areas are not well differentiated • The sieve areas are well differentiated
• They are elongated cells and are quite • They consist of vertical cells placed
long with tapering end walls one above the other forming long tubes
connected at the walls by sieve pores
• The sieve are smaller and numerous • The sieve pores are longer and fewer
• Found in Pteridophytes and • Found in Angiosperms
Gymnosperms
9.3 The Tissue System

1. Epidermal tissue system (derived from
Introduction to Tissue System, Types and
protoderm)
Characteristics of tissue System
2. Ground tissue system (derived from
As you have learnt, the plant cells are ground meristem)
organised into tissues, in turn the tissues 3. Vascular tissue system (derived from
are organised into organs. Different organs procambium)
in a plant show differences in their internal
structure. This part of chapter deals with
Histology
the different type of internal structure of
(Greek. histos – web,
various plant organs and its adaptations to
logos – science) It is
diverse environments.
the study of tissues,
A group of tissues performing a similar their composition, and
function, irrespective of its position in the structure as observed with the help of
plant body, is called a tissue system. In 1875, microscope.
German Scientist Julius Von Sachs recognized
three tissue systems in the plants. They are:
179

Table 9.2: Types and characteristics of tissue systems
S.No. Types/ Epidermal tissue Ground or Vascular or
Characters system fundamental tissue conduction tissue
system system
1. Formation Forms the outermost Forms the ground Forms the
covering protoderm meristem procambial bundles
2. Components epidermal cells, Simple permanent Xylem and Phloem
stomata and tissues – Parenchyma
epidermal outgrowths and Collenchyma
3. Functions Protection of plant Gives mechanical Conducts water
body; absorption support to the and food; gives
of water in roots; organs; prepares and mechanical strength
gas exchange for stores food in leaf
photosynthesis and stem
and respiration;
transpiration in shoots
9.4 Epidermal Tissue System
Introduction
Subsidiary cell
Epidermal tissue system is the outer most
covering of plants. It is in direct contact with
external environment. It consists of epidermis
derived from protoderm.Epidermis is derived
from two Greek words, namely ‘Epi’ and Figure 9.12: (a) Stoma with bean-shaped
‘Derma’. ‘Epi’ means upon and ‘Derma’ means guard cells. (b) Stoma with dumb-bell
skin. It is made up of single layer of parenchyma shaped guard cells
cells which are arranged compactly without
intercellular spaces. Although epidermis is Check Your Grasp!
a continuous outer layer, it is interrupted by In which group of plants the guard cells
stomata in many plants. are dumb-bell shaped?
Leaf Epidermis Grasses and sedges
The leaf is generally dorsiventral. It has upper
Subsidiary Cells
and lower epidermis. The epidermis is usually
made up of a single layer of cells that are Stomata are minute pores surrounded by two
closely packed. Generally the cuticle on the guard cells. The stomata occur mainly in the
upper epidermis is thicker than that of lower epidermis of leaves. In some plants addition
epidermis. The minute openings found on the to guard cells, specialised epidermal cells
epidermis are called stomata (singular: stoma). are present which are distinct from other
A stoma is surrounded by a pair of specialised epidermal cells. They are called Subsidiary
epidermal cells called guard cells. In most dicots cells. Based on the number and arrangement
and monocots the guard cells are bean-shaped. of subsidiary cells around the guard cells,
While in grasses and sedges, the guard cells the various types of stomata are recognised.
are dumbbell- shaped. The guard cells contain The guard cells and subsidiary cells help
chloroplasts, whereas the other epidermal cells in opening and closing of stomata during
normally do not have them. gaseous exchange and transpiration.
180

Epidermal Outgrowths Functions of Epidermal Tissue System
There are many types of epidermal outgrowths 1. This system in the shoot checks excessive
in stems. The unicellular or multicellular loss of water due to the presence of
appendages that originate from the epidermal cuticle.
cells are called trichomes. Trichomes may 2. Epidermis protects the underlying
be branched or unbranched and are one or tissues.
more one celled thick. They assume many 3. Stomata is involved in transpiration and
shapes and sizes. They may also be glandular gaseous exchange.
(Example: Rose, Ocimum) or non-glandular. 4. Trichomes are also helpful in the
The trichomes on the dispersal of seeds and fruits, and provide
leaves of insectivorous protection against animals.
plants secrete 5. Prickles also provide protection against
mucopolysaccharides animals and they also check excessive
that trap insects. transpiration
6. In some rose plants they also help in
Piliferous layer of the root has two types of climbing.
epidermal cells, long cells and short cells. 7. Glandular hairs repel herbivorous
The short cells are called trichoblasts. animals.
Trichoblasts are elongate into root hairs.
Epidermal hairs can also be in the form 9.5 Fundamental Tissue System
of stellate hairs (star shaped) present in The ground or fundamental tissue system
plants. Example: styrax, many members of constitutes the main body of the plants. It
Malvaceae and Solanaceae. includes all the tissues except epidermis
Long Short cell
and vascular tissues. In monocot stem,
cell (Trichoblast) ground tissue system is a continuous mass
of parenchymatous tissue in which vascular
bundles are found scattered. Hence ground
tissue is not differentiated into cortex,
Unicellular Uniseriate Branched Rhizodermis
endodermis, pericycle and pith. Generally
hair unbranched multiseriate and root hairs in dicot stem, ground tissue system is
hair hair
differentiated into three main zones –
cortex, pericycle and pith. It is classified into
extrastelar ground tissue (Examples: cortex
Stellate hairs and endodermis) and intrastelar ground
tissue (Examples: pericycle, medullary ray
Figure 9.13: Types of Trichomes and pith)
Prickles Extrastelar Ground Tissue
Prickles, are one The ground tissues present outside the stele
type of epidermal is called extrastelar ground tissue. (Cortex)
emergences with
Intrastelar Ground Tissue
no vascular supply.
The ground tissues present within the
They are stiff and
stele are called intrastelar ground tissues.
sharp in appearance.
(pericycle, medullary rays and pith).
(Example: Rose). Figure 9.14: Prickles
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Different Components of Ground Tissue cells with intercellular spaces. The cells in the
Systems are as follows pith generally stores starch, fatty substances,
Hypodermis tannins, phenols, calcium oxalate crystals, etc.
One or two layers of continuous or
discontinuous tissue present below the Albuminous Cells: The cytoplasmic
epidermis, is called hypodermis. It is nucleated parenchyma, is associated
protective in function. with the sieve cells of Gymnosperms.
In dicot stem, hypodermis is generally Albuminous cells in Conifers are analogous
collenchymatous, whereas in monocot stem, it to companion cells of Angiosperms. It
is generally sclerenchymatous. In many plants also called as strasburger cells.
collenchyma form the hypodermis.
General Cortex 9.6 Vascular Tissue System
The Cortex occurs between the epidermis This section deals with the vascular tissue
and pericycle. Cortex is a few to many layers system of gymnosperms and angiosperms
in thickness, In most cases, it is made up of stems and roots.The vascular tissue system
parenchymatous tissues. Intercellular spaces consists of xylem and phloem. The elements
may or may not be present. of xylem and phloem are always organized in
The cortical cells may contain non living groups. They are called vascular bundles.
inclusions of starch grains, oil, tannins and The stems of both groups have an
crystals. eustele while roots are protostele. In eustelic
Its general function is storage of food as well organization, the stele contains usually a ring of
as providing mechanical support to organs. vascular bundles separated by interfascicular
Endodermis region or medullary ray
The cells of this layer are barrel shaped and The structural and organizational variation
arranged compactly without intercellular spaces. in vascular bundles is shown below.
Endodermis is the
Types of vascular Bundles
innermost cortical layer that
Concentric
separates cortex from the stele. Radial Conjoint
Pericycle Xylem and phloem are present on Xylem and phloem Xylem and phloem are
different radii alternating with each are present on the present in concentric
Pericycle is single or few other. The bundles are separated same radius in one circles one around the
by parenchymatous tissue. bundle. ( All stems ) other in some stems.
layered parenchymatous found (Monocot and Dicot roots)
inner to the endodermis.

It is the outermost layer Collateral Bicollateral
of the stele. Rarely thick
walled sclerenchymatous. In Xylem placed towards inside Phloem occurs on both the
outer and inner sides of xylem
angiosperms, pericycle gives and phloem towards outside
Example: Cucurbitaceae
rise to lateral roots.

Open Closed
Pith or Medulla Amphicribral/Hadrocentric Amphivasal/Leptocentric
Cambium is
The central part of the ground Cambium is present
between xylem and absent Xylem lies in the centre
between Phloem lies in the centre
tissue is known as pith or phloem. (Stems of
xylem and
with phloem surrounding
with xylem surrounding it.
Dicots and it. Example: Ferns
medulla. Generally this is made Gymnosperms) phloem.
Stems of
(Polypodium) dicots Example: Dragon plant-
and aquatic Dracena and Yucca
up of thin walled parenchyma Monocots)
angiosperms
182

Outer Phloem Figure 9.15:
Phloem
Outer Cambium Types of vascular
Cambium
Xylem bundles
(a) and (b)
Xylem Inner Cambium
- Conjoint,
Inner Phloem
collateral and
a c e open; (c) and
Outer Phloem (d) - Conjoint,
Phloem Outer Cambium collateral and
Cambium Xylem closed
Xylem
Inner Cambium (e) and (f)
Inner Phloem - Conjoint,
b d f bicollateral and
open; (g) and (h)
Xylem Xylem - Concentric and
Phloem Phloem
amphicribral;
(i) and (j) -
g i k
Concentric and
amphivasal;
Xylem
Xylem (k) and (l) -
Phloem
Phloem Radial
h j l
9.7 Comparison of Primary Structure Cortex

Cortex consists of only parenchyma cells.
– Dicot and Monocot Root, Stem
These cells are loosely arranged with
and Leaf
intercellular spaces to make gaseous exchange
Primary Structure of Dicot Root – Bean Root easier. These cells may store food reserves. The
The transverse section of the dicot root (Bean) cells are oval or rounded in shape. Sometimes
shows the following plan of arrangement of they are polygonal due to mutual pressure.
tissues from the periphery to the centre. Though chloroplasts are absent in the cortical
Piliferous Layer or Epiblema cells, starch grain are stored in them. The cells
also possess leucoplasts. The innermost layer
The outermost layer of the root is called
of the cortex is endodermis. Endodermis
piliferous layer or epiblema. It is made up is made up of single layer of barrel shaped
of single layer of parenchyma cells which are parenchymatous cells. Stele is completely
arranged compactly without intercellular surrounded by endodermis. The radial and
spaces. It is devoid of epidermal pores and the inner tangential walls of endodermal
cuticle. It possesses root hairs which are single cells are thickened with suberin and lignin.
celled. It absorbs water and mineral salts from This thickening was first noted by Robert
the soil. The chief function of piliferous layer Casparay in 1965. So these thickenings are
is protection. called casparian strips. But these casparian
183

strips are absent in the endodermis cells which separated is called conjunctive tissue. In
are located opposite the protoxylem elements. bean, the conjuctive tissue is composed
These thin-walled cells without casparian of parenchyma tissue. Xylem is in exarch
strips are called passage cells through which condition. The number of protoxylem points
water and mineral salts are conducted from is four and so the xylem is called tetrach.
the cortex to the xylem elements. Water Each phloem patch consists of sieve tubes,
cannot pass through other endodermal cells companion cells and phloem parenchyma.
due to the presence of casparian thickenings. Metaxylem vessels are generally polygonal in
shape. But in monocot roots they are circular.
Stele
All the tissues present inside endodermis Primary Structure of Monocot
comprise the stele. It includes pericycle and Root-maize Root
vascular system.
The transverse section of the monocot
Pericycle root (maize) shows the following plan of
Pericycle is generally a single layer of arrangement of tissues from the periphery
parenchymatous cells found inner to the to the centre.
endodermis. It is the outermost layer of the
stele. Lateral roots originate from the pericycle. Root hair
Root hair
Thus, the lateral roots are endogenous in origin. Piliferous layer
Piliferous layer
Cortex
Cortex
Endodermis
Root hair Endodermis
Piliferous layer Pith
Pith
Cortex
Phloem
Metaxylem
Conjunctive tissue Ground plan
Ground plan
Root hair
Ground plan Root hair
Piliferous layer
Piliferous layer
Root hair
Piliferous layer
Cortex
Cortex Cortex
Passage cell
Passage cell
Casparian strip
Casparian strip
Endodermis
Endodermis
Pericycle
Pericycle
Endodermis Passage cell
Passage cell
Phloem Phloem
Phloem
Pericycle Protoxylem
Protoxylem
Metaxylem
Protoxylem
Metaxylem
Conjunctive tissue Pith
Pith
Metaxylem
Casparian strip A sector enlarged
Passage cell A sector enlarged
A sector enlarged Figure 9.17: T.S of Monocot root (Maize root)

Figure 9.16: T.S. of Dicot root (Bean root) Piliferous Layer or Epiblema
Vascular System The outermost layer of the root is known as
Vascular tissues are in radial arrangement. piliferous layer. It consists of a single row of
The tissue by which xylem and phloem are thin-walled parenchymatous cells without
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any intercellular space. Epidermal pores are opposite the protoxylem elements, are
and cuticle are absent in the piliferous layer. thin walled without casparian strips. These
Root hairs that are found in the piliferous cells are called passage cells. Their function
layers are always unicellular. They absorb is to transport water and dissolved salts
water and mineral salts from the soil. Root from the cortex to the xylem. Water cannot
hairs are generally short lived. The main pass through other endodermal cells due
function of piliferous layer is protection of to casparian strips. The main function of
casparian strips in the endodermal cells is to
the inner tissues.
prevent the re-entry of water into the cortex
Cortex once water entered the xylem tissue.
The cortex is homogenous. i.e. the cortex Stele
is made up of only one type of tissue called All the tissues inside the endodermis
parenchyma. It consists of many layers of
comprise the stele. This includes pericycle,
thin-walled parenchyma cells with lot of
vascular system and pith.
intercellular spaces. The function of cortical
cells is storage. Cortical cells are generally Pericycle
oval or rounded in shape. Chloroplasts are Pericycle is the outermost layer of the stele
absent in the cortical cells, but they store and lies inner to the endodermis. It consists
starch. The cells are living and possess of single layer of parenchymatous cells.
leucoplasts. The inner layer of the cortex
is endodermis. It is composed of single Vascular System
layer of barrel shaped parenchymatous Vascular tissues are seen in radial
cells. This forms a complete ring around arrangement. The number of protoxylem
the stele. There is a band like structure groups is many. This arrangement of xylem
made of suberin and lignin present in the is called polyarch. Xylem is in exarch
radial and inner tangential walls of the condition, the tissue which is present
endodermal cells. They are called casparian between the xylem and the phloem, is called
strips named after casparay who first noted conjunctive tissue. In maize, the conjunctive
the strips. The endodermal cells, which tissue is made up of sclerenchymatous tissue.
Anatomical differences between dicot root and monocot root

S.No. Characters Dicot root Monocot root
1. Pericyle Gives rise to lateral roots, Gives rise to lateral roots only.
phellogen and a part of
vascular cambium.
2. Vascular tissue Usually limited number of Usually more number of xylem
xylem and phloem strips. and phloem strips,
3. Conjunctive Parenchymatous; Its cells Mostly sclerenchymatous but
tissue are differentiated into sometimes parenchymatous. It is
vascular cambium. never differentiated in to vascular
cambium.
4. Cambium It appears as a secondary It is altogether absent.
meristem at the time of
secondary growth.
5. xylem Usually tetrach Usually polyarch
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Pith Stele
The central portion is occupied by a large The central part of the stem inner to the
pith. It consists of thin-walled parenchyma endodermis is known as stele. It consists of
cells with intercellular spaces. These cells pericyle, vascular bundles and pith. In dicot
are filled with abundant starch grains. stem, vascular bundles are arranged in a ring
around the pith. This type of stele is called
Primary Structure of Dicot Stem eustele.
(Sunflower stem)
The transverse section of the dicot stem Pericycle
(Sunflower) shows the following plan of Pericycle is the layers of cells that occur between
the endodermis and vascular bundles. In the
arrangement of tissues from the periphery
stem of sunflower (Helianthus),a few layers
to the centre.
of sclerenchyma cell occur in patches outside
Epidermis the phloem in each vascular bundle. This
It is protective in function and forms the patch of sclerenchyma cell is called Bundle
outermost layer of the stem. It is a single layer cap or Hardbast. The bundle caps and the
of parenchymatous rectangular cells. The cells parenchyma cells between them constitute
are compactly arranged without intercellular the pericycle in the stem of sunflower.
spaces. The outer walls of epidermal cells Vascular Bundles
have a layer called cuticle. The cuticle checks The vascular bundles consist of xylem,
the transpiration. The cuticle is made up of phloem and cambium. Xylem and phloem
waxy substance known as cutin. Stomata may in the stem occur together and form the
be present here and there. A large number of vascular bundles. These vascular bundles
multicellular hairs occur on the epidermis. are Wedge shaped. They are arranged in
the form of a ring. Each vascular bundle is
Cortex conjoint, collateral, open and endarch.
Cortex lies below the epidermis. The cortex
is differentiated into three zones. Below the Phloem
epidermis, there are few layers of collenchyma Phloem consists of sieve tubes, companion
cells. This zone is called hypodermis. It gives cells and phloem parenchyma. Phloem fibres
mechanical strength of the Stem. These cells are absent in the primary phloem. Phloem
are living and thickened at the corners. conducts organic food materials from the
leaves to other parts of the plant body.
Inner to the hypodermis, a few layers
of chlorenchyma cells are present with Cambium
conspicuous intercellular spaces. This region Cambium consists of brick shaped and thin
performs photosynthesis. Some resin ducts walled meristematic cells. It is one to four
also occur here. The third zone is made up layers in thickness. These cells are capable of
of parenchyma cells. These cells store food forming new cells during secondary growth.
materials. The innermost layer of the cortex is Xylem
called endodermis. The cells of this layer are Xylem consists of xylem fibres, xylem
barrel shaped and arrange compactly without parrenchyma vessels and tracheids. Vessels
intercellular spaces. Since starch grains are are thick walled and arranged in a few rows.
abundant in these cells, this layer is also known Xylem conducts water and minerals from the
a starch sheath. This layer is morphologically root to the other parts of the plant body.
homologous to the endodermis found in the Pith or medulla
root. In most of the dicot stems, endodermis The large central portion of the stem is called
with casparian strips is not developed. pith. It is composed of parenchyma cells
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with intercellular spaces. The pith extends Ground Tissue
between the vascular bundles. are called There is no distinction into cortex,
primary pith rays or primary medullary endodermis, pericycle and pith. The entire
rays. Function of the pith is storage of food. mass of parenchyma cells lying inner to the
Epidermal hair
hypodermis forms the ground tissue.
Epidermis Epidermis
Hypodermis Hypodermis
Cortex Ground tissue
Endodermis Vascular
Pericycle bundles
Vascular bundle
Pith Ground plan
Ground plan
Epidermal hair Cuticle

Epidermis
Cuticle
Epidermis Hypodermis
Chlorenchyma
Collenchyma
Chlorenchyma
Resin duct
Vascular bundle
Parenchyma
Starch sheath Ground tissue
Bundle cap
Primary phloem
Crushed protophloem
Cambium
Metaphloem
Metaxylem
Metaxylem
Protoxylem
Protoxylem
Protoxylem lacuna
Pith Sclerenchymatous
Primary bundle sheath
medullary ray A sector enlarged
A sector enlarged
Figure 9.18: T. S of Dicot Stem Figure 9.19: T.S. of Monocot stem

(Sunflower stem) (Maize stem)
The cell wall is made up of cellulose.
Primary Structure of Monocot The cells contain reserve food material
Stem-maize Stem like starch. The cells of the ground tissue
Epidermis next to the hypodermis are smaller in size,
It is the outermost layer of the stem. It is polygonal in shape and compactly arranged.
made up of single layer of tightly packed Towards the centre, the cells are loosely
parenchymatous cells. Their outer walls are arranged, rounded in shape and bigger in
covered with thick cuticle. The continuity of size. The vascular bundles lie embedded in
this layer may be broken here and there by this tissue. The ground tissue stores food
the presence of a few stomata. There are no and performs gaseous exchange.
epidermal outgrowths.
Vascular Bundles
Hypodermis Vascular bundles are scattered (atactostele)
A few layer of sclerenchymatous cells in the parenchymatous ground tissue. Each
lying below the epidermis constitute the vascular bundle is surrounded by a sheath
hypodermis. This layer gives mechanical of sclerenchymatous fibres called bundle
strength to the plant. It is interrupted here and sheath. The vascular bundles are conjoint,
there by chlorenchyma cells. collateral, endarch and closed.Vascular
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Table 9.4: Anatomical differences between dicot stem and monocot stem
S.No. Characters Dicot Stem Monocot Stem
1. Hypodermis Collenchymatous Sclerenchymatous
2. Ground tissue Differentiated into cortex, Not differentiated, but it is a
endodermis and pericycle and pith continuous mass of parenchyma.
3. Starch Sheath Present Absent
4. Medullary rays Present Absent
5. Vascular (a) Collateral and open (a) Collateral and closed
bundles (b) Arranged in a ring (b) Scattered in ground tissue
(c) Secondary growth occurs (c) Secondary growth usually
does not occur.
bundles are numerous, small and closely are more in number on the lower epidermis
arranged in the peripheral portion. Towards than on the upper epidermis. A stomata is
the centre, the bundles are comparatively surrounded by a pair of bean shaped cells
large in size and loosely a rranged. Vascular called guard cells.
bundles are skull or oval shaped. Each stoma internally opens into an
Phloem air chamber. These guard cells contain
The phloem in the monocot stem consists chloroplasts, whereas other epidermal cells
of sieve tubes and companion cells. Phloem do not contain chloroplasts. The main
parenchyma and phloem fibres are absent. It function of the epidermis is to give protection
can be distinguished into an outer crushed to the inner tissue called mesosphyll. The
protophloem and an inner metaphloem. cuticle helps to check transpiration. Stomata
are used for transpiration and gas exchange.
Xylem
Mesophyll
Xylem vessels are arranged in the form of ’Y’
The entire tissue between the upper and
the two metaxylem vessels are located at the
lower epidermis is called the mesophyll
upper two arms and one or two protoxylem
(GK meso = in the middle, phyllome
vessels at the base. In a mature bundle, the
= leaf). There are two regions in the
lowest protoxylem disintegrates and forms a
mesophyll. They are palisade parenchyma
cavity known as protoxylem lacuna.
and spongy parenchyma. Palisade
Anatomy of a Dicot Leaf-sunflower Leaf parenchyma cells are seen beneath the upper
Internal structure of dictoyledonous leaves epidermis. It consists of vertically elongated
reveal epidermis, Mesophyll and vascular cylindrical cells in one or more layers.
tissues. These cells are compactly arranged and
are generally without intercellular spaces.
Epidermis Palisade parenchyma cells contain more
This leaf is generally dorsiventral. It has chloroplasts than the spongy parenchyma
upper and lower epidermis. The epidermis cells. The function of palisade parenchyma
is usually made up of a single layer of cells is photosynthesis. Spongy parenchyma lies
that are closely packed. The cuticle on the below the palisade parenchyma. Spongy
upper epidermis is thicker than that of lower cells are irregularly shaped. These cells
epidermis. The minute openings found on are very loosely arranged with numerous
the epidermis are called stomata. Stomata airspaces. As compared to palisade cells,
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the spongy cells contain lesser number The number of stomata is more or less
of chloroplasts. Spongy cells facilitate the equal on both the epidermis. The stomata is
exchange of gases with the help of air surrounded by dumb – bell shaped guard
spaces. The air space that is found next to cells. The guard cells-contain chloroplasts,
the stomata is called respiratory cavity or whereas the other epidermal cells do not
substomatal cavity. have them.
Vascular Tissues Some special cells surround the guard cells.
They are distinct from other epidermal cells.
Vascular tissues are present in the veins of leaf.
Vascular bundles are conjoint, Collateral These cells are called subsidiary cells.
and closed. Xylem is present towards the Some cells of upper epidermis are large
upper epidermis, while the phloem towards and thin walled. They are called bulliform
the lower epidermis. Vascular bundles cells or motor cells. These cells are helpful
are surrounded by a compact layer of for the rolling and unrolling of the leaf
parenchymatous cells called bundle sheath according to the weather change.
or border parenchyma. Some of the epidermal cells of the grass are
Xylem consists of metaxylem and filled with silica. They are called silica cells.
protoxylem elements. Protoxylem is present
Mesophyll
towards the upper epidermis,while the
phloem consists of sieve tubes, companion The ground tissue that is present between
cells and phloem parenchyma. Phloem the upper and lower epidermis of the leaf
fibres are absent. Xylem consists of vessels is called mesophyll. Here, the mesophyll is
and xylem parenchyma. Tracheids and not differentiated into palisade and spongy
xylem fibres are absent. parenchyma. All the mesophyll cells are
nearly isodiametric and thin walled. These
Cuticle cells are compactly arranged with
Upper epidermis
limited intercellular spaces. They contain
Palisade parenchyma
Protoxylem numerous chloroplasts.
Metaxylem
Spongy parenchyma Vascular Bundles
Phloem
Bundle sheath Vascular bundles differ in size. Most
Stoma
of the vascular bundles are smaller in
Epidermal hair
Lower epidermis size. Large bundles occur at regular
Respiratory cavity intervals.Two patches of sclerenchyma
Figure 9.22: T.S. of Dicot Leaf (Sunflower) are present above and below the large
vascular bundles. These sclerenchyma
Anatomy of a Monocot Leaf – Grass Leaf patches give mechanical support to the leaf.
A transverse section of a grass leaf reveals The small vascular bundles do not have
the following internal structures. such sclerenchymatous patches. Vascular
Epidermis bundles are conjoint, collateral and closed.
Each vascular bundle is surrounded by a
The leaf has upper and lower epidermis.
parenchymatous bundle sheath. The cells of
They are made up of a single layer of thin
the bundle sheath generally contain starch
walled cells. The outer walls are covered by
grains. The xylem of the vascular bundle is
thick cuticle.
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located towards the upper epidermis and It consists of epidermal cells and associated
the phloem towards the lower epidermis.In structures. All tissues except epidermis and
C4 grasses, the bundle sheath cells are living vascular tissues constitute the ground tissue.
and involve in C4 photosynthesis. This The vascular tissue system is formed of
sheath is called Kranz sheath. vascular bundles.
Cuticle
In the primary structure, the
Upper epidermis
Sub-stomatal chamber
outermost layer of the root is called
MesophyII piliferous layer. Cortex consists
Bundle sheath
of only parenchyma cells. All the
Xylem
Phloem
tissues present inside endodermis
Lower epidermis comprise the stele. In dicot
Stoma (Example: bean) root, xylem is
Figure 9.21: T.S. of monocot leaf (Grass) tetrach. Its phloem patch consists
of sieve tubes, companion cells and phloem
Summary
parenchyma. In monocot (Example: maize)
A Tissue is a group of cells that are alike in root, xylem is polyarch.
origin, structure and function.There are two
In dicot (Example: sunflower) stem, stele is
principal groups: (1) Meristematic tissues
eustele type and its vascular bundles are wedge
and (2) Permanent tissues. Meristematic
shaped, conjoint, collateral, open and endarch.
tissues comprise of self-perpetuating cells.
In monocot stem (Example: maize) vascular
Meristems are classified into several types
bundles are scattered and skull shaped,
on the basis of position, origin, function
conjoint, collateral, closed and endarch.
and activity. Many anatomists illustrated
In dicot (Example: sunflower) and
the root and shoot apical meristems on
monocot (Example: grass) leaves vascular
the basis of the type and arrangement and
bundles are conjoint, collateral and closed.
accordingly proposed many theories. The
permanent tissues normally develop from Evaluation
apical meristem. They are classified into 1. Refer to the given figure and select the
two types: 1)Simple permanent tissues correct statement.
and 2)Complex permanent tissues. Simple
tissues are composed of a single type of cells
only. It is of three types: (1) Parenchyma A
B
(2) Collenchyma and (3) Sclerenchyma. A C
complex tissue is a tissue with several types
of cells but all of them function together as
a single unit. It is of two types – xylem and
phloem. Secretory tissues produce different i. A, B, and C are histogen of shoot apex
types of chemicals. Some are in the form of ii. A Gives rise to medullary rays.
enzymes, hormones, rubber, gum etc. iii. B Gives rise to cortex
The tissues can be classified on the basis iv. C Gives rise to epidermis
of their function, structure and location
a. i and ii only c. i and iii only
into epidermal tissue system, ground
tissue system and vascular tissue system. b. ii and iii only d. iii and iv only
Epidermal tissue system develops as the 2. Read the following sentences and
outermost covering of the entire plant body. identify the correctly matched sentences.
190

i. In exarch condition, the protoxylem a. Xylem would be on top and the
lies outside of metaxylem. phloem on the bottom
ii. In endarch condition, the b. Phloem would be on top and the
protoxylem lie towords the centre. xylem on the bottom
iii. In centarch condition, metaxylem c. Xylem would encircle the phloem
lies in the middle of the protoxylem. d. Phloem would encircle the xylem
iv. In mesarch condition, protoxylem 5. Grafting is successful in dicots but not
lies in the middle of the metaxylem. in monocots because the dicots have
a. i, ii and iii only a. Vascular bundles arranged in a ring
b. ii, iii and iv only b. Cambium for secondary growth
c. i, ii and iv only c. Vessels with elements arranged end
d. All of these to end
3. In Gymnosperms, the activity of sieve d. Cork cambium
cells are controlled by 6. Why the cells of sclerenchyma and
a. Nearby sieve tube members. tracheids become dead?
b. Phloem parenchyma cells 7. Explain sclereids with their types.
c. Nucleus of companion cells. 8. What are sieve tubes ? Explain.
d. Nucleus of albuminous cells. 9. Distinguish the anatomy of dicot root
4. When a leaf trace extends from a from monocot root.
vascular bundle in a dicot stem, what 10. Distinguish the anatomy of dicot stem
would be the arrangement of vascular from monocot stem.
tissues in the veins of the leaf?
t ICT Corner
Plant and Animal Tissues

Let’s explore Plant tissues.
Steps
• Scan the QR code or go to Google play store
• Select biology and select plant and animal tissues
• Click free sign up and provide your basic information with valid mail-Id
• Login with your registered mail id and password
• Choose theory tab to know the basic about anatomical structure
• Choose animation to view the sectioning process
Activity
• Choose simulation tab and view the section of plant parts under microscope
Step 1
Web URL: https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=in.edu.olabs.olabs&hl=en * Pictures are indicative only
191

Unit IV: Plant Anatomy
(Structural Organisation)
Chapter
10 Secondary Growth
Learning Objectives confers the hardness to wood of dicot stems

and roots. In monocots, usually there is no
The students should be able to, secondary growth and so they are soft.
• Analyze primary and secondary The increase in girth is called secondary
growth. growth or growth in girth and we shall
• Discuss the increase discuss the details of secondary growth in
in length and width of this chapter.
the plant. The plant organs originating from the
• Explain secondary apical meristems pass through a period of
growth in dicot stems. expansion in length and width. The roots
• Explain secondary growth in dicot and stems grow in length with the help of
roots. apical meristems. This is called primary
growth or longitudinal growth. The
gymnosperms and most angiosperms,
Chapter Outline including some monocots, show an
increase in thickness of stems and roots by
10.1 Secondary Growth in Dicot Stem
means of secondary growth or latitudinal
10.2 Secondary Growth in Dicot Root growth.
The secondary growth in dicots and
How do the trees increase their girth? gymnosperms is brought about by two
lateral meristems.
• Vascular Cambium and
• Cork Cambium
Activity
Generally monocots do not have
Figure 10.1: Taxus wood secondary growth, but palms and
bamboos have woody stems. Find the
reason.
We have studied in the previous chapters
the primary internal structure of monocots
and dicots. If you look at the stem of grass 10.1 Secondary Growth in Dicot Stem
(monocot), it is soft, whereas in the neem Vascular Cambium
(dicot), the stem is very hard and woody, The vascular cambium is the lateral
why? It is the secondary growth which meristem that produces the secondary
192

vascular tissues. i.e., secondary xylem and Fusiform Initials
secondary phloem. These are vertically elongated cells. They
give rise to the longitudinal or axial
Origin and Formation of Vascular system of the secondary xylem (treachery
Cambium elements, fibres, and axial parenchyma)
A strip of vascular cambium that is believed and phloem (sieve elements, fibers, and
to originate from the procambium is present axial parenchyma).
between xylem and phloem of the vascular Based on the arrangement of the fusiform
bundle. This cambial strip is known as initials, two types of vascular cambium are
intrafascicular or fascicular cambium. recognized.
In between the vascular bundles, a few
parenchymatous cells of the medullary rays Storied (Stratified cambium) and
that are in line with the fascicular cambium Non-Storied (Non-stratified cambium)
become meristematic and form strips of
vascular cambium. It is called interfascicular Ray initials
cambium.
Fusiform
This interfascicular cambium joins initials
with the intrafascicular cambium on both
sides to form a continuous ring. It is called a
a vascular cambial ring. The differences

Ray initials
between interfascicular and intrafascicular
cambia are summarised below:
Fusiform
initials
Intrafascicular Interfascicular
cambium cambium
b
Present inside the Present in between
Figure 10.2: Tangential longitudinal
vascular bundles the vascular bundles.
section (TLS) of cambium (a) Storied
Originates from the Originates from the cambium (b) Non-storied cambium
procambium. medullary rays.
If the fusiform initials are arranged in
Initially it forms a From the beginning horizontal tiers, with the end of the cells
part of the primary it forms a part of the of one tier appearing at approximately the
meristem. secondary meristem. same level, as seen in tangential longitudinal
Organization of Vascular Cambium section (TLS), it is called storied (stratified)
cambium. It is the characteristic of the
The cells of vascular cambium do not fit
plants with short fusiform initials. Whereas
into the usual description of meristems
in plants with long fusiform initials, they
which have isodiametric cells, with a dense
strongly overlap at the ends, and this type
cytoplasm and large nuclei. While the active
of cambium is called non-storied (non-
vascular cambium possesses cells with large
startified) cambium.
central vacuole (or vacuoles) surrounded by
a thin, layers of dense cytoplasm. Ray Initials
Further, the most important character of These are horizontally elongated cells.
the vascular cambium is the presence of two They give rise to the ray cells and form the
kinds of initials, namely, fusiform initials elements of the radial system of secondary
and ray initials. xylem and phloem.
193

Activity of Vascular Cambium
Xylotomy
The vascular cambial ring, when active, cuts The study of wood by
off new cells both towards the inner and preparing sections for
outer side. The cells which are produced microscopic observation.
outward form secondary phloem and
inward secondary xylem.
A Portion of cambium
The axial system consists of vertical files
a
of treachery elements, fibers, and wood
Cambium
parenchyma. Whereas the radial system
b
First formed xylem consists of rows of parenchymatous cells
Cambium oriented at right angles to the longitudinal
c Second formed xylem
axis of xylem elements.
First formed xylem The secondary xylem varies very greatly
Cambium
from species to species with reference to
Third formed xylem relative distribution of the different cell types,
d Second formed xylem
First formed xylem
density and other properties. It is of two types.
First formed phloem Porous Wood or Hard Wood

Cambium
e Third formed xylem Generally, the dicotyledonous wood, which
Second formed xylem
First formed xylem
has vessels is called porous wood or hard
First formed phloem wood. Example: Morus rubra.
Second formed phloem
Cambium Non- Porous Wood or Soft Wood
Fourth formed xylem
f Third formed xylem Generally, the gymnosperm wood, which
Second formed xylem
First formed xylem lacks vessels is known as non- porous wood
Figure 10.3: Diagrammatic representation or soft wood. Example: Pinus.
of vascular cambial activity (a–f)
At places, cambium forms some narrow
horizontal bands of parenchyma which
passes through secondary phloem and a b
xylem. These are the rays. Figure 10.4: Structure of porous (a)
Due to the continued formation of and non-porous wood (b)
secondary xylem and phloem through Differences between Porous Wood and
vascular cambial activity, both the primary Non-porous Wood
xylem and phloem get gradually crushed.
Porous wood or Non porous wood or
Secondary Xylem Hard wood, Soft wood,
The secondary xylem, also called wood, is Example: Morus Example: Pinus
formed by a relatively complex meristem, Common in Common in
the vascular cambium, consisting of angiosperms gymnosperms
vertically (axial) elongated fusiform initials Porous because it Non-porous because
and horizontally (radially) elongated ray contains vessels it does not contain
initials. vessels
194

Epidermis environmental factors. In temperate regions, the
Cortex
climatic conditions are not uniform throughout
Bundle cap
Primary Phloem the year. In the spring season, cambium is very
Fascicular cambium active and produces a large number of xylary
Primary Xylem
Inter fascicular cambium
elements having vessels/tracheids with wide
a
Pith
b
lumen. The wood formed during this season
Phellem (Cork)
is called spring wood or early wood. The
Phellogen (Cork cambium)
Phelloderm
tracheary elements are fairly thin walled. In
(Secondary cortex) winter, the cambium is less active and forms
Secondary Phloem
Vascular fewer xylary elements that have narrow vessels/
cambial ring
Secondary xylem tracheids and this wood is called autumn wood
Medullary ray or late wood.The treachery elements are with
narrow lumen, very thick walled.
c d
Figure 10.5: Secondary growth in dicot
stem (diagrammatic) - stages in transverse • Usually more
distinct annual rings
section (a–d)
are formed in the
Lenticel
Complementary cells
regions where climatic
Epidermis variations are sharp.
Cork (phellem) • Usually more distinct annual rings
(Periderm)
Cork cambium (Phellogen)

are formed in temperate plants and
Secondary cortex
(Phelloderm) not in tropical plants.
Collenchyma
• Usually least distinct annual rings
Parenchyma are formed in seashore region
because the climatic conditions
remain same throughout the year.
Secondary phloem
• Generally annual rings are also less
Cambium
Autumn wood
distinct in desert plants.
(secondary xylem)
Spring wood The spring wood is lighter in colour and has
(secondary xylem)
a lower density whereas the autumn wood is
darker and has a higher density.
Secondary medullary ray The annual ring denotes the combination of
early wood and late wood and the ring becomes
evident to our eye due to the high density of
late wood. Sometimes annual rings are called
Primary xylem growth rings but it should be remembered all
the growth rings are not annual. In some trees
Pith
more than one growth ring is formed with in a
year due to climatic changes.
Figure 10.6: Secondary growth in two year Additional growth rings are developed
old dicot stem – A portion enlarged within a year due to adverse natural
calamities like drought, frost, defoliation,
Annual Rings flood, mechanical injury and biotic factors
The activity of vascular cambium is under during the middle of a growing season,which
the control of many physiological and
195

results in the formation of more than one Differences Between Spring Wood and
annual ring. Such rings are called pseudo- Autumn Wood
or false- annual rings.
Each annual ring corresponds to one Spring wood or Autumn wood or
year’s growth and on the basis of these rings, Early wood Late wood
the age of a particular plant can easily be The activity of Activity of
calculated. The determination of the age of cambium is faster. cambium is slower
a tree by counting the annual rings is called Produces large Produces a fewer
dendrochronology. number of xylem xylem elements.
elements.
Importance of Studying Growth Rings
Xylem vessels/ Xylem vessels/
• Age of wood can be calculated. trachieds have wider trachieds have
• The quality of timber can be ascertained. lumen. narrow lumen.
• Radio-Carbon dating can be verified. Wood is lighter in Wood is darker in
• Past climate and archaeological dating colour and has lower colour and has a
can be made. density higher density.
• Provides evidence in forensic
Another feature of wood related to seasonal
investigation.
changes is the diffuse porous and ring porous
condition. On the basis of diameter of xylem
Dendroclimatology vessels, two main types of angiosperm
It is a branch of dendrochronology concerned
woods are recognized.
with constructing records of past climates
and climatic events by analysis of tree growth Diffuse porous woods
characteristics, especially growth rings. Diffuse porous woods are woods in which
the vessels or pores are rather uniform in size
Heart wood
Sap wood and distribution throughout an annual ring.
Early wood
Late wood Example: Acer
Ring porous woods
The pores of the early wood are distinctly
larger than those of the late wood. Thus
rings of wide and narrow vessels occur.
Example: Quercus
Figure 10.7: Structure of wood – Image Late wood
shows early wood and late wood

Early wood
Rays
Tyloses
The age of American, a b

Sequoiadendron tree is
Figure 10.8: Transverse section of wood
about 3500 years.
showing. a. Diffuse porous. b. Ring porous
196

In fully developed tyloses, starchy
The word “Porous” is used
crystals, resins, gums, oils, tannins or
by the wood anatomists to
coloured substances are found.
refer to the appearance of the
vessels as pores in transverse There are tylosoids
section. in gymnosperms and
angiosperms
Differences Between Diffuse Porous Wood
In gymnosperms, the resin ducts
and Ring Porous Wood are blocked by tylose- like ingrowths
Diffuse porous Ring porous from the neighbouring resin producing
wood wood parenchyamatous cells. Example: Pinus.
This type of wood This type of wood In angiosperms, the sieve tubes are
is formed where the is formed where the blocked by tylose- like ingrowths from
climatic conditions climatic conditions the neighbouring parenchyamatous
are uniform. are not uniform. cells. Example: Bombox.
The vessels are The vessels are wide These are called tylosoids
more or less equal and narrow within
in diameter in any any annual ring. Wood is also classified into sap wood and
annual ring. heart wood.
The vessels are The vessels are not Sap Wood and Heart Wood
uniformly distributed uniformly distributed Sap wood and heart wood can be distinguished
throughout the wood. throughout the wood. in the secondary xylem. In any tree the outer
part of the wood, which is paler in colour, is
Tyloses called sap wood or alburnum. The centre
In many dicot plants, the lumen of the part of the wood, which is darker in colour is
xylem vessels is blocked by many balloon- called heart wood or duramen. The sap wood
like ingrowths from the neighbouring conducts water while the heart wood stops
parenchymatous cells. These balloon-like conducting water. As vessels of the heart wood
structures are called tyloses. are blocked by tyloses, water is not conducted
through them. Due to the presence of tyloses
and their contents the heartwood becomes
coloured, dead and the hardest part of the wood.
Parenchyma cell
From the economic point of view,
generally the heartwood is more useful than
Tyloses
the sapwood. The timber from the heartwood
is more durable and more resistant to the
attack of microorganisms and insects than
the timber from sapwood.
Vessel wall
When, the heart wood
of a tree is destroyed, no
Vessel lumen
vital function of the plant
Figure 10.9: Structure of tyloses is affected.
When, the sap wood is destroyed,
Usually, these structures are formed in
the plant will die because conduction of
secondary xylem vessels that have last their
water will be blocked.
function i.e., in heart wood.
197

Bark compounds made during photosynthesis to
various parts of plant.
Sap wood
Some commercially important phloem
Heart wood or bast fibres are obtained from the following
plants.
Annual rings
i. Flax-Linum usitatissimum
ii. Hemp-Cannabis sativa
iii. Sun hemp-Crotalaria juncea
Figure 10.10: Cross - section of wood iv. Jute-Corchorus capsularis
showing annual ring
Differences Between Sap Wood (alburnum) Be friendly with your environment
and Heart Wood (duramen) (Eco friendly)
Why should not we use the natural products
Sap Wood Heart Wood which are made by plant fibres like rope,
(Alburnum) (Duramen) fancy bags, mobile pouch, mat and gunny
Living part of the Dead part of the bags etc., instead of using plastics or nylon?
wood. wood. Periderm
It is situated on the It is situated in the Whenever stems and roots increase
outer side of wood centre part of wood in thickness by secondary growth, the
It is pale coloured It is dark coloured periderm, a protective tissue of secondary
origin replaces the epidermis and often
Very soft in nature Hard in nature
primary cortex. The periderm consists of
Tyloses are absent Tyloses are present phellem, phellogen, and phelloderm.
It is not durable It is more durable Phellem (Cork)
and not resistant to and resists Cuticle
Epidermis
microorganisms microorganisms First cork cell
Phellogen
Secondary Phloem (Cork cambium)
Cortex
The vascular cambial ring produces
a
secondary phloem or bast on the outer side Cuticle
of the vascular bundle. Epidermis
Phellem(Cork)
Just as the secondary xylem, the Phellogen
secondary phloem also has two tissue (Cork cambium)
systems – the axial (vertical) and the radial Phelloderm

(Secondary cortex)
(horizontal) systems derived respectively Cortex
b
from the vertically elongated fusiform
initials and horizontally elongated ray Figure 10.11: The cross section of
initials of vascular cambium. While sieve periderm (a–b)
elements, phloem fibre, and phloem It is the protective tissue composed of non-
parenchyma represent the axial system, living cells with suberized walls and formed
phloem rays represent the radial system. Life centrifugally (outward) by the phellogen (cork
span of secondary phloem is less compared cambium) as part of the periderm. It replaces
to secondary xylem. Secondary phloem is a the epidermis in older stems and roots of many
living tissue that transports soluble organic seed plants. It is characterized by regularly
198

arranged tiers and rows of cells. It is broken
here and there by the presence of lenticels. Rhytidome is a technical
term used for the outer
Phelloids dead bark which consists
Phellem (Cork) like cells which lack of periderm and isolated
suberin in their walls. cortical or phloem tissues formed during
successive secondary growth. Example:
Phellogen (Cork Cambium) Quercus.
It is a secondary lateral meristem. It comprises Polyderm is found in the roots
homogenous meristematic cells unlike and underground stems.eg. Rosaceae.
vascular cambium. It arises from epidermis, It refers to a special type of protective
cortex, phloem or pericycle (extrastelar tissues consisting of uniseriate suberized
in origin). Its cells divide periclinally and layer alternating with multiseriate
produce radially arranged files of cells. The nonsuberized cells in periderm.
cells towards the outer side differentiate into
phellem (cork) and those towards the inside
Bark
as phelloderm (secondary cortex).
The term ‘bark’ is commonly applied to all
Phelloderm (Secondary cortex) the tissues outside the vascular cambium
It is a tissue resembling cortical living of stem (i.e., periderm, cortex, primary
parenchyma produced centripetally phloem and secondary phloem). Bark
(inward) from the phellogen as a part of the protects the plant from parasitic fungi and
periderm of stems and roots in seed plants. insects, prevents water loss by evaporation
Differences Between Phellem and and guards against variations of external
Phelloderm temperature. It is an insect repellent, decay
proof, fireproof and is used in obtaining
Phellem (Cork) Phelloderm
drugs or spices. The phloem cells of the bark
(Secondary cortex)
are involved in conduction of food while
It is formed on It is formed on secondary cortical cells involved in storage.
the outer side of the inner side of
If the phellogen forms a complete cylinder
phellogen. phellogen.
around the stem, it gives rise to ring
Cells are compactly Cells are loosely barks. Example: Quercus. When the bark
arranged in regular arranged with is formed in overlapping scale like layers,
tires and rows intercellular spaces. it is known as scale bark. Example: Guava.
without intercellular While ring barks normally do not peeled
spaces. off, scale barks peeled off.
Protective in As it contains
function. chloroplast, it
synthesises and
stores food.
Consists of non- Consists of living
living cells with cells, parenchymatous
suberized walls. in nature and does
not have suberin. Figure 10.12: Quercus Figure 10.13:
Lenticels are present. Lenticels are absent. Tree-showing ring bark Guava tree
showing scale bark
199

Lenticel Secondary growth in dicot roots is essential
Lenticel is raised opening or pore on the to provide strength to the growing aerial
epidermis or bark of stems and roots. parts of the plants. It is similar to that of the
It is formed during secondary growth secondary growth in dicot stem. However,
in stems. When phellogen is more active there is marked difference in the manner of
in the region of lenticels, a mass of loosely the formation of vascular cambium.
arranged thin-walled parenchyma cells are The vascular cambium is completely
formed. It is called complementary tissue secondary in origin. It originates from a
or filling tissue. combination of conjunctive tissue located
just below the phloem bundles, and as a
Lenticel is helpful in exchange of
portion of pericycle tissue present above
gases and transpiration called lenticular
the protoxylem to form a complete and
transpiration.
continuous wavy ring. This wavy ring later
Lenticel
becomes circular and produces secondary
Complementary cell
xylem and secondary phloem similar to the
Epidermis secondary growth in stems.
Phellem(Cork) Differences Between Secondary Growth
Phellogen in Dicot Stem and Root
(Cork cambium)
Phelloderm
(Secondary cortex)
Secondary growth Secondary growth
Figure 10.14: Structure of Lenticel in dicot stem in dicot root
10.2 Secondary Growth in Dicot root The cambial ring The cambial ring
Epidermis formed is circular in formed is wavy
Endodermis
Pericycle cross section from in the beginning
Primary phloem the beginning. and later becomes
Cambium circular.
Primary xylem
The cambial The cambial ring
a b
ring is partially is completely
Epidermis
Cortex
primary (fascicular secondary in origin.
Endodermis cambium)and
Pericycle
Primary phloem partially secondary
Secondary phloem
Cambial ring
(Interfascicular
Primary xylem cambium) in origin.
Secondary xylem
c d
Generally, periderm Generally, periderm
Epidermis originates from originates from the
Phellogen (Cork cambium) the cortical cells pericyle. (intrastealar
Pericycle
Primary phloem (extrastelar in origin).
in origin)
Secondary phloem
Phloem ray More amount of cork Generally, less
Cambial ring
Primary xylem
is produced as stem isamount of cork is
e Secondary xylem aboveground produced as root is
Xylem ray
underground.
Figure 10.15: Different stages of the Lenticels of periderm Lenticels of
secondary growth (diagrammatic) are prominent. periderm are not
in a typical dicot root (a–e) very prominent.
200

Summary c. (i) and (ii) are correct but (iii) is not
Secondary growth deals with the formation correct
of additional vascular tissue by the activities d. (i) and (ii) are not correct but (iii) is
of vascular and cork cambia and secondary correct.
thickening meristem (STM). It increases the 2. Usually, the monocotyledons do not
girth of stem and roots of gymnosperms, increase their girth, because
most angiosperms, and some monocot plants. a. They possess actively dividing
Vascular cambium possesses two kinds of cambium
initials they are, fusiform and ray initials. b. They do not possess actively
Fusiform initials give rise to the axial tissue
dividing cambium
system whereas ray initials give rise to radial
c. Ceases activity of cambium
tissue system of stems and roots.
d. All are correct
Wood is a very important product of 3. In the diagram of lenticel identify the
secondary growth. It is classified into various parts marked as A,B,C,D
types. Based on respectively on the presence
or absence of vessels, - porous and non-porous B
wood. Based on the wood formed during
seasons, - spring wood and autumn wood. The
spring and autumn wood, together is called A
annual ring. The lumen of the xylem vessels of D
heart wood are blocked by many balloon like C

ingrowths from neighbouring parenchymatous
cells called tyloses. a. A. phellem, B. Complementary
The periderm, a secondary protective tissue tissue, C. Phelloderm, D. Phellogen.
consists of phellem, phellogen and phelloderm. b. A. Complementary tissue,
Secondary growth produces a corky bark B. Phellem, C. Phellogen,
around the tree trunk that protects the interior D. Phelloderm.
parts from heat, cold, infection etc. Secondary c. A. Phellogen, B. Phellem,
growth of root is different from stem in the C. Phelloderm, D. complementary
method of formation of vascular cambium. tissue
d. A. Phelloderm,
Evaluation
B. Phellem,
1. Consider the following C. Complementary tissue,
statements D. Phellogen
In spring season vascular 4. The common bottle cork is a product of
cambium a. Phellem b. Phellogen
i. is less active c. Xylem d. Vascular cambium
ii. produces a large number of xylary
5. What is the fate of primary xylem in a
elements
dicot stem showing extensive secondary
iii. forms vessels with wide cavities of
growth?
these,
a. It is retained in the centre of the axis
a. (i) is correct but (ii) and (iii) are not
b. It gets crushed
correct
c. May or may not get crushed
b. (i) is not correct but (ii) and (iii) are
d. It gets surrounded by primary phloem
correct
201

6. In a forest, if the bark of a tree is B, The log A was 50 year old & B was 20
damaged by the horn of a deer, How years old. Which log of wood will last
will the plant overcome the damage? longer for the merchant? Why?
7. In which season the vessels of 10. A transverse section of the trunk of a
angiosperms are larger in size, why? tree shows concentric rings which are
8. Continuous state of dividing tissue is known as growth rings. How are these
called meristem. In connection to this, rings formed? What are the significance
what is the role of lateral meristem? of these rings?
9. A timber merchant bought 2 logs of
wood from a forest & named them A &
ICT Corner
Characteristics of Dicot and Monocot Stem and Root
Let’s explore inside

Stem and Root
Steps
• Scan the QR code or go to Google play store.
• Select biology and select Characteristics of dicot and monocot stem and root.
• Click free sign up and provide your basic information with valid mail-Id.
• Login with your registered mail id and password.
• Choose theory tab to know the basic about anatomical structure of plant parts.
• Choose animation to view the sectioning process.
• Choose simulation tab and view the section of plant parts under microscope.
Activity - Do the section through simulation and record your observations.
URL: * Pictures are
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=in.edu.olabs.olabs&hl=en indicative only
202

Unit V: Plant Physiology
(Functional Organisation)
Chapter
11 Transport in Plants
themselves to the new world. The biggest

Learning Objectives adaptations followed for their survival was
building their own water absorbing systems
The learner will be able to, to draw water from deep inside the land. The
• Recall knowledge of basic physical and creation and updating of water absorbing
biological processes studied in previous system (vascular tissues) led to the diversity
classes. of the plant kingdom. The gregarious growth
• Classify, differentiate and compare the of prehistoric pteridophytes, gymnosperms
process of active and passive transport. and present-day flowering plants led to the
• Understand the mechanism of absorption biggest challenge in the transport of water
of water. from root to several meters high trees
• Analyse the various theories in ascent of against gravity. In this chapter, we will study
sap. the events taking place between the gain
• Understand the process of transpiration and of water in roots and loss in leaves and the
Compare the various types of transpiration. mechanisms behind the basic physical and
• Discuss the mechanism of phloem biological processes in the movement of
translocation. water, gases and minerals in plants. Further,
• Understand the process behind mineral we study how food material synthesized
absorption. in the leaf can be transported to various
utilizing and storage areas against struggles
Chapter Outline and challenges.
11.1 Types of transport
11.2 Cell to Cell transport 11.1 Types of Transport
11.3 Plant water relations Transport is the process of moving water,
11.4 Absorption of water minerals and food to all parts of the plant
body. Conducting tissues such as xylem and
11.5 Ascent of Sap
phloem play an important role in this.
11.6 Transpiration
What is the need for transport? Water
11.7 Translocation of organic solutes absorbed from roots must travel up to
11.8 Mineral absorption leaves by xylem for food preparation by
photosynthesis. Likewise, food prepared
Over 450 million years ago (the
from leaves has to travel to all parts of the
Ordovician period in Paleozoic era) plants
plant including roots. Both the processes are
migrated from their own sophisticated
interconnected and depend on each other.
water world to newly formed land. The land
had harsh environment; water availability Based on the distance travelled by water
was deeper and so plants struggled for (sap) or food (solute) they are classified as
getting water for their very existence. Some (a) Short distance (Cell to cell transport)
of them failed to survive and rest adopted and (b) Long distance transport.
203

ii. Active transport: It is a biological process
The Plumbing system of Plants and
and it runs based on the e nergy obtained
Humans
from respiration. It is an uphill process.
Plants and animals
evolved separately 11.2 Cell to Cell Transport
but developed Cell to cell or short distance transport covers
comparable the limited area and consists of few cells. They
structures to control are the facilitators or tributaries to the long-
transport of water distance transport. The driving force for the
and dissolved cell to cell transport can be passive or active
chemicals. But whose (Figure 11.1). The following chart illustrate
transport system is the various types of cell to cell transport:
optimally designed Cell to cell transport
to offer selective
advantage? In plants, Passive Transport Active Transport
transport through xylem has allowed
growth in height and colonization of diverse Diffusion Facilitated
Diffusion Channel Protein
habitats and the system has to be extensive Carrier Protein
as Photosynthesis requires water. Murray’s Pumps
Channel Carrier
law predicts the thickness of branches in Protein Protein
transport networks, such that the cost for
Figure 11.1: Cell to cell transport
transport and maintenance of the transport
medium is minimized. This law is observed 11.2.1 Passive Transport
in the vascular and respiratory systems of 1. Diffusion
animals, xylem in plants, and the respiratory When we expose a lightened incense stick
system of insects. Further research in this or mosquito coil or open a perfume bottle
area will improve our understanding of in a closed room, we can smell the odour
natural world. everywhere in the room. This is due to the even
distribution of perfume molecules throughout
i. Short-distance (Cell to cell transport): the room. This process is called diffusion.
Involvement of few cells, mostly in the
lateral direction. They are the connecting In diffusion, the movement of molecules
link to xylem and phloem from root hairs is continuous and random in order in all
or leaf tissues respectively. Examples: directions (Figure 11.2).
Diffusion, Imbibition, and Osmosis. A
ii. Long-distance transport: T ransport
within the network of xylem or
phloem is an example for long-distance
transport. Examples: Ascent of Sap and
Translocation of Solutes.
HIGH CONCENTRATION LOW CONCENTRATION
Based on energy expenditure during Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam nonummy nibh
B
euismod tincidunt ut laoreet dolore magna aliquam erat volutpat. Ut wisi enim ad
transport, they are classified as (a) passive minim veniam, quis nostrud exerci tation ullamcorper suscipit lobortis nisl ut
aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. Duis autem vel eum iriure dolor in hendrerit in
transport and (b) active transport. vulputate velit esse molestie consequat, vel illum dolore eu feugiat nulla facilisis at
vero eros et accumsan et iusto odio dignissim qui blandit praesent luptatum zzril
delenit augue duis dolore te feugait nulla facilisi.
i. Passive transport: It is a downhill p rocess Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, cons ectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam nonummy nibh
which utilizes physical forces like gravity minim veniam, quis nostrud exerci tation ullamcorper suscipit lobortis nisl ut
aliquip ex ea commodo consequat.
and concentration. No energy expenditure

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam nonummy nibh
is required. It i ncludes diffusion, facilitated Figure 11.2: Distribution of molecules in

diffusion, imbibition, and osmosis. diffusion (A) Initial stage (B) Final stage
204

Diffusion: The net movement of molecules many cell metabolites is not merely based on
from a region of their higher concentration concentration gradient. It depends on,
to a region of their lower concentration i. Size of molecule: Smaller molecules
along a concentration gradient until an diffuse faster.
equilibrium is attained. ii. Solubility of the molecule: Lipid soluble
substances easily and rapidly pass
Characteristics of diffusion through the membrane. But water soluble
i. It is a passive process, hence no energy substances are difficult to pass through
expenditure involved. the membrane. They must be facilitated
ii. It is independent of the living system. to pass the membrane.
iii. Diffusion is obvious in gases and liquids. Types of Membrane Permeability
iv. Diffusion is rapid over a shorter A solution is made up of solute particles
distance but extremely slow over a dissolved in a solvent and the permeability
longer distance. of the above components depends on the
v. The rate of diffusion is determined by nature of cell membranes, which is given
temperature, concentration gradient and below:
relative density. Impermeable: Inhibit the movement
of both solvent and solute molecules.
Significance of diffusion in Plants
Example: Suberised, cutinised or liginifid
i. Gaseous exchange of O2 and CO2 cell walls.
between the atmosphere and stomata Permeable: They allow diffusion of
of leaves takes place by the process both solvent and solute molecules through
of diffusion. O2 is absorbed during them. Example: Cellulosic cell wall.
respiration and CO2 is absorbed during Semi permeable: Semi permeable
photosynthesis. allow diffusion of solvent molecules
ii. In transpiration, water vapour from but do not allow the passage of solute
intercellular spaces diffuses into molecule. Example: Parchment paper.
atmosphere through stomata by the Selectively permeable: All bio
process of diffusion. membranes allow some solutes to pass
iii. The transport of ions in mineral salts in addition to the solvent molecules.
during passive absorption also takes place Example: Plasmalemma, tonoplast, and
by this process. membranes of cell organelles.
Diffusion for sterilization In facilitated diffusion, molecules cross

in surgical theatres the cell membrane with the help of special
Surgical theatres must be membrane proteins called transport proteins,
free from germs to prevent without the expenditure of ATP.
infection during surgeries. A mixture of There are two types of transport proteins
Formalin and Potassium permanganate present in the cell membrane. They are
produces enormous fumes which will kill all channel protein and a carrier protein.
pathogens in an enclosed area. This method I. Channel Protein
is known as fumigation and operates by
diffusion. Channel protein forms a channel or tunnel
in the cell membrane for the easy passage of
2. Facilitated Diffusion molecules to enter the cell. The channels are
Cell membranes allow water and nonpolar either open or remain closed. They may open
molecules to permeate by simple diffusion. up for specific molecules. Some channel
For transporting polar molecules such as proteins create larger pores in the outer
ions, sugars, amino acids, nucleotides and membrane. Examples: Porin and Aquaporin.
205

i. Porin direction of transport (Figure 11.5). They are,
Porin is a large transporter protein found in i) Uniport ii) Symport iii) Antiport.
the outer membrane of plastids, mitochondria
and bacteria which facilitates smaller OUTSIDE
molecules to pass through the membrane.
MEMBRANE
ii. Aquaporin
Aquaporin is a water channel protein embedded
in the plasma membrane. It regulates the INSIDE
massive amount of water transport across
the membrane (Figure 11.3). Plants contain UNIPORT SYMPORT ANTIPORT
a variety of aquaporins. Over 30 types of Figure 11.5: Direction of transport
aquaporins are known from maize. Currently,
i. Uniport: In this molecule of a single type
they are also recognized to transport substrates
move across a membrane independent of
like glycerol, urea, CO2, NH3, metalloids, and
other molecules in one direction.
Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in addition
ii. Symport or co-transport: The term
to water. They increase the permeability of the
symport is used to denote an integral
membrane to water. They confer drought and
membrane protein that simultaneously
salt stress tolerance.
transports two types of molecules across
OUTSIDE
the membrane in the same direction.
iii. Antiport or Counter Transport: An
MEMBRANE
antiport is an integral membrane

transport protein that simultaneously
transports two different molecules,
INSIDE in opposite directions, across the
OPEN CHANNEL CLOSED CHANNEL
membrane.
Figure 11.3: Aquaporin
Discovery of Aquaporin
II. Carrier Protein Peter Agre,
Carrier protein acts as a vehicle to carry discovered
molecules from outside of the membrane to the “Water
inside the cell and vice versa (Figure 11.4). Due Pore” Aquaporin in RBC
to association with molecules to be transported, and received Nobel Prize
the structure of carrier protein gets modified for chemistry in 2003.
until the dissociation of the molecules.
11.2.2 Active Transport
The main disadvantage of passive transport
OUTSIDE
processes like diffusion is the lack of control
MEMBRANE
over the transport of selective molecules. There

is a possibility of harmful substances entering
the cell by a concentration gradient in the
INSIDE diffusion process. But selective permeability of
Carrier Protein cell membrane has a great control over entry and
exit of molecules. Active transport is the entry
Figure 11.4: Carrier Protein of molecules against a concentration gradient
and an uphill process and it needs energy which
There are 3 types of carrier proteins classified comes from ATP. Passive transport uses kinetic
on the basis of handling of molecules and energy of molecules moving down a gradient
206

whereas, active transport uses cellular energy get dissolved in it and the high tensile strength
to move them against a gradient. The transport of water molecule is helpful in the ascent of sap.
proteins discussed in facilitated diffusion can Water maintains the internal temperature of
also transport ions or molecules against a the plant as well as the turgidity of the cell.
concentration gradient with the expenditure of 11.3.1 Imbibition
cellular energy as an active process. Pumps use Colloidal systems such as gum, starch,
a source of free energy such as ATP or light to proteins, cellulose, agar, gelatin when placed
drive the thermodynamically uphill transport in water, will absorb a large volume of water and
of ions or molecules. The pump action is swell up. These substances are called imbibants
an example of active transport. Example: and the phenomenon is imbibition.
Na+-K+-ATPase pump (Table 11.1).
Examples: 1. The swelling of dry seeds
Table 11.1 Comparison of different 2. The swelling of wooden windows, tables, doors
transport mechanisms due to high humidity during the rainy season.
Passive transport
Active
Property Simple Facilitated transport The Power of Imbibition
diffusion diffusion In olden days, small wooden
pegs were inserted into
Nature of process Physical Biological Biological
crevices of rocks followed by
Requirement continuous hydration. Due to imbibition
for presence of No Yes Yes the volume of wooden peg increases and
membrane protein cuts off rocks precisely.
Selectivity of
No Yes Yes The gluten from wheat can take as
molecule
Saturation of
No Yes Yes
much as 300% of its own weight
transport
Uphill transport No No Yes
Significance of imbibition
Energy
requirement No No Yes i. During germination of seeds, imbibition
(ATP) increases the volume of seed enormously
Sensitivity to
No Yes Yes
and leads to bursting of the seed coat.
inhibitors ii. It helps in the absorption of water by roots
at the initial level.
Check your grasp!
What are the similarities and differences Activity
between co- transport and counter transport?
Imbibition experiment
Solution:
Collect 5 gm of gum from Drumstick tree
Similarity: In both system two molecules are or Babool tree or Almond tree. Immerse in
involved for the unidirectional transport. 100ml of water. After 24 hours observe the
Difference: In co-transport, two molecules changes and discuss the results with your
are transported together whereas, in counter teacher.
transport two molecules are transported in
opposite direction to each other.
11.3 Plant Water Relations

Water plays an essential role in the life of the
plant. The availability of water influences the
external and internal structures of plants as
protoplasm is made of 60-80% water. Water is a
universal solvent since most of the substances
207

11.3.2 Water Potential (Ψ) This positive hydrostatic pressure within
The concept of water potential the cell is called Turgor pressure. Likewise,
was introduced in 1960 by withdrawal of water from the cell decreases the
Slatyer and Taylor. Water water potential and the cell becomes flaccid.
potential is potential energy 3. Matric Potential (ΨM)
of water in a system compared
Matric potential represents the attraction
to pure water when both temperature and
between water and the hydrating colloid
pressure are kept the same. It is also a measure
or gel-like organic molecules in the cell
of how freely water molecules can move in
wall which is collectively termed as matric
a particular environment or system. Water
potential. Matric potential is also known as
potential is denoted by the Greek symbol Ψ
imbibition pressure. The matric potential
(psi) and measured in Pascal (Pa). At standard
is maximum (most negative value) in a dry
temperature, the water potential of pure water is
material. Example: The swelling of soaked
zero. Addition of solute to pure water decreases
seeds in water.
the kinetic energy thereby decreasing the water
potential. Comparatively a solution always 11.3.3 Osmotic Pressure and Osmotic
has low water potential than pure water. In a P
otential
group of cells with different water potential, a When a solution and its solvent (pure water)
water potential gradient is generated. Water are separated by a semipermeable membrane,
will move from higher water potential to lower a pressure is developed in the solution, due to
water potential. the presence of dissolved solutes. This is called
Water potential (Ψ) can be determined by, osmotic pressure (OP). Osmotic pressure
1. Solute concentration or Solute potential is increased with the increase of dissolved
(ΨS) solutes in the solution. More concentrated
solution (low Ψ or Hypertonic) has high
2. Pressure potential (ΨP)
osmotic pressure. Similarly, less concentrated
By correlating two factors, water potential is solution (high Ψ or Hypotonic) has low
written as, osmotic pressure. The osmotic pressure of
ΨW = ΨS + ΨP pure water is always zero and it increases
Water Potential = Solute potential + with the increase of solute concentration.
Pressure potential Thus osmotic pressure always has a positive
value and it is represented as π.
1. Solute Potential (ΨS) Osmotic potential is defined as the ratio
Solute potential, otherwise known as osmotic between the number of solute particles and
potential denotes the effect of dissolved solute the number of solvent particles in a solution.
on water potential. In pure water, the addition Osmotic potential and osmotic pressure are
of solute reduces its free energy and lowers the numerically equal. Osmotic potential has a
water potential value from zero to negative. negative value whereas on the other hand
Thus the value of solute potential is always osmotic pressure has a positive value.
negative. In a solution at standard atmospheric 11.3.4 Turgor Pressure and Wall P ressure
pressure, water potential is always equal to When a plant cell is placed in pure water
solute potential (ΨW= ΨS). (hypotonic solution) the diffusion of water into
2. Pressure Potential (ΨP) the cell takes place by endosmosis. It creates a
Pressure potential is a mechanical force working positive hydrostatic pressure on the rigid cell
against the effect of solute potential. Increased wall by the cell membrane. Henceforth the
pressure potential will increase water potential pressure exerted by the cell membrane towards
and water enters cell and cells become turgid. the cell wall is Turgor Pressure (TP).
208

The cell wall reacts to this turgor pressure (high water potential) to the place of its lower
with equal and opposite force, and the concentration (low water potential).
counter-pressure exerted by the cell wall Types of Solutions based on concentration
towards cell membrane is wall pressure (WP).
i. Hypertonic (Hyper = High; tonic = solute):
Turgor pressure and wall pressure make
This is a strong solution (low solvent/ high
the cell fully turgid.
solute / low Ψ) which attracts solvent
TP + WP = Turgid.
from other solutions.
ii. Hypotonic (Hypo = low; tonic = solute):
Activity
Find the role of turgor pressure in This is a weak solution (high solvent /low
sudden closing of leaves when we or zero solute / high Ψ) and it diffuses
touch the ‘touch me not’ plant. water out to other solutions (Figure 11.7).
iii. Isotonic (Iso = identical; tonic = soute):
11.3.5 Diffusion Pressure Deficit (DPD) or It refers to two solutions having same
Suction Pressure (SP) concentration. In this condition the net
Pure solvent (hypotonic) has higher diffusion movement of water molecule will be zero.
pressure. Addition of solute in pure solvent The term hyper, hypo and isotonic are
lowers its diffusion pressure. The difference relative terms which can be used only in
between the diffusion pressure of the solution comparison with another solution.
and its solvent at a particular temperature and
atmospheric pressure is called as Diffusion Thistle funnel experiment
Pressure Deficit (DPD) termed by Meyer
(1938). DPD is increased by the addition of
solute into a solvent system. Increased DPD
favours endosmosis or it sucks the water from
hypotonic solution; hence Renner (1935)
called it as Suction pressure. It is equal to
the difference of osmotic pressure and turgor
pressure of a cell. The following three situations
are seen in plants:
• DPD in normal cell: DPD = OP – TP.
• DPD in fully turgid cell: Osmotic pressure Figure 11.6: Thistle Funnel Experiment
is always equal to turgor pressure in a fully Mouth of a thistle funnel is tied with
turgid cell. goat bladder. It acts as a semipermeable
• OP = TP or OP-TP =0. Hence DPD of fully membrane. Pour concentrated sugar
turgid cell is zero. solution in the thistle funnel and mark
the level of solution. Place this in a beaker
• DPD in flaccid cell: If the cell is in flaccid of water. After some time, water level in
condition there is no turgor pressure or the funnel rises up steadily. This is due to
TP=0. Hence DPD = OP. the inward diffusion of water molecules
through the semipermeable membrane
11.3.6 Osmosis
(Figure 11.6).
Osmosis (Latin: Osmos-impulse, urge) is a
Conversely, if water in the beaker is
special type of diffusion. It represents the
replaced by a sugar solution and sugar
movement of water or solvent molecules solution in the thistle funnel replaced by
through a selectively permeable membrane water, what will be happen?
from the place of its higher concentration
209

3. Deplasmolysis
The effect of plasmolysis can be reversed,
by transferring them back into water or
hypotonic solution. Due to endosmosis, the
cell becomes turgid again. It regains its original
shape and size. This phenomenon of the revival
of the plasmolysed cell is called deplasmolysis.
Example: Immersion of dry raisin in water.
Potato Osmoscope
Figure 11.7: Types of solution based on
concentration
1. Types of osmosis
Based on the direction of movement of water
or solvent in an osmotic system, two types of
osmosis can occur, they are Endosmosis and
Exosmosis.
i. E ndosmosis: Endosmosis is defined as the
osmotic entry of solvent into a cell or a
Figure 11.8: Demonstration of Endosmosis
system when it is placed in a pure water or by Potato Osmoscope
hypotonic solution.
i. T ake a peeled potato tuber and make a
For example, dry raisins (high solute and
cavity inside with the help of a knife.
low solvent) placed in the water, it swells up
ii. Fill the cavity with concentrated sugar
due to turgidity.
solution and mark the initial level.
ii. E
xosmosis: Exosmosis is defined as the
iii. Place this setup in a beaker of pure water.
osmotic withdrawal of water from a cell
or system when it is placed in a hypertonic iv. After 10 minutes observe the sugar
solution level and record your findings
solution. Exosmosis in a plant cell leads to
(Figure 11.8).
plasmolysis.
v. With the help of your teacher discuss the
lasmolysis (Plasma = cytoplasm; lysis =
2. P results.
breakdown) Instead of potato use beetroot or bottle-guard
When a plant cell is kept in a hypertonic and repeat the above experiment. Compare
solution, water leaves the cell due to exosmosis. and discuss the results.
As a result of water loss, protoplasm shrinks
4. Reverse Osmosis
and the cell membrane is pulled away from the
Reverse Osmosis follows the same principles
cell wall and finally, the cell becomes flaccid.
of osmosis, but in the reverse direction. In
This process is named as plasmolysis.
this process movement of water is reversed by
Wilting of plants noticed under the applying pressure to force the water against a
condition of water scarcity is an indication concentration gradient of the solution. In regular
of plasmolysis. Three types of plasmolysis osmosis, the water molecules move from the
occur in plants: i) Incipient plasmolysis ii) higher concentration (pure water = hypotonic)
Evident plasmolysis and iii) Final plasmolysis. to lower concentration (salt water = hypertonic).
Differences among them are given in table 11.2. But in reverse osmosis, the water molecules
Significance move from the lower concentration (salt water =
Plasmolysis is exhibited only by living cells and hypertonic) to higher concentration (pure water
so it is used to test whether the cell is living or = hypotonic) through a selectively permeable
dead. membrane (Figure 11.9).
210

Table 11.2: Difference between plasmolysis types.
Incipient plasmolysis Evident plasmolysis Final plasmolysis
No morphological symptoms Wilting of leaves appear. Severe wilting and drooping
appear in plants. of leaves appear.
The plasma membrane Plasma membrane completely Plasma membrane
separates only at the corner detaches from the cell wall. completely detaches from
from the cell wall of cells. cell wall with maximum
shrinkage of volume.
It is reversible. It is reversible. It is irreversible.
Pressure 11.4.1 Water Absorbing Organs

Usually, absorption of water occurs in plants
Pure Water
through young roots. The zone of rapid water
Salt Water absorption is root hairs. They are delicate
structures which get continuously replaced
Membrane by new ones. Root hairs are unicellular
Movement of Water extensions of epidermal cells without cuticle.
Figure 11.9: Reverse Osmosis Root hairs are extremely thin and numerous
and they provide a large surface area for
Uses: Reverse osmosis is used for
absorption (Figure 11.10).
purification of drinking water and desalination
of sea water.
Check your grasp!

If a cell in the cortex with DPD of 5atm is
surrounded by hypodermal cells with DPD of
2atm, what will be direction of movement of
water?
Solution: Water will move from low DPD to Figure 11.10: Structure of Root Hair
high DPD (hypodermis 2 atm to cortex 5 atm). 11.4.2 Path of Water Across Root Cells
Water is first absorbed by root hair and other
11.4 Absorption of Water epidermal cells through imbibition from soil
Terrestrial plants have to absorb water from and moves radially and centripetally across
the soil to maintain turgidity, metabolic the cortex, endodermis, pericycle and finally
activities and growth. Absorption of water reaches xylem elements osmotically.
from soil takes place in two steps: There are three possible routes of
1. From soil to root hairs – either actively water (Figure 11.11). They are i) Apoplast
or passively. ii) Symplast iii) Transmembrane route.
2. From root hairs further transport in 1. Apoplast
the lateral direction to reach xylem, the The apoplast (Greek: apo = away;
superhighway of water transport. plast = cell) consists of everything external
211

Figure 11.11:
Path of water across root cells
Concept Map - Movement of water in an
to the plasma membrane of the living cell. osmotic system based on various parameters
The apoplast includes cell walls, extra cellular
Low Water
spaces and the interior of dead cells such as Low / Zero solute
High Water
Potential Potential
(Zero) (Negative value) High solute
vessel elements and tracheids. In the apoplast concentration concentration
pathway, water moves exclusively through the High solvent

Low
DPD
High
DPD
Low solvent
Concentration Concentration
cell wall or the non-living part of the plant
without crossing any membrane. The apoplast Hypotonic Low Osmotic
Pressure
High Osmotic
Pressure
Hypertonic
(Positive value)
is a continuous system. (Zero)
High osmotic
2. Symplast potential
(Zero) PURE SALT
Low osmotic
potential
(Negative Value)
The symplast (Greek: sym = within; plast = WATER WATER
cell) consists of the entire mass of cytosol
i. Osmotic active absorption
of all the living cells in a plant, as well as the
The theory of osmotic active absorption
plasmodesmata, the cytoplasmic channel that
was postulated by Atkins (1916) and Preistley
interconnects them.
(1923). According to this theory, the first step
In the symplastic route, water has to cross
in the absorption is soil water imbibed by
plasma membrane to enter the cytoplasm
cell wall of the root hair followed by osmosis.
of outer root cell; then it will move within
The soil water is hypotonic and cell sap is
adjoining cytoplasm through plasmodesmata
hypertonic. Therefore, soil water diffuses into
around the vacuoles without the necessity to
root hair along the concentration gradient
cross more membrane, till it reaches xylem.
(endosmosis). When the root hair becomes
3. Transmembrane route fully turgid, it becomes hypotonic and water
In transmembrane pathway water sequentially moves osmotically to the outer most cortical
enters a cell on one side and exits from the cell. In the same way, water enters into inner
cell on the other side. In this pathway, water cortex, endodermis, pericycle and finally
crosses at least two membranes for each reaches protoxylem. As the sap reaches the
cell. Transport across the tonoplast is also protoxylem a pressure is developed known
involved. as root pressure. This theory involves the
11.4.3 Mechanism of Water Absorption symplastic movement of water.
Kramer (1949) recognized two distinct Objections to osmotic theory: 1.The cell
mechanisms which independently operate in sap concentration in xylem is not always high.
the absorption of water in plants. They are, i) 2. Root pressure is not universal in all plants
active absorption ii) passive absorption. especially in trees.
1. Active Absorption ii. Non-Osmotic active absorption
The mechanism of water absorption due to Bennet-Clark (1936), Thimann (1951) and
forces generated in the root itself is called active Kramer (1959) observed absorption of water
absorption. Active absorption may be osmotic even if the concentration of cell sap in the root
or non-osmotic. hair is lower than that of the soil water. Such a
212

movement requires an expenditure of energy 11.5 Ascent of Sap
released by respiration (ATP). Thus, there is a In the last chapter, we studied about water
link between water absorption and respiration. absorption from roots to xylem in a lateral
It is evident from the fact that when respiratory direction and here we will learn about the
inhibitors like KCN, Chloroform are applied mechanism of distribution of water inside the
there is a decrease in the rate of respiration and plant. Like tributaries join together to form a
also the rate of absorption of water. river, millions of root hairs conduct a small
2. Passive Absorption amount of water and confluence in xylem, the
In passive absorption, roots do not play any superhighway of water conduction. Xylem
role in the absorption of water and is regulated handles a large amount of water to conduct
by transpiration only. Due to transpiration, to many parts in an upward direction.
water is lost from leaf cells along with a drop The water within the xylem along with
in turgor pressure. It increases DPD in leaf dissolved minerals from roots is called sap and
cells and leads to withdrawal of water from its upward transport is called ascent of sap.
adjacent xylem cells. In xylem, a tension is
developed and is transmitted downward up to 11.5.1 The Path of Ascent of Sap
root resulting in the absorption of water from There is no doubt; water travels up along the
the soil. vascular tissue. But vascular tissue has two
In passive absorption (Table 11.3), the components namely Xylem and Phloem. Of
path of water may be symplastic or apoplastic. these two, which is responsible for the ascent
It accounts for about 98% of the total water of sap? The following experiment will prove
uptake by plants. that xylem is the only element through which
water moves up.
Table: 11.3 Differences between Active
Absorption and Passive Absorption
Active
Passive absorption
absorption
Active absorption The pressure for
takes place by the absorption is not
activity of root and developed in roots
root hairs and hence roots play
passive role
Transpiration has Absorption regulated
no effect on active by transpiration
absorption
The root hairs The absorption
have high DPD occurs due to tension
as compared to created in xylem sap
soil solution and by transpiration pull,
therefore water is thus water is sucked in
taken by tension by the tension Figure 11.12: Balsam plant and eosin
Respiratory energy Respiratory energy dye experiment
needed not required Cut a branch of balsam plant and place it
in a beaker containing eosin (red colour dye)
It involves Both symplast and
water. After some time, a red streak appears on
symplastic apoplast movement of
the stem indicating the ascent of water. Remove
movement of water water involved
the plant from water and cut a transverse
213

section of the stem and observe it under the Objections to vital force theories
microscope. Only xylem element is coloured i. Strasburger (1889) and Overton (1911)
red, which indicates the path of water is xylem. experimentally proved that living cells are
Phloem is not colored indicating that it has no not mandatory for the ascent of sap. For this,
role in the ascent of sap (Figure 11.12). he selected an old oak tree trunk which when
Mechanism of Ascent of Sap immersed in picric acid and subjected to
In ascent of sap, the biggest challenge is the excessive heat killed all the living cells of the
force required to lift the water to the top of trunk. The trunk when dipped in water, the
the tallest trees. A number of theories have ascent of sap took place.
been put forward to explain the mechanism ii. Pumping action of living cells should be
of the ascent of sap. They are, A. Vital force in between two xylem elements (vertically)
theories, B. Root pressure theory, and C. and not on lateral sides.
Physical force theory. 11.5.3 Root Pressure Theory
11.5.2 Vital Force Theories If a plant which is watered well is cut a few
According to vital force theories, living cells inches above the ground level, sap exudes out
are mandatory for the ascent of sap. Based on with some force. This is called sap exudation
this the following two theories derived: or bleeding. Stephen Hales, father of plant
1. Relay pump theory of Godlewski (1884) physiology observed this phenomenon and
Periodic changes in osmotic pressure of living coined the term ‘Root Pressure’. Stoking
cells of the xylem parenchyma and medullary (1956) defined root pressure as “a pressure
ray act as a pump for the movement of water. developing in the tracheary elements of the
xylem as a result of metabolic activities of the
2. Pulsation theory of J.C.Bose (1923)
Bose invented an instrument called root”. But the following objections have been
Crescograph, which consists of an electric raised against root pressure theory:
probe connected to a galvanometer i. Root pressure is totally absent in
(Figure 11.13). When a probe is inserted into gymnosperms, which includes some of the
the inner cortex of the stem, the galvanometer tallest plants.
showed high electrical activity. Bose believed
a rhythmic pulsating movement of inner ii. There is no relationship between the
cortex like a pump (similar to the beating ascent of sap and root pressure. For example,
of the heart) is responsible for the ascent of in summer, the rate of the ascent of sap is
sap. He concluded that cells associated with more due to transpiration in spite of the fact
xylem exhibit pumping action and pumps that root pressure is very low. On the other
the sap laterally into xylem cells. hand, in winter when the rate of ascent of sap
is low, a high root pressure is found.
iii. Ascent of sap continues even in the
absence of roots
iv. The magnitude of root pressure is
about 2atm, which can raise the water level
up to few feet only, whereas the tallest trees
are more than 100m high.
11.5.4 Physical Force Theory
Physical force theories suggest that ascent of
sap takes place through the dead xylem vessel
Figure 11.13: J. C. Bose and the mechanism is entirely physical and
living cells are not involved.
214

215

1. Capillary theory column remains undisturbed since water
Boehm (1809) suggested that the xylem diffuses into the adjacent xylem elements for
vessels work like a capillary tube. This continuing ascent of sap.
capillarity of the vessels under normal iii. Transpiration pull or Tension in the
atmospheric pressure is responsible for unbroken water column
the ascent of sap. This theory was rejected The unbroken water column from leaf to
because the magnitude of capillary force can root is just like a rope. If the rope is pulled
raise water level only up to a certain height. from the top, the entire rope will move
Further, the xylem vessels are broader than upward. In plants, such a pull is generated by
the tracheid which actually conducts more the process of transpiration which is known
water and against the capillary theory. as transpiration pull.
2. Imbibition theory Water vapour evaporates from mesophyll
This theory was first proposed by Unger cells to the intercellular spaces near stomata
(1876) and supported by Sachs (1878). This as a result of active transpiration. The water
theory illustrates, that water is imbibed vapours are then transpired through the
through the cell wall materials and not by the stomatal pores. Loss of water from mesophyll
lumen. This theory was rejected based on the cells causes a decrease in water potential. So,
ringing experiment, which proved that water water moves as a pull from cell to cell along
moves through the lumen of the cell and not the water potential gradient. This tension,
by a cell wall. generated at the top (leaf) of the unbroken
3. Cohesion-tension or Cohesion and water column, is transmitted downwards
transpiration pull theory from petiole, stem and finally reaches the
Cohesion-tension theory was originally roots. The cohesion theory is the most
proposed by Dixon and Jolly (1894) and accepted among the plant physiologists today.
again put forward by Dixon (1914, 1924). 11.6 Transpiration
This theory is based on the following features:
Water absorbed by roots ultimately reaches
i. Strong cohesive force or tensile the leaf and gets released into the atmosphere
strength of water in the form of vapour. Only a small fraction
Water molecules have the strong mutual of water (less than 5%) is utilized in plant
force of attraction called cohesive force due development and metabolic process.
to which they cannot be easily separated from
The loss of excess of water in the form of
one another. Further, the attraction between
vapour from various aerial parts of the plant is
a water molecule and the wall of the xylem
called transpiration. Transpiration is a kind
element is called adhesion. These cohesive
of evaporation but differs by the involvement
and adhesive force works together to form
of biological system. The amount of water
an unbroken continuous water column in the
transpired is astounding (Table 11.4). The
xylem. The magnitude of the cohesive force
water may move through the xylem at a rate
is much high (350 atm) and is more than
as fast as 75cm /min.
enough to ascent sap in the tallest trees.
ii. Continuity of the water column in Table: 11.4 Rate of Transpiration in
the plant some plants
An important factor which can break Plant Transpiration per day
the water column is the introduction of air Corn plant 2 Litres
bubbles in the xylem. Gas bubbles expanding Sunflower 5 Litres
and displacing water within the xylem
element is called cavitation or embolism. Maple tree 200 Litres
However, the overall continuity of the water Date palm 450 Litres
216

separate to form a pore between them. The
Activity
Select a leafy twig of fully grown plant in inner wall of the guard cell is thicker than the
your school campus. Cover the twig with outer wall (Figure 11.14). The stoma opens to
a transparent polythene bag and tie the the interior into a cavity called sub-stomatal
mouth of the bag at the base of the twig. cavity which remains connected with the
Observe the changes after two hours and intercellular spaces.
discuss with your teacher
11.6.1 Types of Transpiration

Transpiration is of following three types:
1. Stomatal transpiration
Stomata are microscopic structures present
Guard cells
in high number on the lower epidermis of
leaves. This is the most dominant form of
transpiration and being responsible for most Figure 11.14: Structure of Stomata
of the water loss (90 - 95%) in plants.
2. Lenticular transpiration 11.6.3 Mechanism of Stomatal Movement
In stems of woody plants and trees, the Stomatal movements are regulated by the
epidermis is replaced by periderm because of change of turgor pressure in guard cells.
secondary growth. In order to provide gaseous When water enters the guard cell, it swells
exchange between the living cells and outer and its unevenly thickened walls stretch up
atmosphere, some pores which looks like resulting in the opening of stomata. This
lens-shaped raised spots are present on the is due to concave non-elastic nature of
surface of the stem called Lenticels. The loss inner wall pulled away from each other and
of water from lenticels is very insignificant as stretching of the convex elastic natured outer
it amounts to only 0.1% of the total.
wall of guard cell.
3. Cuticular transpiration Different theories have been proposed
The cuticle is a waxy or resinous layer of cutin, regarding opening and closing of stomata. The
a fatty substance covering the epidermis of
important theories of stomatal movement are
leaves and other plant parts. Loss of water
through cuticle is relatively small and it is only as follows,
about 5 to 10 % of the total transpiration. The 1. Theory of Photosynthesis in guard cells
thickness of cuticle increases in xerophytes 2. Starch – Sugar interconversion theory
and transpiration is very much reduced or 3. Active potassium transport ion concept
totally absent. 1. Theory of Photosynthesis in guard cells
Von Mohl (1856) observed that stomata open
11.6.2 Structure of Stomata in light and close in the night. According to
The epidermis of leaves and green stems him, chloroplasts present in the guard cells
possess many small pores called stomata. photosynthesize in the presence of light
The length and breadth of stomata is about resulting in the production of carbohydrate
10-40µ and 3-10µ respectively. Mature leaves (Sugar) which increases osmotic pressure
contain between 50 and 500 stomata per in guard cells. It leads to the entry of water
square mm. Stomata are made up of two from other cell and stomatal aperture opens.
guard cells, special semi-lunar or kidney- The above process vice versa in night leads to
shaped living epidermal cells in the epidermis. closure of stomata.
Guard cells are attached to surrounding Demerits
epidermal cells known as subsidiary cells or 1. Chloroplast of guard cells is
accessory cells. The guard cells are joined poorly developed and incapable of
together at each end but they are free to performing photosynthesis.
217

2. The guard cells already possess much
amount of stored sugars.
2. Starch – Sugar Interconversion theory
i. According to Lloyd (1908), turgidity
of guard cell depends on interconversion,
of starch and sugar. It was supported by
Loftfield (1921) as he found guard cells
containing sugar during the daytime when
they are open and starch during the night
when they are closed.
ii. Sayre (1920) observed that the
opening and closing of stomata depends
upon change in pH of guard cells. According
to him stomata open at high pH during
day time and become closed at low pH at Figure 11.15: Steward Scheme
night. Utilization of CO2 by photosynthesis Objections to Starch-sugar interconversion
during light period causes an increase in pH theory
resulting in the conversion of starch to sugar. i. In monocots, guard cell does not have
Sugar increase in cell favours endosmosis and starch.
increases the turgor pressure which leads to ii. There is no evidence to show the
opening of stomata. Likewise, accumulation presence of sugar at a time when starch
of CO2 in cells during night decrease the pH disappears and stomata open.
level resulting in the conversion of sugar to iii. It fails to explain the drastic change in
starch. Starch decreases the turgor pressure pH from 5 to 7 by change of CO2.
of guard cell and stomata close. 3. Theory of K+ transport
iii. The discovery of enzyme This theory was proposed by Levit (1974) and
phosphorylase in guard cells by Hanes elaborated by Raschke (1975). According to
(1940) greatly supports the starch-sugar this theory, the following steps are involved
interconversion theory. The enzyme in the stomatal opening:
phosphorylase hydrolyses starch into sugar
and high pH followed by endosmosis and
the opening of stomata during light. The vice
versa takes place during the night.
iv. Steward (1964) proposed a

slightly modified scheme of starch-sugar Figure 11.16: Theory of K+ transport
interconversion theory. According to Opening of stomata
him, Glucose-1-phosphate is osmotically
inactive. Removal of phosphate from In light
Glucose-1-phosphate converts to Glucose i. In guard cell, starch is converted into
which is osmotically active and increases organic acid (malic acid).
the concentration of guard cell leading to ii. Malic acid in guard cell dissociates to
opening of stomata (Figure 11.15). malate anion and proton (H+).
218

iii. Protons are transported through the 11.6.4 Factors Affecting Rate of
membrane into nearby subsidiary cells with T
ranspiration
the exchange of K+ (Potassium ions) from The factors affecting the rate of transpiration
subsidiary cells to guard cells. This process can be categorized into two groups. They are
involves an electrical gradient and is called 1. External or Environmental factors and 2.
ion exchange. Internal or plant factors.
iv. This ion exchange is an active process 1. External or Environmental factors
and consumes ATP for energy.
i. Atmospheric humidity: The rate of
v. Increased K+ ions in the guard cell
transpiration is greatly reduced when the
are balanced by Cl– ions. Increase in solute
atmosphere is very humid. As the air becomes
concentration decreases the water potential
dry, the rate of transpiration is also increased
in the guard cell.
proportionately.
vi. Guard cell becomes hypertonic and
favours the entry of water from surrounding ii. Temperature: With the increase
cells. in atmospheric temperature, the rate of
vii. Increased turgor pressure due to transpiration also increases. However, at very
the entry of water opens the stomatal pore high-temperatures stomata closes because of
(Figure 11.16). flaccidity and transpiration stop.
iii. Light: Light intensity increases the
In Dark temperature. As in temperature, transpiration
i. In dark, photosynthesis stops and is increased in high light intensity and
respiration continues with accumulation of is decreased in low light intensity. Light
CO2 in the sub-stomatal cavity. also increases the permeability of the
ii. Accumulation of CO2 in cell lowers cell membrane, making it easy for water
the pH level. molecules to move out of the cell.
iii. Low pH and a shortage of water in iv. Wind velocity: In still air, the surface
the guard cell activate the stress hormone above the stomata get saturated with water
Abscisic acid (ABA). vapours and there is no need for more
iv. ABA stops further entry of K+ ions and water vapour to come out. If the wind is
also induce K+ ions to leak out to subsidiary breezy, water vapour gets carried away near
cells from guard cell. leaf surface and DPD is created to draw
v. Loss of water from guard cell reduces more vapour from the leaf cells enhancing
turgor pressure and causes closure of stomata transpiration. However, high wind velocity
(Figure 11.17). creates an extreme increase in water loss and
leads to a reduced rate of transpiration and
stomata remain closed.
Activity
What will happen if an indoor plant is
placed under fan and AC?
v. Atmospheric pressure: In low

atmospheric pressure, the rate of transpiration
Figure 11.17: Theory of K+ transport increases. Hills favour high transpiration rate
due to low atmospheric pressure. However, it
Closing of stomata
is neutralized by low temperature prevailing
in the hills.
219

vi. Water: Adequate amount of water in forming a thin film to act as a physical barrier
the soil is a pre-requisite for optimum plant (for transpiration) for water but permeable
growth. Excessive loss of water through to CO2 and O2. The success rate of a physical
transpiration leads to wilting. In general, barrier is limited.
there are three types of wilting as follows, 2. Induction of Stomata closure
a. Incipient wilting: Water content of Carbon-di-oxide induces stomatal
plant cell decreases but the symptoms are not closure and acts as a natural antitranspirant.
visible. Further, the advantage of using CO2 as
b. Temporary wilting: On hot summer an antitranspirant is its inhibition of
days, the freshness of herbaceous plants photorespiration. Phenyl Mercuric Acetate
reduces turgor pressure at the day time and (PMA), when applied as a foliar spray to
regains it at night. plants, induces partial stomatal closure for
c. Permanent wilting: The absorption of two weeks or more without any toxic effect.
water virtually ceases because the plant cell Use of abscisic acid highly induces the
does not get water from any source and the closing of stomata. Dodecenyl succinic acid
plant cell passes into a state of permanent also effects on stomatal closure.
wilting. Uses:
2. Internal factors • Antitranspirants reduce the enormous
i. Leaf area: If the leaf area is more, loss of water by transpiration in crop plants.
transpiration is faster and so xerophytes • Useful for seedling transplantations in
reduce their leaf size. nurseries.
ii. Leaf structure: Some anatomical 11.6.6 Guttation
features of leaves like sunken stomata, the
presence of hairs, cuticle, the presence of
hydrophilic substances like gum, mucilage
help to reduce the rate of transpiration. In
xerophytes the structural modifications
are remarkable. To avoid transpiration, as
in Opuntia the stem is flattened to look
like leaves called Phylloclade. Cladode or
cladophyll in Asparagus is a modified stem
capable of limited growth looking like leaves.
In some plants, the petioles are flattened Figure 11.18: Structure of Hydathode
and widened, to become phyllodes example During high humidity in the atmosphere,
Acacia melanoxylon. the rate of transpiration is much reduced.
11.6.5 Plant Antitranspirants When plants absorb water in such a
The term antitranspirant is used to condition root pressure is developed due
designate any material applied to plants for to excess water within the plant. Thus
the purpose of retarding transpiration. An excess water exudates as liquid from the
ideal antitranspirant checks the transpiration edges of the leaves and is called guttation.
process without disturbing the process of Example: Grasses, tomato, potato, brinjal
gaseous exchange. Plant antitranspirants are and Alocasia. Guttation occurs through
two types: stomata like pores called hydathodes
1. To act as a physical barrier above the generally present in plants that grow in
stomata moist and shady places. Pores are present
Colourless plastics, Silicone oil and low over a mass of loosely arranged cells with
viscosity waxes are sprayed on leaves large intercellular spaces called epithem
220

(Figure 11.18). This mass of tissue lies near 2. Cobalt chloride (CoCl2) paper method
vein endings (xylem and Phloem). The Select a healthy dorsiventral leaf and clean
liquid coming out of hydathode is not pure its upper and lower surface with dry cotton.
water but a solution containing a number Now place a dry Cobalt chloride (CoCl2)
of dissolved substances. strips on both surface and immediately cover
11.6.7 Measurement of Transpiration the paper with glass slides and immobilize
1. Ganongs potometer them. It will be observed after some time that
Ganongs potometer is used to measure the the CoCl2 strip of lower epidermis turns pink.
rate of transpiration indirectly. In this, the This indicates that CoCl2 becomes hydrated
amount of water absorbed is measured and (CoCl2. 2H2O or CoCl2. 4H2O) due to water
assumed that this amount is equal to the vapours coming out through stomata. The
amount of water transpired. rate of transpiration is more on the lower
Apparatus consists of a horizontal surface than in the upper surface of the
graduated tube which is bent in opposite dorsiventral leaf.
directions at the ends. One bent end is wide 11.6.8 Significance of transpiration
and the other is narrow. A reservoir is fixed Transpiration leads to loss of water, as stated
to the horizontal tube near the wider end. earlier in this lesson 95% of absorbed water
The reservoir has a stopcock to regulate is lost in transpiration. It seems to be an
water flow. The apparatus is filled with water evil process to plants. However, number
from reservoir. A twig or a small plant is of process like absorption of water, ascent
fixed to the wider arm through a split cock. of sap and mineral absorption directly
The other bent end of the horizontal tube rely on the transpiration. Moreover plants
is dipped into a beaker containing coloured withstand against scorching sunlight due to
water. An air bubble is introduced into the transpiration. Hence the transpiration is a
graduated tube at the narrow end (Figure “necessary evil” as stated by Curtis.
11.19). keep this apparatus in bright sunlight 11.7 Translocation of Organic Solutes
and observe.As transpiration takes place, the Leaves synthesize food material through
air bubble will move towards the twig. The photosynthesis and store in the form of
loss is compensated by water absorption starch grains. When required the starch is
through the xylem portion of the twig. Thus, converted into simple sugars. They must
the rate of water absorption is equal to the be transported to various parts of the plant
rate of transpiration. system for further utilization. However, the
site of food production (leaves) and site of
utilization are separated far apart. Hence, the
organic food has to be transported to these
areas.
The phenomenon of food transportation
from the site of synthesis to the site of
utilization is known as translocation of
organic solutes. The term solute denotes
food material that moves in a solution.
11.7.1 Path of Translocation
It has now been well established that phloem
is the path of translocation of solutes.
Ringing or girdling experiment will clearly
demonstrate the translocation of solute by
Figure 11.19: Ganongs Potometer phloem.
221

11.7.2 Ringing or girdling experiment 11.7.4 Source and Sink
Source is defined as any organ in plants
which are capable of exporting food
materials to the areas of metabolism or
to the areas of storage. Examples: Mature
Ring off bark Swollen
Swo leaves, germinating seeds.
removed
re oved tissue
tiss Sink is defined as any organ in plants
Xylem which receives food from source.Example:
Roots, tubers, developing fruits and immature
Water
leaves (Figure 11.21).
Figure 11.20: Ringing experiment

TheInitial stage involvesFinal
experiment the stage
removal of
all the tissue outside to vascular cambium
(bark, cortex, and phloem) in woody stems
except xylem. Xylem is the only remaining
tissue in the girdled area which connects
upper and lower part of the plant. This setup
is placed in a beaker of water. After some
time, it is observed that a swelling on the
upper part of the ring appears as a result of
the accumulation of food material (Figure
11.20). If the experiment continues within
days, the roots die first. It is because, the
supply of food material to the root is cut
down by the removal of phloem. The roots
cannot synthesize their food and so they die
first. As the roots gradually die the upper part Figure 11.21: Source and Sink
(stem), which depends on root for the ascent
of sap, will ultimately die. 11.7.5 Phloem Loading
The movement of photosynthates (products
11.7.3 Direction of Translocation of photosynthesis) from mesophyll cells to
Phloem translocates the products of phloem sieve elements of mature leaves is
photosynthesis from leaves to the area known as phloem loading. It consists of
of growth and storage, in the following three steps.
directions,
i. Sieve tube conducts sucrose only.
Downward direction: From leaves to
But the photosynthate in chloroplast
stem and roots.
mostly in the form of starch or
Upward direction: From leaves
triose-phosphate which has to be transported
to developing buds, flowers, fruits for
to the cytoplasm where it will be converted
consumption and storage. Germination
into sucrose for further translocation.
of seeds is also a good example of upward
translocation. ii. Sucrose moves from mesophyll to
nearby sieve elements by short distance
Radial direction: From cells of pith to transport.
cortex and epidermis, the food materials are
iii. From sieve tube to sink by
radially translocated.
long-distance transport.
222

However, the theory was rejected because
Why plants transport
sugars as sucrose and the speed of translocation is much higher
not as starch or glucose than simple diffusion and translocation is a
or fructose? biological process which any poison can halt.
Glucose and Fructose 2. Activated diffusion theory
are simple monosaccharides, whereas, This theory was first proposed by Mason and
Sucrose is a disaccharide composed Maskell (1936). According to this theory, the
of glucose and fructose. Starch is a diffusion in sieve tube is accelerated either
polysaccharide of glucose. Sucrose and by activating the diffusing molecules or by
starch are more efficient in energy storage reducing the protoplasmic resistance to their
when compared to glucose and fructose, diffusion.
but starch is insoluble in water. So it 3. Electro-Osmotic theory
cannot be transported via phloem and the The theory of electro osmosis was proposed
next choice is sucrose, being water soluble by Fenson (1957) and Spanner (1958).
and energy efficient, sucrose is chosen According to this, an electric-potential across
as the carrier of energy from leaves to the sieve plate causes the movement of water
different parts of the plant. Sucrose has along with solutes. This theory fails to explain
low viscosity even at high concentrations
several problems concerning translocation.
and has no reducing ends which makes
it inert than glucose or fructose.During 4. Munch Mass Flow hypothesis
photosynthesis, starch is synthesized Mass flow theory was first proposed by
and stored in the chloroplast stroma and Munch (1930) and elaborated by Crafts
sucrose is synthesized in the leaf cytosol (1938). According to this hypothesis, organic
from which it diffuses to the rest of substances or solutes move from the region
the plant. of high osmotic pressure (from mesophyll)
to the region of low osmotic pressure along
11.7.6 Phloem Unloading the turgor pressure gradient. The principle
From sieve elements sucrose is translocated involved in this hypothesis can be explained
into sink organs such as roots, tubers, flowers by a simple physical system as shown
and fruits and this process is termed as in figure 11.22.
phloem unloading. It consists of three steps:
1. Sieve element unloading: Sucrose leave
from sieve elements.
2. Short distance transport: Movement of
sucrose to sink cells.
3. Storage and metabolism: The final step
when sugars are stored or metabolized in
Figure 11.22: A model demonstrating
sink cells.
the Mass flow hyphothesis
11.7.7 Mechanism of Translocation
Several hypotheses have been proposed to Two chambers “A” and “B” made up of
explain the mechanism of translocation. semipermeable membranes are connected
Some of them are given below: by tube “T” immersed in a reservoir of water.
1. Diffusion hypothesis Chamber “A” contains highly concentrated
As in diffusion process, this theory states sugar solution while chamber “B” contains
the translocation of food from higher dilute sugar solution. The following changes
concentration (from the place of synthesis) were observed in the system,
to lower concentration (to the place of i. The high concentration sugar solution
utilization) by the simple physical process. of chamber “A” is in a hypertonic state which
223

draws water from the reservoir by endosmosis. Objections:
ii. Due to the continuous entry of water i. This hypothesis explains the
into chamber “A”, turgor pressure is increased. unidirectional movement of solute only.
iii. Increase in turgor pressure in chamber However, bidirectional movement of solute
“A” force, the mass flow of sugar solution to is commonly observed in plants.
chamber “B” through the tube “T” along ii. Osmotic pressure of mesophyll cells
turgor pressure gradient. and that of root hair do not confirm the
iv. The movement of solute will continue requirements.
till the solution in both the chambers attains iii. This theory gives passive role to sieve
the state of isotonic condition and the system tube and protoplasm, while some workers
becomes inactive. demonstrated the involvement of ATP.
v. However, if new sugar solution is added
11.8 Mineral Absorption
in chamber “A”, the system will start to run
Minerals in soil exist in two forms, either
again.
dissolved in soil solution or adsorbed by
A similar analogous system as given in the
colloidal clay particle. Previously, it was
experiment exists in plants:
mistakenly assumed that absorption of
Chamber “A” is analogous to mesophyll
mineral salts from soil took place along
cells of the leaves which contain a higher
with absorption of water. But absorption of
concentration of food material in soluble
minerals and ascent of sap are identified as
form. In short “A” is the production point
two independent processes. Minerals are
called “source”.
absorbed not only by root hairs but also by
Chamber “B” is analogous to cells of stem
the cells of epiblema.
and roots where the food material is utilized.
Plasma membrane of root cells are not
In short “B” is consumption end called “sink”.
permeable to all ions and also all ions of same
Tube “T” is analogous to the sieve tube of
salt are not absorbed in equal rate.
phloem.
Penetration and accumulation of ions into
Mesophyll cells draw water from the
living cells or tissues from surrounding
xylem (reservoir of the experiment) of the
medium by crossing membrane is called
leaf by endosmosis leading to increase in the
mineral absorption. Movement of ions
turgor pressure of mesophyll cell. The turgor
into and out of cells or tissues is termed as
pressure in the cells of stem and the roots
transport or flux. Entry of the ion into cell is
are comparatively low and hence, the soluble
called influx and exit is called efflux. Various
organic solutes begin to flow en masse from
theories have been put forward to explain
mesophyll through the phloem to the cells
this mechanism. They are categorized
of stem and roots along the gradient turgor
under passive mechanisms (without the
pressure.
involvement of metabolic energy) and active
In the cells of stem and roots, the organic
mechanisms (involvement of metabolic
solutes are either consumed or converted into
energy).
insoluble form and the excess water is released
into xylem (by turgor pressure gradient) 11.8.1 Passive Absorption
through cambium.
1. Ion-Exchange:
Merits: Ions of external soil solution were exchanged
i. When a woody or herbaceous plant with same charged (anion for anion or cation
is girdled, the sap contains high sugar for cation) ions of the root cells. There are
containing exudates from cut end. two theories explaining this process of ion
ii. Positive concentration gradient exchange namely:
disappears when plants are defoliated.
224

i. Contact exchange and ii. Carbonic of active absorption of salts can be explained
acid exchange. through carrier concept.
i. Contact Exchange Theory: Carrier Concept:
This concept was proposed by Van den
Honert in 1937. The cell membrane is
largely impermeable to free ions. However,
the presence of carrier molecules in the
membrane acts as a vehicle to pick up or
Figure 11.23: Contact Exchange theory bind with ions to form carrier-ion-complex,
which moves across the membrane. On the
According to this theory, the ions
adsorbed on the surface of root cells and inner surface of the membrane, this complex
clay particles (or clay micelles) are not held breaks apart releasing ions into cell while
tightly but oscillate within a small volume carrier goes back to the outer surface to pick
of space called oscillation volume. Due to up fresh ions (Figure 11.25).
small space, both ions overlap each other’s
oscillation volume and exchange takes place
(Figure 11.23).
ii. Carbonic Acid Exchange Theory:
According to this theory, soil solution
plays an important role by acting as a medium
for ion exchange. The CO2 released during Figure 11.25: Carrier Concept
respiration of root cells combines with water The concept can be explained using two
to form carbonic acid (H2CO3). Carbonic theories:
acid dissociates into H+ and HCO3– in the soil
solution. These H+ ions exchange with cations 1. Lundegardh’s Cytochrome Pump Theory:
adsorbed on clay particles and the cations from Lundegardh and Burstrom (1933) observed
micelles get released into soil solution and gets a correlation between respiration and anion
adsorbed on root cells (Figure 11.24). absorption. When a plant is transferred from
water to a salt solution the rate of respiration
increases which is called as anion respiration
or salt respiration. Based on this observation
Lundegardh (1950 and 1954) proposed
cytochrome pump theory which is based on
the following assumptions:
i. The mechanism of anion and cation
absorption are different.
ii. Anions are absorbed through
cytochrome chain by an active process,
Figure 11.24: Carbonic Acid cations are absorbed passively.
Exchange theory iii. An oxygen gradient responsible
for oxidation at the outer surface of the
11.8.2 Active Absorption membrane and reduction at the inner surface.
Absorption of ions against the concentration According to this theory, the enzyme
gradient with the expenditure of metabolic dehydrogenase on inner surface is responsible
energy is called active absorption. In plants, for the formation of protons (H+) and
the vacuolar sap shows accumulation of electrons (e–). As electrons pass outward
anions and cations against the concentration through electron transport chain there is a
gradient which cannot be explained by corresponding inward passage of anions.
theories of passive absorption. Mechanism Anions are picked up by oxidized cytochrome
225

oxidase and are transferred to other members 11.8.3 Donnan equilibrium
of chain as they transfer the electron to the Within the cell, some of the ions never
next component (Figure 11.26). diffuse out through the membrane. They
A-
are trapped within the cell and are called
A- Fe 2+
Fe
3+
Fe
2+
A- A- fixed ions. But they must be balanced by
e- the ions of opposite charge. Assuming that
OUTSIDE
e
-
INSIDE
Fe 3+
A-
Fe 2+ Fe 3+
A-
a concentration of fixed anions is present
inside the membrane, more cations would be
H Dehydrogenase
¼O2 Reactions absorbed in addition to the normal exchange
to maintain the equilibrium. Therefore, the
½H 2O H-
cation concentration would be greater in the
c+ c+
internal than in the external solution. This
electrical balance or equilibrium controlled
Figure 11.26: Cytochrome Pump theory by electrical as well as diffusion phenomenon
The theory assumes that cations (C+) is known as the Donnan equilibrium.
move passively along the electrical gradient
Summary
created by the accumulation of anions (A–) at
There are two types of transports namely short
the inner surface of the membrane.
and long distance in plants to translocate sap
Main defects of the above theory are:
and solutes. Based on energy requirement,
(i) Cations also induce respiration.
the transport may either be passive or
(ii) Fails to explain the selective uptake
active. The process of diffusion, facilitated
of ions.
diffusion, imbibition and osmosis are driven
(iii) It explains absorption of anions only.
by concentration gradient like a ball rolling
2. Bennet-Clark’s Protein-Lecithin Theory:
down to a slope and hence, no energy is
In 1956, Bennet-Clark proposed that the
needed. The water absorbed (either active
carrier could be a protein associated with
or passive) from the soil by root hairs must
phosphatide called as lecithin. The carrier
reach the xylem for further transportation.
is amphoteric (the ability to act either as an
There are three possible routes to reach the
acid or a base) and hence both cations and
xylem from root hairs. They are i) apoplast ii)
anions combine with it to form Lecithin-
symplast and/or iii) transmembrane. Various
ion complex in the membrane. Inside the
theories explain the path of sap in the xylem
membrane, Lecithin-ion complex is broken
and Dixon’s Cohesion-tension theory is the
down into phosphatidic acid and choline
most accepted one. Transpiration is mostly
along with the liberation of ions. Lecithin again
carried out by stomata, which has guard
gets regenerated from phosphatidic acid and
cells. The general mechanism of stomatal
choline in the presence of the enzyme choline
movement is based on entry and exit of water
acetylase and choline esterase (Figure 11.27).
molecules in guard cells. Many theories are
ATP is required for regeneration of lecithin.
there to explain how water enters and exits
from guard cells. The theory of potassium
C+ C+ Lecithinase
Phosphatidic C+ transport enumerates two different reactions
Acid
_ Lecithin _ separately run for opening and closing
Choline A
OUTSIDE
A
INSIDE
_
A
Choline of stomata. Contrary to ascent of sap by
Ch tera
xylem in an upward direction, the path of

Acetylase
Es
ol se
ATP
in
e
Acetyl Choline solute which consists of the photosynthetic

products is always in phloem and translocate
multidirectional. The point of origin of
Figure 11.27: Protein-Lecithin theory translocation is photosynthetic leaves which
226

are the source. On the other hand, point of 5. Munch hypothesis is based on
utilization is called sink. According to Munch a. Translocation of food due to TP
mass flow hypothesis, the solutes move along gradient and imbibition force
the concentration gradient in a bulk flow. b. Translocation of food due to TP
Although minerals are dissolved in soil c. Translocation of food due to
water, they do not tend together with water imbibition force
to enter the root hairs during absorption of d. None of the above
water. Mineral absorption is independent
of water absorption. Minerals are absorbed 6. If the concentration of salt in the soil is
either actively or passively. too high and the plants may wilt even if
the field is thoroughly irrigated. Explain
Evaluation
7. How phosphorylase enzyme open the
1. In a fully turgid cell
a. DPD = 10 atm; OP = 5 atm;
TP = 10 atm
b. DPD = 0 atm; OP = 10 atm;
TP = 10 atm
c. DPD = 0 atm; OP = 5 atm;
TP = 10 atm
stomata in starch sugar interconversion
d. DPD = 20 atm; OP = 20 atm;
theory?
TP = 10 atm
8. List out the non-photosynthetic parts of
2. Which among the following is correct?
a plant that need a supply of sucrose?
i. apoplast is fastest and operate in
nonliving part 9. What are the parameters which control
ii. Transmembrane route includes water potential?
vacuole 10. An artificial cell made of selectively
iii. symplast interconnect the nearby permeable membrane immersed in a
cell through plasmadesmata beaker (in the figure). Read the values
iv. symplast and transmembrane route and answer the following questions?
are in living part of the cell a. Draw an arrow to indicate the direction
a. i and ii b. ii and iii of water movement
c. iii and iv d. i, ii, iii, iv b. Is the solution outside the cell isotonic,
hypotonic or hypertonic?
3. What type of transpiration is possible c. Is the cell isotonic, hypotonic or
in the xerophyte Opuntia? hypertonic?
a. Stomatal b. Lenticular d. Will the cell become more flaccid,
c. Cuticular d. All the above more turgid or stay in original size?
4. Stomata of a plant open due to e. With reference to artificial cell state, is
a. Influx of K+ b. Efflux of K+ the process endosmosis or exosmosis?
Give reasons
c. Influx of Cl– d. Influx of OH–
227

ICT Corner
Membrane transport
Let’s play with

membrane proteins.
Steps
• Open PhET:
Method 1: By scanning the QR Code given
Method 2: Through Google – Open PhET by typing PhET
• Select play with simulation & enter
• Click Biology – select Membrane Channels & run
• Select Membrane channel in PhET
• Select round molecule and pump it by pressing red button in one column
• Select square molecule and pump it by pressing the same action
• Observe the movement of molecules across membrane
Activity
• Use leakage channel and gated channel in closed and open position and observe
the molecules movement.
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
URL:
https://phet.colorado.edu/
228

Chapter
12 Mineral Nutrition
Learning Objectives A solution to Pollution
The learner will be able to, Gunny bags
• Recognise the need of mineral nutrition. Pebble

styrofoam
• Analyse the classification and criteria
for essential minerals. Bamboo tray
• Learn the techniques of Hydroponics Root hairs Microbes

and Aeroponics. Bacteria
• Correlate different types of special modes
of nutrition. A new solution has come up for high
• Ability to recall and analyse nitrogen nutrient pollution and eutrophication
fixation. in surface waters. Floating Treatment
Wetlands (FTWs) offer promising
Chapter Outline solution and it is a built structure
12.1 Classification of Minerals which measures around 3,000 sq.ft
12.2 Functions, mode of absorption, and comprises four layers: floatable
deficiency symptoms bamboo at base, styrofoam second layer,
of Macronutrients a third layer of gunny bags with gravels
12.3 Functions, mode and final layer to support cleaning
of absorption and agents (plants). Native plants including
deficiency symptoms Vetivers, Citronella, Tulsi and Withania
of Micronutrients are being researched for use as cleaning
12.4 Deficiency Diseases and symptoms agents. FTW works on the principle of
12.5 Critical Concentration and Toxicity Hydroponics which is explained in this
of minerals chapter. Microbes grown on the roots of
12.6 Hydroponics and Aeroponics these plants break down and consume
12.7 Nitrogen Fixation organic matter in water and reduce
12.8 Nitrogen Cycle and Nitrogen pollution.
Metabolism
12.9 Special Modes of Nutrition plants with attractive leaves, flowers and
fruits.
Can you say all plants are healthy and
As a traveller you would have got a chance uniform in growth? Some plants are not
to observe the plants. It is an interesting fact healthy and show symptoms like texture
that all plants are not alike. Just spend some changes, stunted growth, chlorosis, necrosis
time to observe the nature. You can notice and so on. Can you tell what is the reason
229

for all these symptoms? It may be due to requirements. Essential minerals which are
infection of microbial pathogens or climatic required in higher concentration are called
factors or due to mineral deficiency. Macronutrients. Essential minerals which
In this chapter we are going to learn about are required in less concentration called are
classification of minerals, their functions, as Micronutrients.
deficiency diseases and symptoms, nitrogen Minerals like Sodium, Silicon, Cobalt
metabolism and special modes of nutrition. and Selenium are not included in the list of
Further, how can these ideas help us to essential nutrients but are required by some
improve productivity in agriculture? plants, these minerals are placed in the list
Plants naturally obtain nutrients from of unclassified minerals. These minerals
atmosphere, water and soil. Carbon, play specific roles for example, Silicon is
hydrogen and oxygen are called as skeletal essential for pest resistance, prevent water
elements and constitute about 94% of dry lodging and aids cell wall formation in
weight. These elements play an important Equisetaceae (Equisetum), Cyperaceae and
role in the formation of organic compounds Gramineae (Table 12. 1).
such as carbohydrates, fats and protein. These
12.1.2 Classification of minerals based on
non-mineral elements are obtained from air
mobility
and water. Minerals are classified based on
If you observe where the deficiency
essentiality. Arnon and Stout (1939) gave
symptoms appear first, you can notice
criteria required for essential minerals:
differences in old and younger leaves. It is
1. Elements necessary for growth and mainly due to mobility of minerals. Based
development. on this, they are classified into 1. Actively
2. They should have direct role in the mobile minerals and 2. Relatively immobile
metabolism of the plant. minerals (Figure 12.1).
3. It cannot be replaced by other elements.
4. Deficiency makes the plants impossible a. Actively mobile minerals
to complete their vegetative and Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Magnesium,
reproductive phase. Chlorine, Sodium, Zinc and Molybdenum.
Deficiency symptoms first appear on old
12.1 Classification of minerals and senescent leaves due to active movement
12.1.1 Classification of minerals based on of minerals to younger leaves.
their quantity requirements
b. Relatively immobile minerals
Essential elements are classified as
Calcium, Sulphur, Iron, Boron and Copper
Macro-nutrients, Micronutrients and
shows deficiency symptoms first that appear
Unclassified minerals based on their
Table 12.1: Mineral Types

Macro nutrients Micro nutrients Unclassified minerals
Excess than 10 mmole Kg-1 Less than 10 mmole Kg-1 in Required for some
in tissue concentration or tissue concentration or equal or plants in trace amounts
0.1 to 10 mg per gram of dry less than 0.1 mg per gram of dry and have some specific
weight. weight. functions.
Example: C, H, O, N, P, K, Example: Fe, Mn, Cu, Mo, Zn, B, Example: Sodium,
Ca, Mg and S Cl and Ni Cobalt, Silicon and
Selenium
230

on young leaves due to the immobile nature 1. Nitrogen (N): It is required by the plants
of minerals in greatest amount. It is an essential
component of proteins, nucleic acids,
amino acids, vitamins, hormones,
alkaloids, chlorophyll and cytochrome.
It is absorbed by the plants as nitrates
(NO3).
X
Deficiency symptoms: Chlorosis,
stunted growth, anthocyanin formation.
2. Phosphorus (P): Constituent of cell
Mobile minerals Immobile minerals
membrane, proteins, nucleic acids, ATP,
Necrosis Minerals Chlorosis
NADP, phytin and sugar phosphate. It is
Movement of Minerals absorbed as H2PO41 and HPO42 ions.
X Movement blocked Deficiency symptoms: Stunted growth,
Figure 12.1: Mobility of Minerals anthocyanin formation, necrosis,
inhibition of cambial activity, affect root
12.1.3 Classification of minerals based on
growth and fruit ripening.
their functions
a.
Structural component minerals: 3. Potassium (K): Maintains turgidity and
Minerals like Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen osmotic potential of the cell, opening and
and Nitrogen closure of stomata, phloem translocation,
stimulate activity of enzymes, anion and
b. Enzyme function: Molybdenum (Mo) is
cation balance by ion-exchange. It is
essential for nitrogenase enzyme during
absorbed as K1 ions.
reduction of atmospheric nitrogen into
ammonia. Zinc (Zn)is an important Deficiency symptoms: Marginal
activator for alcohol dehydrogenase and chlorosis, necrosis, low cambial activity,
carbonic anhydrase. Magnesium (Mg) loss of apical dominance, lodging in
is the activator for RUBP carboxylase- cereals and curled leaf margin.
oxygenase and PEP carboxylase. Nickel (Ni) 4. Calcium (Ca): It is involved in synthesis
is a constituent of urease and hydrogenase. of calcium pectate in middle lamella,
mitotic spindle formation, mitotic
c. Osmotic Potential: Potassium (K) plays a
cell division, permeability of cell
key role in maintaining osmotic potential
membrane, lipid metabolism, activation
of the cell. The absorption of water,
of phospholipase, ATPase, amylase and
movement of stomata and turgidity are
activator of adenyl kinase. It is absorbed
due to osmotic potential.
as Ca21 exchangeable ions.
d. Energy components: Magnesium (Mg)
Deficiency symptoms: Chlorosis,
in chlorophyll and phosphorous (P) in
necrosis, stunted growth, premature
ATP.
fall of leaves and flowers, inhibit seed
12.2 Functions, mode of absorption formation, Black heart of Celery, Hooked
and deficiency symptoms of leaf tip in Sugar beet, Musa and Tomato.
macronutrients
5. Magnesium (Mg): It is a constituent
Macronutrients, their functions, their mode
of chlorophyll, activator of enzymes
of absorption, deficiency symptoms and
of carbohydrate metabolism (RUBP
deficiency diseases are discussed here:
231

Carboxylase and PEP Carboxylase) micronutrients, hence, it can be placed in
and involved in the synthesis of DNA any one of the groups. Iron is an essential
and RNA. It is essential for binding of element for the synthesis of chlorophyll
ribosomal sub units. It is absorbed as and carotenoids. It is the component of
Mg21 ions. cytochrome, ferredoxin, flavoprotein,
Deficiency symptoms: Inter veinal formation of chlorophyll, porphyrin,
chlorosis, necrosis, anthocyanin (purple) activation of catalase, peroxidase enzymes.
formation and Sand drown of tobacco. It is absorbed as ferrous (Fe21) and ferric
6. Sulphur (S): Essential component of (Fe31) ions. Absorbtion of Fe2+ ions are
amino acids like cystine, cysteine and comparitively more than Fe3+ ions. Mostly
methionine, constituent of coenzyme A, fruit trees are sensitive to iron.
Vitamins like biotin and thiamine, Deficiency: Interveinal Chlorosis,
constituent of proteins and ferredoxin. formation of short and slender stalk and
plants utilise sulphur as sulphate (SO42) inhibition of chlorophyll formation.
ions. 2. Manganese (Mn): Activator of
Deficiency symptoms: Chlorosis, carboxylases, oxidases, dehydrogenases
anthocyanin formation, stunted growth, and kinases, involved in splitting of
rolling of leaf tip and reduced nodulation water to liberate oxygen (photolysis). It
in legumes. is absorbed as manganous (Mn21) ions.
Deficiency: Interveinal chlorosis, grey
NPK Fertilizers spot on oats leaves and poor root system.
It consists of nitrogen, 3. Copper (Cu): Constituent of plastocyanin,
phosphate with component of phenolases, tyrosinase,
potassium in different enzymes involved in redox reactions,
proportions. The number labelled on the synthesis of ascorbic acid, maintains
bags as 15:15:15 indicates N, P & K in carbohydrate and nitrogen balance, part
equal proportions. of oxidase and cytochrome oxidase. It is
absorbed as cupric (Cu21) ions.
12.3 Functions, mode of absorption Deficiency: Die back of citrus,
and deficiency symptoms of Reclamation disease of cereals and
micronutrients legumes, chlorosis, necrosis and
Micronutrients even though required Exanthema in Citrus.
in trace amounts are essential for the
4. Zinc (Zn): Essential for the synthesis of
metabolism of plants. They play key roles
Indole acetic acid (Auxin), activator of
in many plants. Example: Boron is essential
carboxylases, alcohol dehydrogenase,
for translocation of sugars, molybdenum is
lactic dehydrogenase, glutamic acid
involved in nitrogen metabolism and zinc is
dehydrogenase, carboxy peptidases and
needed for biosynthesis of auxin. Here, we
tryptophan synthetase. It is absorbed as
will study about the role of micro nutrients,
Zn21 ions.
their functions, their mode of absorption,
Deficiency: Little leaf and mottle leaf
deficiency symptoms and deficiency
due to deficiency of auxin, Inter veinal
diseases.
chlorosis, stunted growth, necrosis and
1. Iron (Fe): Iron is required lesser
Khaira disease of rice.
than macronutrient and larger than
232

5. Boron (B): Translocation of 8. Nickel (Ni): Cofactor for enzyme urease
carbohydrates, uptake and utilisation and hydrogenase.
of Ca11, pollen germination, Deficiency: Necrosis of leaf tips.
nitrogen metabolism, fat
metabolism, cell elongation and differen-
tiation. It is absorbed as (borate) BO32 Calmodulin
ions. Calmodulin is a Ca21
Deficiency: Death of root and shoot modulating protein in
tips, premature fall of flowers and fruits, eukaryotic cells. It is
brown heart of beet root, internal cork of a heat stable protein involved in fine
apple and fruit cracks. metabolic regulations.
6. Molybdenum (Mo): Component of
nitrogenase, nitrate reductase, involved
in nitrogen metabolism, and nitrogen Activity
fixation. It is absorbed as molybdate Collect leaves showing mineral deficiency.
(Mo21) ions. Tabulate the symptoms like Marginal
Deficiency: Chlorosis, necrosis, delayed Chlorosis, Interveinal Chlorosis, Necrotic
flowering, retarded growth and whip tail leaves, Anthocyanin formation in leaf,
disease of cauliflower. Little leaf and Hooked leaf. (Discuss
7. Chlorine (Cl): It is involved in Anion – with your teacher about the deficiency of
Cation balance, cell division, photolysis minerals)
of water. It is absorbed as Cl2 ions.
Deficiency: Wilting of leaf tips
12.4 Deficiency diseases and symptoms

The following table (Table 12.2) gives you an idea about Minerals and their Deficiency symptoms:
Table 12.2: Deficiency diseases and Symptoms
Name of the deficiency disease and symptoms Deficiency minerals
1. Chlorosis (Overall) Nitrogen, Potassium, Magnesium, Sulphur, Iron,
Manganese, Zinc and Molybdenum.
a. Interveinal chlorosis Magnesium, Iron, Manganese and Zinc
b. Marginal chlorosis Potassium
2. Necrosis (Death of the tissue) Magnesium, Potassium, Calcium, Zinc, Molybdenum
and Copper.
3. Stunted growth Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Calcium, Potassium and Sulphur.
4. Anthocyanin formation Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Magnesium and Sulphur
5. Delayed flowering Nitrogen, Sulphur and Molybdenum
6. Die back of shoot, Reclamation disease, Copper
Exanthema in citrus (gums on bark)
7. Hooked leaf tip Calcium
8. Little Leaf Zinc
9. Brown heart of Beet root and Internal Boron
cork of apple
10. Whiptail of cauliflower and cabbage Molybdenum
11. Curled leaf margin Potassium
233

12.5 Critical concentration and 12.6 Hydroponics and Aeroponics
toxicity of minerals 1. Hydroponics or Soilless culture: Von Sachs
12.5.1 Critical Concentration developed a method of growing plants in
To increase the productivity and also to nutrient solution. The commonly used
avoid mineral toxicity knowledge of critical nutrient solutions are Knop solution (1865)
concentration is essential. Mineral nutrients and Arnon and Hoagland Solution (1940).
lesser than critical concentration cause Later the term Hydroponics was coined by
deficiency symptoms. Increase of mineral Goerick (1940) and he also introduced
nutrients more than the normal concentration commercial techniques for hydroponics. In
causes toxicity. A concentration, at which hydroponics roots are immersed in the
10 % of the dry weight of tissue is reduced, solution containing nutrients and air is
is considered as toxic. Figure 12.2 explains supplied with help of tube (Figure 12.3).
Air pump
about Critical Concentration.
Buoyant pads to
10% Reduction support the plants Water
In Plant Growth circulation
pump
Adequate Zone Nutrient
solution Air bubble
Growth as a % of Maximum Rate
Toxic Air pipe

Zone
Transition Figure 12.3: Hydroponics
Zone
Deficient Zone
eroponics: This technique was developed

A
by Soifer Hillel and David Durger. It is a
system where roots are suspended in air
and nutrients are sprayed over the roots by
Critical Nutrient Toxic a motor driven rotor (Figure 12.4).
Concentration Concentration
Concentration of Nutrient in Plant Tissue
12.4 Critical Concentration and Mineral Toxicity Suspended

Figure 12.2: Critical Concentration root
12.5.2 Mineral Toxicity Mist
chamber
a. Manganese toxicity Nutrient
Solution
Increased Concentration of Manganese will
Spray rotor
prevent the uptake of Fe and Mg, prevent
Figure 12.4: Aeroponics
translocation of Ca to the shoot apex and
cause their deficiency. The symptoms of 12.7 Nitrogen Fixation
manganese toxicity are appearance of brown Inspiring act of nature is self-regulation.
spots surrounded by chlorotic veins. As all living organisms act as tools for
biogeochemical cycles, nitrogen cycle is
b. Aluminium Toxicity highly regulated. Life on earth depends on
Aluminium toxicity causes precipitation nitrogen cycle. Nitrogen occurs in atmosphere
of nucleic acid, inhibition of ATPase, in the form of N2 (N≡N), two nitrogen
inhibition of cell division and binding of atoms joined together by strong triple
plasma membrane with Calmodulin. covalent bonds. The process of converting
For theories regarding, translocation of atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into ammonia is
minerals please refer Chapter- 11. termed as nitrogen fixation. Nitrogen fixation
234

can occur by two methods: 1. Biological;
Iron and Manganese toxicity
2. N
on-Biological (Figure 12.5).
Iron and Manganese exhibit competitive
NITROGEN FIXATION behaviour. Deficiency of Fe and Mn shows
similar symptoms. Iron toxicity will affect
Non-Biological Biological absorption of manganese. The possible reason
for iron toxicity is excess usage of chelated iron
Industrial Lightening Non-symbiotic Symbiotic
in addition with increased acidity of soil (PH
Non legume
less than 5.8) Iron and manganese toxicity will
Legume
be solved by using fertilizer with balanced
Figure 12.5: Nitrogen fixation ratio of Fe and Mn.
Activity Stages of Root nodule formation:
Preparation of Solution Culture to find out 1. Legume plants secretes phenolics which
Mineral Deficiency attracts Rhizobium.
1. Take a glass jar or polythene bottle and 2. Rhizobium reaches the rhizosphere and
cover with black paper (to prevent algal
enters into the root hair, infects the root
growth and roots reacting with light).
2. Add nutrient solution. hair and leads to curling of root hairs.
3. F ix a plant with the help of split cork. 3. Infection thread grows inwards and
4. Fix a tube for aeration. separates the infected tissue from normal
5. Observe the growth by adding specific tissue.
minerals.
12.7.1 Non – Biological nitrogen fixation Figure

• Nitrogen fixation by chemical process in 12.6: Rhizobium
(Bacteroid) in root
industry. nodule
• Natural electrical discharge during
lightening fixes atmospheric nitrogen.
4. A membrane bound bacterium is formed
12.7.2 Biological nitrogen fixation inside the nodule and is called bacteroid.
Symbiotic bacterium like Rhizobium fixes 5. Cytokinin from bacteria and auxin from
atmospheric nitrogen. Cyanobacteria host plant promotes cell division and
found in Lichens, Anthoceros, Azolla and leads to nodule formation
coralloid roots of Cycas also fix nitrogen.
Non-symbiotic (free living bacteria) like Activity
Clostridium also fix nitrogen. • Collect roots of legumes with root nodules.
•T ake cross section of the root nodule.
a. Symbiotic nitrogen fixation
• Observe under microscope. Discuss your
i. Nitrogen fixation with nodulation observations with your teacher.
Rhizobium bacterium is found in leguminous
plants and fix atmospheric nitrogen. This kind Non-Legume
of symbiotic association is beneficial for both Alnus and Casuarina contain the bacterium
the bacterium and plant. Root nodules are Frankia. Psychotria contains the bacterium
formed due to bacterial infection. Rhizobium Klebsiella.
enters into the host cell and proliferates, it ii. Nitrogen fixation without nodulation
remains separated from the host cytoplasm The following plants and prokaryotes are
by a membrane (Figure 12.6). involved in nitrogen fixation.
235

Lichens - Anabaena and Nostoc Enzyme
N Dinitrogen
Anthoceros - Nostoc Nitrogenase
N Molecule
Azolla - Anabaena azollae

Cycas - Anabaena and Nostoc N
b. Non-symbiotic Nitrogen fixation N
Free living bacteria and fungi also fix
atmospheric nitrogen.
N H
Aerobic Azotobacter, Beijerinckia and N H
Derxia
Anaerobic Clostridium H
N H
Photosynthetic Chlorobium and Rhodospirillum
N H
Chemosynthetic Disulfovibrio H
Free living fungi Yeast and Pullularia H
H
Cyanobacteria Nostoc, Anabaena and N H
Oscillatoria. N H
H
H
12.8 Nitrogen cycle and nitrogen
metabolism H
N H
12.8.1 Nitrogen cycle H
This cycle consists of following stages: H
N H
1. Fixation of atmospheric nitrogen
Nitrogenase H Ammonia
Di-nitrogen molecule from Figure 12.7: Nitrogenase enzyme function
the atmosphere progressively
gets reduced by addition of 2. Nitrification
a pair of hydrogen atoms. Ammonia (NH31) is converted into Nitrite
Triple bond between two (NO22) by Nitrosomonas bacterium. Nitrite
nitrogen atoms (N≡N) are is then converted into Nitrate (NO32) by
cleaved to produce ammonia (Figure 12.7). Nitrobacter bacterium.
Nitrogen fixation process requires Plants are more adapted to absorb nitrate
Nitrogenase enzyme complex, Minerals (NO32) than ammonium ions from the soil.
(Mo, Fe and S), anaerobic condition, ATP, Nitrosomonas
2 NH31 1 3 O2 2 NO22 1 2 H1 1 2H2O
electron and glucose 6 phosphate as H1
donor. Nitrogenase enzyme is active only Nitrobacter
2 NO22 1 O2 2 NO3-
in anaerobic condition. To create this
anaerobic condition a pigment known 3. Nitrate Assimilation
as leghaemoglobin is synthesized in the The process by which nitrate is reduced to
nodules which acts as oxygen scavenger and ammonia is called nitrate assimilation and
removes the oxygen. Nitrogen fixing bacteria occurs during nitrogen cycle.
in root nodules appears pinkish due to the
Nitrate reductase
presence of this leghaemoglobin pigment. NO32 NO22
Mo
Overall equation:
Nitrite reductase
NO22 NH31
N2 1 8e2 1 8H1 1 16ATP Cu, Fe
2NH 1 H2 1 16ADP 1 16 Pi
3
1
236

4. Ammonification 2. Transamination
Decomposition of organic nitrogen (proteins Transfer of amino group (NH31) from glutamic
and amino acids) from dead plants and animals acid (glutamate) to keto group of keto acid.
into ammonia is called ammonification. Glutamic acid is the main amino acid from
Organisim involved in this process are Bacillus which other amino acids are synthesised by
ramosus and Bacillus vulgaris. transamination. Transamination requires
5. Denitrification the enzyme transaminase and co enzyme
Nitrates in the soil are converted back into pyridoxal phosphate (derivative of vitamin
atmospheric nitrogen by a process called B6 -pyridoxine)
denitrification. Bacteria involved in this R1 R2 R1 R2
process are Pseudomonas, Thiobacillus and
Bacillus subtilis.
CH–NH31 C5O C5O CH–NH31
Pseudomonas
Nitrate Molecular Nitrogen 1 5 1
(NO32) (N2) COO 2 COO2 COO2 COO2
Amino Keto Keto Amino
acid 1 acid 2 acid 1 acid 2
3. Catalytic Amination:
Atmospheric Nitrogen (N2) (GS/GOGAT Pathway)
Glutamate amino acid combines with
ammonia to form the amide glutamine.
Plants Glutamine Synthetase (GS)
Glutamate 1 NH41 Glutamine.
Assimilation Denitrifying ATP ADP 1 Pi
bacteria
Nitrogen-fixing
bacteria living in
_
Nitrates (NO3) Glutamine reacts with α ketoglutaric acid to
legume root
nodules
Decomposers
(aerobic and anaerobic
form two molecules of glutamate.
bacteria and fungi) Nitrifying
bacteria GOGAT (enzyme)
Ammonification Nitrification
Glutamine 1 α Ketoglutaric acid 2 Glutamate
(2- oxoglutarate)
Ammonification
Nitrites (NO2)
_
NADH1H 1
NAD1
(NH4+)
Nitrogen-fixing Nitrifying bacteria (GOGAT- Glutamine-2-Oxoglutarate
soil bacteria
a minotransferase)
Figure 12.8: Nitrogen Cycle 12.9 Special modes of nutrition
The overall process of nitrogen cycle is Nutrition is the process of uptake and
given in Figure 12.8. utilization of nutrients by living organisms.
There are two main types such as autotrophic
12.8.2 Nitrogen Metabolism Ammonium and heterotrophic nutrition. Autotrophic
Assimilation (Fate of Ammonia) nutrition is further divided into photosynthetic
Ammonia is converted into amino acids by and chemosynthetic nutrition. Heterotrophic
the following processes: nutrition is further divided into saprophytic,
1. Reductive amination parasitic, symbiotic and insectivorous type. In
Glutamic acid or glutamate is formed by this topic you are going to learn about special
mode of nutrition.
reaction of ammonia with α-ketoglutaric acid.
Glutamate 12.9.1 Saprophytic mode of nutrition in
α-Ketoglutaric acid 1 NH41
dehydrogenase (GDH)
angiosperms
NADPH1H1NADP1
Saprophytes derive nutrients from dead and
Glutamate 1 H2O decaying matter. Bacteria and fungus are main
237

saprophytic organisms. Some angiosperms ii. Partial root parasite: Example: Santalum
also follow saprophytic mode of nutrition. album (Sandal wood tree) in its juvenile
Example: Neottia. Roots of Neottia (Bird’s stage produces haustoria which grows
Nest Orchid) associate with mycorrhizae and on roots of many plants (Figure 12.10).
absorb nutrients as a saprophyte. Monotropa
(Indian Pipe) grow on humus rich soil found
in thick forests. It absorbs nutrient through
mycorrhizal association (Figure 12.9).
Figure 12.10: Parasitic Mode of Nutrition

12.9.3 Symbiotic mode of Nutrition
a. Lichens: It is a mutual association of
Neottia Monotropa
(Bird's Nest Orchid) (Indian Pipe) Algae and Fungi. Algae prepares food and
Figure 12.9: Saprophytic Mode of nutrition fungi absorbs water and provides thallus
structure.
12.9.2 Parasitic mode of nutrition in
angiosperms b. Mycorrhizae: Fungi associated with roots
Organisms deriving their nutrient from of higher plants including Gymnosperms.
another organism (host) and causing disease Example: Pinus.
to the host are called parasites. c. R
hizobium and Legumes: This symbiotic
a. Obligate or Total parasite - Completely association fixes atmospheric nitrogen
depends on host for their survival and d. Cyanobacteria and Coralloid Roots:
produces haustoria. This association is found in Cycas where
i. Total stem parasite: The leafless stem Nostoc associates with its coralloid roots.
twine around the host and produce (Figure 12.11).
haustoria. Example: Cuscuta (Dodder),
a rootless plant growing on Zizyphus,
Citrus and so on.
ii. Total root parasite: They do not have
stem axis and grow in the roots of host
Figure 12.11: Symbiotic mode of nutrition
plants produce haustoria. Example:
Rafflesia, Orobanche and Balanophora. 12.9.4 Insectivorous mode of nutrition
b. Partial parasite - Plants of this group Plants which are growing in nitrogen
contain chlorophyll and synthesize deficient areas develop insectivorous habit
carbohydrates. Water and mineral to resolve nitrogen deficiency. These plants
requirements are dependent on host plant. obtain nitrogen from the insects
i. Partial Stem Parasite: Example: a. N
epenthes (Pitcher plant): Pitcher is
Loranthus and Viscum (Mistletoe) a modified leaf and contains digestive
Loranthus grows on fig and mango trees enzymes. Rim of the pitcher is provided
and absorb water and minerals from xylem. with nectar glands and acts as an attractive
238

lid. When insect is trapped, proteolytic Relatively immobile elements are Ca, S, Fe, B and
enzymes will digest the insect. Cu. In such minerals, deficiency symptoms first
b. Drosera (Sundew): It consists of long club appear on young leaves due to immobile nature.
shaped leaves with tentacles that secrete Minerals and their deficiency symptoms include
sticky digestive fluid which looks like a chlorosis (loss of chlorophyll pigments), necrosis
sundew and attracts insects. (death of tissue), anthocyanin formation, die back
c. Utricularia (Bladder wort): Submerged of shoot, exanthema, hooked leaf tip, whiptail and
plant in which leaf is modified into a so on. A concentration at which 10% of dry weight
bladder to collect insect in water. is reduced is considered as critical concentration.
d. D ionaea (Venus fly trap): Leaf of this plant Minerals used in excess concentration become
modified into a colourful trap. Two folds toxic.
of lamina consist of sensitive trigger hairs Soil less cultivation alleviates problems due to
and when insects touch the hairs it will mineral deficiency. It includes hydroponics and
close and traps the insects.(Figure 12.12). aeroponics. Hydroponics is a method of growing
plants in a nutrient solution. Aeroponics is the
technique in which roots are suspended in air and
nutrient sprayed over the roots by motor driven
rotor. Nitrogen is an important requirement
for normal growth and functioning of a plant.
Figure 12.12: Insectivorous mode of nutrition Nitrogen fixing organisms fix nitrogen from
atmosphere naturally through symbiotic and non-
Lichens are indicators of symbiotic modes. Special modes of nutrition are
SO2 pollution and a pioneer seen in plant which grew in nutrient deficient soils
species in xeric succession. and the character becomes permanent.
Evaluation
1. Identify correct match.
Check your grasp! 1. Die back disease of citrus - (i) Mo
Mineral X required for the activation of 2. Whip tail disease - (ii) Zn
enzyme nitrogenase, Mineral Y involved in 3. Brown heart of turnip - (iii) Cu
transport of sugar and Mineral Z required 4. Little leaf - (iv) B
for maintaining ribosome structure.
Identify X, Y and Z. a. 1 (iii) 2 (ii) 3 (iv) 4 (i)
b. 1 (iii) 2 (i) 3 (iv) 4 (ii)
Summary c. 1 (i) 2 (iii) 3 (ii) 4 (iv)
Sources of minerals for plants are atmosphere, d. 1 (iii) 2 (iv) 3 (ii) 4 (i)
water and soil. Minerals are classified based on their
quantity, mobility and functions. Macro nutrients 2. If a plant is provided with all mineral
(C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S) are required in nutrients but, Mn concentration is
higher concentration and micro nutrients (Fe, increased, what will be the deficiency?
Mn, Cu, Zn, B, Mo, Cl and Ni) are required in a. Mn prevent the uptake of Fe, Mg
lesser concentration. Minerals like Sodium, but not Ca
Cobalt, Silicon and Selenium are required by some b. Mn increase the uptake of Fe, Mg
plants for specific functions and such minerals and Ca
are grouped as unclassified minerals. Actively c. Only increase the uptake of Ca
mobile elements are N, P, K, Mg, Cl, Na, Zn and d. Prevent the uptake Fe, Mg, and Ca
Mo. The deficiency symptoms for these minerals 3. The element which is not remobilized?
first appear on old and senescent leaves due to a. Phosphorous b. Potassium
active movement of minerals to younger leaves. c. Calcium d. Nitrogen
239

4. Match the correct combination. b. I, II, III are correct
Minerals Role c. I only correct
A Molybdenum 1 Chlorophyll d. all are correct
B Zinc 2 Methionine 6. The nitrogen is present
in the atmosphere
C Magnesium 3 Auxin
in huge amount but
D Sulphur 4 Nitrogenase
higher plants fail to
a. A-1 B-3 C-4 D-2 utilize it. Why?
b. A-2 B-1 C-3 D-4 7. Why is that in certain plants deficiency
c. A-4 B-3 C-1 D-2 symptoms appear first in younger parts
d. A-4 B-2 C-1 D-3 of the plants while in others, they do so
5. Identify the correct statement in mature organs?
i. Sulphur is essential for amino acids 8. Plant A in a nutrient medium shows
Cystine and Methionine whiptail disease plant B in a nutrient
ii. Low level of N, K, S and Mo affect medium shows a little leaf disease.
the cell division Identify mineral deficiency of plant A
iii. Non-leguminous plant Alnus which and B?
contain bacterium Frankia 9. Write the role of nitrogenase enzyme in
iv. Denitrification carried out by nitrogen fixation?
nitrosomonas and nitrobacter. 10. Explain the insectivorous mode of
a. I, II are correct nutrition in angiosperms?
t ICT Corner
Role of Minerals In Plant Growth
Let’s try to make the plant blossom
Steps Activity
• Scan the QR code • Change the combination of minerals and
• Start a new game test the soil samples
• Add lime • Find the correct proportion of chemical
• Test the Soil pH by test the sample press grows and specific pH for flowering
• Do it for combination of minerals • Conclude your observations.
Web URL:
http://www.glencoe.com/sites/common_assets/science/virtual_labs/BL04/
BL04.html
240

Chapter
13 Photosynthesis
13.13 C
AM cycle or Crassulacean Acid
Learning Objectives Metabolism
13.14 Photorespiration or C2 Cycle
13.15 Factors affecting photosynthesis
• Learn the Ultra structure of Chloroplast .
13.16 Photosynthesis in bacteria
• Realise the importance of solar energy
and properties of light.
• Acquire knowledge of Quantum, Life on earth is made up of organic
Quantum yield and Quantum compounds. How do we get these organic
requirement. compounds? Ultimately, plants are the main
• Develop curiosity for photosynthetic source of all kinds of carbon compounds in
experiments like Red drop, Emerson this planet. We directly or indirectly depend on
Enhancement effect and Hill’s Reaction. plants for this. Plants are the major machinery
• Analyse the pathway of electron- PS I and which produce organic compounds like
PS II. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
• Recognise the Photo-Oxidative and Photo and other biomolecules.
Chemical Pathway. Though man has reached the glory of
• Develop skill in Photosynthetic pathways achievements still he is not able to imitate the
and ability to draw C3, C4, C2 and CAM metabolic activities of plants which produces
cycle. energy resources and other biomolecules.
The plants get energy from sun by
Chapter Outline converting solar or radiant energy into chemical
13.1 Definition, Significance and Site of energy by the process of Photosynthesis,
photosynthesis which acts as a driving force for both biotic
13.2 Photosynthetic pigments and abiotic world. Photosynthesis produces
13.3 Spectrum of electromagnetic radiation 1700 million tonnes of dry matter per year
13.4 Photosynthetic unit by fixing 75 × 1012 Kg of carbon every year.
13.5 Absorption spectrum and Action Photosynthetic organisms use only 0.2 % of
spectrum incident solar light on earth. Carbohydrates
13.6 Emerson’s experiments & Hill’s reaction produced by photosynthesis are the basic raw
13.7 Modern concept of photosynthesis material for respiration and also to produce
13.8 Photo-oxidation phase of light reaction many organic compounds. It maintains
atmospheric oxygen and carbon dioxide level.
13.9 Photochemical phase of light reaction
Photosynthesis consumes atmospheric carbon
13.10 Photophosphorylation
dioxide which is continuously added by the
13.11 Dark reaction or C3 cycle respiration of organisms. Photosynthesis is the
13.12 Hatch & Slack Pathway or C4 Cycle
241

A quest for future energy six molecules of water as insufficient for the
Hydrogen is considered as a promising evolution of 6 molecules of O2 and modified
energy vector for the next generation. It can the equation as:
be used for “green” electricity production or Light
6CO2 1 12H2O C6H12O6 1 6 H2O1
developing cogeneration systems such as fuel Chlorophyll
cells. The sustainability of its employment 6O2↑
depends on the energy source used to Photosynthesis is a collection of oxidation
synthesize it from hydrogen-rich compounds and reduction reactions (Redox reaction).
such as water or biomass. The splitting of Oxidation- Water is oxidised into oxygen
water in hydrogen and oxygen by means of (loss of electrons).
solar radiation in Photolysis is common in Reduction – CO2 is reduced into
plants. Water splitting is not an easy process Carbohydrates (gain of electrons).
to mimic artificially but preliminary success
In some bacteria, oxygen is not evolved
is achieved so far. If young minds take up this
as their research ambition a revolution can and is called as non-oxygenic and anaerobic
be made in green energy. photosynthesis. Examples: Green sulphur,
Purple sulphur and green filamentous bacteria.
O2
In leaf cell Chloroplast 13.1.2 Significance of Photosynthesis
e-
PSII 1. Photosynthetic organisms provide food for
e- all living organisms on earth either directly
e-
Hydrolysis or indirectly.
H 2O H2 Fuel cell 2. It is the only natural process that liberates
e-
oxygen in the atmosphere and balances the
H2 H2
2H 2O
4e-
4H+ +O2
oxygen level.
Hydrogen storage 3. Photosynthesis balances the oxygen and
carbon cycle in nature.
major endergonic reaction. In this chapter, we 4. Fuels such as coal, petroleum and other fossil
will study about the energy yielding process fuels are from preserved photosynthetic
of photosynthesis and various types of energy plants.
utilization processes to produce carbohydrates. 5. Photosynthetic organisms are the primary
producers on which all consumers depend
13.1 Definition, Significance and Site for energy.
of Photosynthesis 6. Plants provide fodder, fibre, fire wood,
13.1.1 Definition of Photosynthesis timber, useful medicinal products and these
Photosynthesis is referred as photochemical sources come by the act of photosynthesis.
oxidation and reduction reactions carried out 13.1.3 Site of Photosynthesis
with the help of light, converting solar energy Chloroplasts are the main site of
into chemical energy. It is the most important photosynthesis and both energy yielding
anabolic process. Plants and photosynthetic process (Light reaction) and fixation of
bacteria use simple raw materials like carbon carbon di oxide (Dark reaction)that takes
dioxide water and with the help of light place in chloroplast. It is a double wall
energy synthesize carbohydrates and evolve membrane bounded organelle, discoid or
oxygen. The overall chemical equation for lens shaped, 4–10 µm in diameter and 1–33
photosynthesis is: µm in thickness. The membrane is a unit
6CO2 1 6H2O
Light
C6H12O6 1 6O2↑ membrane and space between them is 100
Chlorophyll to 200 A°. A colloidal and proteinaceous
Ruben and Kamen (1941) demonstrated matrix called stroma is present inside.
242

(a) (b)
Figure 13.1: (a) 3D view of chloroplast (b) Sectional view of chloroplast
A sac like membranous system called 4–5% Carotenoids, 70S ribosomes, circular
thylakoid or lamellae is present in stroma DNA and starch grains. Inner surface
and they are arranged one above the other of lamellar membrane consists of small
forming a stack of coin like structure called spherical structure called as Quantasomes.
granum (plural grana). Each chloroplast Presence of 70S ribosome and DNA
contains 40 to 80 grana and each granum gives them status of semi-autonomy and
consists of 5 to 30 thylakoids. proves endosymbiotic hypothesis which
Thylakoids found in granum are called says chloroplast evolved from bacteria.
grana lamellae and in stroma are called Thylakoid contains pigment systems which
stroma lamellae. Thylakoid disc size is produces ATP and NADPH 1 H1 using
0.25 to 0.8 micron in diameter. A thinner solar energy. Stroma contains enzyme which
lamella called Fret membrane connects reduces carbon di oxide into carbohydrates.
grana. Pigment system I is located on In Cyanobacteria thylakoid lies freely in
outer thylakoid membrane facing stroma cytoplasm without envelope (Figure 13.1).
and Pigment system II is located on inner
13.2 Photosynthetic Pigments
membrane facing lumen of thylakoid.
Grana lamellae have both PS I and PS II A photosynthetic pigment is a pigment that
whereas stroma lamellae have only PS I. is present in chloroplasts or photosynthetic
Chloroplast contains 30–35 Proteins, bacteria which captures the light energy
20–30% phospholipids, 5–10% chlorophyll, necessary for photosynthesis (Table 13.1).
Table 13.1: Types of Photosynthetic pigments

Chlorophyll Carotenoids Phycobilins
1. Chlorophyll 'a' (C55H72O5N4Mg) – 1. Carotene (C40H56) – Lycopene 1. Phycocyanin –
Green plants and Cyanobacteria (Red) Cyanobacteria
2. Xanthophyll (C40H56O2 Yellow
2. Chlorophyll 'b' (C55H70O6N4Mg) – 2. Phycoerythrin –
colour –Violaxanthin, Fuco-
Green algae and all higher plants Red Algae
xanthin (Brown Algae) and Lutein
3. Chlorophyll 'c' (C55H32O5N4Mg) – Dinoflagellates, Diatoms and Brown Algae
4. Chlorophyll 'd' – Red Algae
5. Chlorophyll 'e' – Xathophycean Algae
6. Bacteriochlorophyll 'a'
7. Bacteriochlorophyll 'b'
8. Chlorobium Chlorophyll 650
9. Chlorobium Chlorophyll 666
243

13.2.1 Chlorophyll and most of them are tetraterpenes(C40H56).
Chlorophyll 'a' is the primary pigment which Carotene is the most abundant Carotene in
acts as a reaction centre and all other pigments plants and it is a precursor of Vitamin A.
act as accessory pigments and trap solar Lycopene is the red pigment found in the
energy and then transfer it to chlorophyll 'a'. fruits of tomato, red peppers and roses.
Chlorophyll molecules have a tadpole like ii. Xanthophylls:
structure. It consists of Mg-Porphyrin head Yellow (C40H56O2) pigments are like
(Hydrophilic Head) and (Lipophilic tail) Phytol carotenes but contain oxygen. Lutein is
tail. The Porphyrin head consists of four pyrrol responsible for yellow colour change of
rings linked together by C-H bridges. Each leaves during autumn season. Examples:
pyrrole ring comprises of four carbons and Lutein, Violaxanthin and Fucoxanthin.
one nitrogen atom. Porphyrin ring has several 13.2.3 Phycobilins
side groups which alter the properties of the They are proteinaceous pigments, soluble
pigment. Different side groups are indicative in water, and do not contain Mg and
of various types of chlorophyll. The Phytol tail Phytol tail. They exist in two forms such
made up of 20 carbon alcohol is attached to as 1. Phycocyanin found in cyanobacteria
carbon 7 of the Pyrrole ring IV. It has a long 2. Phycoerythrin found in rhodophycean
propionic acid ester bond. Long lipophilic tail algae (Red algae).
helps in anchoring chlorophyll to the lamellae.
13.2.2 Carotenoids 13.3 Spectrum of Electromagnetic
Radiation
In the total electromagnetic spectrum,visible
light is the smallest part. The entire life on
earth depends on light and is the driving
force for all organisms. Plants have natural
potential to utilize solar energy directly. In
the given picture electromagnetic radiation
Figure 13.2: Changes in Fruit colour due to spectrum and components of visible
difference in pigmentation spectrum are mentioned. The wavelength
Carotenoids are yellow to orange pigments, of solar radiation which reaches the earth
mostly tetraterpens and these pigments absorb
light strongly in the blue to violet
region of visible spectrum. These
pigments protect chlorophyll from
photo-oxidative damage. Hence, they
are called as shield pigments. These
pigments absorb light and transfer
these to chlorophyll. Almost all
carotenoid pigments have 40 carbon
atoms. Ripening of fruits, floral colours
and leaf colour change during autumn
is due to Carotenoids (Carotene and
Xanthophyll) (Figure 13.2).
i. Carotenes:
Orange, Red, Yellow and Brownish
pigments, hydrocarbons (Lipids) Figure 13.4: Electromagnetic Spectrum
244

is between 300 to 2600 nm. The visible
Separation of Chlorophyll pigments by
spectrum ranges between 390 to 763 nm paper Chromatography method
(3900 å to 7630 å). The colour of the light Step 1. Extract chlorophyll pigment from
is determined by the wavelength. Energy the leaves using 80% Acetone.
of the quantum is inversely proportional Step 2. Allow to concentrate by evaporation.
to wavelength. Shorter wavelength has Step 3. Apply few drops on one end above
more energy than longer wavelength. 2 cm from the edge of a chromatographic
Electromagnetic spectrum consists of paper.
7 types of radiations such as gamma rays, Step 4. A solvent with mixture of Petroleum
X rays, U-V rays, Visible light spectrum, ether and acetone in the ratio of 9:1 is
infrared rays, electric rays and radio rays prepared and poured into development
(Figure 13. 4). chamber.
Step 5. Place the strip above the solvent by
placing one end of the strip touching the
Light is extremely variable solvent.
and if radiation is evenly Observation
distributed over the globe it is After one hour observe the chromatographic
sufficient to melt 35 m thick paper. You can find the pigments
ice layer. being separated into four distinct spots
(Figure 13. 4).
Properties of Light Chromatography
1. Light is a transverse electromagnetic Paper
wave.
Test tube
2. It consists of oscillating electric and
magnetic fields that are perpendicular Carotenes
to each other and perpendicular to the Xanthophyll
direction of propagation of the light.

3. Light moves at a speed of 3 × 108 ms–1 Chlorophyll a
4. Wavelength is the distance between Chlorophyll b
successive crests of the wave.

5. Light as a particle is called photon. Each Ether acetone
solvent
photon contains an amount of energy
known as quantum. Figure 13.3: Paper Chromatography
6. The energy of a photon depends on the
frequency of the light (Figure 13.5). 13.4 Photosynthetic Unit (Quantasome)
Electric-field Quantasomes are the morphological
Component expression of physiological photosynthetic
units, located on the inner membrane
of thylakoid lamellae. Each quantasome
measures about 180 A × 160 A and
o o
100 Athickness. In 1952, Steinman

o
Direction of
Propagation observed granular structures in chloroplast
Wavelenth lamellae under electron microscope. Later,
(λ )
Park and Biggins (1964) confirmed these
Magnetic-field component
granular structures as physiological units
Figure 13.5: Oscillation of electric and of photosynthesis and coined the term
magnetic vectors in light Quantasome. According to them one
245

quantasome contains about 230 chlorophyll • Chlorophyll 'a' 680 (P680) and Chlorophyll
molecules. A minimum number of 'a' 700 (P700) function as trap centre for
chlorophyll and other accessory pigments PS II and PS I respectively.
act together in a photochemical reaction to 13.5.2 Action Spectrum
release one oxygen or to reduce one molecule The effectiveness of different wavelength of
of CO2. It constitutes a photosynthetic unit. light on photosynthesis is measured by plotting
(Figure 13.6) Emerson and Arnold (1932) against quantum yield. The curve showing the
based on flashing light experiment found rate of photosynthesis at different wavelengths
2500 chlorophyll molecules are required of light is called action spectrum. From the
to fix one molecule of CO2. However, the graph showing action spectrum, it can be
reduction or fixation of one CO2 requires concluded that maximum photosynthesis
10 quanta of light and so each unit would takes place in blue and red region of the
contain 1/10 of 2500 i.e. 250 molecules. spectrum. This wavelength of the spectrum
Usually 200 to 300 chlorophyll molecules is the absorption maxima for Chlorophyll (a)
are considered as a physiological unit of and Chlorophyll (b). The Action Spectrum
photosynthesis. According to Emerson is instrumental in the discovery of the
8 quanta of light are required for the release existence of two photosystems in O2 evolving
of one oxygen molecule or reduction of one photosynthesis (Figure 13.7).
Carbon dioxide molecule. The quantum Chlorophyll a
Photosynthetic rate / Absorption rate Carotene
yield is 1/8 or 12 %. Chlorophyll b
100
Thylakoid 80
Action
60 spectrum
40
20 Absorption
Antenna spectrum
Molecule 0
400 500 600 700
Wavelength (nm)
Chlorophyll b Figure 13.7: Absorption and action spectrum
Carotenoid
13.6 Emerson’s Experiments and Hill’s
Figure 13.6: Quantasome Reaction
13.5 Absorption Spectrum and Action 13.6.1 Red Drop or Emerson’s First Effect
Spectrum Emerson conducted experiment in
13.5.1 Absorption Spectrum Chlorella using only one wavelength of light
The term absorption refers to complete (monochromatic light) at a time and he
retention of light, without reflection or measured quantum yield. He plotted a graph
transmission. Pigments absorb different of the quantum yield in terms of O2 evolution
wavelengths of light. A curve obtained at various wavelengths of light. His focus
by plotting the amount of absorption of was to determine at which wavelength the
different wavelengths of light by a pigment photochemical yield of oxygen was maximum.
is called its absorption spectrum. He found that in the wavelength of 600 to 680
• Chlorophyll 'a' and chlorophyll 'b' absorb the yield was constant but suddenly dropped
quanta from blue and red region in the region above 680 nm (red region). The
• Maximum absorption peak for different fall in the photosynthetic yield beyond red
forms of chlorophyll 'a' is 670 to 673, 680 region of the spectrum is referred as Red
to 683 and 695 to 705nm. drop or Emerson’s first effect.
246

13.6.2 Emerson’s Enhancement Effect benzoquinone and Di Chloro Phenol Indole
Emerson modified his first Phenol (DCPIP).
experiment by supplying 13.7 Modern Concept of Photosynthesis
shorter wavelength of light Photosynthesis is an Oxidation and Reduction
(red light) along with longer process. Water is oxidised
wavelength of light (far to release O2 and CO2 is
red light). He found that reduced to form sugars. The
the monochromatic light first phase requires light and
of longer wavelength (far red light) when is called light reaction or
supplemented with shorter wavelength of Hill’s reaction.
light (red light) enhanced photosynthetic yield 1. Light reaction: It is a photochemical reaction
and recovered red drop. This enhancement whereas dark reaction is a thermochemical
of photosynthetic yield is referred to as reaction.
Emerson’s Enhancement Effect (Figure 13.8). Solar energy is trapped by chlorophyll
and stored in the form of chemical energy
Rate of Photosynthesis
650 +710 (Red + Far red)

650nm (Red) (assimilatory power)as ATP and reducing
710nm (Far red)
power NADPH 1 H1. NADPH 1 H1
alone are known as reducing powers. This
reaction takes place in thylakoid membrane
of the chloroplast. Oxygen is evolved as a
λ of light exposed (nm) result of splitting of water molecules by light.
Figure 13.8: Emerson’s Enhancement Effect Light reaction is discussed in two phases:
Photosynthetic rate at far red light i. Photo-oxidation Phase:
(710 nm) 5 10 • Absorption of light energy.
Photosynthetic rate at red light (650 nm) 5 • Transfer of energy from accessory
43.5 pigments to reaction centre.
Photosynthetic rate at red 1 far red • Activation of Chlorophyll 'a' molecule.
(650 1 710 nm) 5 72.5 (Enhancement effect). ii. Photo Chemical Phase:
13.6.3 Hill’s Reaction • Photolysis of water and oxygen e volution
R. Hill (1937) isolated chloroplasts • Electron transport and synthesis of
and when they were illuminated in the assimilatory power.
presence of suitable electron acceptors
such as ferricyanide, they were reduced to
ferrocyanide and oxygen is evolved. Hill’s
Reaction is now considered to be equivalent
to Light Reaction.
Conclusions of Hill’s Reaction:
1. During photosynthesis oxygen is
evolved from water.
2. Electrons for the reduction of CO2 are
obtained from water. Figure 13.9: Light and Dark Reaction
3. Reduced substance produced, later 2.Darkreaction(Biosyntheticphase):Fixation
helps to reduce CO2 and reduction of CO2 into carbohydrates
2H2O 1 2A 2 AH2 1 O2 with the help of assimilatory power produced
A is the Hydrogen acceptor, the common in during light reaction. This reaction does not
vitro hydrogen acceptors are ferricyanide, require light and is not directly light driven.
247

Hence, it is called as Dark reaction or Calvin- • Each Photosystem consists of central
Benson cycle (Figure 13.9). core complex (CC) and light harvesting
Complex (LHC) or Antenna molecules
13.8 Photo-Oxidation Phase of Light
(Figure 13.10).
Reaction • The core complex consists of respective
The action of photon plays a vital role in reaction centre associated with proteins,
excitation of pigment molecules to release electron donors and acceptors.
an electron. When the molecules absorb a • PS I – CC I consists of reaction centre
photon, it is in excited state. When the light P700 and LHC I.
source turned off, the high energy electrons • PS II – CC II consists of reaction centre
return to their normal low energy orbitals as P680 and LHC II (Table 13.2).
the excited molecule goes back to its original • Light Harvesting Complex consists of
stable condition known as ground state. several chlorophylls, carotenoids and
When molecules absorb or emit light they xanthophyll molecules.
change their electronic state. Absorption of • The main function of LHC is to harvest
blue light excites the chlorophyll to higher light energy and transfer it to their
energy state than absorption of Red light, respective reaction centre.
because the energy of photon is higher when Electron transfer Primary electron acceptor
Reaction
their wavelength is shorter. When the pigment Ph
o ton Reaction center center
Chlorophyll
molecule is in an excited state, this excitation
energy is utilised for the phosphorylation.
Phosphorylation takes place with the help of
light generated electron and hence it is known
Transfer of energy
as photophosphorylation.
13.8.1 Photosystem and Reaction Centre Antenna pigment molecules
• Thylakoid membrane Figure 13.10: Photosystem

contains Photosystem I
13.9 Photo chemical phase of light
(PS I) and Photosystem
II (PS II). reaction
• PS I is in unstacked In this phase electrons pass through electron
region of granum facing carrier molecules and generate assimilatory
stroma of chloroplast. powers ATP and NADPH 1 H1. Splitting of
• PS II is found in stacked region of thylakoid water molecule generates electrons replacing
membrane facing lumen of thylakoid. electrons produced by the light.
Table 13.2: Differences between Photosystem I and Photosystem II

Photosystem I Photosystem II
1. The reaction centre is P700 1. Reaction centre is P680
2. PS I is involved in both cyclic and non-cyclic. 2. PS II participates in Non-cyclic pathway
3. Not involved in photolysis of water and 3, Photolysis of water and evolution of oxygen
evolution of oxygen take place.
4. It receives electrons from PS II during non-
4. It receives electrons by photolysis of water
cyclic photophosphorylation
5. Located in unstacked region granum facing 5. Located in stacked region of thylakoid
chloroplast stroma membrane facing lumen of thylakoid.
6. Chlorophyll and Carotenoid ratio is 20 to 30:1 6. Chlorophyll and Carotenoid ratio is 3 to 7:1
248

13.9.1 Photolysis of Water • Cytochrome b6 f complex: It is the
The process of Photolysis is associated with non-pigmented protein complex
Oxygen Evolving Complex (OEC) or water connecting PS I and PS II. Plastoquinone
splitting complex in pigment system II and (PQ) and Plastocyanin (PC) are
is catalysed by the presence of Mn11 and intermediate complexes acting as mobile
Cl–. When the pigment system II is active it or shuttle electron carriers of Electron
receives light and the water molecule splits into Transport Chain. PQ acts as shuttle
OH– ions and H1 ions. The OH–ions unite to between PS II and Cytochrome b6- f
form water molecules again and release O2 and complex and PC connects
electrons (Figure 13.11). • Cytochrome b6-f and PS I complex.
2H2O
• ATPase complex or Coupling factor: It is found
s4 O2 in the surface of thylakoid membrane. This
H+
complex is made up of CF1 and CF0 factors.
s3 This complex utilizes energy from ETC and
s0
H+ converts ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi)
H+
H+ into ATP (Figure 13.12).
s2 s1
13.10 Photophosphorylation
Phosphorylation taking place during
Figure 13.11: Oxygen Evolving Complex (OEC)
respiration is called as oxidative
4 H 2O 4 H1 1 4 OH– phosphorylation and ATP produced by the
4 OH– 2 H 2O 1 O 2 1 4 e – breakdown of substrate is known as substrate
level phosphorylation. In this topic, we
2H2O 4 H1 1 O2 1 4 e–
are going to learn about phosphorylation
taking place in chloroplast with the help of
13.9.2 Electron Transport Chain of
Chloroplast light. During the movement of electrons
Electron Transport Chain in each photosystem through carrier molecules ATP and NADPH
involves four complexes: 1 H1 are produced. Phosphorylation is the
• Core Complex (CC): CC I in PS I the reaction process of synthesis of ATP by the addition
centre is P700, CC II in PS II the reaction of inorganic phosphate to ADP. The addition
centre is P680 of phosphate here takes place with the help of
• Light Harvesting Complex or Antenna light generated electron and so it is called as
complex (LHC): photophosphorylation. It takes place in both
• Two types: LHC I in PS I and LHC II in PS II. cyclic and non-cyclic electron transport.
13.10.1 Cyclic Photophosphorylation
Cyclic photophosphorylation
refers to the electrons ejected from
the pigment system I (Photosystem
I) and again cycled back to the PS
I. When the photons activate P700
reaction centre photosystem II is
activated. Electrons are raised to
the high energy level. The primary
electron acceptor is Ferredoxin
Reducing Substance (FRS) which
Figure 13.12: Electron Transport Chain in Chloroplast transfers electrons to Ferredoxin
249

(Fd), Plastoquinone (PQ), cytochrome b6-f 13.10.2 Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation
complex, Plastocyanin (PC) and finally When photons are activated reaction centre
back to chlorophyll P700 (PS I). During of pigment system II(P680), electrons moved
this movement of electrons Adenosine Di to the high energy level. Electrons from high
Phosphate (ADP) is phosphorylated, by energy state passes through series of electron
the addition of inorganic phosphate and carriers like pheophytin, plastoquinone,
generates Adenosine Tri Phosphate (ATP). cytochrome complex, plastocyanin and
Cyclic electron transport produces only ATP finally accepted by PS I (P700). During this
and there is no NADPH 1 H1 formation. At movement of electrons from PS II to PS I ATP
is generated (Figure 13. 16). PS I (P700) is
each step of electron transport, electron loses
activated by light, electrons are moved to high
potential energy and is used by the transport
energy state and accepted by electron acceptor
chain to pump H1 ions across the thylakoid molecule ferredoxin reducing Substance
membrane. The proton gradient triggers ATP (FRS). During the downhill movement
formation in ATP synthase enzyme situated through ferredoxin, electrons are transferred
on the thylakoid membrane. Photosystem to NADP1 and reduced into NADPH 1 H1
I need light of longer wave length (> P700 (H1 formed from splitting of water by light).
nm). It operates under low light intensity, less Electrons released from the photosystem II
CO2 and under anaerobic conditions which are not cycled back. It is used for the reduction
makes it considered as earlier in evolution of NADP1 in to NADPH 1 H1. During the
(Figure 13.13). electron transport it generates ATP and hence
this type of photophosphorylation is called
ADP+ Pi 2e- FRS
non-cyclic photophosphorylation. The
ATP Ferredoxin electron flow looks like the appearance of
Light letter ‘Z’ and so known as Z scheme. When
2e-
Cyt b6 there is availability of NADP1 for reduction
2e-
2e-
and when there is splitting of water molecules
ADP+ Pi both PS I and PS II are activated (Table 13.3).
Cyt f
2e Non-cyclic electron transport PS I and PS II
-
ATP PC 2e-
P700 both are involved co-operatively to transport
PS I electrons from water to NADP1 (Figure 13.14).
LHC I
Figure 13.13: Cyclic Photophosphorylation 13.10.3 Bio energetics of light reaction
• To release one electron from pigment
-2.0
system it requires two quanta of light.
FRS 4e-
• One quantum is
Q 4e
-
Ferredoxin
used for transport
-1.0
Pheophytin
Light
of electron from
-
4e
-
PQ 4e
- 4e + + water to PS I.
2NADP 2NADPH+H
0 Light 4e
- Cyt b6,f
complex 4e-
• Second quantum is
P700 used for transport
ADP+ Pi PC
- PS I of electron from
P680 4e
+1.0 ATP LHC I PS I to NADP1
PS II - • Two electrons
2H2O LHC II 4e
Mn , C
++
a , C l -++
are required to
O2 Evolving O2 +
Complex
4H generate one
Figure 13.14: Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation NADPH 1 H1.
250

Table 13.3 Differences between Cyclic Photophosphorylation and Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation
Cyclic Photophosphorylation Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation
1. PS I only involved 1. PS I and PS II involved
2. Reaction centre is P700 2. Reaction centre is P680
3. Electrons released are cycled back 3. Electron released are not cycled back
4. Photolysis of water does not take place 4. Photolysis of water takes place
5. Only ATP synthesized 5. ATP and NADPH 1 H1are synthesized
6. Phosphorylation takes place at two places 6. Phosphorylation takes place at only one place
7. It does not require an external electron donor 7. Requires external electron donor like H2O or H2S
8. It is not sensitive to di chloro di methyl urea (DCMU) 8. It is sensitive to DCMU and inhibits electron flow
• During Non-Cyclic electron transport H+

two NADPH 1 H1 are produced and it NADP+
requires 4 electrons. Cytochromes NADPH+H
+
PS
PS I
b&f
• Transportation of 4 electrons requires I
I MEN
8 quanta of light. LU
H+
H
+
H+ Thylakoid
Check your grasp! H
+
membrane
H
+
Name the products produced from Non-Cyclic H+

photophosphorylation? STROMA
Why does PS II require electrons from water?
Can you find the difference in the Pathway of ADP
ATP Synthase
ATP
electrons during PS I and PS II? Figure 13.15: Chemiosmotic Theory
13.10.4 Chemiosmotic Theory The evolution of one oxygen molecule
Chemiosmosis theory was proposed by P. (4 electrons required) requires 8 quanta of light.
Mitchell (1966). According to this theory C3 plants utilise 3 ATPs and 2 NADPH 1 H1
electrons are transported along the membrane to evolve one Oxygen molecule. To evolve 6
through PS I and PS II and connected by Cyto- molecules of Oxygen 18 ATPs and 12 NADPH
chrome b6-f complex. The flow of electrical 1 H1 are utilised. C4 plants utilise 5 ATPs and 2
current is due to difference in electrochemical NADPH 1 H1 to evolve one oxygen molecule.
potential of protons across the membrane. To evolve 6 molecules of Oxygen 30 ATPs and
Splitting of water molecule takes place inside the 12 NADPH 1 H1 are utilised.
membrane. Protons or H1 ions accumulate within 13.11 Dark Reaction or C3 Cycle or
the lumen of the thylakoid (H1 increase 1000 to Biosynthetic Phase or Photosynthetic
2000 times). As a result, proton concentration Carbon Reduction (PCR)Cycle
is increased inside the thylakoid lumen. These Biosynthetic phase of photosynthesis utilises
protons move across the membrane because assimilatory powers(ATP and NADPH 1 H1)
the primary acceptor of electron is located produced during light reaction are used to fix
outside the membrane. Protons in stroma less and reduce carbon di oxide into carbohydrates.
in number and creates a proton gradient. This This reaction does not require light. Therefore,
gradient is broken down due to the movement it is named Dark reaction. Ribulose 1,5
of proton across the membrane to the stroma bisphosphate (RUBP) act as acceptor molecule
through CFO of the ATP synthase enzyme. The of carbon di oxide and fix the CO2 by RUBISCO
proton motive force created inside the lumen of enzyme. The first product of the pathway is
thylakoid or chemical gradient of H1 ion across a 3- carbon compound (Phospho Glyceric
the membrane stimulates ATP generation Acid) and so it is also called as C3 Cycle. It
(Figure 13.15). takes place in the stroma of the chloroplast.
251

M. Melvin Calvin, A.A. Benson and
their co-workers in the year 1957 found
this path way of carbon fixation. Melvin
Calvin was awarded Nobel Prize for this
in 1961 and this pathway named after
the discoverers as Calvin-Benson Cycle.
Dark reaction is temperature dependent
and so it is also called thermo-chemical
reaction.
Check your grasp!

What will be the quanta requirement for complete
light reaction which releases 6 oxygen molecules?
Solution: Complete light reaction releases 6
oxygen molecules. If one molecule of oxygen
evolution requires 8 quanta means, for 6 oxygen
molecules 6 × 8 5 48 quanta of light required
for complete light reaction. Figure 13.16: Phases of Calvin Cycle
Dark reaction consists of three phases: with the help of RUBP carboxylase
(Figure 13.16). oxygenase (RUBISCO) enzyme accepts
1. Carboxylation (fixation) one molecule of carbon dioxide to form
2. Reduction (Glycolytic Reversal) an unstable 6 carbon compound. This 6C
3. Regeneration compound is broken down into two molecules
Phase 1- Carboxylation (Fixation) of 3-carbon compound phospho glyceric acid
The acceptor molecule Ribulose 1,5 (PGA) (Figure 13.17).
Bisphosphate (RUBP) a 5 carbon compound RUBP 1 CO2 Rubisco 2 molecules PGA
3C Dehydrogenase + 3C
(3)CO2 6 NADPH 6 NADP
Glyceraldehyde 3 -Phosphate (G3P) pool
(6) 3-Phospho
Glycerate G3P G3P G3P G3P G3P G3P
RUBISCO 6 ATP Kinase
5C 6 ADP+ 6 Pi
3C
(3) Ribulose DHAP DHAP
1,5-Bis Phosphate Dihydroxy
Acetone
3 ADP Phoshate
Kinase (DHAP)
5C 5C
3 ATP
(3) Ribulose Ribose 7C
5-Phosphate Isomerase 5-Phosphate Aldolase 6C Export
Sedoheptulose
7 Phosphate Fructose 1,6
Epimerase
Phosphatase Bis Phosphate

7C
Pi Phosphatase 6C
Pi
Sedoheptulose
5C 1,7 Bis Phosphate Aldolase Fructose 6 Phosphate
Stromal hexose
phosphate pool
Xylulose 4C
5 Phosphate Erythrose
4 Phosphate Glucose 6 Phosphate
5C
Glucose 1 Phosphate
Epimerase Xylulose
5 Phosphate
Starch
Figure 13.17: Calvin cycle
252

Phase 2 – Glycolytic Reversal / Reduction products. This observation was confirmed
Phospho glyceric acid is phosphorylated by by Hatch & Slack in 1967. This alternate
ATP and produces 1,3 bis phospho glyceric pathway for the fixation of CO2 was found in
acid by PGA kinase. 1,3 bis phospho glyceric several tropical and sub-tropical grasses and
acid is reduced to glyceraldehyde 3 Phosphate some dicots. C4 cycle is discovered in more
(G-3-P) by using the reducing power NADPH than 1000 species. Among them 300 species
1 H1. Glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate is converted belong to dicots and rest of them are
monocots. C4 plants represent about 5% of
into its isomeric form di hydroxy acetone
Earth’s plant biomass and 1% of its known
phosphate (DHAP).
plant species. Despite this scarcity, they
PGA PGA Kinase 1,3 bisphosphoglyceric acid account for about 30% of terrestrial carbon
ATP ADP fixation. Increasing the proportion of C4
NADPH 1 H1 NADP1 plants on earth could assist biosequestration
1,3 bisphosphoglceric acid of CO2 and represent an important climate
change avoidance strategy.
Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate
C4 pathway is completed in two
Phase 3 – Regeneration
phases, first phase takes place in stroma of
Regeneration of RUBP involves the formation mesophyll cells, where the CO2 acceptor
of several intermediate compounds of 6-carbon, molecule is 3-Carbon compound, phospho
5-carbon,4-carbon and 7- carbon skeleton. enol pyruvate (PEP) to form 4-carbon Oxalo
Fixation of one carbon dioxide requires 3 ATPs acetic acid (OAA). The first product is a
and 2 NADPH 1 H1, and for the fixation of 6 4-carbon and so it is named as C4 cycle. oxalo
CO2 requires 18 ATPs and 12 NADPH 1 H1 acetic acid is a dicarboxylic acid and hence
during C3 cycle. One 6 carbon compound is the this cycle is also known as dicarboxylic
net gain to form hexose sugar. acid pathway (Figure 13.18). Carbon
ATP ADP dioxide fixation takes place in two places
RU5P RUBP one in mesophyll and another in bundle
sheath cell (di carboxylation pathway). It is
Overall equation for dark reaction: the adaptation of tropical and sub tropical
6CO2 1 18ATP 1 12NADPH 1 H1 plants growing in warm and dry conditions.
C6H12O6 1 6H2O1 18ADP 1 18Pi 1 12NADP1 Fixation of CO2 with minimal loss is due
to absence of photorespiration. C4 plants
RUBISCO – RUBP
Carboxylase Oxygenase require 5 ATP and 2 NADPH 1 H1 to fix
enzyme, is the most abundant one molecule of CO2.
The C4 pathway
protein found on earth. It Photosynthetic
cells of C4 Mesophyll
constitutes 16 % of the chloroplast protein. plant leaf cell PEP carboxylase
CO
It acts as carboxylase in the presence of CO2 C4 leaf anatomy

and oxygenase in the absence of CO2. Mesophyll cell
Oxaloacetate (4c) PEP (3c)
ADP
Malate (4c) ATP
Bundle-
13.12 Hatch & Slack Pathway or C4 Cycle sheath
Bundle Pyruvate (3c)
cell
or Dicarboxylic Acid Pathway or vein
sheath CO2
Dicarboxylation Pathway (vascular
cell
calvin
tissue) cycle
Till 1965, Calvin cycle is the only pathway for
CO2 fixation. But in 1965, Kortschak, Hart Sugar
and Burr made observations in sugarcane stoma Vascular

and found C4 or dicarboxylic acid pathway. tissue
Malate and aspartate are the major labelled Figure 13.18: C4 Cycle
253

13.12.1 Stage: I Mesophyll Cells
Kranz Anatomy: It is the
Phosphoenol Pyruvate 1 CO2 German term meaning
(PEP) (3C) a halo or wreath. In C4
PEP carboxylase plants vascular bundles are
Oxaloacetic acid (OAA) (4C) surrounded by a layer of
bundle sheath. Bundle sheath is surrounded
Oxaloacetic acid (OAA) is converted by a ring of mesophyll cells. The characteristic
into malic acid or aspartic acid and is feature of C4 plants is the presence of dimorphic
transported to the bundle sheath cells chloroplast:
through plasmodesmata. Bundle sheath chloroplast: Larger chloroplast,
13.12.2 Stage: II Bundle Sheath Cells thylakoids not arranged in granum and rich in
Malic acid undergoes decarboxylation and starch.
Mesophyll Chloroplast: Smaller chloroplast,
produces a 3 carbon compound Pyruvic acid thylakoids arranged in granum and less starch.
and CO2. The released CO2 combines with
RUBP and follows the calvin cycle and finally 13.12.3 Significance of C4 cycle
sugar is released to the phloem. Pyruvic acid is 1. Plants having C4 cycle are mainly of tropical
transported to the mesophyll cells. and sub-tropical regions and are able to
Rubisco survive in environment with low CO2
RUBP 1 CO2 2 PGA concentration.
(5C) (3C) 2. C4 plants are partially adapted to drought
conditions.
Activity
3. Oxygen has no inhibitory effect on C4 cycle
• Collect the leaves of Paddy (C3) and Sugar
cane (C4). since PEP carboxylase is insensitive to O2.
• Take the cross section. 4. Due to absence of photorespiration, CO2
• Observe the sections under the microscope. Compensation Point for C4 is lower than
• See the difference in their anatomy that of C3 plants.
(Dimorphic chloroplast and Kranz Differences between C3 Plants (C3 Cycle) and
anatomy). C4 Plants (C4 Cycle) are given in table 13.4.
Table 13.4: Differences between C3 and C4 plants

C3 Plants C4 Plants
1. CO2 fixation takes place in mesophyll cells only 1. CO2 fixation takes place mesophyll and bundle sheath
2. CO2 acceptor is RUBP only 2. PEP in mesophyll and RUBP in bundle sheath cells
3. First product is 3C- PGA 3. First product is 4C- OAA
4. Kranz anatomy is not present 4. Kranz anatomy is present
5. Granum is present in mesophyll cells 5. Granum present in mesophyll cells and absent in
bundle sheath
6. Normal Chloroplast 6. Dimorphic chloroplast
7. Optimum temperature 20o to 25oC 7. Optimum temperature 30o to 45oC
8. Fixation of CO2 at 50 ppm 8. Fixation of CO2 even less than 10 ppm
9. Less efficient due to higher photorespiration 9. More efficient due to less photorespiration
10. RUBP carboxylase enzyme used for 10. PEP carboxylase and RUBP carboxylase used
fixation
11. 18 ATPs used to synthesize one glucose 11. Consumes 30 ATPs to produce one glucose.
12. Example: Paddy, Wheat, Potato and so on 12. Example: Sugar cane, Maize, Sorghum,
Amaranthus and so on
254

(OAA). Subsequently OAA is converted into
Check your grasp!
malic acid like C4 cycle and gets accumulated
C4 plants requires 30 ATPs and 12 NADPH
1 H1 to synthesize one glucose, but C3 plants in vacuole increasing the acidity. During the
requires only 18 ATPs and 12 NADPH 1 day time stomata are closed and malic acid is
H1 to synthesize one glucose molecule. If decarboxylated into pyruvic acid resulting in
then, how can you say C4 plants are more the decrease of acidity. CO2 thus formed enters
advantageous? into Calvin Cycle and produces carbohydrates
Solution: C4 plants are more advantageous (Figure13.19).
than C3 plants because most of the energy
Significance of CAM Cycle
lost during photo respiration in C3 plants.
1. It is advantageous for succulent plants to
13.13 Crassulacean Acid obtain CO2 from malic acid when stomata
Metabolism or CAM cycle are closed.
It is one of the carbon pathways identified 2. During day time stomata are closed
in succulent plants growing in semi-arid or and CO2 is not taken but continue their
xerophytic condition. This was first observed photosynthesis.
in crassulaceae family plants like Bryophyllum, 3. Stomata are closed during the day time and
Sedum, Kalanchoe and is the reason behind help the plants to avoid transpiration and
the name of this cycle. It is also noticed in water loss.
plants from other families Examples: Agave, 13.14 Photorespiration or C2 Cycle or
Opuntia, Pineapple and Orchids. The stomata Photosynthetic Carbon Oxidation
are closed during day and are open during (PCO) Cycle
night (Scotoactive). This reverse stomatal Respiration is a continuous process for all
rhythm helps to conserve water loss through living organisms including plants. Decker
transpiration and will stop the fixation of CO2 (1959) observed that rate of respiration is
during the day time. At night time CAM plants more in light than in dark. Photorespiration
is the excess respiration taking place in
fix CO2 with the help of Phospho Enol Pyruvic
photosynthetic cells due to absence of CO2
acid (PEP) and produce oxalo acetic acid
Night: Open stomata Day: Closed stomata
Open stoma permits
CO2 uptake Decarboxylation of stored Closed stoma
Atmospheric entry of CO2 and malate and refixation of prevents H2O loss
and fixation loss of H2O internal CO2 deacidification and CO2 uptake
CO2
leaf acidification
NADP+ malk
PEP carboxylase enzyme
CO2 Malate
Phosphoenol- Oxaloacetate Malic acid
pyruvate NAD+ malic
NADH
dehydro Pyruvate
NAD+ Calvin
genase cycle
Triose Vacuole
phosphate Malate Starch
Starch Malic acid Chloroplast

Chloroplast Vacuole
Figure 13.19: CAM cycle
figure 13.26
255CAM Cycle

and increase of O2(Table 13.5). This condition (2) O2
changes the carboxylase role of RUBISCO into 5C
oxygenase. C2 Cycle takes place in chloroplast, (2) Ribulose 1,5

bis phosphate 2C
(2) PGA
peroxisome and mitochondria. RUBP is Calvin (2) Phospho Glycolate

converted into PGA and a 2C-compound Cycle
PGA 3C
ADP
phosphoglycolate by Rubisco enzyme 3C 2C
(2) Pi
ATP
in chloroplast. Since the first product is a Glycerate (2) Glycolate
2C-compound, this cycle is known as C2 3C
2C
PE
Cycle. Phosphoglycolate by loss of phosphate Glycerate
ROX I SOME
NAD+ + O (2) Glycolate
NADH+H H+ O 2
3C
becomes glycolate. Glycolate formed in Hydroxy pyruvate
2C
2 2 (2) Glyoxylate
chloroplast enters into peroxisome to form 3C H2O + ½ O2 2C
glyoxylate and hydrogen peroxide. Glyoxylate Serine (2) Glycine

is converted into glycine and transferred 3C 2C
M
into mitochondria. In mitochondria, two
ITO
Serine (2) Glycine
CHONDR
molecules of glycine combine to form serine. CO2
NH3
Serine enters into peroxisome to form
hydroxy pyruvate. Hydroxy pyruvate with O
I
N
help of NADH 1 H1 becomes glyceric acid. Figure 13.20: Photorespiration
Glyceric acid is cycled back to chloroplast 13.15.2 Carbon Dioxide Compensation
util ising ATP and becomes Phosphoglyceric Point
acid (PGA) and enters into the Calvin cycle When the rate of photosynthesis equals
(PCR cycle). Photorespiration does not yield the rate of respiration, there is no exchange
any free energy in the form of ATP. Under of oxygen and carbon dioxide and this is
certain conditions 50% of the photosynthetic called as carbon dioxide compensation
potential is lost because of Photorespiration point. This will happen at particular light
(Figure 13.20). intensity when exchange of gases becomes
13.15.1 Significance of photorespiration zero. When light is not a limiting factor and
1. Glycine and Serine synthesised during atmospheric CO2 concentration is between
this process are precursors of many 50 to 100 ppm the net exchange is zero.
biomolecules like chlorophyll, proteins,
nucleotides.
13.15 Factors affecting Photosynthesis
In 1860, Sachs gave three cardinal points
2. It consumes excess NADH 1 H1 generated.
theory explaining minimum, optimum and
3. Glycolate protects cells from Photo
maximum factors that control photosynthesis.
oxidation.
Table 13.5: Differences between Photorespiration and Dark Respiration
Photorespiration Dark respiration
1. It takes place in photosynthetic green cells 1. It takes place in all living cells
2. It takes place only in the presence of light 2. It takes place all the time
3. It involves chloroplast, peroxisome and 3. It involves only mitochondria
mitochondria
4. It does not involve Glycolysis, Kreb’s Cycle, and ETS 4. It involves glycolysis, Kreb’s Cycle and ETS
5. Substrate is glycolic acid 5. Substrate is carbohydrates, protein or fats
6. It is not essential for survival 6. Essential for survival
7. No phosphorylation and yield of ATP 7. Phosphorylation produces ATP energy
8. NADH2 is oxidised to NAD1 8. NAD1 is reduced to NADH2
9. Hydrogen peroxide is produced 9. Hydrogen peroxide is not produced
10. End products are CO2 and PGA 10. End products are CO2 and water
256

In 1905, Blackman put forth the importance a. Intensity of Light:
of smallest factor. Blackman’s law of limiting Intensity of light plays a direct role in the
factor is actually a modified Law proposed rate of photosynthesis. Under low intensity
by Liebig’s Law of minimum. According to the photosynthetic rate is low and at higher
Blackman, “When a process is conditioned intensity photosynthetic rate is higher. It also
as to its rapidity by a number of separate depends on the nature of plants. Heliophytes
factors, the rate of the process is limited by (Bean Plant) require higher intensity than
the pace of the lowest factor”. To conclude in Sciophytes (Oxalis).
an easy way “at any given point of time the b. Quantity of Light:
lowest factor among essentials will limit the In plants which are exposed to light for longer
rate of photosynthesis”. For example, when duration (Long day Plants) photosynthetic rate
even sufficient light intensity is available, is higher.
photosynthesis may be low due to low CO2 in c. Quality of light:
the atmosphere. Here, CO2 acts as a limiting Different wavelengths of light affect the rate of
factor. If CO2 is increased in the atmosphere photosynthesis because pigment system does
the rate of photosynthesis also increases. not absorb all the rays equally. Photosynthetic
Further increase in photosynthesis is possible rate is maximum in blue and red light.
only if the available light intensity is also Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR)
increased proportionately (Figure 13.21). is between 400 to 700 nm. Red light induces
Factors affecting photosynthesis are further highest rate of photosynthesis and green light
grouped into External or Environmental induces lowest rate of photosynthesis.
factors and Internal factors. 2. Carbon dioxide
I. External factors: Light, carbon dioxide, CO2 is found only 0.3 % in the atmosphere but
temperature, water, mineral and plays a vital role. Increase in concentration of
pollutants. CO2 increases the rate of photosynthesis (CO2
II. Internal factors: Pigments, protoplasmic concentration in the atmosphere is 330 ppm).
factor, accumulation of carbohydrates, If concentration is increased beyond 500ppm,
anatomy of leaf and hormones. rate of photosynthesis will be affected showing
HIGH LIGHT the inhibitory effect.
RATE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
D INTENSITY 3. Oxygen
MEDIUM LIGHT
The rate of photosynthesis decreases when
C INTENSITY there is an increase of oxygen concentration.
This Inhibitory effect of oxygen was first
B
LOW LIGHT
INTENSITY
discovered by Warburg (1920) using green
algae Chlorella.
A 4. Temperature
CO2 CONCENTRATION The optimum temperature for photosynthesis
varies from plant to plant. Temperature is not
Figure 13.21: Blackman’s Law of Limiting Factors uniform in all places. In general, the optimum
temperature for photosynthesis is 25oC to
13.15.1. External factors
35oC. This is not applicable for all plants. The
1. Light ideal temperature for plants like Opuntia is
Energy for photosynthesis comes only from 55oC, Lichens 20oC and Algae growing in hot
light. Photooxidation of water and excitation spring photosynthesis is 75oC. Whether high
of pigment molecules are directly controlled by temperature or low temperature it will close
light. Stomatal movement leading to diffusion the stomata as well as inactivate the enzymes
of CO2 is indirectly controlled by light. responsible for photosynthesis (Figure 13.22).
257

3. Accumulation of Carbohydrates
Photosynthetic end products like carbohydrates
are accumulated in cells and if translocation of
carbohydrates is slow then this will affect the
rate of photosynthesis.
Light intensity CO2 Concentration Temperature 4. Anatomy of leaf
Figure 13.22: Factors affecting Photosynthesis Thickness of cuticle and epidermis,
5. Water distribution of stomata, presence or absence
Photolysis of water provides electrons and of Kranz anatomy and relative proportion of
protons for the reduction of NADP, directly. photosynthetic cells affect photosynthesis.
Indirect roles are stomatal movement and 5. Hormones
hydration of protoplasm. During water stress, Hormones like gibberellins and cytokinin
supply of NADPH 1 H1 is affected. increase the rate of photosynthesis.
6. Minerals 13.16 Photosynthesis in bacteria
Deficiency of certain minerals affect Though we study about bacterial
photosynthesis e.g. mineral involved in the photosynthesis as the last part, bacterial
synthesis of chlorophyll (Mg, Fe and N), photosynthesis formed first and foremost
in evolution. Bacteria does not have
Phosphorylation reactions (P), Photolysis
specialized structures like chloroplast. It has
of water (Mn and Cl), formation of a simple type of photosynthetic apparatus
plastocyanin (Cu). called chlorosomes and chromatophores
7. Air pollutants (Table 13.6). Van Neil (1930) discovered
Pollutants like SO2, NO2, O3 (Ozone) and Smog a bacterium that releases sulphur instead
affects rate of photosynthesis. of oxygen during photosynthesis. Here,
electron donor is hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
13.15.2 Internal Factors and only one photosystem is involved (PS I)
1. Photosynthetic Pigments and the reaction centre is P870. Pigments
It is an essential factor and even a small quantity present in bacteria are bacteriochlorophyll
is enough to carry out photosynthesis. a, b, c, d, e and g and carotenoids.
2. Protoplasmic factor Photosynthetic bacteria are classified into
Hydrated protoplasm is essential for three groups:
photosynthesis. It also includes enzymes 1. Green sulphur bacteria. Example:
responsible for Photosynthesis. Chlorobacterium and Chlorobium.
Table 13.6: Difference between photosynthesis in plants and photosynthesis in bacteria

Photosynthesis in Plants Photosynthesis in Bacteria
1. Cyclic and non-cyclic phosphorylation 1. Only cyclic phosphorylation takes place
takes place
2. Photosystem I and II involved 2. Photosystem I only involved
3. Electron donor is water 3. Electron donor is H2S
4. Oxygen is evolved 4. Oxygen is not evolved
5. Reaction centres are P700 and P680 5. Reaction centre is P870
6. Reducing agent is NADPH 1 H1 6. Reducing agent is NADH 1 H1
7. PAR is 400 to 700 nm 7. PAR is above 700 nm
8. Chlorophyll, carotenoid and xanthophyll 8. Bacterio chlorophyll and bacterio viridin
9. Photosynthetic apparatus – chloroplast 9. It is chlorosomes and chromatophores
258

2.
Purple sulphur bacteria. Example: the acceptor molecule and the first product
Thiospirillum and Chromatium. is PGA (3C). Carbon pathway in C4 plants
3.
Purple non-sulphur bacteria. Example: involves mesophyll and bundle sheath cells,
Rhodopseudomonas and Rhodospirillum. Kranz anatomy. Dimorphic chloroplast, no
photorespiration, acceptor molecule as PEP
Test tube funnel experiment or and first product as OAA (4C) are some of
Experiment to prove oxygen evolved the unique characters of C4 cycle. C2 Cycle
during Photosynthesis or photorespiration is operated when less
1. Place Hydrilla plant at the bottom of a amount of CO2 is used for reduction and O2
beaker containing water. increases. Rubisco starts to play oxygenase
2. Cover the plant with an inverted funnel. role. Succulent and xerophytic plants show
3. Invert a test tube over the funnel. reverse stomatal rhythm as they open during
4. Keep this setup in sunlight.
night time and close during day time and
Note your observations (Figure 13.23).
follow CAM cycle. Night time produces
Gas collected by downward malic acid and during day time malate
displacement of water is converted into pyruvate and produces
CO2 which is reduced to carbohydrates.
Test tube Photosynthesis is affected by
internal and external factors.
Bacterial photosynthesis
Pond water is the primitive type of
photosynthesis and it
Inverted funnel
involves only photosystem I.
Evaluation
Hy
ydrilla
1. Assertion (A): Increase in Proton
gradient inside lumen responsible for
Figure 13.23: Test tube funnel experiment ATP synthesis
Reason (R): Oxygen evolving complex
Summary of PS I located on thylakoid membrane
Photosynthesis is an oxidation and reduction facing Stroma, releases H1 ions
process. It has two phases: the light reaction a. Both Assertion and Reason are True.
and dark reaction. During light reaction b. Assertion is True and Reason is False.
water is oxidised to release O2 and during c. Reason is True and Assertion is False.
dark reaction CO2is reduced to form sugars. d. Both Assertion and Reason are False.
Solar energy is trapped by pigment system 2. Which chlorophyll molecule does not
I and pigment system II. P700 and P680 have a phytol tail?
act as reaction centres for PS I and PS II a. Chl- a b. Chl-b c. Chl- c d. Chl -d
respectively. Splitting of water molecule 3. The correct sequence of flow of
(Photolysis) produces electrons, protons and electrons in the light reaction is
oxygen. Photophosphorylation takes place a. PS II, plastoquinone, cytochrome,
through cyclic and non-cyclic mechanisms PS I, ferredoxin.
and generates energy and reducing power. b. PS I, plastoquinone, cytochrome,
Dark reaction or biosynthetic phase of PS II ferredoxin.
photosynthesis use the products of light c. PS II, ferredoxin, plastoquinone,
energy (ATP and NADPH 1 H1) and cytochrome, PS I.
carbon dioxide is reduced to Carbohydrates. d. PS II, plastoquinone, cytochrome,
Carbon pathway in C3 cycle has RUBP as PS II, ferredoxin.
259

4. For every CO2 molecule entering the C3 400-450nm & Group B to light of
cycle, the number of ATP & NADPH wavelength of 500-550nm. Compare
required the photosynthetic rate of the 2 groups
a. 2ATP 1 2NADPH giving reasons.
b. 2ATP 1 3NADPH 7. A tree is believed to be releasing oxygen
c. 3ATP 1 2NADPH during night time. Do you believe the
d. 3ATP 1 3NADPH truthfulness of this statement? Justify
5. Identify true statement regarding light your answer by giving reasons.
reaction of photosynthesis. 8. Grasses have an adaptive mechanism
a. Splitting of water molecule is to compensate photorespiratory losses-
associate with PS I. Name and describe the mechanism.
b. PS I and PS II involved in the 9. In Botany class, teacher explains,
formation of NDPH1H1. Synthesis of one glucose requires
c. The reaction center of PS I is 30 ATPs in C4 plants and only 18 ATPs
Chlorophyll a with absorption peak in C3plants. The same teacher explains
at 680 nm. C4 plants are more advantageous than
d. The reaction center of PS II is C3 plants. Can you identify the reason
Chlorophyll a with absorption peak for this contradiction?
at 700 nm. 10. When there is plenty of light and
6. Two groups (A & B) of bean plants of higher concentration of O2, what
similar size and same leaf area were kind of pathway does the plant
placed in identical conditions. Group undergo?Analyse the reasons.
A was exposed to light of wavelength
t ICT Corner
Photosynthesis
Steps
Let’s play • Scan the QR code
• Start a new game and tap
photosynthesis • Click light dependent reaction and follow the steps
• After completion – move back and Click Calvin cycle reaction and
follow the steps
Activity
• Observe the cycle and record it • Check your grasp by click the Quiz tap • Conclude your observations.

Web URL:
https://biomanbio.com/HTML5GamesandLabs/PhotoRespgames/photointeractivehtml5page.html
260

Chapter
14 Respiration
Plant and Animal Interdependence

Learning Objectives
In biosphere, plants and animals are
The learner will be able to, complementary systems which are integrated
• Recognize the stages of glucose to sustain life. In plants, oxygen enters
breakdown and its redox system. through the stomata and it is transported
to cells, where oxygen is utilized for energy
• Differentiate aerobic respiration from production. Plants require carbon dioxide
anaerobic respiration. to survive, to produce carbohydrates and
• Describe the conditions under which to release oxygen through photosynthesis.
respiration occurs. These oxygen molecules are inhaled by
• Realize the role of mitochondria as human through the nose, which reaches the
power house of the cell. lungs where oxygen is transported through
• Understand, how ATP molecules are the blood and it reaches cells. Cellular
generated during respiration. respiration takes place inside the cell. A
specialized respiratory system is present in
animals but is absent in plants for delivering
Chapter Outline oxygen inside the cell. But the cellular
14.1 Gaseous exchange respiration stages are similar in both plants
14.2 Structure of ATP and animals which hint at evolutionary
14.3 Redox reactions divergence.
O2
14.4 Types of Respiration CO2
14.5 Stages of Respiration

14.6 Respiratory Quotient
14.7 Anaerobic Respiration
14.8 Factors Affecting Respiration
14.9 Pentose Phosphate Pathway
14.1 Gaseous Exchange
If you are sleeping under a tree during 14.1.1 Respiration
night time you will feel difficulty in breathing. The term respiration was coined by Pepys
During night, plants take up oxygen and (1966). Respiration is a biological process in
release carbon dioxide and as a result carbon which oxidation of various food substances
dioxide will be abundant around the tree. like carbohydrates, proteins and fats take place
This process of CO2 evolution is called and as a result of this, energy is produced
respiration. This process takes place during where O2 is taken in and CO2 is liberated. The
day time also (Figure 14.1). It is accompanied organic substances which are oxidised during
by breakdown of substrates and release of respiration are called respiratory substrates.
energy. In this chapter, respiration process in Among these, glucose is the commonest
plants at cellular level will be dealt with. respiratory substrate. Breaking of C-C bonds
261

14.1.2 Compensation point
At dawn and dusk the intensity of light
CO
2
is low. The point at which CO2 released
in respiration is exactly compensated by
2
O
O
CO2 fixed in photosynthesis that means
2
O
2
C
no net gaseous exchange takes place, it
is called compensation point. At this
moment, the amount of oxygen released
from photosynthesis is equal to the
amount of oxygen utilized in respiration.
The two common factors associated with
compensation point are CO2 and light
2
(Figure 14.2). Based on this there are two
CO
O
2
types of compensation point. They are CO2
compensation point and light compensation
point. C3 plants have compensation points
ranging from 40-60 ppm (parts per million)
CO2 while those of C4 plants ranges from
1-5 ppm CO2.
Figure 14.1: Gaseous exchange in plants Rate of
Photosynthesis
of complex organic compounds through
Carbohydratre balance
Compensation
oxidation within the cells leads to energy Point
release. The energy released during respiration
is stored in the form of ATP (Adenosine Tri
Phosphate) as well as liberated heat. Respiration Rate of
occurs in all the living cells of organisms. The Respiration
overall process of respiration corresponds to a
reversal of photosynthesis.
Time in a day (hours)
C6H12O6 1 6O2 → 6CO2 1 6H2O 1 Energy Figure 14.2: Compensation point
(686 K cal or 2868 KJ)
14.2 Structure of ATP
(1K cal = 4.184 KJ)
Respiration is responsible for generation
Depending upon the nature of respiratory of ATP. The discovery of ATP was made by
substrate, Blackman divided respiration into, Karl Lohman (1929). ATP is a nucleotide
1. Floating respiration consisting of a base-adenine, a pentose
2. Protoplasmic respiration sugar-ribose and three phosphate groups.
When carbohydrate or fat or organic acid Out of three phosphate groups the last two
serves as respiratory substrate and it is called are attached by high energy rich bonds
floating respiration. It is a common mode (Figure 14.3). On hydrolysis, it releases
of respiration and does not produce any energy (7.3 K cal or 30.6 KJ/ATP) and it is
toxic product. Whereas respiration utilizing found in all living cells and hence it is called
protein as a respiratory substrate, it is called universal energy currency of the cell. ATP
is an instant source of energy within the
protoplasmic respiration. Protoplasmic
cell. The energy contained in ATP is used in
respiration is rare and it depletes structural
synthesis carbohydrates, proteins and lipids.
and functional proteins of protoplasm and The energy transformation concept was
liberates toxic ammonia. established by Lipman (1941).
262

High energy bonds
Handy mnemonic
NH2 LEO the lion says GER
N
N O O O LEO - L
oss of Electrons is
N
N O
O P O P O P OH
Oxidation
Adenine
OH OH
Phosphate groups
OH
GER - G
ain of Electrons is
OH OH
Reduction
Ribose
Adenosine Respiration
Adenosine
Monophosphate (AMP)
Adenosine
Diphosphate (ADP) Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration
Adenosine
Triphosphate (ATP)
Alcoholic Lactic acid Mixed acid
Figure 14.3: Molecular structure of ATP fermentation fermentation fermentation
14.3 Redox Reactions Figure 14.4: Types of Respiration

NAD 1 2e 1 2H
1 - 1
NADH 1 H 1
14.4.1 Aerobic respiration
FAD 1 2e- 1 2H1 FADH2 Respiration occurring in the presence of oxygen
When NAD1 (Nicotinamide Adenine is called aerobic respiration. During aerobic
Dinucleotide-oxidised form) and FAD (Flavin respiration, food materials like carbohydrates,
Adenine Dinucleotide) pick up electrons and fats and proteins are completely oxidised into
one or two hydrogen ions (protons), they CO2, H2O and energy is released. Aerobic
get reduced to NADH 1 H1 and FADH2 respiration is a very complex process and is
respectively. When they drop electrons and completed in four major steps:
hydrogen off they go back to their original 1. Glycolysis
form. The reaction in which NAD1 and FAD 2. Pyruvate oxidation (Link reaction)
gain (reduction) or lose (oxidation) electrons 3. Krebs cycle (TCA cycle)
are called redox reaction (Oxidation reduction 4. Electron Transport Chain (Terminal
reaction). These reactions are important in oxidation).
cellular respiration. 14.4.2 Anaerobic respiration
14.4 Types of Respiration In the absence of molecular oxygen glucose is
Respiration is classified into two types as incompletely degraded into either ethyl alcohol
aerobic and anaerobic respiration (Figure 14.4) or lactic acid (Table 14.1). It includes two steps:
1. Glycolysis 2. Fermentation
Table 14.1: Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic Respiration
1. It occurs in all living cells of higher organisms. It occurs yeast and some bacteria.
2. It requires oxygen for breaking the respiratory Oxygen is not required for breaking the
substrate. respiratory substrate.
The end products are alcohol, and CO2 (or)
3. The end products are CO2 and H2O.
lactic acid. .
4. Oxidation of one molecule of glucose produces
Only 2 ATP molecules are produced.
36 ATP molecules.
5. It consists of four stages-glycolysis, link reaction, It consists of two stages-glycolysis and
TCA cycle and electron transport chain. fermentation.
6. It occurs in cytoplasm and mitochondria. It occurs only in cytoplasm.
263

ATP is not only higher energy Parnas (Polish) and so it is also called as EMP
compound present in a cell. pathway. It is the first and common stage for
There are other higher energy both aerobic and anaerobic respiration. It is
compounds also present. divided into two phases.
Example GTP (Guanosine Tri Phosphate) and 1. Preparatory phase or endergonic phase or
UTP (Uridine Tri Phosphate). hexose phase (steps 1-5).
2. Pay off phase or oxidative phase or
14.5 Stages of Respiration exergonic phase or triose phase (steps 6-10).
1. Glycolysis-conversion of glucose into 1. Preparatory phase
pyruvic acid in cytoplasm of cell. Glucose enters the glycolysis from sucrose
2. Link reaction-conversion of pyruvic acid which is the end product of photosynthesis.
into acetyl coenzyme-A in mitochondrial Glucose is phosphorylated into glucose-6-
matrix. phosphate by the enzyme hexokinase, and
3. Krebs cycle-conversion of acetyl coenzyme subsequent reactions are carried out by
A into carbon dioxide and water in the different enzymes (Figure 14.6). At the end
mitochondrial matrix. of this phase fructose-1, 6 - bisphosphate is
4. Electron transport chain to tranfer electrons cleaved into glyceraldehyde-3- phosphate
remove hydrogen ions and tranfer and dihydroxy acetone phosphate by the
electrons from the products of glycolysis, enzyme aldolase. These two are isomers.
link reaction and Krebs cycle It takes Dihydroxy acetone phosphate is isomerised
place in mitochondrial inner membrane into glyceraldehyde-3- phosphate by the
to release ATP with water molecule by enzyme triose phosphate isomerase, now two
terminal oxidation (Figure 14.5). molecules of glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate enter
14.5.1 Glycolysis into pay off phase. During preparatory phase
(Gr: Glykos 5 Glucose, Lysis 5 Splitting) two ATP molecules are consumed in step-1
Glycolysis is a linear series of reactions in and step-3 (Figure 14.6).
which 6-carbon glucose is split into two Check your grasp!
molecules of 3-carbon pyruvic acid. The How many ATP molecules are produced
enzymes which are required for glycolysis are from one sucrose molecule?
present in the cytoplasm (Figure 14.6). The
reactions of glycolysis were worked out in 2. Pay off phase
yeast cells by three scientists Gustav Embden Two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-
(German), Otto Meyerhoff (German) and J phosphate oxidatively phosphorylated into
two molecules of 1,3 - bisphospho
Glucose glycerate. During this reaction
Glycolysis
2ADP+2 Pi
Ethyl alcohol + CO
2 2ATP
2 molecules 2NAD1 is reduced to 2NADH 1
Anaerobic
of Pyruvic acid H1 by glyceraldehyde- 3- phosphate
Lactic acid dehydrogenase at step 6. Further
Aerobic
reactions are carried out by different
Li nk r e a ct enzymes and at the end two
molecules of pyruvate are produced.
2NA
ion
DH+
2NA H+
o-A DH+
yl C
H+ P
Ac e t 6NA
DH+
H+ In this phase, 2ATPs are produced at
AT
Pi
2x
P+
2FA
O
step 7 and 2 ATPs at step10 (Figure
AD
2
ETC
DH2
2C Krebs
Cycle
2 ADP+2
Pi
14.6). Direct transfer of phosphate
2 ATP O 2
4CO HO 2 moiety from substrate molecule to

ADP and is converted into ATP is
2
Figure 14.5: Overall stages of Respiration called substrate phosphorylation
264

PREPARATORY PHASE
Glucose c c c c c c
1. Phosphorylaon 1 ATP
Hexokinase
ADP
P
Glucose-6-Phosphate c c c c c c
2. Isomerisaon 2 Phosphohexose isomerase

Mg
++
P
Fructose-6-Phosphate c c c c c c
ATP Phosphofructo kinase
3. Phosphorylaon 3 ADP Mg++ P P
Fructose-1,6-Bisphosphate c c c c c c
4. Aldol Aldolase
cleavage P
4 P
c c c c c c
Triose phosphate
Glyceraldehyde- isomerase Dihydroxy Acetone
5.Isomerisaon
3-Phosphate 5 Phosphate
2NAD
+ 2Pi Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate
6.Oxidaon and + dehydrogenase
Phosphorylaon
2NADH+H 6
P P
2x 1,3 Bisphospho Glycerate c c c
2ADP
7. Dephosphorylaon 2ATP
7 Phosphoglycerate kinase
Mg++
PAY OFF PHASE

P
2x 3-Phospho Glycerate c c c
8. Shi ing P from 8 Phosphoglyceromutase

3rd C to 2nd C Mg++ P
2x 2-Phospho Glycerate c c c
9 Enolase
9. Dehydraon 2H2O
Mg
++
P
2x Phospho Enol Pyruvate c c c
2ADP
10 Mg
Pyruvate kinase
++
2ATP
10. Dephosphorylaon K++
2x Pyruvate c c c
Figure 14.6: Glycolysis or EMP pathway
or direct phosphorylation or trans The overall net reaction of glycolysis

phosphorylation. During the reaction at C6 H12O6 1 2ADP 1 2Pi 1 2NAD1
step 9, 2 phospho glycerate dehydrated into
Phospho enol pyruvate. A water molecule is 2x CH3COCOOH 1 2ATP 12NADH12H1
removed by the enzyme enolase. As a result, 14.5.2 Pyruvate Oxidation (Link reaction)
enol group is formed within the molecule. Two molecules of pyruvate formed by glycolysis
This process is called Enolation. in the cytosol enters into the mitochondrial
3. Energy Budget matrix. In aerobic respiration this pyruvate
In the pay off phase totally 4ATP and with coenzyme A is oxidatively decarboxylated
2NADH 1 H1 molecules are produced. into acetyl CoA by pyruvate dehydrogenase
Since 2ATP molecules are already consumed complex. This reaction is irreversible and
in the preparatory phase, the net products in produces two molecules of NADH 1 H1 and
glycolysis are 2ATPs and 2NADH 1 H1. 2CO2. It is also called transition reaction
265

or Link reaction. The reaction of pyruvate
oxidation is
2x CH3COCOOH 1 2NAD1 1 2CoA
Pyruvate dehydrogenase
complex/ Mg11
2xCH3CO.CoA1 2NADH12H11 2CO2↑
Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex consist

of three distinct enzymes, such as
1. Pyruvate dehydrogenase
2. Dihydrolipoyil transacetylase
Stalk
3. Dihydrolipoyil dehydrogenase
and five different coenzymes,
TPP (Thymine Pyro Phosphate), Figure 14.7: Structure of Mitochondrion
NAD1, FAD, CoA and lipoate.
Sir Hans Adolf Krebs
14.5.3 Krebs cycle or Citric acid cycle or TCA cycle: was born in Germany
Two molecules of acetyl CoA formed from on 25th August 1900.
link reaction now enter into Krebs cycle. He was awarded Nobel
It is named after its discoverer, German Prize for his discovery
Biochemist Sir Hans Adolf Krebs (1937). of Citric acid cycle in
The enzymes necessary for TCA cycle Physiology in 1953.
are found in mitochondrial matrix except
succinate dehydrogenase enzyme which is TCA cycle starts with condensation
found in mitochondrial inner membrane of acetyl CoA with oxaloacetate in the
(Figure 14.7). presence of water to yield citrate or citric
Pyruvate c c c
Oxidation and
Link Reaction NAD +
Co A Pyruvate
decarboxylation
NADH+H
+
CO2 dehydrogenase
CoA
Acetyl CoA c c
Krebs cycle 1
H2O
Co A
C 1. Condensation
c c c c
c c Citrate synthase c c
Oxaloacetate Citrate c c 2. Dehydration
NADH+H
+
H2O
10. Oxidation Malate Aconitase 2 c c
10 c c
NAD
+
dehydrogenase Cis aconitate c c
c c c c Malate
3 H2O 3. Rehydration
Aconitase Fe
++
H2O 9 c c
Fumarase
9. Hydration Isocitrate Isocitrate + c c
++
NAD c c 4. Oxidation
c c c c Fumarate dehydrogenase Mn 4 NADH+H+
Succinate c c
FADH2 8 dehydrogenase
Oxalosuccinate c c
Oxalosuccinate 5 c c
8.Oxidation FAD decarboxylase CO2
Succinate 5. Decarboxylation
c c c c Succinyl -ketoglutarate c c
Co-A synthetase ketoglutarate Co A c
ATP dehydrogenase 6 c c
7. Hydration CO2
ADP+Pi 7 Succinyl
c CoA NAD
+
6. Oxidation and
c c c c NADH+H+ decarboxylation
Co A H2O CoA
Figure 14.8: Krebs cycle or Citric acid cycle

266

acid. Therefore, it is also known as Citric 2. Amphibolic nature
Acid Cycle (CAC) or Tri Carboxylic Acid Krebs cycle is primarily a catabolic pathway,
(TCA) cycle. It is followed by the action of but it provides precursors for various
different enzymes in cyclic manner. During biosynthetic pathways there by an anabolic
the conversion of succinyl CoA to succinate pathway too. Hence, it is called amphibolic
by the enzyme succinyl CoA synthetase pathway. It serves as a pathway for oxidation
or succinate thiokinase, a molecule of of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. When fats
ATP synthesis from substrate without are respiratory substrate they are first broken
entering the electron transport chain is down into glycerol and fatty acid. Glycerol is
called substrate level phosphorylation. In converted into DHAP and acetyl CoA. This
animals a molecule of GTP is synthesized acetyl CoA enter into the Krebs cycle. When
from GDP1Pi. In a coupled reaction GTP proteins are the respiratory substrate they are
is converted to GDP with simultaneous degraded into amino acids by proteases. The
synthesis of ATP from ADP1Pi. In three amino acids after deamination enter into the
steps (4, 6, 10) in this cycle NAD1 is reduced Krebs cycle through pyruvic acid or acetyl
to NADH1 H1 and at step 8 (Figure14.8) CoA and it depends upon the structure.
where FAD is reduced to FADH2. So respiratory intermediates form the link
The summary of link reaction and Krebs between synthesis as well as breakdown.
cycle in Mitochondria is The citric acid cycle is the final common
Pyruvic acid 1 4NAD1 1 FAD 1 4H2O 1 ADP1Pi pathway for oxidation of fuel molecules like
Mitochondrial matrix.
amino acids, fatty acids and carbohydrates.
Therefore, respiratory pathway is an
3CO21 4NADH14H1 1FADH2 1H2O1ATP. amphibolic pathway (Figure 14.9).
Two molecules of pyruvic acid formed at the Fats Carbohydrates Proteins
end of glycolysis enter into the mitochondrial Proteases
matrix. Therefore, Krebs cycle is repeated Fatty acids Glycerol Glucose Amino acids
twice for every glucose molecule where
Deamination
two molecules of pyruvic acid produces six Fructose-1,6-Bisphosphate
molecules of CO2, eight molecules of NADH
1 H1, two molecules of FADH2 and two DHAP Glyceraldehyde
molecules of ATP. -3-Phosphate
1. Significance of Krebs cycle:

1. TCA cycle is to provide energy in the form Pyruvic acid
of ATP for metabolism in plants. CO2
2. It provides carbon skeleton or raw material Acetyl CoA
for various anabolic processes.
3. Many intermediates of TCA cycle are
further metabolised to produce amino acids, Krebs NH3
proteins and nucleic acids. cycle
4. Succinyl CoA is raw material for formation H2O CO2
of chlorophylls, cytochrome, phytochrome Figure 14.9: Alternative substrates for
and other pyrrole substances. respiration
5. α-ketoglutarate and oxaloacetate undergo
reductive amination and produce amino 14.5.4 Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
acids. (Terminal oxidation)
6. It acts as metabolic sink which plays a During glycolysis, link reaction and Krebs
central role in intermediary metabolism. cycle the respiratory substrates are oxidised
267

at several steps and as a result through Cytochrome bc1 Complex (Iron
many reduced coenzymes Sulphur center bc1 complex) to cytochrome
NADH 1 H1 and FADH2 c. Cytochrome c is a small protein attached
are produced. These reduced to the outer surface of inner membrane and
coenzymes are transported act as a mobile carrier to transfer electrons
to inner membrane of between complex III to complex IV.
mitochondria and are converted back to their UQH212Cyt c oxidised
oxidised forms produce electrons and protons.
In mitochondria, the inner membrane is folded
in the form of finger projections towards
the matrix called cristae. In cristae many UQ12Cyt c reduced12H1
oxysomes (F1 particles) are present which have
electron transport carriers. According to Peter Ubiquinone and
cytochrome bc1 complex
Mitchell’s Chemiosmotic theory this electron
are structurally and
transport is coupled to ATP synthesis. Electron functionally similar to
and hydrogen(proton) transport takes place plastoquinone and cytochrome b6,f complex
across four multiprotein complexes(I-IV). respectively in the photosynthetic electron
They are transport chain.
1. Complex-I (NADH dehydrogenase). It
contains a flavoprotein(FMN) and associated 4. Complex IV (Cytochome c oxidase)
with non-heme iron Sulphur protein (Fe-S). This complex contains two copper centers
This complex is responsible for passing (A and B) and cytochromes a and a3.
electrons and protons from mitochondrial Complex IV is the terminal oxidase and
NADH (Internal) to Ubiquinone (UQ). brings about the reduction of 1/2 O2 to H2O.
Two protons are needed to form a molecule
NADH 1 H1 1 UQ NAD1 1 UQH2 of H2O (terminal oxidation).
In plants, an additional NADH 2Cyt coxidised 1 2H1 1 1/2 O2
dehydrogenase (External) complex is present
on the outer surface of inner membrane of
mitochondria which can oxidise cytosolic 2Cyt creduced 1H2O
NADH 1 H1. Because mitochondrial inner
membrane cannot allow NADH molecules The transfer of electrons from reduced
directly into the matrix. coenzyme NADH to oxygen via complexes I
Ubiquinone (UQ) or Coenzyme Quinone to IV is coupled to the synthesis of ATP from
(CoQ) is a small, lipid soluble electron, proton ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) which
carrier located within the inner membrane of is called Oxidative phosphorylation. The
mitochondria. F0F1-ATP synthase (also called complex V)
2. Complex-II (Succinic dehydrogenase) consists of F0 and F1. F1 converts ADP and Pi
It contains FAD flavoprotein is associated to ATP and is attached to the matrix side of
with non-heme iron Sulphur (Fe-S) protein. the inner membrane. F0 is present in inner
This complex receives electrons and protons membrane and acts as a channel through
from succinate in Krebs cycle and is converted which protons come into matrix.
into fumarate and passes to ubiquinone. The synthesis of glucose
Succinate 1 UQ → Fumarate 1 UQH2 from certain non-
carbohydrate carbon
3. Complex-III (Cytochrome bc1 complex) substrates such as proteins
This complex oxidises reduced ubiquinone and lipids are called gluconeogenesis.
(ubiquinol) and transfers the electrons
268

Oxidation of one
molecule of NADH 1 H1
gives rise to 3 molecules
of ATP and oxidation
of one molecule FADH2
produces 2 molecules
of ATP within a
mitochondrion. But
cytoplasmic NADH 1 H1
yields only two ATPs
through external NADH
dehydrogenase.
Therefore, two reduced 288.247 pt
coenzyme (NADH 1
H1) molecules from
glycolysis being extra
Figure 14.10: Electron Transport Chain and Terminal Oxidation
mitochondrial will
yield 2 3 2 5 4 ATP molecules instead of of 36 ATP molecules in plants as shown in
6 ATPs (Figure 14.10). The Mechanism table 14.2. Since huge amount of energy is
of mitochondrial ATP synthesis is based generated in mitochondria in the form of
on Chemiosmotic hypothesis. According ATP molecules they are called ‘power house
to this theory electron carriers present in of the cell’. In the case of aerobic prokaryotes
the inner mitochondrial membrane allow due to lack of mitochondria each molecule
for the transfer of protons (H1). For the of glucose produces 38 ATP molecules.
production of single ATP, 3 protons (H1) are
needed. The terminal oxidation of external Abnormal rise in
NADH bypasses the first phosphorylation respiratory rate of
site and hence only two ATP molecules ripening in fruits is called
Climacteric. Examples are
are produced per external NADH oxidised
apple, banana, mango, papaya, pear.
through mitochondrial electron transport
chain. However, in those animal tissues in Recent view
which malate shuttle mechanism is present, When the cost of transport of ATPs from
the oxidation of external NADH will yield matrix into the cytosol is considered,
almost 3 ATP molecules. the number will be 2.5 ATPs for each
Complete oxidation of a glucose molecule NADH 1 H1 and 1.5 ATPs for each FADH2
in aerobic respiration results in the net gain oxidised during electron transport system.
Table 14.2: Net Products gained during aerobic respiration per glucose molecule.
Reduced Total ATP
Stages CO2 ATP Reduced NAD1
FAD Production
2
Glycolysis 0 2 0 6
(2 3 2 5 4)
2
Link reaction 2 0 0 6
(2 3 3 5 6)
6 2
Krebs cycle 4 2 24
(6 3 3 5 18) (2 3 2 5 4)
Total 6 4 ATPs 28 ATPs 4 ATPs 36 ATPs
269

Therefore, in plant cells net yield of 30 ATP
molecules for complete aerobic oxidation of
RQ of glucose
Anaerobically }5 2zeromolecules of CO
molecule of O
2
2
one molecule of glucose. But in those animal
cells (showing malate shuttle mechanism) 5 ∞ (infinity)
net yield will be 32 ATP molecules. 3. In some succulent plants like Opuntia,
Bryophyllum carbohydrates are partially
Cyanide resistant oxidised to organic acid, particularly malic acid
respiration is believed without corresponding release of CO2 but O2 is
to be responsible for the consumed hence the RQ value will be zero.
climacteric in fruits
2C6H12O6 1 3O2 3C4H6O5 1 3H2O 1 Energy
Cyanide resistant respiration is known
Glucose Malic acid
to generate heat in thermogenic tissues.
The amount of heat produced in RQ of glucose zero molecule of CO2
thermogenic tissues may be as high as in succulents
5
51°C. 3 molecules of O2
5 0 (zero)
Peter Mitchel, a British Bio- 4. When respiratory substrate is protein or
chemist received Nobel prize fat, then RQ will be less than unity.
for Chemistry in 1978 for his
2(C51H98O6) 1 145O2 102CO2↑1 98H2O 1 Energy
work on the coupling of oxida-
Tripalmitin(Fat)
tion and phosphorylation in
mitochondria. RQ of 102 molecules of CO2
5
Tripalmitin 145 molecules of O2
14.6 Respiratory Quotient (RQ)
5 0.7 (less than unity)
The ratio of volume of carbon dioxide given
out and volume of oxygen taken in during 5. When respiratory substrate is an organic
respiration is called Respiratory Quotient or acid the value of RQ will be more than unity.
Respiratory ratio. RQ value depends upon C4H6O5 1 3O2 4CO2 ↑1 3H2O 1 Energy
respiratory substrates and their oxidation. Malic acid
Volume of CO2 liberated RQ of 4 molecules of CO2
RQ 5 5
Volume of O2 consumed malic acid 3 molecules of O2
1. The respiratory substrate is a carbohydrate, 5 1.33 (more than unity)
it will be completely oxidised in aerobic Significance of RQ
respiration and the value of the RQ will be 1. RQ value indicates which type of
equal to unity. respiration occurs in living cells, either
C6H12O6 1 6O2 6CO2 ↑ 1 6H2O 1 Energy aerobic or anaerobic.
Glucose 2. It also helps to know which type of
6 molecules of CO2 respiratory substrate is involved.
RQ of glucose 5
6 molecules of O2
Red colour in various
5 1 (unity)
parts of plants is due to the
2. If the respiratory substrate is a carbohydrate
it will be incompletely oxidised when it goes presence of anthocyanin,
through anaerobic respiration and the RQ synthesis of which require
value will be infinity. more O2 than CO2 evolved. RQ will be
C6H12O6 2CO2↑1 2C2H5OH 1 Energy
less than one.
Glucose Ethyl alcohol
270

Activity respiration (Figure 14.12). There are three
types of fermentation:
Take a test tube with some germinated seeds
1. Alcoholic fermentation
and fill with water. Keep this test tube after
some time until liberation of CO2. When the 2. Lactic acid fermentation
carbon dioxide from respiration is mixed to 3. Mixed acid fermentation
water, carbonic acid (H2CO3) is produced.
Therefore, as more carbon dioxide is 1. Alcoholic fermentation
released, the solution becomes more acidic. The cells of roots in water logged soil
You will see changes in pH as an indicator respire by alcoholic fermentation because
using blue litmus paper changed into red that of lack of oxygen by converting pyruvic
respiration has occurred acid into ethyl alcohol and CO2. Many
CO21H2O H2CO3 species of yeast (Saccharomyces) also
respire anaerobically. This process takes
The apparatus used for place in two steps:
determining respiration Pyruvate
decarboxylase
(i) 2CH3COCOOH 2CH3CHO 1 2CO2↑
and RQ is called Ganong’s Pyruvic acid TPP Acetaldehyde
Respirometer.
Alcohol
dehydrogenase
(ii) 2CH3CHO 1 2NADH12H 1
Acetaldehyde
Respiratory quotients of some other 2CH3CH2OH 1 2NAD1
substances Ethyl alcohol
Proteins : 0.8–0.9 Glucose
Oleic acid (Fat) : 0.71
Net gain of 2 ATP
Palmitic acid (Fat) : 0.36
Tartaric acid : 1.6 2NAD
+
Oxalic acid : 4.0 2NADH+H

+
2 x Pyruvic Acid
14.7 Anaerobic Respiration 2 x NADH+H
+
2 x NADH+H
+
14.7.1 Fermentation
+ +
2 x NAD 2 x NAD
Alcohol dehydrogenase Lactate dehydrogenase
Some organisms can respire
in the absence of oxygen. 2 x Ethyl alcohol + CO2 2 x Lactic Acid
This process is called Alcoholic fermentation or Lactic acid fermentation
fermentation or anaerobic Figure 14.12: Anaerobic Respiration
Table 14.3: Comparison of alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid fermentation
Alcoholic fermentation Lactic acid fermentation
It produces alcohol and releases CO2
1. It produces lactic acid and does not release
from pyruvic acid. CO2 from pyruvic acid.
2.
It takes place in two steps. It takes place in single step.
3.
It involves two enzymes, pyruvate
It uses one enzyme, lactate dehydrogenase
decarboxylase with Mg11 and alcohol
with Zn11.
dehydrogenase.
It forms acetaldehyde as intermediate
4.
Does not form any intermediate compound.
compound.
Occurs in bacteria, some fungi and
It commonly occurs in yeast.
5.
vertebrate muscles.
271

Industrial uses of alcoholic fermentation:
Demonstration of alcoholic fermentation
1. In bakeries, it is used for preparing
Take a Kuhne’s fermentation tube which
bread, cakes, biscuits.
consists of an upright glass tube with side
2. In beverage industries for preparing
bulb. Pour 10% sugar solution mixed
wine and alcoholic drinks.
with baker’s yeast into
3. In producing vinegar and in tanning,
the fermentation tube CO2
curing of leather.
the side tube is filled
4. Ethanol is used to make gasohol (a fuel Sugar solution
plug the mouth with and Yeast
that is used for cars in Brazil).
lid. After some time,
2. Lactic acid fermentation the glucose solution
Some bacteria (Bacillus), fungi and muscles will be fermented. The
of vertebrates produce lactic acid from solution will give out
pyruvic acid (Table 14.3). an alcoholic smell and Figure 14.13:
2CH3COCOOH 1 2NADH12H1 level of solution in glass Kuhne’s
column will fall due fermentation
Pyruvic acid Lactate dehydrogenase experiment
to the accumulation
2CH3CHOHCOOH 1 2NAD1 of CO2 gas. It is due to the presence of
Lactic acid zymase enzyme in yeast which converts
3. Mixed acid fermentation the glucose solution into alcohol and
This type of fermentation is a characteristic CO2. Now introduce a pellet of KOH into
feature of Enterobacteriaceae and results in the tube, the KOH will absorb CO2 and
the formation of lactic acid, ethanol, formic the level of solution will rise in upright
acid and gases like CO2 and H2. tube (Figure 14.13).
Characteristics of Anaerobic Respiration
1. Anaerobic respiration is less efficient than Activity
the aerobic respiration (Figure 14.12).
Take a bottle filled with warm water
2.
Limited number of ATP molecules is
mixed with baker’s yeast and sugar. After
generated per glucose molecule (Table 14.4).
some time, you will notice water bubbling
3. It is characterized by the production of as yeast produces carbon dioxide. Attach
CO2 and it is used for Carbon fixation in a balloon to the mouth of the bottle. After
photosynthesis. 30 minutes you’ll notice balloon standing
Table 14.4: Net products from one molecule upright (Figure 14.14).
of Glucose under Glycolysis and Why the balloon has inflated?
Anaerobic respiration. Yeast & sugar in warm
water were poured
Substrate into a bottle After 15 minutes. After 30 minutes.
Reduced Total
Stage level ATP
NAD1 ATP
production
Glycolysis 2 2* 8
2 reduced
Anaerobic Sugar Sugar Sugar
2 NAD1 2
respiration
re-oxidised
*One reduced NAD1 equivalent to 3 ATPs Figure: 14.14: Air balloon activity
272

14.8 Factors Affecting Respiration
Factors affecting Respiration
The amount of protoplasm
and its state of activity Optimum temperature for
influence the rate of Internal External respiration is 30º C. At low
respiration Factors Factors temperatures and very high
temperatures rate of respiration
Concentration of respiratory decreases
substrate is proportional to
the rate of respiration W h e n s u ffic i e n t a m o u n t o f
O 2 is available the rate of
Wounding of plant
aerobic respiration will be
organs stimulates
optimum and anaerobic
the rate of respiration
respiration is completely stopped.
in that region.
This is called Extinction point.
Rate of respiration
decreases with
decreasing amount
of water. Proper hydration High concentration of CO2
is essential for respiration reduces the rate of respiration
Some chemical
s u b s t a n c e A plant or tissue transferred
acts as inhibitors. from water to salt solution
Example: Cyanides will increase the rate of
Light is an indirect factor
respiration. It is called
affecting the rate of respiration
salt respiration
ItisalsoknownasHexosemonophosphate
Check your grasp!
shunt (HMP Shunt) or Direct Oxidative
• Why Microorganisms respire
Pathway. It consists of two phases, oxidative
anaerobically?
phase and non-oxidative phase. The
• Does anaerobic respiration take place
oxidative events convert six molecules of six
in higher plants?
carbon Glucose-6-phosphate to 6 molecules
of five carbon sugar Ribulose-5 phosphate
14.9 Pentose Phosphate Pathway with loss of 6CO2 molecules and generation
(Phospho Gluconate Pathway) of 12 NADPH 1 H1 (not NADH). The
During respiration breakdown of glucose in remaining reactions known as non-oxidative
cytosol occurs both by glycolysis (about 2/3) pathway, convert Ribulose-5-phosphate
as well as by oxidative pentose phosphate molecules to various intermediates such
pathway (about 1/3). Pentose phosphate as Ribose-5-phosphate(5C), Xylulose-
pathway was described by Warburg, 5-phosphate(5C), Glyceraldehyde-3-
Dickens and Lipmann (1938). Hence, it is phosphate(3C), Sedoheptulose-7-Phosphate
also called Warburg-Dickens-Lipmann (7C), and Erythrose-4-phosphate (4C).
pathway. It takes place in cytoplasm of Finally, five molecules of glucose-6-
mature plant cells. It is an alternate way for phosphate is regene-rated (Figure 14.16).
breakdown of glucose (Figure 14.15). The overall reaction is:
Starch 6 x Glucose-6-Phosphate 1 12NADP1 1 6H2O
Oxidation via Pentose Oxidation via
phosphate Pathway Glucose glycolysis 5 x Glucose-6-Phosphate 1 6CO2 1 Pi 1
Ribulose-
12NADPH 112H1
Pyruvic acid
5-phosphate The net result of complete oxidation of
Figure 14.15: Fate of Glucose in HMP shunt one glucose-6-phosphate yield 6CO2 and
and Glycolysis 12NADPH 1 H1. The oxidative pentose
273

6C
Glucose
ATP
Hexokinase
Phosphorylation ADP
6C
36 C
Glucose-6-Phosphate
6 X Glucose-6-Phosphate +
6 x NADP
Phospho hexose isomerase
Glucose-6-Phosphate 1 + 1. Oxidation
dehydrogenase 6 x NADPH+H
6. Isomerisation 6 36 C
30 C
6 X 6-Phospho Gluconolactone
5 X Fructose-6-Phosphate
2 6H2O 2. Hydration
5. Conversion 5 OXIDATIVE
Lactonase
PHASE 36 C
NON OXIDATIVE
30 C PHASE 6 X 6-Phospho Gluconate
+
Various intermediate compounds 6 x NADP
6-Phospho gluconate 3
such as 3C, 4C, 5C and 7C dehydrogenase 6 x NADPH+H
+
phosphorylated sugars
6CO2
30 C
6 X Ribulose-5-Phosphate
3. Oxidation and
Decarboxylation
4
4. Formation of
phosphorylated
compounds
Figure 14.16: Pentose phosphate pathway or HMP shunt
phosphate pathway is controlled by glucose- aerobic (with O2) and anaerobic (without O2). All
6-phosphate dehydrogenase enzyme which plants, animals and most of the microbes derive
is inhibited by high ratio of NADPH to energy from aerobic respiration. Some bacteria
and fungi like yeast show anaerobic respiration.
NADP1.
Aerobic respiration consists of four stages and
Significance of pentose phosphate pathway they are glycolysis, link reaction, TCA cycle and
1. HMP shunt is associated with the generation ETS. Glycolysis is the first stage which occurs
of two important products, NADPH and in cytosol and common for both aerobic and
pentose sugars, which play a vital role in anaerobic respiration and it involves breaking
anabolic reactions. down of glucose into two molecules of pyruvic
2. Coenzyme NADPH generated is used for acid. Acetyl CoA formed from pyruvic acid, acts
as a link between glycolysis and Krebs cycle.
reductive biosynthesis and counter damaging Krebs cycle takes place in matrix of mitochondria
the effects of oxygen free radicals and also called as citric acid cycle in which CO2
3. Ribose-5-phosphate and its derivatives are and H2O were produced. Hydrogen removed
used in the synthesis of DNA, RNA, ATP, from the substrates is received by coenzymes
NAD1, FAD and Coenzyme A. which get reduced. They are again oxidised by
4. Erythrose is used for synthesis of anthocyanin, removal of hydrogen. This hydrogen splits into
lignin and other aromatic compounds. protons and electrons. The electrons transferred
5. It plays a role on fixation of Co2 in through various electron transport carriers
photosynthesis through RUBP present in inner membrane of mitochondria is
used for the synthesis of ATP with the help of
Summary ATP synthase. This process is called oxidative
Respiration is a biological process in which phosphorylation.
energy is released by breaking down of complex Anaerobic respiration involves incomplete
organic substances into simple compounds. The breaking down of the substrate glucose into
respiratory substrates may be carbohydrate, ethyl alcohol or lactic acid. In aerobic respiration
protein or fats. Respiration is of two types, 36 ATP molecules are produced in plant
274

mitochondria but in animals 38 ATP molecules a. A and R is correct. R is correct explanation
are produced per glucose molecule. During of A
anaerobic respiration only 2 ATP molecules are b. A and R is correct but R is not the correct
produced, therefore anaerobic respiration is less explanation of A
efficient than aerobic respiration. The respiratory c. A is correct but R is wrong
quotient (RQ) is the ratio of carbon dioxide d. A and R is wrong.
production to oxygen consumption and reflects 5. Which of the following reaction is not involved
the relative contributions of fat, carbohydrate, in Krebs cycle.
and protein to the oxidation. Pentose phosphate
a. Shifting of phosphate from 3C to 2C
pathway is an alternative pathway to glycolysis
and TCA cycle for oxidation of glucose. It occurs b. Splitting of Fructose 1,6 bisphosphate of
in cytoplasm of both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. into two molecules 3C compounds.
c. Dephosphorylation from the substrates
Evaluation d. All of these
1. The number of ATP molecules formed by
6. What are enzymes involved in
complete oxidation of one molecule of pyruvic
phosphorylation and dephosphorylation
acid is
reactions in EMP pathway?
a. 12 b. 13 c. 14 d. 15
7. Respiratory quotient is zero in succulent plants.
2. During oxidation of two molecules of cytosolic Why?
NADH 1 H1, number of ATP molecules
8. Explain the reactions taking place in
produced in plants are
mitochondrial inner membrane.
a. 3 b. 4 c. 6 d. 8
9. What is the name of alternate way of
3. The compound which links glycolysis and glucose breakdown? Explain the process
Krebs cycle is involved in it?
a. succinic acid b. pyruvic acid 10. How will you calculate net
c. acetyl CoA d. citric acid products of one sucrose
4. Assertion (A): Oxidative phosphorylation molecule upon complete
takes place during the electron transport chain oxidation during aerobic
in mitochondria. respiration as per recent
Reason (R): Succinyl CoA is phosphorylated view?
into succinic acid by substrate phosphorylation.
t ICT Corner
Rate of Respiration
Let’s estimate rate
Steps
of respiration • Scan the QR code or go to google play store
• Select biology and select rate of respiration
• Click theory to know the basic about respiration
Activity
• Press simulation to do the rate of respiration.
• Conclude your observations.

Step 1
URL: https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=in.edu.olabs.olabs&hl=en
Alternate web: h
ttp://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/cellularrespiration.html
275

Chapter
15 Plant Growth and Development
Bamboos are evergreen

Learning Objectives grasses and certain species
The learner will be able to, of it can grow at the rate of
growth 91 cm per day. The
• Define growth. Saguaro Cactus is a tree like
• List out and differentiate the phases of cactus and is a slow growing
growth. plant. The rate of growth is one inch in the
• Explain the structure, precursor, bioassay first ten years and it does not begin to flower
and physiological effects of plant growth until it is about 60 years old. It’s lifespan
regulators. exceeds 150 years and takes 75–100 years to
grow a side arm.
Chapter Outline
15.1 Characteristics of growth
15.2 Plant growth regulators
15.3 Photoperiodism
15.4 Vernalization
15.5 Seed germination and dormancy
15.6 Senescence
The Banyan tree continues to grow for 15.1 Characteristics of Growth

thousands of years and some others particularly • G rowth increases in protoplasm at cellular
annual plants cease growth within a season or level.
within a year. Can you understand the reasons? • Stem and roots are indeterminate in
How does a zygote give rise to an embryo and growth due to continuous cell division
an embryo to a seedling? How does a new plant and is called open form of growth.
structure arise from the pre-existing structure? • The primary growth of the plant is due
Growth is defined as an irreversible permanent to the activity of apical meristem where,
increase in size, shape, number,volume and dry new cells are added to root and shoot apex
weight. Plant growth occurs by cell division, cell causing linear growth of plant body.
enlargement, differentiation and maturation. • The secondary vascular cambium and
cork cambium add new cells to cause
Growth is measurable, it
increase in girth.
is amazing to know that
• Leaves, flowers and fruits are limited in
one single maize root apical
growth or determinate or closed form
meristem can give rise to
growth.
more than 17,500 new cells per hour and
• Monocarpic annual plants produce
cells in a watermelon may increase in size
flowers only once during lifetime and
upto 3,50,000 times.
dies. Example: Paddy and Bean
276

• M onocarpic perennials produce flowers 2. Types of growth rate
only once during life time but the plants The increased growth per unit time is termed as
survive for many years. Example: Bamboo. growth rate. An organism or part of an organism
• Polycarpic perennials produce flowers every can produce more cells through arithmetic
year during life time. Example: Coconut.
growth or geometric growth or both.
15.1.1 Kinetics of growth
It is an analysis of the motion of cells or i. Arithmetic Growth Rate
expansion. If the length of a plant organ is plotted
1. Stages in Growth rate against time, it shows a linear curve and this
The total period from initial to the final stage of growth is called arithmetic growth.
growth is called the grand period of growth.
• The rate of growth is constant and it
The total growth is plotted against time and ‘S’
increases in an arithmetic manner.
shaped sigmoid curve (Grand period curve) is
obtained. It consists of four phases. • Only one cell is allowed to divide
They are: between the two-resulting progeny cell.
i. Lag phase • One continues to divide but the other
ii. Log phase undergoes cell cycle arrest and begins
iii. Decelerating phase to develop, differentiate and mature.
iv. Maturation phase • After each round of cell division, only
i. Lag phase a single cell remains capable of division
In this phase new cells are formed from and one new body cell forms.
pre-existing cells slowly. It is found in the tip
For example, starting with a single cell after
of the stem, root and branches. It is the initial
round 1 of cell division there is one dividing
stage of growth. In other words, growth starts
from this period. cell and one body cell. After round 2 there
are two body cells, after round 3 there are
ii. Log phase or exponential growth
three and so on (Figure 15.1).
Here, the newly formed cell increases in size
rapidly by deposition of cell wall material. Dividing cell
Growth rate is maximum and reaches top
because of cell division and physiological Body Cell
processes are quite fast. The volume of
protoplasm also increases. It results in rapid
growth and causes elongation of internode in
the stem.
iii. Decelerating phase or Decline phase or
slow growth phase
The rate of growth decreases and becomes
limited owing to internal and external or both
the factors because the metabolic process
becomes slow.
iv. Steady state period or maturation phase
In this phase cell wall thickening due to new
particle deposition on the inner surface of
the cell wall takes place. The overall growth Figure 15.1: Arithmetic Growth Rate
ceases and becomes constant. The growth rate The plants single dividing cell would
becomes zero. undergo one million rounds of nuclear and
277

cellular division. If each round requires one The large plant or animal parts are
day, this type of arithmetic increase would produced this way. In fact, it is common in
require one million days or 2739.7 years. animals but rare in plants except when they
This arithmetic rate is capable of producing are young and small. Exponential growth
small number of cells present in very small curve can be expressed as,
parts of plants. For example the hair on
Mother cell
many leaves and stems consists of just a
single row of cells produced by the division
of the basal cell, the cell at the bottom of the 2 Progeny cells
hair next to other epidermal cells. Hair may
contain 5 to 10 cells by the division of the
basal cell. So, all its cells could be produced 4 Progeny
in just five to ten days. In the figure 15.2, on cells
plotting the hight of the plant against time a
linear curve is obtained. Mathematically it is
expressed as:
8 Progeny cells
Figure 15.3: Geometric growth

W1 = W0ert
Height of the plant
W1 = Final size (weight, height and

C
number)
W0 = Initial size at the beginning of the
D period
r = Growth rate
t = Time of growth
e = Base of the natural logarithms
Time Here ‘r’ is the relative growth rate and
Figure 15.2: Constant Linear Growth also a measure of the ability of the plant to
Lt = Lo + rt produce new plant material, referred to as
efficiency index. Hence, the final size of W1
Lt = length at time ‘t’
depends on the initial size W0.
Lo = length at time zero
iii. Arithmetic and Geometric Growth
r = growth rate of elongation per unit
of Embryo
ii. Geometric growth rate: Plants often grow by a combination
This growth occurs in many higher plants of arithmetic and geometric growth
and plant organs and is measured in size patterns. A young embryonic plant grows
or weight. In plant growth, geometric cell geometrically and cell division becomes
division results if all cells of an organism or restricted to certain cells at the tips of roots
tissue are active mitotically. Example: Round and shoots. After this point, growth is of
three in the given figure 15.3, produces 8 the slower arithmetic type, but some of the
cells as 23 = 8 and after round 20 there are 220 new cells that are produced can develop into
= 1,048,576 cells. their mature condition and begin carrying
278

out specialized types of metabolism
(Figure 15.4). Plants are thus a mixture of
older, mature cells and young, dividing cells.
Figure 15.5: Diagrammatic comparision of

absolute and relative growth rates
Measurement of Growth
Experiment: 1. Arc auxanometer:
The increase in the length of the stem tip can
easily be measured by an arc auxanometer
which consists of a small pulley to the axis
of which is attached a long pointer sliding
over a graduated arc. A thread one end of
which is tied to the stem tip and another end
to a weight passes over the pulley tightly. As
soon as the stem tip increases in length, the
pulley moves and the pointer slide over the
graduated arc (Figure 15.6). The reading is
taken. The actual increase in the length of
the stem is then calculated by knowing the
length of the pointer and the radius of the
pulley. If the distance travelled by the pointer
Figure 15.4: Arithmetic and geometric is 10 and the radius of the pulley is 4 inches
growth of embryo and the length of the pint is 20 inches, the
Quantitative comparisons between the actual grown is measured as follows:
growth of living system can also be made in Actual growth in length = (Distance travelled
two ways and is explained in the table 1. by the pointer × radius of the pulley) / Length
of the pointer.
In figure 15.5, two leaves A and B are
For example,
drawn at a particular time. Then A1and actual growth in length =
B1 are drawn after a given time. A and (10 × 4 inches)/ 20 inches = 2 inches
B = Area of leaves at a particular time. A1 Arc
and B1 = Area of leaves after a given time.

Pulley
(A1-A) and (B1-B) represents an absolute Pointer
increase in area in the given time. Leaf A
increases from 5 cm2 to 10 cm2; 5 cm2 in a
given time. Leaf B increases from 50 cm2 to Weight
55 cm2 ; 5 cm2 in a given time. Hence, both Potted plant
leaves A and B increase their area by 5 cm2 Stand
in a given time. This is absolute growth.

Relative growth is faster in leaf A because of
initial small size. It decreases with time. Figure 15.6: Arc auxanometer
279

15.2 Plant Growth Regulators vi. They are capable of influencing
Plant Growth Regulators (chemical messenger) physiological activities leading to
are defined as organic substances which are promotion, inhibition and modification
synthesized in minute quantities in one part of of growth.
the plant body and transported to another part 3. Synergistic and Antagonistic effects
where they influence specific physiological i. Synergistic effects: The effect of one or
processes. Five major groups of hormones viz., more substance in such a way that both
auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene and promote each others activity. Example:
abscisic acid are presently known to coordinate Activity of auxin and gibberellins or
and regulate growth and development in plants. cytokinins.
The term phytohormones is implied to those ii. Antagonistic effects: The effect of two
chemical substances which are synthesized by substances in such a way that they have
plants and thus, naturally occurring. On the opposite effects on the same process. One
other hand, there are several manufactured accelerates and other inhibits. Example:
chemicals which often resemble the hormones ABA and gibberellins during seed or bud
in physiological action and dormancy. ABA induces dormancy and
even in molecular structure. gibberellins break it.
Recently, another two groups, 15.2.1 Auxins
the brassinosteroids and 1. Discovery
polyamines were also known During 1880, Charles Darwin noted the
to behave like hormones. unilateral growth and curvature of Canary
1. Plant growth regulators – classification grass (Phalaris canariensis) coleoptile to light.
Plant Growth Regulators are classified as The term auxin (Greek: Auxin – to Grow) was
natural and synthetic based on their source first used by F. W. Went in 1926 using Oats
and a detailed flow diagram is given in (Avena) coleoptile and isolated the auxin. F. W.
Figure 15.7. Went in 1928 collected auxin in agar jelly. Kogl
Plant Growth Regulators (PGRs) and Haugen Smith (1931) isolated Auxin
from human urine, and called it as Auxin A.
Natural (Phytohormones) Synthetic Later on in 1934, similar active substances was
isolated from corn grain oil and was named as
Plant Growth Promoters Growth inhibitors Auxin B. Kogl et al., (1934) found heteroauxin
in the plant and chemically called it as Indole
Auxin Ethylene NAA
Acetic Acid (IAA)
Gibberellin Abscisic acid 2,4 -D
2. Occurrence
Cytokinin 2,4,5 - T
Auxin is generally produced by the growing
Figure 15.7: Classification of Plant Growth tips of the stem and root, from where they
Regulators migrate to the region of the action.
2. Characteristics of phytohormones 3. Types of Auxin
i. Usually produced in tips of roots, stems Auxins are divided into two categories Natural
and leaves. auxins and Synthetic auxins.
ii. Transfer of hormones from one place to
another takes part through conductive Anti-auxins
systems. Anti-auxin compounds when applied to the
iii. They are required in trace quantities. plant inhibit the effect of auxin. Example:
iv. All hormones are organic in nature. 2, 4, 5-Tri Iodine Benzoic Acid (TIBA) and
v. There are no specialized cells or organs for Napthylpthalamine.
their secretion.
280

Types of Auxin This curvature can be measured
(Figure 15.8).
Natural Synthetic 8. Physiological Effects
Auxin occuring in plants are called
“Natural auxin”
These are synthesized artificially and have
properties like Auxin.
• They promote cell elongation in
1. Indole Acetic Acid (IAA) 1. 2,4-Dichloro Phenoxy Acetic Acid (2,4-D) stem and coleoptile.
2. Indole Propionic Acid (IPA) 2. 2,4,5-Trichloro Phenoxy Acetic Acid (2,4,5-T) • At higher concentrations
3. Indole Butyric Acid (IBA) 3. Napthalene Acetic Acid (NAA) auxins inhibit the elongation
4. Phenyl Acetic Acid (PAA)
of roots but extermely lower
(i) Free auxin concentrations promotes
They move out of tissues as they are easily growth of root.
diffusible. Example: IAA. • S
uppression of growth in lateral bud
by apical bud due to auxin produced
(ii) Bound Auxin
by apical bud is termed as apical dominance.
They are not diffusible. Example: IAA.
• Auxin prevents abscission.
4. Precursor
• It is used to eradicate weeds. Example: 2,4-D
The amino acid Tryptophan is the precursor of
and 2,4,5-T.
IAA and zinc is required for its synthesis.
• Synthetic auxins are used in the formation of
5. Chemical structure seedless fruits (Parthenocarpic fruit).
Auxin has similar chemical structure of IAA. • It is used to break the dormancy in seeds.
6. Transport in Plants
Auxin in the
Auxin is polar in transport. It includes basipetal Avena coleoptile
Decapited stump
and acropetal transport. Basipetal means Coleoptile placed on

Agar Block
transport through phloem from shoot to root
and acropetal means transport through xylem
from root to shoot.
Auxin diffuses
7. Bioassay (Avena Curvature Test / in to agar block
Went Experiment)
Bioassay means testing of substances for their
Diffusion of Auxin
activity in causing a growth response in a living Auxin containing agar block
in one side of stump from agar block
plant or its part.

The procedure involves the following steps:
When the Avena seedlings have attained a
height of 15 to 30 mm, about 1mm of the
coleoptile tip is removed. This apical part is
the source of natural auxin. The tip is now
placed on agar blocks for few hours. During
Figure 15.8: Avena Curvature Test
this period, the auxin diffuses out of these tips
into the agar. The auxin containing agar block 15.2.2 Gibberellins
is now placed on one side of the decapitated 1. Discovery
stump of Avena coleoptile. The auxin from the The effect of gibberellins had been known in
agar blocks diffuses down through coleoptile Japan since early 1800 where certain rice plants
along the side to which the auxin agar block is were found to suffer from ‘Bakanae’ or foolish
placed. An agar block without auxin is placed on seedling disease. This disease was found by
another decapitated coleoptile. Within an hour, Kurosawa (1926) to be caused by a fungus
the coleoptiles with auxin agar block bends on Gibberella fujikuroi. The active substance
the opposite side where the agar block is placed. was separated from fungus and named as
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gibberellin by Yabuta (1935). These are more phloem and also occur in xylem due to lateral
than 100 gibberellins reported from both fungi movement between vascular bundles.
and higher plants. They are noted as GA1, GA2, 6. Bioassay (Dwarf Pea assay)
GA3 and so on. GA3 is the first discovered Seeds of dwarf pea are allowed to germinate
gibberellin. In 1938, Yabuta and Sumiki till the formation of the coleoptile. GA
isolated gibberellin in crystalline form. In1955, solution is applied to some seedlings. Others
Brain et al., gave the name gibberellic acid. In are kept under control. Epicotyl length
1961, Cross et al., established its structure. is measured and as such, GA stimulating
epicotyl growth can be seen.
Agent Orange
Mixture of two phenoxy herbicides 2,4-D 7. Physiological Effects
and 2,4,5-T is given the name ‘Agent orange’ • It produces extraordinary elongation of stem
which was used by USA in Vietnam war for caused by cell division and cell elongation.
defoliation of forest (chemical warfare). • Rosette plants (genetic dwarfism) exhibit
excessive internodal growth when they
are treated with gibberellins. This sudden
elongation of stem followed by flowering
by the application of gibberellin is called
bolting (Figure 15.9).
• Gibberellin breaks dormancy in potato
tubers.
• Many biennials usually flower during
second year of their growth. For flowering
In botanical gardens and tea gardens, gardeners in the first year it self these plants should be
trim the plants regularly so that they remain treated with gibberellins.
bushy. Does this practice have any scientific
explanation?
• Formation of seedless fruits without fertili-
Yes, trimming of plants removes apical buds zation is induced by gibberellins Example:
and hence apical dominance. The lateral buds Seedless tomato, apple and cucumber.
sprout and make the plants bushy. • Promotes elongation of inter-node in
sugarcane without decreasing sugar content.
2. Occurrence • Promotion of flowering in long day plants
The major site of gibberellin production in even under short day conditions.
plants is parts like embryo, roots and young • It stimulates the seed germination.
leaves near the tip. Immature seeds are rich in
gibberellins.
3. Precursors
The gibberellins are chemically related to
Rosette leaves
terpenoids (natural rubber, carotenoids and
steroids) formed by 5-C precursor, an Isoprenoid
unit called Iso Pentenyl Pyrophosphate (IPP)
through a number of intermediates. The (a) Untreated plant
(b) Treated plant
primary precursor is acetate. showing bolting.
Figure 15.9: Bolting
4. Chemical structure 15.2.3 Cytokinins (Cytos – cell, Kinesis – division)
All gibberellins have gibbane ring structure. 1. Discovery
5. Transport in plants The presence of cell division inducing
The transport of gibberellins in plants is non- substances in plants was first demonstrated by
polar. Gibberellins are translocated through Haberlandt in 1913 in Coconut milk (liquid
282

endosperm of coconut) which contains cell 6. Physiological effect
division inducing substances. In 1954, Skoog • Cytokinin promotes cell division in the
and Miller discovered that autoclaved DNA presence of auxin (IAA).
from herring sperm stimulated cell division in •
Cytokinin induces cell enlargement
tobacco pith cells. They called this cell division associated with IAA and gibberellins
inducing principle as kinetin (chemical • Cytokinin can break the dormancy of
structure: 6-Furfuryl Amino Acid). This does certain light-sensitive seeds like tobacco and
not occur in plants. In 1963, Letham introduced induces seed germination.
the term cytokinin. In 1964, Letham and • Cytokinin promotes the growth of lateral
Miller isolated and identified a new cytokinin bud in the presence of apical bud.
called Zeatin from unripe grains of maize. The • Application of cytokinin delays the
most widely occurring cytokinin in plants is process of aging by nutrient mobilization.
Iso Pentenyl adenine (IPA). It is known as Richmond Lang effect.
2. Occurrence • Cytokinin (i) increases rate protein
synthesis (ii) induces the formation of
Cytokinin is formed in root apex, shoot apex,
inter-fascicular cambium (iii) overcomes
buds and young fruits.
apical dominance (iv) induces formation of
3. Precursor new leaves, chloroplast and lateral shoots.
Cytokinins are derivatives of the purine adenine. • Plants accumulate solutes very actively
4. Bioassay (Neem Cotyledon Assay) with the help of cytokinins.
Neem cotyledons are measured and placed
15.2.4 Ethylene (Gaseous Phytohormone)
in cytokinin solution as well as in ordinary
Almost all plant tissues produce ethylene gas
water. Enlargement of cotyledons is an
in minute quantities.
indication of cytokinin activity.
1. Discovery
5. Transport in plants In 1924, Denny found that ethylene stimulates
The distribution of cytokinin in plants is not the ripening of lemons. In 1934, R. Gane found
as wide as those of auxin and gibberellins but that ripe bananas contain abundant ethylene.
found mostly in roots. Cytokinins appear to be In 1935, Cocken et al., identified ethylene as a
translocated through xylem. natural plant hormone.
Ethylene Synergistic effects Auxin

GROWTH INHIBITORS
GROWTH PROMOTERS
Auxin, GA3 and

Cytokinin induces X
X
x
Plant growth
InduceEthylene
Fruit Apical Prevents
Abscission ripening dominance abscission Weedicide
Plant Growth Cytokinins

Regulators
12
Radial growth
9 3
6 x
ABA Root /Shoot Delaying Promote
ABA GA3
initiation from ageing lateral bud
Callus process growth
ABA
Induces
seed
Breaks
seed
Gibberellins
dormancy dormancy
ABA
Yellowing Induce Closure of

of leaf Abscission stomata
Antagonistic effects Bolting
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2. Occurrence 2. Occurrence
Maximum synthesis occurs during climacteric This hormone is found abundantly inside
ripening of fruits (see Box info) and tissues the chloroplast of green cells.
undergoing senescence. It is formed in almost 3. Precursors
all plant parts like roots, leaves, flowers, fruits The hormone is formed from mevalonic
and seeds. acid pathway or xanthophylls.
3. Transport in plants
4. Transport in plants
Ethylene can easily diffuse inside the plant
Abscisic acid is transported to all parts of the
through intercellular spaces.
plant through diffusion as well as through
4. Precursor phloem and xylem.
It is a derivative of amino acid methionine,
5. Chemical structure
linolenic acid and fumaric acid.
It has carotenoid structure.
5. Bioassay (Gas Chromatography)
6. Bioassay (Rice Coleoptile)
Ethylene can be measured by gas
The inhibition of IAA induces straight
chromatography. This technique helps in the
growth of rice seedling coleoptiles.
detection of exact amount of ethylene from
different plant tissues like lemon and orange. 7. Physiological effects
6. Physiological Effects • It helps in reducing transpiration rate by
• Ethylene stimulates respiration and closing stomata.
ripening in fruits. • ABA is a powerful growth inhibitor. It
causes 50% inhibition of growth in Oat
• It breaks the dormancy of buds, seeds and
coleoptile.
storage organs.
• It induces bud and seed dormancy.
• It stimulates formation of abscission zone
• It promotes the abscission of leaves, flowers
in leaves, flowers and fruits. This makes and fruits by forming abscission layers.
the leaves to shed prematurely. • ABA plays an important role in plants
• Inhibition of stem elongation (shortening during water stress and during drought
the internode). conditions. It results in loss of turgor and
• Growth of lateral roots and root hairs. closure of stomata.
This increases the absorption surface of • In Cannabis sativa, induces male flower
the plant roots. formation on female plants.
• Ethylene normally reduces flowering in • It promotes sprouting in storage organs like
plants except in Pine apple and Mango. Potato.
15.2.5 A
bscisic Acid (ABA) (Stress Phyto • It inhibits the shoot growth and promotes
hormone) growth of root system. This character
1. Discovery protect the plants from water stress.
In 1963, the hormone was first isolated Hence, ABA is called as stress hormone.
by Addicott et al., from young cotton
15.3 Photoperiodism
bolls and named as Abscission II. Eagles
and Wareing during 1963–64 isolated a Trees take several years for initiation of
dormancy inducing substance from leaves flowering whereas an annual herb flowers
of Betula and called it as dormin. In 1965, within few months. Each plant requires
it was found by Cornsforth et al., that both a specific time period to complete their
dormin and abscission are chemically vegetative phase which will be followed by
same compounds and called Abscisic reproductive phase as per their internal
Acid (ABA). control points through Biological Clock.
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The physiological mechanisms in relation to 3. Site of Photoinductive perception
flowering are controlled by (i) light period Photoperiodic stimulus is perceived by the
(Photoperiodism) and (ii) temperature leaves. Floral hormone is synthesised in
(Vernalization). The physiological change leaves and translocated to the apical tip to
on flowering due to relative length of promote flowering. This can be explained
light and darkness (photoperiod) is called by a simple experiment on Cocklebur
Photoperiodism. The term photoperiodism (Xanthium pensylvanicum), a short day plant.
Usually Xanthium will flower under short
was coined by Garner and Allard (1920)
day conditions. If the plant is defoliated and
when they observed this in ‘Biloxi’ variety
kept under short day conditions it will not
of soybean (Glycine max) and ‘Maryland flower. Flowering will occur even when all
mammoth’ variety of tobacco (Nicotiana the leaves are removed except one leaf. If a
tabacum). The photoperiod required to cocklebur plant is defoliated and kept under
induce flowering is called critical day long day conditions, it will not flower. If one
length. Maryland mammoth (tobacco of its leaves is exposed to short day condition
variety) requires 12 hours of light and and rest are in long day condition, flowering
cocklebur (Xanthium pensylvanicum) will occur (Figure 15.10).
requires 15.05 hours of light for flowering. Short Day Long Day
1. Classification of plants based on

Photoperiodism
Short
i. Long day plants: The plants that require Day
long critical day length for flowering are
called long day plants or short night
plants. Example: Pea, Barley and Oats.
ii. Short day plants: The plants that require
a short critical day length for flowering A B C D E F
are called short day plants or long night
Figure 15.10: Experiment on Cocklebur
plants. Example: Tobacco, Cocklebur, plant showing photoperiodic stimulus
Soybean, Rice and Chrysanthemum.
4. Importance of photoperiodism
iii. Day neutral plants: There are a 1. The knowledge of photoperiodism
number of plants which can flower in plays an important role in hybridisation
all possible photoperiods. They are also experiments.
called photo neutrals or indeterminate 2. Photoperiodism is an excellent example
plants. Example: Potato, Rhododendron, of physiological pre-conditioning that
Tomato and Cotton. is using an external factor to induce
2. Photoperiodic induction physiological changes in the plant.
An appropriate photoperiod in 24 hours’ 5. Phytochrome
cycle constitutes one inductive cycle. Plants X
may require one or more inductive cycles for Day
660nm
flowering. The phenomenon of conversion of Pr Pfr Pfr X Physiological response
730nm
leaf primordia into flower primordia under Night
the influence of suitable inductive cycles is

called photoperiodic induction. Example: Phytochrome is a bluish biliprotein pigment
Xanthium (SDP) – 1 inductive cycle and responsible for the perception of light in
Plantago (LDP) – 25 inductive cycles. photo physiological process. Butler et al.,
285

(1959) named this pigment and it exists a role in seed germination and changes in
in two interconvertible forms: (i) red light membrane conformation.
absorbing pigment which is designated as
15.4 Vernalization (Vernal – Spring Like)
Pr and (ii) far red light absorbing pigment
Besides photoperiod certain plants require
which is designated as Pfr. The Pr form
a low temperature exposure in their earlier
absorbs red light in 660nm and changes to Pfr.
stages for flowering. Many species of
The Pfr form absorbs far red light in 730nm
biennials and perennials are induced to
and changes to Pr. The Pr form is biologically
flower by low temperature exposure (0oC to
inactive and it is stable whereas Pfr form is
5oC). This process is called Vernalization.
biologically active and it is very unstable. In
The term Vernalization was first used by T.
short day plants, Pr promotes flowering and
D. Lysenko (1938).
Pfr inhibits the flowering whereas in long
day plants flowering is promoted by Pfr and 1. Mechanism of Vernalization:
inhibited by Pr form. Pfr is always associated Two main theories to explain the mechanism
with hydrophobic area of membrane systems of vernalization are:
while Pr is found in diffused state in the i. Hypothesis of phasic development
cytoplasm. The interconversion of the two ii. Hypothesis of hormonal involvement
forms of phytochrome is mainly involved in i. Hypothesis of phasic development
flower induction and also additionally plays
286

According to Lysenko, development of an 2. I t increases the cold resistance of the plants.
annual seed plant consists of two phases. First 3. It increases the resistance of plants to fungal
phase is thermostage, which is vegetative disease.
phase requiring low temperature and suitable 4. Plant breeding can be accelerated.
moisture. Next phase is photo stage which
15.5 Seed Germination and Dormancy
requires high temperature for synthesis of
I. Seed Germination
florigen (flowering hormone).
The activation and growth of embryo from seed
ii. Hypothesis of hormonal involvement into seedling during favourable conditions is
According to Purvis (1961), formation of a called seed germination.
substance A from its precursor, is converted 1. Types of germination
into B after chilling. The substance B is unstable. There are two methods of seed germination.
At suitable temperature B is converted into Epigeal and hypogeal.
stable compound D called Vernalin. Vernalin i. Epigeal germination
is converted to F (Florigen). Florigen induces During epigeal germination cotyledons are
flower formation. At high temperature B is pushed out of the soil. This happens due to the
converted to C and devernalization occurs elongation of the hypocotyl. Example: Castor
(Figure 15.11). and Bean.
ii. Hypogeal germination
During hypogeal germination cotyledons
C Devernalization
remain below the soil due to rapid elongation of
High temperature
epicotyls (Figure 15.12). Example: Maize, Pea.
B
Vernalin D Chilling
Translocation of flower
A Foliage leaves
Florigen F
Epicotyl
inducing substance
Hypocotyl Hypocotyl
Precursor
Cotyledon
Radicle
(a) Bean
Figure 15.11: Vernalization and Flowering

2. Technique of Vernalization: Foliage leaves
The seeds are first soaked in water and
Hypocotyl
allowed to germinate at 10o C to 12o C. Then Epicotyl
seeds are transferred to low temperature (3oC Cotyledon
to 5oC) from few days to 30 days. Germinated Hypocotyl
seeds after this treatment are allowed to dry Radicle
and then sown. The plants will show quick (b) Pea
flowering when compared to untreated Figure 15.12: (a) Epigeal Germination
control plants. (b) Hypogeal Germination
3. Devernalization 2. Factors affecting germination
Reversal of the effect of vernalization is Seed germination is directly affected by
called devernalization. external and internal factors:
4. Practical applications i. External factors
1. Vernalization shortens the vegetative period a. Water: It activates the enzymes which
and induces the plant to flower earlier. digest the complex reserve foods of the
287

seed. If the water content of the seed goes low moisture and low temperature. Innate
below a critical level, seeds fail to germinate. dormancy is related to the properties of seed
b. Temperature: Seeds fails to germinate itself.
at very low and high temperature. The 1. Factors causing dormancy of seeds:
optimum temperature is 25oC to 35oC for i. Hard, tough seed coat causes barrier
most tropic species. effect as impermeability of water, gas and
c. Oxygen: It is necessary for germination. restriction of the expansion of embryo
Since aerobic respiration is a physiological prevents seed germination.
requirement for germination most will ii. Many species of seeds produce imperfectly
germinate well in air containing 20% developed embryos called rudimentary
oxygen. embryos which promotes dormancy.
d. Light: There are many seeds which iii. Lack of specific light requirement leads to
respond to light for germination and these seed dormancy.
seeds said to be photoblastic. iv. A range of temperatures either higher or
e. Soil conditions: Germination of seed lower cause dormancy.
in its natural habit is influenced by soil v. The presence of inhibitors like phenolic
conditions such as water holding capacity, compounds which inhibits seed
mineral composition and aeration of the germination cause dormancy.
soil.
2. Methods of breaking dormancy:
ii. Internal factors
The dormancy of seeds can be broken by
a. Maturity of embryo: The seeds of some
different methods. These are:
plants, when shed will contain immature
i. Scarification: Mechanical and chemical
embryo. Such seeds germinate only after
treatments like cutting or chipping of hard
maturation of embryo.
tough seed coat and use of organic solvents
b. Viability: Usually seeds remain viable or to remove waxy or fatty compounds are
living only for a particular period. Viability called as Scarification.
of seeds range from a few days (Example:
ii. Impaction: In some seeds water and
Oxalis) to more than hundred years.
oxygen are unable to penetrate micropyle
Maximum viability (1000 years) has been
due to blockage by cork cells. These seeds
recorded in lotus seeds. Seeds germinate
are shaken vigorously to remove the plug
only within the period of viability.
which is called Impaction.
c. Dormancy: Seeds of many plants are iii. Stratification: Seeds of rosaceous plants
dormant at the time of shedding. A detailed (Apple, Plum, Peach and Cherry) will not
treatment is given below. germinate until they have been exposed
II. Seed Dormancy to well aerated, moist condition under
The seeds of most plants germinate under low temperature (0oC to 10oC) for weeks
favourable environmental conditions but to months. Such treatment is called
some seeds do not germinate when suitable Stratification.
conditions like water, oxygen and favourable iv. Alternating temperatures: Germination
temperature are not available. Germination of of some seeds is strongly promoted
such seeds may be delayed for days, months by alternating daily temperatures. An
or years. The condition of a seed when it fails alternation of low and high temperature
to germinate even in suitable environmental improves the germination of seeds.
condition is called seed dormancy. There v. Light: The dormancy of photoblastic seeds
are two main reasons for the development of can be broken by exposing them to red
dormancy: Imposed dormancy and innate light.
dormancy. Imposed dormancy is due to
288

15.6 Senescence iv. Progressive senescence: This kind of
Plant life comprises some sequential events, senescence is gradual. First it occurs in old
viz: germination, juvenile stage, maturation, leaves followed by new leaves then stem
old age and death. Old age is called and finally root system. It is common in
senescence in plants. Senescence refers to annuals (Figure 15.13).
all collective, progressive and deteriorative 2. Physiology of Senescence
processes which ultimately lead to complete • Cells undergo changes in structure.
loss of organization and function. Unlike • Vacuole of the cell acts as lysosome and
animals, plants continuously form new secretes hydrolytic enzymes.
organs and older organs undergo a highly • The starch content is decreased in the cells.
regulated senescence program to maximize • Photosynthesis is reduced due to loss of
nutrient export. chlorophyll accompanied by synthesis and
accumulation of anthocyanin pigments,
The branch of botany which deals with therefore the leaf becomes red.
ageing, abscission and senescence is called • There is a marked decrease in protein
Phytogerontology
content in the senescing organ.
1. Types of Senescence • RNA content of the leaf particularly
rRNA level is decreased in the cells due to
increased activity of the enzyme RNAase.
• DNA molecules in senescencing leaves
degenerate by the increased activity of
enzyme DNAase.
Overall Top Deciduous Progressive 3. F
actors affecting Senescence:
senescence senescence senescence senescence
• ABA and ethylene accelerate senescence
Figure 15.13: Different types of
senescence in plants while auxin and cytokinin retard senescence.
• Nitrogen deficiency increases senescence
Leopold (1961) has recognised four types of
senescence: whereas nitrogen supply retards senescence.
i. Overall senescence • High temperature accelerates senescence
ii. Top senescence but low temperature retards senescence.
iii. Deciduous senescence • Senescence is rapid in dark than in light.
iv. Progressive senescence • Water stress leads to accumulation of ABA
i. Overall senescence: This kind of leading to senescence.
senescence occurs in annual plants 4. Programmed cell death (PCD)
when entire plant gets affected and dies. Senescence is controlled by plants own
Example: Wheat and Soybean. It also genetic programme and death of the plant
occurs in few perennials also. Example: or plant part consequent to senescence is
Agave and Bamboo. called Programmed Cell Death. In short
ii. Top senescence: It occurs in aerial parts senescence of an individual cell is called PCD.
of plants. It is common in perennials, The proteolytic enzymes involving PCD in
underground and root system remains plants are phytaspases and in animals are
viable. Example: Banana and Gladiolus. caspases. The nutrients and other substrates
iii. Deciduous senescence: It is common from senescing cells and tissues are remobilized
in deciduous plants and occurs only in and reallocated to other parts of the plant that
leaves of plants, bulk of the stem and survives. The protoplasts of developing xylem
root system remains alive. Example: Elm vessels and tracheids die and disappear at
and Maple. maturity to make them functionally efficient
289

to conduct water for transport. In aquatic called abscission zone or abscission layer.
plants, aerenchyma is normally formed in An abscission layer is greenish-grey in
different parts of the plant such as roots and colour and is formed by rows of cells of 2 to
stems which encloses large air spaces that are 15 cells thick. The cells of abscission layer
created through PCD. In the development of separate due to dissolution of middle lamella
unisexual flowers, male and female flowers and primary wall of cells by the activity of
are present in earlier stages, but only one enzymes pectinase and cellulase resulting
of these two completes its development while in loosening of cells. Tyloses are also formed
other aborts through PCD (Figure 15.14). blocking the conducting vessels. Degrading
of chlorophyll occur leading to the change
Mitochondria in the colour of leaves, leaf detachment
Vacuole from the plant and leaf fall. After abscission,
Nucleus outer layer of cells becomes suberized by the
Mitochondria
development of periderm (Figure 15.15).
PlastidVacuole
Nucleus
Plastid Pholoem
Xylem
Mitochondria
Vacuole
Nucleus
Cortex
Plastid
Abscission layer
Figure 15.14: Programmed cell death

5. Abscission
Abscission is a physiological process of
shedding of organs like leaves, flowers, fruits
and seeds from the parent plant body. When Figure 15.15: L.S of petiolar base showing
these parts are removed the plant seals off abscission layer
its vascular system to prevent loss of water 7. Hormones influencing abscission
and nutrients. Final stage of senescence All naturally occurring hormones influence
is abscission. In temperate regions all the the process of abscission. Auxins and
leaves of deciduous plants fall in autumn cytokinins retard abscission, while abscisic
and give rise to naked appearance, then the acid (ABA) and ethylene induce it.
new leaves are developed in the subsequent 8. Significance of abscission
spring season. But in evergreen plants there 1. Abscission separates dead parts of the
is gradual abscission of leaves, the older plant, like old leaves and ripe fruits.
leaves fall while new leaves are developed
continuously throughout the year. 2. It helps in dispersal of fruits and
continuing the life cycle of the plant.
6. Morphological and Anatomical changes 3. Abscission of leaves in deciduous plants
during abscission helps in water conservation during
Leaf abscission takes place at the base of summer.
petiole which is marked internally by a 4. In lower plants, shedding of vegetative
distinct zone of few layers of thin walled parts like gemmae or plantlets help in
cells arranged transversely. This zone is vegetative reproduction.
290

Summary is called Programmed Cell Death (PCD).
Growth occurs by cell division, cell The final stage of senescence is abscission.
elongation and cell maturation. The first Abscission is a physiological process of
phase is lag phase, the second is log phase shedding of organs from the parent plant
and the final phase is steady state phase. The body.
log phase is otherwise known as exponential Evaluation
phase. The three phases are collectively 1. Select the wrong
called Grand period of growth. Plant growth statement from the
and development are controlled by both following:
internal and external factors. The internal
a. Formative phase of
factors are chemical substances called Plant
the cells retain the
Growth Regulators (PGRs). The hormones
capability of cell
are classified into five groups: Auxins,
division.
gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid and
ethylene. These PGRs are synthesized b. In elongation phase development of
in various parts of the plant. PGRs may central vacuole takes place.
act synergistically or antagonistically. c. In maturation phase thickening and
Mechanism of flowering is controlled by light differentiation takes place.
period (photoperiodism) and temperature d. In maturation phase, the cells grow
(vernalization). The physiological changes further.
on flowering with effect from relative length
2. If the diameter of the pulley is 6 inches,
of light and darkness (photoperiodism) are
length of pointer is 10 inches and
called photoperiodism. A bluish biliprotein
distance travelled by pointer is 5 inches.
responsible for the perception of light in
Calculate the actual growth in length of
photophysiological process (induction
plant.
and inhibition of flowering) is called
Phytochrome. Besides photoperiod certain a. 1.5inches b. 6 inches
plants require a low temperature in the c. 12 inches d. 30 inches
earlier stages for flowering. Many biennial 3. ________ is the powerful growth
and perennial plants are induced to flower by inhibitor
low temperature (0oC to 5oC). This process is a. Ethanol b. Cytokinins
called vernalization and the reversal effect c. ABA d. Auxin
of vernalization is called devernalization. 4. Select the correctly matched one
The condition of a seed when it fails to
germinate even in suitable environmental A) Human urine i) Auxin –B
condition is called seed dormancy. Thus, B) Corn gram oil ii) GA3
dormancy can be overcome by following C) Fungus iii) Abscisic acid II
methods such as scarification, impaction, D) Herring fish iv) Kinitin
stratification, alternating temperatures and sperm
light. Senescence refers to all collective,
E) Unripe maize v) Auxin A
progressive and deteriorative processes
grains
which ultimately lead to complete loss of
F) Young cotton vi) Zeatin
organization and function. Senescence is of
bolls
four types and they are overall, top, deciduous
a) A-iii, B-iv, C-v, D-vi, E-i, F-ii,
and progressive. Senescence is controlled by
b) A-v, B-i, C-ii, D-iv, E-vi, F-iii,
plant’s own genetic programme. Death of the
c) A-iii, B-v, C-vi, D-i, E-ii, F-iv,
plant or its parts consequent to senescence
d) A-ii, B-iii, C-v, D-vi, E-iv, F-i
291

5. Seed dormancy allows the plants to 7. Write the physiological effects of
a. overcome unfavourable climatic Cytokinins.
conditions 8. Describe the mechanism of
b. develop healthy seeds photoperiodic induction of flowering.
c. reduce viability 9. Give a brief account on Programmed
d. prevent deterioration of seeds Cell Death (PCD)
6. Which one of the following method are

used to break the seed dormancy?
a) Scarification b) Impaction
c) Stratification d) All the above.
ICT Corner
How do Plants respond to different stimuli?
Steps
Let’s Stimulate the Plants. • Scan the QR code
• Click Exploring plant responses
• Select items and complete the check list
• Follow the procedure – 1 to 10 steps
• Record your prediction and not your observation in lab note – Right top
Activity
• Observe the movements of plant seedlings and plant parts.
• Conclude your observations.

Web URL: https://www.classzone.com/books/hs/ca/sc/bio_07/virtual_labs/virtualLabs.html * Pictures are indicative only
292

References
Unit 1: Diversity of Living World
1. Alexopoulos, C.J. and Mims, C.W., 1985. Introductory Mycology (3rd Edition)Wiley Eastern Limited.
2. Alison M.Smith, George Coupland, Liam Dolan, Nicholas Harberd, Jonathan Jones, Cathie Martin,
Robert Sablowski and Abigail Amey (2012) Plant biology, Garland Science Taylor and Francis Group,
LLC.
3. Bryce Kendrick, 2000. The Fifth Kingdom, Focus Publishing R. Pullins Company, Newburyport.
4. Dubey, R.C. and Maheswari, D.K. 2010. A Text Book of Microbiology, S. Chand &Company Ltd., New
Delhi.
5. Dutta, A.C. 1999, Botany for Degree Students, Oxford University Press. Calcutta.J.
6. Landecker, E.M. 1996, Fundamentals of Fungi (4th edition) Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey
07458.
7. Parihar, N.S. 1987, An Introduction to Embryophyta Volume 1 Bryophyta, Central Book Depot, Allahabad.
8. Raven, P.H.,Evert, R.F. and Eichhorn, S.E. Biology of Plants (5th edition) 1992. Worth Publishers, New
York,10003.
9. Singh, V., Pande,P.C. and Jishain,D.K., 2010, A Text Book of Botany, Rastogi Publications, Meerut, India.
10. Taylor, D.J. Green, N.P.O and Stout, G.W. Biological Science (3rd Edition) 2005 Cambridge University
Press, UK.
11. Van den Hoek, and Jah C. Mann, D.G and Jahns, H.M 2012. Algae An introduction to phycology, Cambridge
University Press.
12. Willis, K.J. and McElwain, J.C. 2005. The Evolution of Plants, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
13. Webster, J. and Weber, R. 2011. Introduction to fungi. Cambridge University Press,UK.
Unit 2: Plant Morphology and Taxonomy of Angiosperm

1. Bhattacharyya. B, 2005 – Systematic Botany, Narosa Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
2. Gurcharan Singh, 2016. Plant Systematics 3rd Edition Oxford & IBH Publishing Company Private Ltd.
3. Simpson G. Michael., 2010. Plant Systematics 2nd Edition, Library of compress cataloging –in-Publication
Data.
4. Anupam Dikshit, M.O. Siddiqui, Ashutosh pathak, Taxonomy of Angiosperms. Basic Concepts,
Molecular aspects and Future Prospects.
5. James W. Byng et.al. Plant Gateway’s The Global Flora A Practical Flora to Vascular Plant Species of The
World, Special Edition January 2018.
6. Radford E. Albert. Fundamentals of plant systematics - Harper international edition
Unit 3: Cell Biology and Biomolecules

1. Albert L. Lehninger, David L. Nelson and Michael M. Cox. Principles of Biochemistry. CBS Publishers.
Second Edition.
2. Alison M. Smith, George Coupland, Liam, Dolan, Nicholas Harberd, Jonathan Jones, Cathie Martin,
Robert Sablowski and Abigail Amey. 2010. Plant Biology. Garland Science. Taylor and Francis Group LLC.
3. Clegg C. J. 2014. Biology. Hodder Education company, A Hachette UK Company. First Edition.
4. Geoffrey M. Cooper and Robert E. Hausman. 2009. The Cell, Molecular Edition. Sinauer Associates Inc.
Fifth Edition.
5. James Watson, Tania A. Baker, Stephen P. Bell, Alexander Gann, Michael Levine and Richard Losick.
2017. Molecular Biology of the gene. Pearson India Services Pvt. Ltd. Seventh Edition.
6. Joanne Willey, Linda Sherwood and Chris Woolverton. 2011. Prescott’s Microbiology. McGraw Hill
companies Inc. Eighth edition
7. Linda E. Graham, James M. Graham and Lee W. Wilcox. 2006. Plant Biology. Pearson Education Inc.
Second edition.
293

8. Michael J. Pelczer, Chan E. C and Noel R. Kreg. 2016. Microbiology. McGraw Hill Education Pvt. Ltd. Fifth
Edition.
9. Suzanne Bell and Keith Morris. 2010. An Introduction to microscopy. CRC Press Taylor and Francis group.
10. Taylor D. J., Green N. P. O and Stout G. W. Biological Science. Cambridege University Press. Third Edition.
11. Thomas D. Pollard and William C. Earnshaw. 2008. Cell Biology. Saunders Elseviers. Second Edition.
Unit – 4 Plant Anatomy

1. Fahn.A, (1990), Plant Anatomy, 3rd edition, Oxford; New York; Pergamon Press
2. Gangulee,Das& Data, (2011) College Botany,Vol-II, New Central Bool Agency
3. Katherine Esau, (2006), Anatomy of Seed Plants, 2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4. PandeyB.P, (2015), A Textbook of Botany: Angiosperms, New Delhi, S. Chand & Company Ltd.
5. Pijush Roy, (2012), Plant Anatomy, New Central Book Agency (P) Ltd.
6. Ray.F.Evert, (2007), Esau’s Plant Anatomy, 3rd Edition. Wiley-Liss
Unit – 5 Plant Physiology

1.Campbell and Reece (2005) Biology Vol I, 7th Edition, Boston, Pearson,.
2.Clegg C J (2014) Biology, London, Hooder Education,.
3.Data.S.C (1990) Plant Physiology, New Delhi,Willey Eastern.
4.Devlin, R. M. (2017). Outline of Plant Physiology. Medtech Pubs.
5.Dey P.M & Harborne J.B (1997) Plant Bio chemistry, London, Academic press
6.Dey, P. M. and Harborne, J. B. (2013). Plant Bio chemistry. Elsevier.
7.Helgiopik and Stephan Rolfe (2005) The Physiology of Flowering Plants, 4th Edition, London, Cambridge
University Press.
8. Jain V.K. (2017) Fundamentals of Plant Physiology, 19th Edition, New Delhi, S.Chand & Co.
9. Jain. J L., Sunjay Jain and Nitin Jain. (2005). Fundamentals of Biochemistry, 6th Edition. New Delhi S.
Chand and Co.,.
10. Jane B Reece etal. (2011) Campbell Biology, 10th Edition, Pearson.
11. K.N.Rao, G. Sudhakara Rao, S. Bharatan (1987) The functioning plant, S. Viswanathan Pvt.Ltd.
12. Kumar.A & Purohit S.S (2002) Plant Physiology: Fundamentals and Applications, 2nd Edition, Agro-Bios.
13. Leninger, Nelson and Cox. (2017). Principles of Biochemistry, 7th Edition. NewDelhi, Macmillan Learning.
14. Maria Duca (2015) Plant Physiology, Switzerland, Springer international publishing house.
15. Mukherji, S. and Ghosh, A. K. (2015). Plant Physiology. London, New Central Book Agency Pvt. Ltd.,
16. Noggle, G. R. and Fritz, G. J. (1983). Introductory Plant Physiology, Second edition. Prentice Hall India.
17. R.K.Sinha (2004) Modern plant Physiology, Alpha Publishing
18. Salisbury, F. and Ross, C. (1991). Plant Physiology, 4th Edition. India, Thomson Publications.
19. Sinha, R. K. (2003). Modern Plant Physiology, 2nd Ed. Kolkata,Narosa Publishing House.
20. Srivastava H.N (2004) Plant Physiology, Pradeep publication, Jalandhar.
21. Stern, Jansky, Bidlack (2003) Introductory Plant Biology, 9th Edition, New York, McGraw Hill,.
22. SundaraRajan.S (2000) Plant Physiology, New Delhi, Anmol Publication,.
23. Taiz.L and Zeigar.E (2010) Plant Physiology, 3rd Edition, Sunderland, Sinauer Associates,
24. Taiz, L., Zeiger, E., Moller, I. M. and Murphy, A. (2014). Plant Physiology and Development, Sixth Edition.
Ingram International Inc.
25. Verma S.K and MohitVerma, (2016) A Text Book of Plant Physiology, Biochemistry and Biotechnology, New
Delhi, S.Chand& Co,.
26 Walter Larcher, (2003). Physiological Plant Ecology, 4th Edition. New York, Springer International Edition,.
294

Glossary
Abscission zone A region near the base of petiole of leaf which contains abscission layer.
Absorption Spectrum A curve obtained by plotting the amount of absorption of different
wavelengths of light by a pigment is called its absorption spectrum.
Acetyl CoA Small, water-soluble metabolite comprising an acetyl group linked to
coenzyme A (CoA).
Action Spectrum A graphic representation showing the rate of photosynthesis at different
wavelengths of light is called action spectrum
Active site Region of an enzyme molecule where the substrate binds and undergoes a
catalyzed reaction.
Aeroponics A technique of growing plants suspended over the nutrient solution in a mist
chamber. Nutrient sprayed by motor driven rotor on the roots.
Agar Jelly-like substance, derived from red algae
Akinetes Thick walled, dormant, non motile asexual spores.
Aleurone Outer layer of the endosperm
Allelopathy The chemical substances released by one plant species which affect or benefit
another plant
Amphicribal/ Xylem in the centre with phloem surrounding it. Example: Ferns
Hadrocentric (Polypodium)
Amphivasal / Phloem in the centre with xylem surrounding it. Example: Dragon plant –
Leptocentric Dracena and Yucca
Anabolic It is an enzyme catalyzed reaction in a cell that involves synthesis of complex
molecules from simple molecules which uses energy.
Anamorph Asexual or imperfect state of fungi
Anisogamy Fusion of morphologically and physiologically dissimilar gametes
Apical cell theory Single apical cell growing into whole plant
Apogamy Formation of sporophyte from the gametophytic tissue without the fusion of
gametes.
Apospory Development of the gametophyte from the sporophyte without the formation
of spores
Axil Parenchyma Parenchyma arranged longitudinally along the axis
Balausto Fleshy in dehiscent fruit
Basal body Structure at the base of cilia and flagella from which microtubules forming
the axoneme radiate
Biosphere The region of earth on which life exist
Buffer A solution of the acid and base form of a compound that undergoes little change
in pH when small quantities of strong acid or base are added.
Callose Sieve pores are blocked by substances called callose
Carbonic acid A weak acidic solution of carbon-di-oxide dissolved in water
Carcinogen Any chemical or physical agent that can cause cancer when cells or organism
s are exposed to it.
Catabolic It is an enzyme catalyzed reaction in a cell that involves degradation of
molecules into simple subunits which release energy.
Chelating agents A chelate is the soluble product formed when certain atoms in an organic
ligand donate electrons to the cation.
Chemotaxonomy Classification based on the biochemical constituents of plants
Chlorosis Breakdown of chlorophylls leads to yellowing of leaves
Clades Group of species comprising common ancestor and its descendants
Cladistics Methodology used to classify organisms into monophyletic group
295

Closed vascular Cambium absent between xylem and phloem Example: Monocot stem
bundle
Codon Sequence of three nucleotides in DNA or mRNA that specifies a particular
amino acid during protein synthesis; also called triplet
Coenocytic condition Aseptate, multinucleate condition
Coenzyme A non-protein molecule involved in enzyme catalyzed reactions serves as
transfer of protons or electrons between various molecules
Colloidal An evenly distributed mixture of two different particles in a system without
losing its own properties.
Dalton Unit of molecular mass approximately equal to the mass of a hydrogen atom
(1.66 × 10−24 g)
Deamination The enzymatic removal of an amino group from an amino acid to form its
corresponding keto acid.
Desiccation tolerance Ability of plants which can tolerate extreme water stress without being killed.
Drought resistance Capacity of a plant to limit and control consequences of water deficit.
EDTA Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic acid, chelating agent makes iron uptake
possible by forming soluble complex in an alkaline soil.
Endergonic A chemical reaction with a positive free energy charge or ATP utilizing
reactions.
Endosperm Nutritive tissue for the embryo
Endospore Thick walled, resting spores
Eusporangiate Sporangium formed from a group of initials
Exergonic A chemical reaction with a negative free energy charge or ATP producing
reactions.
Extra stellar ground Tissues outside the stele
tissue
Fibre-Tracheids Transitional form between fibre and tracheids
Fluorescence Emission of light by a substance that has absorbed light in the form
luminescence.
Fossil The remains or impression of plant or animal of the past geological age
Gametophyte The haploid plant body
Gelatin An animal-based product used as a gelling agent.
Genome Complete set of genes in an organism
Germ Protein rich embryo
Granum A stack of thylakoid in a stroma of chloroplast
Hadrome Xylem-by Haberlandt
Halophytes Plants native to saline soils and complete their life cycle
Heliophytes Plants which are adapted to light
Heterospory Production of spores of different sizes: megaspores and microspores
Histogenesis Differentiate tissues from undifferentiated cells of meristem
Indeterminate growth Plants grow throughout their life
Intrastelar ground Tissues within the stele
tissue
Isomerisation Rearrangement of atomic groups within the same molecule without any loss
or gain of atoms.
Karyogamy Fusion of nucleus
Karyotype Number, sizes, and shapes of the entire set of metaphase chromosomes of a
eukaryotic cell.
296

Km A parameter that describes the affinity of an enzyme for its substrate and
equals the substrate concentration that yields the half-maximal reaction rate;
Leptome Phloem – by Haberlandt
Leptosporangiate Sporangium formed from a single initial
Lumen Space inside the tracheid/vessel/fibres
Malate Shuttle It is a biochemical system for translocating electrons produced from glycolysis
mechanism across inner membrane of mitochondrion for oxidative phosphorylation.
Mass meristem Meristem which divides in all planes
Microgreens Young vegetable greens add flavour in culinary
Monograph Complete account of a taxon of any rank
Monosulcate Pollen grain with single furrow or pores
Mycobank Online database documenting new mycological names
Necrosis Death of tissue
Non heme iron An iron porphyrin prosthetic group of heme proteins from plant origin
Nucleoid Genetic material of bacterium
Nutation The growing stems of twiner and tendrils show automatic movement
Oogamy Fusion of morphologically and physiologically dissimilar gametes
Open vascular bundle Cambium present between xylem and phloem Example: Dicot stem
Oxidation Water is oxidised into Oxygen (loss of electrons)
PAR The wavelength at which the rate of photosynthesis is more is called
‘Photosynthetically Active Radiations’ which falls between 400 to 700 nm.
Parthenocarphy Fruit developed without fertilization
Pendulous Hanging downward loosely or freely (like catkin)
Petrifaction A process of fossil formation through infiltration of minerals over a long
period
pH A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution defined as the negative
logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration in moles per liter
Phosphorescence Phosphorescence is the delayed emission of absorbed radiations.
Photolysis Splitting of water molecules by light which generate protons, electrons and
oxygen.
Photon Light is electromagnetic radiant energy and travels as tiny particles called
photons. A discrete Physical unit of light energy.
Photoperiodism The response of plants to the photoperiod expressed in the form of flowering.
Phylogeny Evolution of group of organisms
Phytochrome A photo reversible proteinaceous plant pigment in very low concentration
that absorbs red and far red light which controls flowering.
Pistillode Sterile pistil
Pitted thickening Uniformly thick except at their pits
Plasmogamy Fusion of cytoplasm
Pluriocular An ovary with two or more locus
Preparatory phase First half of glycolysis comprising five enzymatic reactions in which one
molecule of glucose splitting into two molecules of glyceraldehyde 3
phosphate with consumption of two ATP molecules.
Prickles Stiff and sharp outgrowth
Prophage The integrated phage DNA with host DNA
297

Protologue Set of information associated with the scientific name of a taxon at its first
valid publication containing the entire original material regarding the taxon
Quantasome Morphological expression of physiological photosynthetic units, located
on the inner membrane of thylakoid lamellae. Act as photosynthetic unit
contains 200 to 300 chlorophyll molecules.
Quantum The energy contained in a photon is represented as quantum
Quantum requirement The number of photons or quanta required to release one molecule of oxygen
during photosynthesis
Quantum yield The number of oxygen molecules produced per quantum of light absorbed.
Quiescent centre Inactive region of root meristem

concept
Rachilla Central axis of a spikelet
Radial vascular bundles
Xylem and phloem present on different radii
Ray Parenchyma Parenchyma cells arranged in radial rows
Redox reactions Oxidation (loss of electrons) and Reduction (gain of electrons) reactions are
called redox reactions.
Reduction CO2 is reduced into Carbohydrates (gain of electrons)
Rib-meristem Meristem which divides anticlinally in two planes
RUBISCO Enzyme responsible for fixation of Carbon dioxide, the most abundant
protein (Ribulose 1,5 bisphosphate Carboxylase Oxygenase)
Salt stress Adverse effects of excess mineral salts on plants
Sap It is a fluid consist of water and dissolved minerals
Slime body A special protein (Phloem Protein) in sieve tubes
Sporophyte Diploid plant body
Stellate hairs Star shaped hairs
Stratification A process of breaking the dormancy of some plants resulting from chilling
requirements
Subsidiary cells Surrounding guard cells in the leaf epidermis
Sucrose Non-reducing disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose
Teloemorph Sexual or perfect state of the fungi
Thallospores Asedual spores formed due to the fragmentation of hyphae
Trichoblasts One type of epidermal cells that is also called short cell
Trichomes Unicellular or multicellular appendages
Triplicate Pollen grain with three furrows or pores
Tunica-carpus theory Two zones of apical meristem Tunica and Carpus
X-Ray crystallography Most commonly used technique for determining the three-dimensional
structure of macromolecules (particularly proteins and nucleic acids) by
passing x-rays
Xylos Wood
Zoospore Motile, asexual spores
Zygospore Thick walled diploid resting spores
298

English – Tamil Terminology
Abscission உதிர்தல் Cavitation குமிழாதல்
Abscission zone உதிரும் அடுக்கு Centrifugal மையம் விலகியது
Absorption spectrum ஒளி ஈர்ப்பு நிறமாலை Centripetal மையம் ந�ோக்கியது
Acropetal succession நுனி ந�ோக்கிய வரிசை Channel protein கால்வாய் புரதம்
(arrangement)
Chelating agents பிணைக்கும் காரணி
Action spectrum ஒளி செயல்திறன் நிறமாலை
வேதி சவ்வூடு பரவல்
Activated diffusion மேம்படுத்தப்பட்ட பரவல் Chemiosmotic theory க�ோட்பாடு
Active transport ஆற்றல்சார் கடத்தல் Chlorophyll பச்சையம்
Adhesion ஒட்டிணைவு Chloroplast பசுங்கணிகம்
Aeroponics காற்றூடக வளர்ப்பு Chlorosis பச்சைய ச�ோகை
Aggregatte fruit திரள்கனி Cladogram கிளை வரைபடம்
Akinetes உறக்க நகராவித்து Closed collateral vascular மூடிய ஒருங்கமைந்த
bundles வாஸ்குலக் கற்றைகள்
Anabolic சேர்க்கைச் செயல்
Coenocytic பல்உட்கரு நிலை
Anamorph பாலிலாநிலை
Cohesion கூட்டிணைவு
சமமற்ற கேமீட்களின்
Anisogamy இணைவு Collateral vascular ஒருங்கமைந்த வாஸ்குலக்
bundles கற்றைகள்
Annual rings ஆண்டு வளையங்கள்
Companion cells துணைச் செல்கள்
Antenna molecules ஏற்பி மூலக்கூறுகள்
Compensation point ஈடுசெய்யும் புள்ளி
பூக்கும் தாவரங்களின்
Anthrophytes முன்னோடிகள் Concentration gradient செறிவு சரிவு வாட்டம்
Apical cell theory நுனி செல் க�ொள்கை Concentric vascular சூழமைந்த வாஸ்குலக்
bundles கற்றைகள்
Apogamy பாலிணைவின்மை
Conjugation இணைவு
Apospory குன்றலில்லா வித்துத்தன்மை
Core complex மைய ஆதார கூட்டமைப்பு
Arbitary marker தன்னிச்சையான குறிப்பான்
Cotyledons விதையிலைகள்
Arithmetic growth எண் கணித வளர்ச்சி
Critical concentration தீர்வுக் கட்ட செறிவு
Ascent of sap சாறேற்றம்
Day neutral plants நாள் நடுநிலை தாவரங்கள்
Assimilatory power தன்மயமாக்கும் ஆற்றல்
Deamination அமின�ோ நீக்கம்
Autonomous movement தன்னிச்சையான அசைவுகள்
Dendrochronology மர வயதியல்
Autumn wood or late குளிர்க்காலக் கட்டை
wood அல்லது பின்பருவக் கட்டை Deplasmolysis பிளாஸ்மா சிதைவு மீட்சி
Axial parenchyma அச்சு பாரங்கைமா Dicarboxylic acid டைகார்பாக்சிலிக் அமில
pathway சுழற்சி
Basipetal succession அடி ந�ோக்கிய வரிசை
Die back of shoot தண்டின் நுனி அடி இறப்பு
Bicollateral vascular இருபக்க ஒருங்கமைந்த
bundle வாஸ்குலக் கற்றை Diffusion பரவல்
உயிர்வளி Dimorphic chloroplast இருவடிவ பசுங்கணிகம்
Biosequestration தனிமைப்படுத்துதல்
Drought resistance வறட்சியை எதிர்ப்பவை
Biosphere உயிர்க்கோளம்
Dry dehiscent fruit உலர் வெடிகனி
Biosynthetic phase உயிர்மத�ோற்ற நிலை
Dry indehiscent fruit உலர் வெடியாக்கனி
Brown heart disease மைய கருக்கல் ந�ோய்
Efflux அயனி வெளிப்புகல்
Buttress root பலகை வேர்
Electro magnetic மின்காந்த நிறமாலை
Callus திசுத்திரள் spectrum
Carbon di oxide கார்பன்-டை-ஆக்ஸைட் ஈடு Electron transport chain எலக்ட்ரான் கடத்து சங்கிலி
compensation point செய்யும் புள்ளி
Embryo கரு
Carbon fixation கார்பன் நிலைநிறுத்தம்
Emerson’s enhancement எமர்சனுடைய மேம்
தாங்கிப் புரதம்/கொண்டு படுத்தப்பட்ட விளைவு
Carrier protein effect
செல்லும் புரதம்
Endergonic ஆற்றல் ஏற்கும் வினை
Catabolic சிதைக்கும் செயல்
வினையூக்க Endosperm கருவூண்திசு
Catalytic amination அமைன�ோவாக்கம் Endospores அகவித்துகள்
299

Endosymbiotic hypothesis அக கூட்டுயிர் க�ோட்பாடு Leaf primodium இலைத்தோற்றுவி
Eukaryote உண்மை உட்கரு உயிரி Legume / Pod விதைப்பை
Eusporangiate உண்மை வித்தகத்தன்மை Lenticel பட்டைத்துளை
Eutrophication மிகை ஊட்ட நிலை Leptosporangiate மெலி வித்தகத்தன்மை
Exarch Xylem வெளிந�ோக்கு சைலம் Light harvesting complex ஒளி அறுவடை கூட்டமைப்பு
Exergonic ஆற்றல் வெளியிடும் வினை Link reaction இணைப்பு வினை
Extinction point அழிவுப் புள்ளி Log phase நீட்சியுறு நிலை
Fermentation ந�ொதித்தல் Macro nutrients பெரும ஊட்ட மூலங்கள்
Fibre Tracheids நார் டிரக்கீடுகள் Malate Shuttle
மாலேட் திருப்பு செயல்
mechanism
Flourescence உடன் ஒளிர்தல்
Mass meristem ப�ொருண்மை ஆக்குதிசு
Flux அயனிபுகல்
Matric potential ஊடக உட்திறன்
Fossil த�ொல்லுயிரெச்சம் Maturation promoting முதிர்ச்சியை
Funicle சூல்காம்பு factor (MPF) ஊக்கப்படுத்தும் காரணி
Gametophyte கேமீட்டக தாவரம் Merosity எண்ணிக்கை அமைவு
Gene marker மரபணு குறிப்பான் Metabolism வளர்சிதைமாற்றம்
Genome மரபணுத் த�ொகுப்பு Micro nutrients நுண் ஊட்ட மூலங்கள்
புவிபுதை கனி/நிலத்தகத்துக் Middle Lamella இடைமென் அடுக்கு
Geocarpic fruit
கனி Mineral Nutrition கனிம ஊட்டம்
Geometric growth ஜிய�ோமித வளர்ச்சி
மைட்டோகாண்ட்ரிய
நிலத்தகத்துத் தூண்சேர் Mitochondrial matrix
Geophytes உட்கூழ்மம்
தாவரம் Monograph தனிக்கட்டுரை
Grand period of growth ம�ொத்த வளர்ச்சிக் காலம்
Multiple fruit கூட்டுக்கனி
Growth rate பெரும வளர்ச்சி வீதம்
Mycobank பூஞ்சை வங்கி
Gynobasic சூற்பை அடி சூலகத்தண்டு
Necrosis நைவுப் புண்கள்
Halophiles உவர்நாட்டவுயிரிகள்
Nitrate Assimilation நைட்ரேட் தன்மயமாதல்
Halophytes உவர்நிலை தாவரங்கள்
நைட்ரஜன் வளர்சிதை
Nitrogen metabolism
Heart wood வைரக்கட்டை மாற்றம்
ஒளியை விரும்பும் Non-porous wood துளைகளற்ற கட்டை
Heliophytes
தாவரங்கள் Nuclear envelope நியூக்ளியர் உறை
Heterospory மாற்று வித்தகத்தன்மை
நியுக்ளிய�ோலார்
Nuclear organizer
Histogen theory ஹிஸ்டோஜன் க�ொள்கை அமைப்பான்கள்
Histogenesis ஹிஸ்டோஜெனிசிஸ் Nucleoid உட்கரு ஒத்த அமைப்பு
HMP shunt HMP மாற்றுவழிப் பாதை Nutation சுழலசைவு
Homeostasis சமச்சீர் நிலை Obligate parasite கட்டாய ஒட்டுண்ணி
Hydathode நீர்கசிவுத் துளை Oogamy முட்டை கருவுறுதல்
Hydrochory நீர்மூலம் பரவுதல் Open vascular bundle திறந்த வாஸ்குலக் கற்றை
Hydroponics Oxygen evolving complex ஆக்ஸிஜன் உருவாக்கும்
நீர் ஊடக வளர்ப்பு
(OEC) கூட்டமைப்பு
Imbibition உள்ளீர்த்தல் வண்ண பிரிகைதாள்
Paper chromatography
Indeterminate வரம்பற்ற வளர்ச்சி வரைப்படம்
Influx அயனி உட்புகல் Paratonic movement தூண்டப்படும் அசைவுகள்
Interveinal chlorosis நரம்பிடை பச்சைய ச�ோகை Parthenocarpy விதையிலாக் கனி
Irritability உறுத்துணர்ச்சி Passive transport ஆற்றல்சாரா கடத்தல்
Isogamy ஒத்த கேமீட்களின் இணைவு Pay off phase விளை நிலை
Isomerisation மாற்றியமாதல் Pendulous த�ொங்குகின்ற
Karyogamy உட்கரு இணைவு Pericarp கனி உறை
Karyokinesis காரிய�ோகைனசிஸ் Petrification கல்லாதல்

நின்றொளிர்தல் / தாமத
Lag phase உருவாக்க நிலை Phosphorescence
மறு ஒளிர்தல்
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Photo chemical phase ஒளி வேதிநிலை Restriction site வரையறு தளம்
Photo oxidation phase ஒளி ஆக்ஸிஜனேற்ற நிலை பின்னோக்கிய சவ்வூடு
Reverse osmosis
பரவல்
Photo respiration ஒளி சுவாசம்
Rib meristem வரிசை ஆக்குத்திசு
Photolysis ஒளியின் நீராற் பகுப்பு
Ring Bark வளைய பட்டை
Photon ஒளித்துகள்
Sap wood சாற்றுக்கட்டை
Photoperiodic ஒளிக் காலத்துவ
induction தூண்டுதல் Scale Bark செதில் பட்டை
Photoperiodism ஒளிக்காலத்துவம் Seed விதை
ஒளி பாஸ்பரிகரணம் / ஒளி Seed coat விதை உறை
Photophosphorylation
பாஸ்பரஸ் சேர்க்கை
Photosynthetic carbon Seed dormancy விதை உறக்கம்
ஒளிச்சேர்கையின் கார்பன்
reduction cycle ஒடுக்க சுழற்சி Semi autonomy பாதி சுயசார்புதன்மை
Photosynthetic unit ஒளிச்சேர்க்கை அலகு Senescence மூப்படைதல்
(Quantasome) (குவாண்டோச�ோம்)
நிறமி அமைப்பு / ஒளி Serotaxonomy ஊநீர் வகைப்பாட்டியல்
Photosystem
அமைப்பு Sink தேங்கிடம்
Pili or Fimbriae நுண் சிலும்புகள் Slime bodies ஸ்லைம் உடலங்கள்
Pistillode மலட்டு சூலகம் Solute potential கரைப�ொருள் திறன்
நீராவிப்போக்குத் Source
Plant antitranspirants த�ோற்றுவாய்
தடுப்பான்கள்
Plasmogamy சைட்டோபிளாச இணைவு
Sporophyte வித்தகத்தாவரம்
Spring wood or early வசந்தக்காலக் கட்டை
Plasmolysis பிளாஸ்மா சிதைவு
அல்லது முன்பருவக்
Plasticity wood
உருமாறும் தன்மை கட்டை
Plumule முளைக்குருத்து நெருக்கடியை தப்பித்துக்
Stress escapers
க�ொள்ளும் தாவரங்கள்
Plurilocular பல்லறை சூற்பை
Stress physiology நெருக்கடி சார் வாழ்வியல்
Polymorphism பலபடிவுடமை Substrate தளப்பொருள்
Porous woods துளைக்கட்டை phosphorylation பாஸ்பரிகணம்
Preparatory phase ஆயத்த நிலை Sunken stomata உட்குழிந்த இலைத்துளை
Pressure potential அழுத்தயியல் திறன் Synaptonemal complex சைனாப்டினிமல் த�ொகுதி
Primary adapter முதன்மை மாற்றி Systematics முறைப்பாட்டு தாவரவியல்
Primary growth ஒருசெயல நிகழும்
முதல்நிலை வளர்ச்சி Tandem repeat
மாறிகள்
Probe ஆய்வி Taxon வகைப்பாட்டுத் த�ொகுதி
திட்டமிடப்பட்ட செல்
Programmed cell death Telomorph பால்நிலை
இறப்பு
Prokaryote த�ொல்லுட்கரு உயிரி Terminal oxidation இறுதி ஆக்ஸிஜனேற்றம்
Prophage ஃபாஜ் முன்னோடி Thallospores உடல வித்துகள்
Proton gradient புர�ோட்டான் சரிவு Thermonastic வெப்ப தூண்டல்
Pumps உந்திகள் Thigmotactic த�ொடு உணர்வு அசைவு
Quiescent centre Transamination அமைன�ோ மாற்றம்
உறக்க மையக் க�ொள்கை
concept Transduction மரபணு ஊடுகடத்தல்
Rachilla சிறுகதிரின் மையஅச்சு
Transformation மரபணு மாற்றம்
Radial vascular ஆரப்போக்கமைந்த
bundles வாஸ்குலக் கற்றைகள் True fruit மெய்க்கனி
Radicle முளை வேர் Tunica corpus theory டூனிகா கார்பஸ் க�ொள்கை
Ray parenchyma கதிர் பாரங்கைமா Vernalization தட்பப்பதனம்
Reaction Centre வினை மையம் Water potential நீரியல் திறன்
Red drop சிவப்பு வீழ்ச்சி வறள் தாவர படிநிலை
Xeric Succession
வளர்ச்சி
ஆக்ஸிஜனேற்ற
Redox reaction Zoospore இயங்கு வித்து
ஒடுக்கவினை
Reducing power ஒடுக்கும் ஆற்றல் Zygospore உறக்க கருமுட்டை
Respiratory quotient சுவாச ஈவு
301

Competitive Examination Questions
Unit – 1 Diversity of Living World 8. Which of the following shows coiled RNA strand
and capsomeres? (AIPMT – 2014)
1. Which of the following are found in extreme
saline conditions? (NEET-2017) a. Polio virus b. Tobacco mosaic virus
a. Archaebacteria b. Eubacteria c. Measles virus d. Retrovirus
c. Cyanobacteria d. Mycobacteria 9. Viroids differ from viruses in having : (NEET – 2017)
2. Select the mismatch (NEET – 2017) a. DNA molecules with protein coat
a. Frankia Alnus b. DNA molecules without protein coat
b. Rhodospirillum Mycorrhiza c. RNA molecules with protein coat
c. Anabaena Nitrogen fixer d. RNA molecules without protein coat
d. Rhizobium Alfalfa 10. Select the mismatch (NEET – 2017)
3. Which among the following are the smallest a. Pinus — Dioecious
living cells, known without a definite cell wall, b. Cycas — Dioecious
pathogenic to plants as well as animals and can
c. Salvinia — Heterosporous
survive without oxygen? (NEET – 2017)
d. Equisetum — Homosporous
a. Bacillus b. Pseudomonas
c. Mycoplasma d. Nostoc 11. Life cycle of Ectocarpus and Fucus respectively
are (NEET – 2017)
4. Read the following statements ( A to E ) and
a. Haplontic, Diplontic
select the option with all correct statements
(AIPMT – 2015) b. Diplontic, Haplodiplontic
A. Mosses and Lichens are the first organisms c. Haplodiplontic, Diplontic
to colonise a bare rock. d. Haplodiplontic, Halplontic
B. Selaginella is a homosporous pteridophyte. 12. Zygote meiosis is characterisitic of (NEET – 2017)
C. Coralloid roots in Cycas have VAM. a. Marchantia b. Fucus
D. Main plant body in bryophytes is c. Funaria d. Chlamydomonas
gametophytic, whereas in pteridophytes it
is sporophytic. 13. Which of the following is correctly matched
for the product produced by them? (NEET –
E. In gymnosperms, male and female 2017)
gametophytes are present within sporangia
located on sporophyte. a. Acetobacter acetic : Antibiotics
b. Methanobacterium : Lactic acid
a. B, C and E b. A, C and D
c. Penicillium notatum : Acetic acid
c. B, C and D d. A, D and E d. Saccharomyces cerevisiae : Ethanol
5. An example of colonial alga is (NEET – 2017) 14. Which of the following components provides
a. Chlorella b. Volvox sticky character to the bacterial cell? (NEET –
c. Ulothrix d. Spirogyra 2017)
6.
Five kingdom system of classification a. Cell wall b. Nuclear membrane
suggested by R.H. Whittaker is not based on c. Plasma membrane d. Glycocalyx
(AIPMT – 2014) 15. Which of the following statements is wrong for
a. Presence or absence of a well defined viroids? (NEET – 2016)
nucleus a. They lack a protein coat
b. Mode of reproduction b. They are smaller than viruses
c. Mode of nutrition c. They causes infections
d. Complexity of body organisation d. Their RNA is a high molecular weight
7. Mycorrhizae are the example of (NEET – 2017) 16. In bryophytes and pteridophytes, transport of
` a. Fungitasis c. Amensalism male gametes require (NEET – 2016)
b. Antibiosis d. Mutualism a. Wind b. Insects
c. Birds d. Water
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17. How many organisms in the list below are a. Riccia, Dryopteris and Cycas
autotrophs? (AIPMT Mains 2012) b. Anthoceros, Funaria and Spirogyra
Lactobacillus, Nostoc, Chara, Nitrosomonas, c. Zygnema, Saprolegnia and Hydrilla
Nitrobacter, Streptomyces, Saccharomyces, d. Fucus, Marsilea and Calotropis
Trypanosoma, Porphyra, Wolffia 24. Ectophloic siphonostele is found in (AIPMT
a. Four b. Five Prelims – 2005)
c. Six d. Three a. Adiantum and Cucurbitaceae
18. Which of the following would appear as the b. Osmunda and Equisetum
pioneer organisms on bare rocks? (NEET – 2016) c. Marsilea and Botrychium
a. Lichens b. Liverworts d. Dicksonia and maiden hair fern
c. Mosses d. Green algae 25. Which part of the tobacco plant is infected by
19. Monoecious plant of Chara shows occurrence Meloidogyne incognita? (NEET – 2016)
of (NEET-2013)
a. Flower b. Leaf c. Stem d. Root
a. Stamen and carpel on the same plant
26. Select the correct statement (NEET – 2016)
b. Upper antheridium and lower oogonium
on the same plant a. Gymnosperms are both homosporous and
heterosporous
c. Upper oogonium and lower antheridium
on the same plant b Salvinia, Ginkgo and Pinus all are
gymnosperms
d. Antheridiophore and archegonio-
phore on the same plant c. Sequoia is one of the tallest trees
d. The leaves of gymnosperms are not well
20. Read the following five statement (A-E) and answer
adapted to extremes of climate
as asked next to them (AIPMT Prelims – 2012)
a. In Equisetum, the female gametophyte 27. Seed formation without fertilization in
is retained on the parent sporophyte flowering plants involves the process of (NEET
– 2016)
b. In Ginkgo, male gametophyte is not
independent a. Sporulation b. Budding
c. The sporophyte in Riccia is more developed c. Somatic hybridization d. Apomixis
than that in Polytrichum 28. Chrysophytes, Euglenoids, Dinoflagellates and
d. Sexual reproduction in Volvox is isogamous Slime moulds are included in the kingdom
e. The spores of slime moulds lack cell walls (NEET – 2016)
How many of the above statement are correct? a. Animalia b, Monera c. Protista d. Fungi
(AIPMT Prelims – 2012) 29. The primitive prokaryotes responsible for the
a. Two b. Three production of biogas from the dung of ruminant
c. Four d. One animals, include the (NEET – 2016)
a. Halophiles b. Thermoacidophiles
21 One of the major components of cell wall of
most fungi is (NEET – 2016) c. Methanogens d. Eubacteria
a. Chitin b. Peptidoglycan Unit – 2 Plant Morphology and Taxonomy of
c. Cellulose d. Hemicellulose Angiosperm
22. Which one of the following statements is 1.
Leaves become modified into spines in
wrong? (NEET – 2016) [AIPMT-2015]
a. Cyanobacteria are also called blue-green a. Silk Cotton b. Opuntia
algae c. Pea d. Onion
b. Golden algae are also called desmids 2. Keel is the characteristic feature of flower of
c. Eubacteria are also called false bacteria [AIPMT-2015]
d. Phycomycetes are also called algal fungi a. Tomato b. Tulip
23. Flagellated male gametes are present in all the c. Indigofera d. Aloe
three of which one of the following sets? 3. Perigynous flowers are found in [AIPMT-2015]
(AIPMT Prelims – 2007 a. Rose b. Guava
c. Cucumber d. China rose
303

4. Which one of the following statements is correct 15.
How many plants in the list given below
[AIPMT-2014] have composite fruits that develop from an
a. The seed in grasses is not endospermic inflorescence? Walnut, poppy, radish, pineapple,
apple, tomato. [AIPMT Prelims-2012]
b. Mango is a parthenocarpic fruit
a. Two b. Three c. Four d. Five
c. A proteinaceous aleurone layer is present in
maize grain 16. Cymose inflorescence is present in [AIPMT
d. A sterile pistil is called a staminode Prelims-2012]
a. Trifolium b. Brassica
5. An example of edible underground stem is
[AIPMT-2014] c. Solanum d. Sesbania
a. Carrot b. Groundnut 17. Which one of the following organism is correctly
c. Sweet potato d. Potato matched with its three characteristics? [AIPMT
Mains -2012]
6. Placenta and pericarp are both edible portions in
a. Pea : C3 pathway, Endospermic seed, Vexillary
[AIPMT-2014]
aestivation
a. Apple b. Banana c. Tomato d. Potato
b. Tomato : Twisted aestivation, Axile
7. When the margins of sepals or petals overlap placentation, Berry
one another without any particular direction, the c.
Onion: Bulb, Imbricate aestivation, Axile
condition is termed as [AIPMT-2014] placentation
a. Vexillary b. Imbricate c. Twisted d. Valvate d. Maize : C3 pathway, Closed vascular
8. An aggregate fruit is one which develops from bundles, scutellum
[AIPMT-2014] 18. How many plants in the list given below have
a. Multicarpellary syncarpous gynoecium marginal placentation?
b. Multicarpellary apocarpous gynoecium Mustard, Gram, Tulip, Asparagus, Arhar, sun
c. Complete inflorescence hemp, Chilli, Colchicine, Onion, Moong, Pea,
d. Multicarpellary superior ovary Tobacco, Lupin [AIPMT Mains -2012]
9.
Non-albuminous seed is produced in a. Four b. Five c. Six d. Three
[AIPMT-2014] 19. The Eyes of the potato tuber are
a. Maize b. Castor c. Wheat d. Pea [AIPMT Prelims-2011]
10. Seed coat is not thin, membranous in [NEET-2013] a. Axillary buds b. Root buds
a. Coconut b. Groundnut c. Gram d. Maize c. Flower buds d. Shoot buds
11. In china rose the flower are [NEET-2013] 20. Which one of the following statements is correct?
[AIPMT Prelims-2011]
a.
Actinomorphic. Epigynous with valvate
aestivation a. Flower of tulip is a modified shoot
b.
Zygomorphic, hypogynous with imbricate b. In tomato, fruit is a capsule
aestivation c. Seeds of orchids have oil – rich endosperm
c.
Zygomorphic, epigynous with twisted d. Placentation in primrose is basal
aestivation 21. A drup develops in [AIPMT Prelims-2011]
d. Actinomorphic, hypogynous with twisted
a. Tomato b. Mango c. Wheat d. Pea
aestivation
Unit 3 Cell biology and Biomolecules
12. Placentation in tomato and lemon is [AIPMT
Prelims-2012] 1. Who invented electron microscope? (2010 AIIMS,
2008 JIPMER)
a. Marginal b. Axile
a. Janssen b. Edison
c. Parietal d. Free central
c. Knoll and Ruska d. Landsteiner
13.
Vexillary aestivation is characteristic of the
family [AIPMT Prelims-2012] 2.
Specific proteins responsible for the flow of
materials and information into the cell are called
a. Solanaceae b. Brassicaceae
(2009 AIIMS)
c. Fabaceae d. Asteraceae
a. Membrane receptors
14. Phyllode is present in [AIPMT Prelims-2012] b. carrier proteins
a. Australian Acacia b. Opuntia c. integeral proteins
c. Asparagus d. Euphorbia d. none of these
304

3.
Omnis-cellula-e-cellula was given by (2007 12. Main arena of various types of activities of a cell
AIIMS) is (2010 AIPMT)
a. Virchow b. Hooke a. Nucleus b. Mitochondria
c. Leeuwenhoek d. Robert Brown c. Cytoplasm d. Chloroplast
4.
Which of the following is responsible for the 13. The thylakoids in chloroplast are arranged in
mechanical support, protein synthesis and (2005 JIPMER)
enzyme transport (2007 AIIMS)
a. regular rings b. linear array
a. cell membrane
c. diagonal direction d. stacked discs
b. mitochondria
14. Sequences of which of the following is used to
c. dictyosomes
know the phylogeny (2002 JIPMER)
d. endoplasmic reticulum
a. mRNA b. rRNA c. tRNA d. Hn RNA
5. Genes present in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells
15. Structures between two adjacent cells which is
are found in (2006 AIIMS)
an effective transport pathway- (2010 AIPMT)
a.
mitochondria and inherited via egg
a. Plasmodesmata
cytoplasm
b. Middle lamella
b. lysosomes and peroxisomes
c. Secondary wall layer
c.
Golgi bodies and smooth endoplasmic
reticulum d. Primary wall layer
d. Plastids inherited via male gametes 16.
In active transport carrier proteins are used,
which use energy in the form of ATP to
6. In which one the following would you expect to
find glyoxysomes(2005 AIIMS) a.
transport molecules against concentration
gradient of cell wall
a. Endosperm of wheat
b. transport molecules along concentration
b. endosperm of castor
gradient of cell membrane
c. Palisade cells in leaf
c. transport molecules against concentration
d. Root hairs gradient of cell membrane
7. A quantosome is present in (JIPMER 2012) d. transport molecules along concentration
a. Mitochondria b. Chloroplast gradient of cell wall
c. Golgi bodies d. ER 17.
The main organelle involved in modification
and routing of newly synthesised protein to their
8. In mitochondria the enzyme cytochrome oxidase
destinations is (AIPMT 2005)
is present in (2012 JIPMER)
a. Mitochondria b. Glyoxysomes
a. Outer mitochondrial membrane
c. Spherosomes d. Endoplasmic reticulum
b. inner mitochondrial membrane
c. Stroma d. Grana 18. Algae have cell wall made up of (AIPMT 2010)
9. Which organelle is present in higher number in a. Cellulose, galactans and mannans
secretory cell (2008 JIPMER) b. Cellulose, chitin and glucan
a. Mitochondria b. Chloroplast
c. Cellulose, Mannan and peptidoglycan
c. Nucleus d. Dictyosomes
d. Muramic acid and galactans
10. Major site for the synthesis of lipids (2013 NEET)
a. Rough ER b. smooth ER Unit -4 – Plant Anatomy
c. Centriole d. Lysosome 1. The balloon – shaped structures called tyloses
(NEET II – 2016 )
11.
Golgi complex plays a major role in. (2013
NEET) a. originate in the lumen of vessels
a. post translational modification of proteins b. characterise the sap wood
and glycosidation of lipids c. are extensions of xylem parenchyma cells
into vessels
b. translation of proteins
d. are linked to the ascent of sap through
c. Transcription of proteins xylem vessels
d. Synthesis of lipid
305

2. Cortex is the region found between (NEET II – 10. Sugarcane plant has (AIIMS 2009)
2016) a. reticulate venation
a. epidermis and stele b. capsular fruits
b. pericycle and endodermis c. pentamerous flowers
c. endodermis and pith d. dump-bell shaped guard cells
d. endodermis and vascular bundle
11. Vascular tissues in flowering plants develop
3. Read I – IV and find the correct order of from (CBSE- AIPMT 2008 & JIPMER 2012)
components from outer side to inner side in a a. phellogen b. plerome
woody dicot stem (CBSE -AIPMT – 2015)
c. periblem d. dermatogen
(I) secondary Cortex (II) wood
12. The length of different internodes in a culm of
(III) secondary phloem (IV) phellem
sugarcane is variable because of (CBSE -AIPMT
a. III, IV, II and I b. I, II, IV and III 2008)
c. IV, I, III and II d. IV, III, I and II a. short apical meristem
b. position of axillary buds
4. You are given a fairly old piece of a dicot stem and
a dicot root. Which of the following anatomical c. size of leaf lamina at the node below each
structures will you use to distinguish between internode
the two? (CBSE -AIPMT 2014) d. intercalary meristems
a. secondary xylem 13. Passage cells are thin-walled cells found in
b. secondary phloem (CBSE -AIPMT 2007)
c. protoxylem a. endodermis of roots facilitating rapid
d. cortical cells transport of water from cortex to pericycle
b. phloem elements that serve as entry points
5. Heart wood differs from sapwood in (CBSE
for substances for transport to other plant
-AIPMT 2010)
parts
a. the presence of rays and fibres
c. testa of seeds to enable emergence of
b. the absence of vessels and parenchyma growing embryonic axis during seed
c. having dead and non-conducting elements germination
d. being susceptible to hosts and pathogens d. central region of style through which the
6. The annular and spirally thickened conducting pollen tube grows towards the ovary
elements generally develop in the protoxylem 14. Which one of the following is not a lateral
when the root or stem is (CBSE -AIPMT 2009) meristem (CBSE -AIPMT 2010)
a. maturing b. elongating a. interfascicular cambium
c. widening d. differentiating b. phellogen
7. Anatomically fairly old dicotyledonous root is c. intercalary meristem
distinguished from the dicotyledonous stem by d. intrafascicular cambium
the (CBSE- AIPMT 2009)
15. A common feature of vessel elements and sieve
a. absence of secondary xylem tube elements is (CBSE- AIPMT 2007)
b. absence of secondary phloem a. enucleate condition
c. presence of cortex b. presence of P. Protein
d. position of protoxylem c. thick secondary wall
8. In barley stem, vascular bundles are (CBSE d. pores on lateral walls
-AIPMT 2009)
16. In a longitudinal section of a root, starting from
a. open and scattered the tip upward, the four zones occur in the
b. closed and scattered following order (CBSE -AIPMT 2004)
c. open and in a ring a. root cap, cell division, cell enlargement,
d. closed and radial cell maturation
9. Palisade parenchyma is absent in the leaves of b. root cap, cell division, cell maturation, cell
(CBSE- AIPMT 2009) enlargement
a. sorghum b. mustard c. cell division, cell enlargement, cell
maturation, root cap
c. soyabean d. gram
306

d.
cell division, cell maturation, cell 24. Wound healing is due to (JIPMER 2013)
enlargement, root cap a. ventral meristem
17. The cells of the quiescent centre are characterized b. secondary meristem
by (CBSE -AIPMT 2003) c. primary meristem
a. having dense cytoplasm and prominent d. all of these
nucleus
25. Which of the following tissues consists of living
b. having light cytoplasm and small nucleus
cells (JIPMER 2012)
c. dividing regularly to add to the corpus
a. vessels b. tracheids
d. dividing regularly to add to tunica
c. companion cell d. sclerenchyma
18. P. Protein is found in (CBSE- AIPMT 2000)
26. The Quiescent centre in root meristem serves as
a. parenchyma b. collenchyma a (JIPMER 2011)
c. sieve tube d. xylem a.
site for storage of food, which is utilized
19. Specialized epidermal cells surrounding the during maturation
guard cells are called (NEET (I) 2016) b. reservoir of growth hormones
a. bulliform cells c. reserve for replenishment of damaged cells
b. lenticels of the meristem
c. complementary cells d. region for absorption of water
d. subsidiary cells 27. In the sieve elements, which one of the following
is the most likely function of P.Proteins?
Directions:
(JIPMER 2011)
The following questions 20 & 21 consist of a) Deposition of callose on sieve plates
two statements, one labelled Assertion and
the another labelled Reason. Select the correct b. Providing energy for active translocation
answer from the codes given below: c. Autolytic enzymes
a) Both assertion and reason are true and reason is d. Sealing-off mechanism on wounding
the correct explanation of assertion
28 .Which of the following is made up of dead cells?
b) Both assertion and reason are true, but reason
(NEET 2017)
is not the correct explanation of assertion
c) Assertion is true but reason is false a. Xylem parenchyma b. Collenchyma
d) Assertion and reason are false c. Phellem d. Phloem
20. Assertion: Conducting tissues, especially 29. The vascular cambium normally gives rise to
xylem show greatest reduction in submerged (NEET 2017)
hydrophytes. a. phelloderm b.primary phloem
Reason: Hydrophytes live in water. So no need c. secondary xylem d. periderm
of tissues. (AIIMS – 2010) Ans: c. 30. Which of the following plants shows multiple
21. Assertion: Long distance flow of photo epidermis? (Manipal 2012)
assimilates in plants occurs through sieve tubes. a. Croton b. Allium
Reason: Mature sieve tubes have partial cytoplasm c. Nerium d. Cucurbita
and perforated sieve plates (AIIMS – 2012)
Unit -5 Plant Physiology
Ans: a.
1. The water potential of pure water is (NEET
22. Duramen is present in (JIPMER 2016) 2017)
a. the inner region of secondary wood a. Less than zero
b. a part of sap wood b. More than zero but less than one
c. the outer region of secondary wood c. More than one
d. region of pericycle d. Zero
23. The interxylary phloem is found in the stem of 2. Transpiration and root pressure cause water to
(JIPMER 2013) rise in plants by (NEET 2015)
a. Cucurbita b. Salvia a. pulling it upward
c. Calotropis d. none of these b. pulling and pushing it, respectively
307

c. pushing it upward 9. Carrier proteins are involved in (PMT-
UP-1998)
d. pushing and pulling it, respectively
a. Active transport of ions
3. Movement of ions or molecules in a direction
b. Passive transport of ions
opposite to that of prevailing electro-chemical
gradient is known as (C.B.S.E. 2000) c. Water transport
a. Active transport d. Water evaporation
b. Pinocytosis 10. Active transport of ions in the cell requires
c. Brownian movement (PMT MP 2002)
d. Diffusion a. High temperature b. ATP
c. Alkaline pH d. Salts
4. Correct sequence of events in wilting? (P.M.T.
Kerala 2001) 11. Guttated liquid is (AFMC 2002)
a. Exosmosis-deplasmolysis-temporary and a. Pure water
permanent wilting b. Water plus minerals
b. Exosmosis-plasmolysis-temporary and c. Water plus enzymes
permanent wilting d. All of these
c. Endosmosis-plasmolysis-temporary and 12. Stomata of a plant open due to (CBSE 2003)
permanent wilting
a. Influx of potassium ions
d. Endosmosis-deplasmolysis - temporary
b. Efflux of potassium ions
and permanent wilting
c. Influx of hydrogen ions
e. Exosmosis-deplasmolysis-plasmolysis -
temporary and permanent wilting d. Influx of calcium ions
5. What will be the direction of net osmotic 13. Potometer works on the principle of (CBSE 2000)
movement of water if a solution 'A', enclosed a. Osmotic pressure
in a semi permeable membrane, having an b. Amount of water absorbed equals the
osmotic potential of '- 30' bars and turgor amount transpired
pressure of '5' bars is submerged in a solution c. Potential difference between the tip of the
'B' with an osmotic potential of '- 10' bars and tube and then of the plant
'0' turgor pressure ? (C.E.T. Karnataka 2002)
d. Root pressure
a. Equal movement in both directions
14. Most suitable theory for ascent of sap is
b. 'B' to 'A' (CBSE 1991, CPMT-UP 1995)
c. No movement a. Transpirational pull and cohesion theory
d. 'A' to 'B' of Dixon and Jolly
6. The pressure exerted by a swollen vacuole on b. Pulsation theory of J.C. Bose
the cell wall is (C.M.C. Vellore 2002) c. Relay pump theory of Godlewski
a. OP b. WP d. None of these
c. TP d. DPD 15. If a cell kept in a solution of unknown
7. Who said that ‘transpiration is a necessary evil’? concentration gets deplasmolysed, the solution
(JIPMER-2006) is, (CPMT-UP 1996)
a. Detonic b. Hypertonic
a. Curtis b. Steward
c. Isotonic d. Hypotonic
c. Anderson d. J.C.Bose
16. Which is essential for the growth of root tip ?
8. Which one gives the most valid and recent (NEET PHASE II 2016)
explanation for stomatal movements? (NEET
2015) a. Zn b. Fe
c. Ca d. Mn
a. Transpiration
17. On the basis of symptoms of chlorosis in leaves,
b. Potassium influx and efflux a student inferred that this was due to deficiency
c. Starch hydrolysis of nitrogen. The inference could be correct only
if we assume that yellowing of leaves appeared
d. Guard cell photosynthesis first in (AIIMS 2007)
a. old leaves b. young leaves
308

c. y oung leaves followed by mature leaves 27. Chlorophyll b is (JIPMER 1980)
d. mature leaves followed by young leaves. a. C54H70 O6 N4 Mg
18. Cytochrome oxidase contains (UP CPMT 2006) b. C55H70 O6 N4 Mg
a. Iron b. Magnesium c. C55H72 O5 N4 Mg
c. Zinc d. Copper d. C45H72 O5 N4 Mg
19. Which is correct to saprophytic angiosperms? 28. Synthesis of ADP + Pi → ATP in grana is
(UP CPMT 2006) (AIIMS 1993)
a. They secrete enzyme outside the body and a. phosphorylation
absorb b. photophosphorylation
b. They have mycorrhizae fungi c. oxidative phosphorylation
c. They take food and then digest it d. photolysis
d. They are photosynthetic 29. In chloroplast, chlorophyll is present in the
20. The ability of the venus fly trap to capture (AIPMT 2004)
insects is due to (JIPMER 2008) a. stroma b. outer membrane
a. chemical stimulation by the prey c. inner membrane d. thylakoids
b. a passive process requiring no special ability 30. Electrons from the excited chlorophyll
on the part of the plant. molecule of photosystem II are accepted first
c. Specialized muscle like cells by (AIPMT 2008)
d. rapid turgor pressure changes a. quinone b. ferredoxin
21. Boron in green plants assists in (RPMT 2007) c. cytochrome-b d. cytochrome-f
a. photosynthesis 31. Read the following four statements A,B,C and
b. Sugar transport D. Select the right option (AIPMT 2010)
c. activation of enzyme A. Z scheme of light reaction takes place in the
d. acting as enzyme cofactor presence of PS I only
22. Which of the following elements is very B.
only PS I is functional in cyclic
essential for the uptake of Ca2+ and membrane photophosphorylation
function? (Kerala CEE 2007) C.
cyclic photophosphorylation results into
a. phosphorus b. molybdenum synthesis of ATP and NADPH2
c. manganese d. boron D. stroma lamellae lack PS II as well as NADP
23. Sulphur is not a constituent of (AMU 2011) a. A and B b. B and C
a. cysteine b. methionine c. C and D d. B and D
c. ferredoxin d. pyridoxine 32. Photolysis of each water molecule in light
24. Deficiency symptoms of nitrogen and potassium reaction will yield ___ (Kerala CEE 2007)
are visible first in _____ (AIPMT 2014) a. 2 electrons and 4 protons
a. senescent leaves b. young leaves b. 4 electrons and 4 protons
c. roots d. buds c. 4 electrons and 3 protons
25. The first stable product of fixation of d. 2 electrons and 2 protons
atmospheric nitrogen in leguminous plants is 33. Photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) has the
_____ (AIPMT 2013) following range of wavelength (AIPMT 2005)
a. NO-3 b. glutamate a. 400-700 nm b. 450-920 nm
c. NO -2
d. ammonia c. 340-450 nm d. 500-600 nm
26. C4 plants are more efficient in photosynthesis 34. Phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) is the primary
than C3 plants due to (AIPMT 2010) CO2 acceptor in __ (NEET 2017)
a. presence of thin cuticle a. C3 plants b. C4 plants
b. lower rate of photorespiration c. C2 plants d. C3 and C4 plants
c. higher leaf area
d. presence of larger number of chloroplast in
the leaf cells.
309

35. With reference to factors affecting the rate 41. Which of the biomolecules is common to
of photosynthesis, which of the following respiration-mediated breakdown of fats,
statements is not correct? (NEET 2017) carbohydrates and proteins? (NEET 2013, 2016)
a light saturation for CO2 fixation occurs at 10 a. glucose-6-phosphate
% of full sunlight b. fructose1,6-bisphosphate
b. increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration c. pyruvic acid
up to 0.05% can enhance CO2 fixation rate d. acetyl CoA
c. C3 plants respond to higher temperature
42 Which statement is wrong for Krebs cycle?
with enhanced photosynthesis while C4
(NEET 2017)
plants have much lower temperature
optimum. a. there is one point in the cycle where FAD is
reduced to FADH2
d. tomato is a greenhouse crop which can be
grown in CO2 enriched atmosphere for b. during conversion of succinyl CoA to succinic
higher yield acid, a molecule of GTP is synthesised.
c. the cycle starts with condensation of acetyl
36. A plant in your garden avoids photorespiratory
group a.cetyl CoA. with pyruvic acid to
losses, has improved water use efficiency,
yield citric acid
shows high rates of photosynthesis at high
temperatures and has improved efficiency of d. there are three points in the cycle where
nitrogen utilization. In which of the following NAD+ is reduced to NADH+H+
physiological groups would you assign this 43. The three boxes in this diagram represents the
plant? (NEET PHASE I 2016) three major biosynthetic pathways in aerobic
a. C4 b. CAM respiration and arrows represent net reacts or
products. (NEET 2013)
c. Nitrogen fixer d. C3
37. Emerson's enhancement effect and Red drop
have been instrumental in the discovery of
(NEET PHASE I 2016)
a. two photosystems operating simultaneously
Arrows numbered 4, 8 and 12 can be
b. photophosphorylation and cyclic electron
transport a. ATP b. H2O
c. oxidative phosphorylation c. FAD or FADH2 d. NADH
d. photophosphorylation and non-cyclic 44.
The energy released metabolic process in
electron transport which substrate is oxidised without an external
38. The process which makes major difference between electron acceptor is called (AIPMT 2010)
C3 and C4 plants is (NEET PHASE II 2016) a. glycolysis b. fermentation
a. glycolysis b. calvin cycle
c. aerobic respiration d. photorespiration
c. photorespiration d. respiration
45. Krebs cycle starts with the formation of six
39. In a chloroplast the highest number of protons carbon compound by a reaction between
are found in (NEET PHASE I 2016) (CPMT 1980)
a. lumen of thylakoids a. malic acid and acetyl coenzyme
b. inter membrane space b. oxaloacetic acid and acetyl coenzyme
c. antennae complex c. succinic acid and pyruvic acid
d. stroma d. fumaric acid and pyruvic acid
40. Oxidative phosphorylation is (NEET 2016) 46. Respiration is a process in which (CPMT 1980)
a. formation of ATP by transfer of phosphate a. energy is used up
group from a substrate to ADP
b. energy is stored in the form of ADP
b. oxidation of phosphate group in ATP
c. energy is released and stored in the form of
c. A
addition of phosphate group to ATP ATP
d. formation of ATP by energy released from d. energy is not released at all
electrons during substrate oxidation.
310

47. The common phase between aerobic and 56 Which one of the following acids is derivative
anaerobic respiration is called (CPMT 1984) of carotenoids (AIPMT 2009)
a. glycolysis a. Abscisic acid
b. Indole butyric acid
b. krebs cycle
c. Indole – 3 acetic
c. tricarboxylic acid cycle
d. Gibberellic acid
d. oxidative phosphorylation
57. Photoperiodism was first characterized in
48. ATP synthesis occurs on/in the (AIIMS 1984) (AIPMT 2010)
a. matrix a. Cotton b. Tobacco
b. outer membrane of mitochondrion c. Potato d. Tomato
c. innermembrane of mitochondrion 58. One of the commonly used plant growth
d. none of the above hormone in tea plantations is (AIPMT 2010)
49. Which 5-carbon organic acid of the Krebs cycle a. Abscisic acid b. Zeatin
is a key compound in the N2 metabolism of a c. Indole – 3 – acetic acid
cell (AIIMS 1989) d. Ethylene
a. citric acid
59. Root development is promoted by (AIPMT
b. fumaric acid 2010)
c. oxalosuccinic acid a. Auxin b. Gibberellin
d. α-Ketoglutaric acid c. Ethylene d. Abscisic acid
50. Which one of the following acts as a hormone 60. Senscence as an active developmental cellular
involved in ripening of fruits (CBSE PMT process in the growth and functioning of a
2000) flowering plant is indicated in (AIPMT 2008)
a. naphthalene acetic acid a. Annual plants
b. ethylene b. Floral plants
c. indole acetic acid c. Vessels and Tracheid differentiation
d. zeatin d. Leaf abscission
51. Coconut milk factor is (PMT 2003) 61. You are given a tissue with its potential for
a. auxin b. gibberellin differentiation in an artificial culture. Which
c. abscisic acid d. cytokinin of the following pairs of hormones would you
add to the medium to secure shoots as well as
52. Banana is seedless because (JIPMER 2004) roots? (NEET 2016)
a. it produces asexually a. Gibberellin and abscissic acid
b. auxin is sprayed b. IAA and gibberellins
c. both A and B c. Auxin and cytokinin
d. none of the above d. Auxin and abscisic acid
53. Pruning of plants promotes branching due to 62. Phytochrome is a (NEET 2016)
sensation of axillary buds by (AIIMS 2004)
a. Chromo protein
a. Ethylene b. Gibberellin
b. Flavo protein
c. IAA d. Cytokinin
c. Glyco protein
54 Avena curvature test is bioassay for activity of d. Lipo protein
(AIIMS 2006) (NEET 2016)
a. Auxin b. Ethylene 63. Typical growth curve in plants is
(NEET 2016)
c. Cytokinin d. Gibberellin
a. Linear
55. One of the synthetic auxin is (AIPMT 2009) b. Stair – steps shaped
a. IBA b. NAA c. Parabolic
c. IAA d. GA d. Sigmoid
311

Biology - Botany - Class XI
List of Authors and Reviewers
Reviewers Authors
Dr. K.V. Krishnamurthy, P. Senthil, P.G. Assistant in Botany,
Professor and Head (Rtd), GBHSS, Uthangarai, Krishnagiri.
Bharathidasan University, Trichy
P. Saravanakumaran,
Dr. P. Ravichandran, P.G. Assistant in Botany, GHSS, Koduvilarpatti, Theni.
Associate Professor and Head,
Department of Botany, MS University, Tirunelveli Dr. N. Maheshkumar, Dist. Environmental Coordinator,
Chief Educational Office, Namakkal.
Dr. R. Ravindhran,
Associate Professor and Head, P. Anandhimala, P.G. Assistant in Botany,
Department of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, GGHSS,Pochampalli, Krishnagiri.
Loyola College, Chennai. Dr. P. Sivashankar,
Dr. M.P. Ramanujam, P.G. Assistant in Botany, GGHSS, Nachiyar Koil. Thanjavur.
Associate Professor of Botany G. Muthu, P.G. Assistant in Botany,
Kanchi Mamunivar Center for Post Graduate Studies GHSS (ADW) Achampatti, Madurai.
Pondichery J. Mani, P.G. Assistant in Botany,
GHSS, R Gobinathampatti, Dharmapuri.
Domain Experts U. Kalirajan,P.G. Assistant in Botany,
Dr. S.S. Rathinakumar,Principal (Rtd.), ADWHSS, Meenambakkam, Kancheepuram.
Sri Subramania Swamy Government Arts College, Thiruthani. G. Sathiyamoorthy,
Dr. D. Narashiman, Professor and Head (Rtd.), PGTGHSS, Jayapuram, Vellore.
Plant Biologly & BioTechnology, MCC College, Tambaram, S.B. Amuthavalli, P.G. Assistant in Botany,
Kancheepuram. GHSS, Ottery (Extension), Vandalur, Kancheepuram.
Dr. Mujeera Fathima, Associate Professor of Botany, M. Vijayalakshmi , P.G. Assistant in Botany,
Govt. Arts & Science College, Nandanam, Chennai. Model School, Asthinapuram, Ariyalur.
Dr. K.P. Girivasan, Associate Professor of Botany,
Govt. Arts & Science College, Nandanam, Chennai. S. Malar Vizhi,P.G. Assistant in Botany,
GHSS, Chenbagaramanputhoor, Kannyakumari.
Dr. C.V. Chitti Babu, Associate Professor of Botany,
Presidency College, Chennai. G. Bagyalakshmi, P.G. Assistant in Botany,
GGHSS, Jalagandapuram, Salem.
Dr. Renu Edwin, Associate Professor of Botany,
Presidency College, Chennai. M. Chelladurai,
Dr. D. Kandavel, Associate Professor of Botany, P.G. Assistant in Botany, GGHSS, Samuthiram, Salem.
Periyar EVR College, Trichy. C. Kishore Kumar,
Dr. T. Sekar, Associate Professor of Botany, P.G. Assistant in Botany, GHSS, Thattaparai,Vellore.
Pachaiyappa's College, Chennai. M. Lakshmi, P.G. Assistant in Botany,
Dr. D. Kathiresan, Assosiate Professor of Botany, Sri Sankara Senior Secondary School, Adyar, Chennai.
Saraswathi Narayana College, Madurai. M. Chamundeswari, P.G. Assistant in Botany,
Dr. S. Nagaraj, Assistant Professor of Botany, Prince MHSS, Nanganallur, Kancheepuram.
University of Madras, Guindy Campus, Chennai.
Dr. M. Kumar, Assistant Professor of Botany, Content Readers
MCC College, Tambaram, Kancheepuram.
Dr. T. S. Subha, Associate Professor in Botany,
Bharathi Women’s College, Chennai.
Academic Coordinators Dr. M. Pazhanisami,
K. Manjula, Associate Professor in Botany,
Lecturer in Botany, DIET, Triplicane, Chennai. Govt. Arts College, Nandanam, Chennai
J.Radhamani, Dr. G. Rajalakshmi, Assistant Professor in Botany,
Lecturer in Botany, DIET, Kaliyampoondi.Kancheepuram Bharathi Women’s College, Chennai.
Dr. R. Kavitha, Assistant Professor in Botany,
V.Kokila Devi, Bharathi Women’s college, Chennai.
P.G. Assistant in Botany,Mahendravadi,Vellore.
Art and Design Team ICT Coordinator

Graphics N. Rajesh Kumar, B.T. Assistant,
Gopu Rasuvel, Karthik kalaiarasu CCMAGGHSS, Coimbatore
Illustration
A. Jeyaseelan, Art Teacher
GBHSS, Uthangarai, Krishnagiri.
S.Gopu, Dr. N. Maheshkumar, Sathish, Srinivasan
Layout
This book has been printed on 80 G.S.M.
Yogesh B Elegant Maplitho paper.
Adison Raj A
Prasanth P Printed by offset at:
Pakkirisamy Annadurai
In-House
Rajesh Thangappan
Jerald Wilson
Wrapper Design
Kathir Arumugam
Co-ordination
Ramesh Munisamy
Typist
Pavithran, SCERT, Chennai
312

NOTES
313

NOTES
314

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GOVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADU

HIGHER SECONDARY FIRST YEAR

A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu

Department of School Education

Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime

11th Bio-Botany_EM_Front page.indd 1 12-12-2021 7.29.22 PM

NOT FOR SALE

State Council of Educational

Printing & Publishing

Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

11th Bio-Botany_EM_Front page.indd 2 12-12-2021 7.29.22 PM

11th Bio-Botany_EM_Front page.indd 3 12-12-2021 7.29.22 PM

Chapter Outline Illustrate the complete overview of chapter

Amazing facts, Rhetorical questions to lead students

Tamil terminology for Botanical terms given for easy

Activity Directions are provided to students to conduct activities

Infographics Visual representation of the lesson to enrich learning .

To motivate the students to further explore the content

ICT To enhance digital Science skills among students

Conceptual diagram that depicts relationships between

Career corner List of professions related to the subject

References List of related books for further details of the topic

Web links List of digital resources

Glossary Explanation of scientific terms

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11th Bio-Botany_EM_Front page.indd 5

11th Bio-Botany_EM_Front page.indd 6

XIth_BIO-BOTANY_Ch_1-EM.indd 1 12/09/2021 8:13:35 PM

Respiration Irritability Excretion

Figure 1.1: Attributes of living organisms

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Irritability. Individual organism II Individual

environment which is liable to change Tissues

Metabolism Molecules & Crystals

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infected tobacco juice (a) Adenovirus, (b) Tobacco Mosaic virus,

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the recognition of phage to bacterium is called Phage

The penetration process involves mechani-

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Table 1.3: Viral diseases

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Table 1.4: Systems of Classification

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Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic

Level of Mostly Unicellular, Unicellular Multicellular Tissue/organ Tissue/organ/organ

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for the concept of infection was proved by him Staphylococcus

(Koch’s postulates). He was awarded Nobel prize

1829 C.G. Ehrenberg coined the term

1884 Christian Gram introduced Gram

transformation Figure 1.8: Shape and flagellation

bound organelles. Plasma membrane

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Phage Phage DNA

(b) Donar DNA Virulent Defective

Recipient cell Recipient

Figure 1.13: Transformation in Bacteria Generalised Transduction Specialised Transduction

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1829 C.G. Ehrenberg coined the term

1884 Christian Gram introduced Gram

6. Chlamydospore: Thick walled resting Ramus