Life Span Development Canadian 6th

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 Chapter 6: Socio-emotional Development in Infancy

Learning Outcomes

Learning Outcome 1: Outline the development of emotions in infancy.

A. Define emotion briefly.
B. Describe the biological and environmental influences on emotion.
C. Describe early emotions in infancy.
D. Examine the expression of emotions including crying, smiling, stranger anxiety and separation
protest.
E. Define and describe emotion regulation and how it relates to coping

Learning Outcomes 2: Summarize the development of temperament and personality during

infancy.
A. Explain the concept of temperament, including the types of temperament, and the implications for
temperamental variations for parenting.
B. Appraise the biological influences and experience as related to temperament.
C. Discuss early personality development, including the first two stages of Erik Erikson’s Theory,
trust versus mistrust and autonomy versus shame and doubt, and their relationship to the child’s
developing sense of self and independence.

Learning Outcome 3: Analyze tbe social orientation/understanding and the development of

attachment in infancy.
A. Explain the role of social orientation/understanding.
B. Define, explain, and critique the importance of attachment.
C. Outline the works of Freud, Harlow, Erikson, and Bowlby on attachment.
D. Describe the four phases of attachment based on John Bowlby’s work.
E. Describe Mary Ainswoth’s Theory of individual differences in the types of attachment and the
Strange Situation.
F. Differentiate between caregiving styles and attachment classifications

Learning Outcome 4: Explain how social contexts influence the infant’s development.
A. Discuss issues concerning parenting, including transition to parenthood, parent-infant interaction
in terms of reciprocal socialization, and characteristics of paternal and maternal caregiving
behaviour.
B. Describe high-quality day care for infants and examine its impact on infants’ development.

Chapter Outline

(LO1) Discuss the development of emotions in infancy.

Defining Emotion
 Emotion is a feeling, or affect, that can involve physiological arousal, conscious experience, and
behavioural expression.
 Before infants acquire speech, parents and infants communicate through emotion.
 Face-to-face interactions between infant and adults are bidirectional and mutually regulated.

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Life-span Development, 6th Canadian Edition 6-1

 Biological and Environmental Influences
 Emotions are influenced by biological foundations and by a person’s experience
 Early emotions are comprised of primary emotions (emotions that are present in humans and
other animals and self-conscious emotions that require self-awareness, that is a conscious
sense of “me”.

Expression of Emotions
Crying
 Crying is the infant’s most important mechanism for communication.
 Babies have at least three types of cries:
o The basic cry is a rhythmic pattern that usually consists of a cry, followed by a briefer
silence, then a shorter inspiratory whistle that is somewhat higher in pitch than the main cry,
then another brief rest before the next cry.
o The anger cry is a variation of the basic cry; however, there is more excess air forced
through the vocal cords.
o The pain cry, which is stimulated by high-intensity stimuli, differs from the other types of
cries. A sudden appearance of loud crying without preliminary moaning and a long initial cry
followed by an extended period of breath holding characterizes the pain cry.
 Most parents, and adults in general, can distinguish between the anger and pain cry. Parents can
distinguish the cries of their own infant better than a strange baby.

 Developmentalists increasingly argue that parents should soothe a crying baby. Infants will likely
develop a sense of trust and secure attachment to the caregiver due to responsive caregiving.
Smiling
 Two types of smiles can be distinguished in babies:
o A reflexive smile does not occur in response to external stimuli. It appears during the first
month, usually during irregular patterns of sleep.
o A social smile occurs in response to an external stimulus, which, early in development,
typically is a face. Social smile does not occur until 2 to 3 months of age.

Strange Anxiety
 Stranger anxiety usually emerges gradually around 6 months and escalates until 12 months
though not all infants show distress when they see a stranger.
 Several factors influence whether an infant will display stranger anxiety.
o Infants show less anxiety when in familiar settings (at home or on mom’s lap), when the
stranger is another child, and when the stranger is friendly and outgoing.

Separation Protest
 Separation protest occurs when the infants experience fear of being separated from their
caregivers. They cry when the caregiver leaves.

Emotion Regulation
 Emotion regulation consists of effectively managing arousal to adapt to and reach a goal.
 During the first year of life, infants gradually develop the ability to inhibit, or minimize, the
intensity and duration of emotional reaction, as seen in infants’ soothing themselves through
sucking and withdrawing from excessive stimulation.
 As infants grow older, parents modify their expectations on the children’s emotional regulation
behaviour.

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Life-span Development, 6th Canadian Edition 6-2

(LO2) Summarize the development of temperament and personality during infancy.
Temperament is an individual’s behavioural style and emotional response style.

Temperament
Defining and Classifying Temperament
Chess and Thomas’ Classification
 An easy child is generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, and
adapts easily to new experiences (40 percent of children).
 A difficult child tends to react negatively and cry frequently, engages in irregular daily routines,
and is slow to accept new experiences (10 percent of children).
 A slow-to-warm-up child has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, shows low adaptability,
and displays a low intensity of mood (15 percent of children).

Kagan’s Behavioural Inhibition

 Jerome Kagan sees shyness with strangers as one feature of a temperament category called
inhibition to the unfamiliar.
 Inhibitive reactions to the unfamiliar, such as avoidance and distress, begin at age 7-9 months.
 Researchers found that shyness/inhibition in infancy/childhood were linked to social anxiety in
life.

Rothbart and Bates’ Classification

 Three dimensions characterizes the structure of temperament:
o Extraversion/sugency includes “positive anticipation, impulsivity, activity level, and
sensation seeking.”
o Negative affectivity includes “fear, frustration, sadness, and discomfort.”
 Effortful control (self-regulation) includes “attentional focusing and shifting, inhibitory control,
perceptual sensitivity, and low-intensity pleasure.”

Biological Foundation and Experience

Biological influences
 Physiological characteristics have been linked with different temperaments
 Canadian researchers reported evidence for a gene-endoenvironment interaction predicting child
temperament.
Gender, Culture and Temperament
 Gender and culture may be an important factor in shaping the context that influences the fate of
temperament.

Goodness of Fit and Parenting

 Goodness of fit refers to the match between a child’s temperament and the environmental
demands the child must cope with.
 Because children from the same family can have different temperaments, management strategies
and problems that are associated with one child may not occur with another child.
 Implications of temperamental variations for parents include the following:
o Attention to and respect for individuality: It is important to modify one’s parenting to fit the
child’s temperament.
o Structuring the child’s environment: It is important to consider the child’s reaction to
different contexts based upon the child’s temperament.
o The “difficult child” and packaged parenting programs: Parents may consider seeking help
when parenting a child with a difficult temperament but need to recognize that a “difficult”
child characteristic depends on its fit with the environment.

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Life-span Development, 6th Canadian Edition 6-3

 Personality Development
Trust
 According to Erikson, infancy is characterized by the trust-versus-mistrust stage of development.
Infants learn trust when they are cared for in a consistent, warm manner.
Self
 Studying the self in infancy is difficult because infants cannot use language to describe their
experiences of themselves.
 Researchers have developed a mirror technique to determine if an infant can recognize his/her
own image. In the second half of the second year after birth, infants can recognize their own
image.

Independence
 Mahler argues that the infant separates her/himself from mother and then develops individuation
in the second year of life.
 According to Erikson, the second year of life is characterized by the stage of autonomy versus
shame and doubt.

(LO3) Describe social orientation/understanding and the development of attachment in infancy.

Social Orientation/Understanding
Social Orientation
 Young infants stare intently at faces and are tuned to the sounds of human voices
 Focus on social interaction of face-to-face play may include vocalizations, touch, and gestures.
 Infants also learn about the social world through contexts other than face-to-face play with a
caregiver.
Locomotion
 As infants develop the ability to crawl walk and run they are able to explore and expand their
social world.
Intention, Goal directed behavior, and Cooperation
 By their first birthday infants have begun to direct the caregiver’s attention, pointing is often
thought to be the clearest indicator of early social understanding.
Social referencing
 Involves “reading” emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a particular situation
Social Sophistication and insight
 Researchers are discovering that infants are more socially sophisticated and insightful mat
younger ages than previously envisioned.

What Is Attachment?
 Attachment is a close emotional bond between the infant and the caregiver.
 Freud believed that infants become attached to the person that provides oral satisfaction.
o Harlow’s classic study demonstrated that feeding is not the crucial element in the attachment
process: Contact comfort is more important.
 Erikson considered the first year after birth the key time frame for the development of attachment.
 Bowlby explained from an ethological perspective that the newborn was biologically equipped to
elicit attachment behaviours from the caregiver.
 Four phases characterize the gradual development attachment between infant and caregiver:
o Phase 1 (0-2 months): Infants instinctively direct their attachment to human figures. Infants
indiscriminately respond to people.
o Phase 2 (2-7 months): Attachment becomes focused on one person, usually the primary
caregiver.

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Life-span Development, 6th Canadian Edition 6-4

 o Phase 3 (7-24 months): Specific attachments form and the infant is able to seek contact from
regular caregivers actively.
o Phase 4 (24 months on): A goal-directed partnership is formed. Children become aware of
others’ feelings, goals, and plans and take them into account in forming their actions.

Individual Differences
 Mary Ainsworth created the Strange Situation, which is an observational measure of infant
attachment that requires the infant to move through a series of introductions, separations, and
reunions with the caregiver and an adult stranger in a prescribed order.
o In securely attached, infants use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the
environment. Ainsworth proposed that being securely attached provides an important
foundation for psychological development later in life. In the Strange Situation, securely
attached infants explore the room and play with the toys when their caregivers are in the
room. When the caregiver leaves, the infant may protest mildly and then reestablishes
positive interactions when the caregiver returns.
o Insecure avoidant babies show insecurity by avoiding the mother during the Strange
Situation. They do not engage very much with the caregiver, yet they cry when she leaves
the room. Avoidant babies do not establish contact when the caregiver returns.
o Insecure resistant babies may cling to the caregiver then resist her by fighting against the
closeness, perhaps by kicking or pushing away. When the caregiver leaves the room, these
infants often cry loudly.
o Insecure disorganized babies are disorganized and disoriented during the Strange Situation.
They often appear dazed, confused, and fearful.
 Critics of the Strange Situation highlight that the isolated, controlled events of the setting might
not necessarily reflect the interactions that would happen in a natural environment. .
 Self Determination Theory holds that children are active agents, naturally inclined to explore their
world through interaction with its various elements.

Caregiving Styles and Attachment Classification

 Caregivers of secure babies are sensitive to the babies’ signals and are consistently available to
meet their needs.
 Caregivers of avoidant babies tend to be hostile, unavailable or rejecting.
 Caregivers of resistant babies tend to be inconsistently available to their babies and usually are
not very affectionate.
 Caregivers of disorganized babies often neglect or physically abuse their babies.

Attachment, Temperament, and the Wider Social World

 For some children, early attachments seem to foreshadow later functioning. However, subsequent
life experiences such as maternal care and life stresses can also affect later functioning.
 Kagan stresses that infants are highly resilient and adaptive in the face of wide variations in
parenting. He thinks genetics and temperament are more important to children’s social
competence than attachment relationships.
 Cultural variations have been found in many communities in Canada.
 Attachment theory has a Western influence – attachment behaviours may differ in collective
societies in Canada.
 Yet the most frequent classification in every culture studied so far is the secure attachment.

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Life-span Development, 6th Canadian Edition 6-5

(LO4) Explain how social contexts influence the infant’s development.
The Family as a System
 As a social system, the family can be thought of as a constellation of subsystems defined in terms
of generation, gender, and role.
 Belsky’s model illustrates that marital relations, parenting, and infant behaviour and development
can have both direct and indirect effects on each other.

The Family
The Transition to Parenthood
 Research has found that marital relations change with the birth of a baby (some couples grow
apart, others feel closer to each other, and others experience both sentiments).
Reciprocal Socialization
 Reciprocal socialization is socialization that is bidirectional. Children socialize parents just as
parents socialize children.
 Scaffolding is an important form of reciprocal socialization in which parents time interactions in
such a way that the infant experiences turn-taking with the parents.
Maternal and Paternal Caregiving
 Maternal interactions usually centre around child care activities during infancy. In stressful
circumstances, infants show a stronger attachment to the mother.
 Paternal interactions more likely to include play. When men actively care for their children, they
adapt behaviorally and physiologically. Harmony between the parents seems to be an especially
important key predictor of the father-child relationship. Parental Leaves
 The federal and provincial/territorial governments have various parental leave policies. Under the
current Employment Insurance Act, a couple can split 37 weeks of parental leave, in addition to
17 weeks of maternity leave after birth or an adoption of a child. The province of Quebec has its
own Parental Insurance Plan.
Child Care
 Experts have defined high-quality daycare as one with well-trained and stable staff, a high adult-
child ratio and small group sizes, and positive adult-child and child-child interactions.
 Every province and territory has different child care policies.
 Most important aspect in child care is consistency in environment in home and day care.
Infants with Special Needs
 For infants with special needs family-centred care is important i.e., autism .

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Life-span Development, 6th Canadian Edition 6-6

Key Terms
anger cry 147 insecure resistant babies 146
attachment 156 158 separation protest 148
basic cry 147 pain cry 147 slow-to-warm-up child
difficult child 150 primary emotions 146 150
easy child 150 reciprocal socialization social referencing 156
emotion 145 162 social smile 147
emotional regulation 148 reflexive smile 147 stranger anxiety 148
insecure avoidant babies scaffolding 162 Strange Situation 157
158 securely attached babies temperament 150
insecure disorganized 158
babies 158 self-conscious emotions

Key People
Mary Ainsworth 147 Harry Harlow 157 Bates 150
Jerome Kagan 150
John Bowlby 147
Alexander Chess and Margaret Mahler 154 Sandra Trehub 163
Stella Thomas 150 Ellen Moss 159 John Watson 147
Erik Erikson 153 Mary Rothbart and John Ross Thompson

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Life-span Development, 6th Canadian Edition 6-7

Lecture-Discussion Suggestions

Lecture Suggestion 1: Biological Influences on Temperament

LO1

The purpose of this lecture-discussion is to note that physiological characteristics have been linked with
different temperaments (Rothbart & Bates, 2006). In particular, an inhibited temperament is associated
with a unique physiological pattern that includes high and stable heart beat, high level of the hormone
cortisol, and high activity in the right frontal lobe of the brain (Kagan, 2008). This pattern may be tied to
the excitability of the amygdala, a structure of the brain that plays an important role in fear and inhibition.
Canadian researchers, Schmidt et al. (2009), reported evidence for a gene-endoenvironment (i.e. resting
frontal brain electroencephalogram EEG asymmetry) interaction in predicting child temperament.
Children who exhibited left frontal EEG asymmetry at 9 months and who possessed the DRD4 long allele
were significantly more soothable at 48 months than the other children who exhibited right EEG
asymmetry and possessed the DRD4 long allele.

Sources:
Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. E. (2006). Temperament. In W. Damon & R. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of
child psychology (6th ed.). New York: Wiley.
Kagan, J. (2008). Fear and wariness. In M. M. Haith & J. B. Benson (Eds.), Encyclopedia of infant and
early childhood development. Oxford, UK: Elsevier.
Kagan, J. (1998). Biology and the child. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3,
Social, emotional, and personality development (5th ed.) pp. 177-236. New York: Wiley.
Schmidt, L., Fox, N. Perez-Edgar, K. & Hamer, D. (2009). Linking gene, brain, and behavior: DRD4,
Frontal asymmetry, and temperament. Psychological Science, 20, 831-837.

Lecture-Discussion Suggestion 2: A research study on Secure Attachment using the Primary

Caregiving Approach

LO3, LO4

With an increasing number of mothers in the workforce, a corresponding number of infants and toddlers
spend time in child care services. The emotional well-being of children is receiving well deserved
attention because early childhood educators now realize that in order to develop optimally, a positive
sense of well-being is central. Wellbeing can be linked to the needs of children of all ages to form
positive relationships with parents, other family members, and with the educarers and teachers who work
with them in a wide range of contexts. Cross (2011) propose that these relationships exert a profound and
lasting effect on the developing child. It is crucial that caregivers provide a secure base so that the child
can develop secure attachments with educarers.
One strategy used in some countries to help promote favourable attachments is the implementation of a
primary caregiver system. A group of researchers found that attachment in infants/toddlers had
strengthened through the use of a primary care giving system whereby the caregiver assumes
responsibility for a small group of children and becomes the main contact between the child and home
(Ebbeck et al. 2015). In other words, primary caergivers, take major responsibility in meeting the care
and educational needs of a small group of infants and toddlers, particularly those under the age of 3 years,
within a larger group of their peers (Theilheimer, 2006).
Sources:
Cross, M. (2011). Children with social, emotional and behavioural difficulties and communication
problems: There is always a reason (2nd ed.). London: Jessica Kingsley. Ebbeck, M., Yong Phoon, D.,

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Life-span Development, 5th Canadian Edition 6-8

Tan-Chong, E., Bee Tan, M. & Mui Goh, M. (2015). A research study on secure attachment using the
primary caregiving approach. Journal of Early Childhood Education, 43, 233-240. Theilheimer, R.
(2006). Moulding to the children: Primary caregiving and continuity of care. Zero to Three. 26(3), 50-54..

Lecture-Discussion Suggestion 3: Stability of maternal autonomy support between infancy and

preschool age.

Studies on the stability of parenting behaviours are necessary to better understand the nature and course
of parenting and, in turn, parental influences on child development (Lindhiem, Bernard & Dozier, 2010).
Canadian researchers examined, first the relative and absolute stability of maternal autonomy support
between infancy and preschool age, and second; the moderating role of child gender, maternal attachment
state of mind, and stressful life events (Matte-Gagné, Bernier; Gagné ,2013). The results suggested that
maternal autonomy support is stable in relative terms; but that its mean level decreases over time.
Moreover, significant relative stability appeared only for mothers of girls, mothers who indicated greater
coherence of mind with respect to attachment, and mothers who experienced fewer relatively stressful life
events. On the other hand, the findings point to the conclusion that having a boy, experiencing more
stressful events, and having an insecure attachment state of mind increase the probability of behaving in
an inconsistent manner with the child. Finally, parents of boys, who experience a great deal of change in
their life and who have an insecure attachment state of mind, are likely to need more help to remain
consistent in their autonomy-supportive behaviour toward their children (Matte-Gagné, Bernier; Gagné,
2013).

Lindhiem, O., Bernard, K. & Dozier, M. (2010). Maternal sensitivity: Within-person variability and the
utility of multiple assessment. Child Maltreatment, 16, 41-50. Matte-Gagné, C., Bernier, A. & Gagné, C.
(2013). Social Development, 22(3), 427-443. .Cassidy, J. (2009). The nature of the child’s ties. In J.
Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford. Egeland, B.
(2009). Attachment-based interventions on the quality of attachment among infants and young children.
In R. E. Tremblay, R. deV Peters, M. Boivin, & R. G. Barr (Eds.), Encyclopedia on early childhood
development. Montreal: Centre of Excellence for Early Childhood Development.

Lecture-Discussion Suggestion 4: Fathers Presence in Caring for their Infants

Although the effect of paternal involvement on child development has been well researched with mothers,
in recent decades the focus on fathers has increased substantially (Pleck, 2010). Research has indicated
that the infant-father relationship is not simply an imitation of the infant-mother relationship, but develops
differently (Planap & Braungart-Ricker, 2013). The father-based relationship has a positive outcome on
the child’s emotional, cognitive, and academic development (Pleck, 2010). In fact, Lamb & Lewis(2010)
indicate that the extent of paternal involvement may differ depending on the personality of the father as
well as on the amount of encouragement and support the fathers receive. Specifically, higher marital
satisfaction at 7 months of age predicted increased father involvement with 14 month-old infants (Mehall,
Spinrad, Eisenberg & Gaertner, 2009). In their recent study (Planalp & Braungart-Riecker (2015)
concluded that the fathers’ role identity is consistently related to fathering. The possibility exists that
whether or not the father finds a reasonable amount of satisfaction in his role as a parent is particularly
salient when fathers are deciding how to spend their time with their children.
Lamb (2010) emphasized the fact that both men and women have the capacity to be good parents.

Sources:

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Life-span Development, 5th Canadian Edition 6-9

Pleck, J. (2010). Father involvement: Revised conceptualization and theoretical linkages with the child’s
outcomes. In M. Lamb (Ed.), The role of father in child development (5th ed.)(pp.459-485). Hoboken, NJ:
Wiley. Planalp, E. &, Braungart-Rieker, J. (2013). Temperamental precursors of infant attachment with
mothers and fathers. Infant Behaviour &Development, 36, 796-808. Mehall, K, Spinrad, T., Eisenber, N.
& Gaertner, B. (2009). Examining the relations of infant temperament and couples’ marital satisfaction to
mother and father involvement. A longitudinal study. Fathering, 7, 23-48. Planap, E. & Braungart-Ricker,
J. (2015). Determinants of father involvement with young children: Evidence from the early childhood
longitudinal study—birth cohort. Journal of Family Psychology, 30(1), 135-146. Lamb, M. (Ed.). (2010).
The role of the father in child development (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Lamb, M. & Lewis, C. (2010).
The development and significance of father-child relationships in two-parent families. In M. Lamb (Ed.).
The role of the father in child development (4th ed., pp. 94-153). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Classroom Activities

Classroom Activity 1: Erikson's Psychosocial Theory and Parenting

LO2

Students should explore the relation between Erikson's psychosocial theory and parenting skills. Erikson
thought a child's sense of trust was the cornerstone of all future personality development. Thus, the
interactions between the caregivers and the infant are extremely important.

 Which aspects of parenting lead to this sense of trust?

 What roles do physical comfort, consistency, lack of fearful situations, and feeding play?
 What is the role of parental attentiveness?
 Should the caregiver respond immediately to the infant's cries?
 Do you think that trust is developed more easily by later-born children because their parents are
more confident?
 What aspects of being the first-born counterbalance the advantages of having experienced
parents?

Logistics:
 Group size: Full class discussion.
 Approximate time: Full class discussion (20 minutes).

Sources:
Belsky, J. (2010). Experiencing the life span (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Worth.

Classroom Activity 2: What are the Child Care Policies in Your Province?

LO4

The purpose of this activity is for students to research the child care policiess in their provinceand
compare those policies to other provinces. There is enormous variability in the provincial policies that
regulate child care. Given that standards for child care are set by provinces, the quality of care also varies
tremendously by province.
 Have students research information about the child care standards in various provinces. You can
assign each student or student group one or two provinces depending on the size of your class.
You can also divide up the assignment by age (e.g., ratios of children to caregivers vary by age of

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Life-span Development, 5th Canadian Edition 6-10

 the child). They should obtain information on the following issues: curriculum requirements,
space and equipment, child care staff training, child-to-caregiver ratios and maximum group size,
criminal records, health and safety requirements, discipline, parental rights.
Have students report their findings. Which provinces have the most stringent requirements? Which have
the least? Discuss whether these requirements influence quality of care and cost of care? Have students
read Pasoli, K. (2015). Comparing child care policies in the Canadian provinces. Canadian Political
Science Review, 9(2), 63-78.

Logistics:
 Group size: Individual or small-group homework and full class discussion.
 Approximate time: Individual or small-group homework (45 minutes) and full class discussion
(30 minutes).

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Life-span Development, 5th Canadian Edition 6-11

Classroom Activity 3: Critical Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions and Suggested Answers

LO1, LO2, LO3, LO4

Discuss the answers to the critical thinking multiple-choice questions on Handout 1. The answers are
provided in Handout 2.

In order to prepare students to do Question 1, you will probably want to review rules for interpreting the
adequacy of scientific evidence. Students will need to remember, for example, what inferences are
permissible from correlational and experimental research. In this discussion, you may also want to
explore how the type of questions being asked is related to the type of research that is needed. Descriptive
questions need observational research; questions about patterns or associations are answered with
correlational research; questions about cause and effect need experimental research.

Question 2 asks students to apply the theoretical perspectives. You may want to discuss with them how
well they remember these perspectives, and either provide a review or have them review the theories. In
any case, either give students a list of the key features of each perspective, or have them develop such a
list as an in-class activity.

Question 3 is a straightforward continuation of the inference, assumption, and observation problems.

Logistics:
 Materials: Handout 1 (the critical thinking multiple-choice questions) and Handout 2 (answers).
 Group size: Small groups to discuss the questions, then a full class discussion.
 Approximate time: Small groups (15 to 20 minutes), then 15 minutes for full class discussion.

Classroom Activity 4: Critical Thinking Essay Questions and Suggestions for Helping Students
Answer the Essays

LO1, LO2, LO3, LO4

Discuss the students’ answers to the critical thinking essay questions provided in Handout 3. Several
objectives can be met with these questions. First, answering these questions further facilitates students'
understanding of concepts in chapter 6. Second, this type of essay question affords the students an
opportunity to apply the concepts to their own lives, which will facilitate their retention of the material.
Third, the essay format also will give students practice expressing themselves in written form. Ideas to
help students answer the critical thinking essay questions are provided as Handout 4.

Logistics:
 Materials: Handout 3 (essay questions) and Handout 4 (helpful suggestions for the answers).
 Group size: Individual, then full class.
 Approximate time: Individual (60 minutes), then 30 minutes for full class discussion.

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Life-span Development, 5th Canadian Edition 6-12

Personal Applications

Personal Application 1: Don’t Be Such a Cry Baby!

LO1

The purpose of this exercise is to get students assessing their perceptions of a common infant emotional
state: crying. Crying is the most important mechanism newborns have for communicating. We also know
that babies have a minimum of three different cries—all indicating a different need (although many
mothers would say there are even more!). Developmental psychologists differ in their beliefs as to the
importance of responding to infants’ cries and the implications it has for subsequent crying. Regardless, it
is something inherent about being an infant, and in being around infants for any period of time.

Instructions for Students:

Think about when you encounter crying babies in a public place. When was the last time you were in a
restaurant and had your dinner interrupted by the loud cries of an infant? How about standing in line at
the grocery store? The movie theatre? How did you feel upon hearing the crying? Be honest! What are
most people’s reactions to a crying infant? Discuss this with regard to what you’ve learned about the
significant role crying plays in development.

Use in the Classroom:

Discuss this issue in class, and focus on people’s general tolerance for crying babies. If you have any
parents in the class, have them discuss their views since having a child of their own. Have mothers talk
about the different types of cries their babies have and what they each communicate. End by addressing
the issue of parents bringing children to various public places—theatres, restaurants, and so on knowing
that crying is inevitable. Debate the appropriateness of such behaviour.

Personal Application 2: The Big Debate

LO4

The purpose of this exercise is to have students explore their own personal reaction to putting children in
day care. There are more children in daycare today than ever before in history. Our society has come to
accept, and in some ways expect, women working outside the home. The findings of the effects of day
care are mixed, with numerous variables influencing the results. Emotions run high on this topic, as there
is a lot at stake for everyone involved.

Instructions for Students:

Write about your feelings regarding placing children in daycare. Were you placed in daycare? What was
it like? How did you feel about it? About your parents’ decision to place you there? Have you done it
with your children? Why? What are the benefits? Do you have any concerns about doing so? How are
they responding? What is the most difficult part? Are there any other alternatives? If you don’t have
children, do you think you will rely on daycare in order for you to be able to work? Why or why not?
What information presented in the text makes you feel comfortable with the idea of children in daycare?
What information concerns you about it? What do you think will be the overall effect on society of new
generations of children growing up in daycare environments? If you find them problematic, what might
the solution be to accommodate both the children’s needs and the parents’?

Use in the Classroom:

This makes an excellent topic for class discussion. Get input from students who experienced daycare

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Life-span Development, 5th Canadian Edition 6-13

themselves and input from parents whose children currently attend. Share stories, concerns, ideas,
alternatives, and reactions to the research findings in this area. Do students have any other ideas for
pertinent study regarding the daycare issue?

Personal Application 3: Remember When…

LO1, LO2, LO4

The purpose of this exercise is to get students to reflect on their childhood experiences and the
accompanying emotions. Society is far removed from the traditional family life of the 1950s in which the
father went away to work, the mother stayed home and cared for the children, and most families were
intact units that spent dinnertime and vacations together. As the diversity of our lifestyles grows, children
are experiencing any number of different experiences in the formative years of development such as dual-
earner families. They don’t participate in the decision-making process, and they’re not asked how they
feel about their circumstances. Yet, children are affected by their early experiences, and often we believe
the impact lasts well into our adult years.

Instructions for Students:

Write a short autobiographical description of your childhood. Talk about your family life, relationships
with your parents and siblings, who took care of you—the roles of each of your parents in this regard, and
anyone else who might have contributed. Do you recall how you felt about your situation growing up?
Did you feel loved and nurtured or neglected and abandoned? Did you have a lot of family time, and did
you enjoy it? If you had a broken home, did you feel the burden of additional responsibility? Did you feel
more independent? How do you feel your childhood experiences still influence who you are today?

Use in the Classroom:

An abbreviated option for this exercise is to have a class discussion in which students share small tidbits
about their childhood and the emotions they recall from certain experiences. Compare and contrast
students who had similar backgrounds—did they respond the same way to them, or were their reactions
quite different? Also see if there are students who experienced very different circumstances early on yet
had very similar emotional reactions to them.

Research Project Ideas

Research Project 1: Development of Self in Infants

LO2

This project examines the development of the self in infants. Prior to the start of the research, the project
must be approved by the human subjects review board at your school and the students must get a signed
informed consent form from the infants' parents. See the section entitled Ethics, Human Subjects, and
Informed Consent at the front of this Instructor’s Manual. Students will test an 8-month-old infant and an
18-month-old infant with a mirror recognition task. Each infant will be assessed with two tasks: one will
test for mirror recognition of the self and the other task will assess the infant's mirror recognition of an
object near the infant. The students will then answer the questions about their observations. The task
descriptions, worksheet, and questions are provided on Handout 5.

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Life-span Development, 5th Canadian Edition 6-14

  Task 1: Have the parent stand behind the infant and hold an attractive toy above and slightly
behind the infant's head, so that the infant can see the toy in the mirror but cannot see the toy
itself. Record whether the infant reaches for the reflection of the toy in the mirror or turns around
and reaches for the toy itself.
 Task 2: For one minute, count the number of times the infant touches its nose while looking in the
mirror. Then have the parent put a dab of rouge on the infant's nose and turn the infant back
toward the mirror. For the next minute count the number of times the infant touches its nose and
the number of times it touches the reflection of its nose.

Questions

1. Does the 8-month-old infant reach for the object? Does the 18-month-old reach for the object?
Does either infant reach for the reflection of the toy in the mirror? If so, which infant?

2. How does the 8-month-old infant react to his or her image in the mirror with the rouge on his or
her nose? How does the 18-month-old infant react to the image in the mirror with the rouge on
the nose? Do the infants of different ages react differently? Explain.

3. Is there a difference in the development of the ability to recognize the self and the ability to
recognize an object in a mirror? If so, why would this be?

Use in the Classroom:

Have students present the data from the research project. Divide the data by age and sex of the subjects
and evaluate the data for age and sex differences. Do the infants solve both tasks at the same age? If so,
what age? If not, which task is solved first? What would account for the age differences in behaviour?
What is developing? What cognitive, social, and biological factors might account for the developmental
change?

 You can expect that the younger child will probably be oriented to the mirror for both tasks. That
is, he or she will attend to the spot on the nose of the reflection and the reflection of the toy
behind. Both the rouge spot on the nose and the real toy are likely to be ignored or discovered
accidentally. The older child is likely to be oriented to the self for the rouge and to the toy behind
him or her. He or she is likely to touch the spot on his or her nose and turn around to look at the
real toy. Sex differences are unlikely to emerge. Maturation of the nervous system and visual
system, the appearance of mental representation and symbolic abilities, and experience with
mirrors might all be factors in this development.

Research Project 2: Attachment Behaviours

LO3

The purpose of this project is for students to become more familiar with attachment behaviours and to
practice their naturalistic observational techniques. Students can go to either the local shopping mall or a
local park and observe a caregiver with an infant 12 to 18 months old. They should observe for a period
of 15 minutes. Using Handout 6 they should describe the behaviours they see. Possible observed
behaviours are: protesting a separation when a mother walks around the shopping cart to get something
from the shelf and resistance or ambivalence when the mother picks the child up after paying for the
groceries.

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Life-span Development, 5th Canadian Edition 6-15

After they have collected their data, have them answer the provided questions:
 What kinds of behaviours did your caregiver-infant pair engage in? Did the infant use the
caregiver as the base for exploration? Was the infant allowed to explore?
 According to the categories secure and insecure, how did this pair seem? Were interactions
generally positive or generally negative? Did the relationship seem warm and affectionate or
hostile?

Use in the Classroom:

Aggregate the students' data. How many of the infants were rated as securely attached? What behaviours
led to that classification? How many infants were rated as insecurely attached? What behaviours led to
that classification?

Research Project 3: Assessing Daycare Quality: Field Observations

LO4
This activity requires students to visit a daycare centre caring for infants under age 2 and assess aspects of
quality based on course material. The activity culminates in a written evaluation of the centre and realistic
recommendations for improvements.

Students should be encouraged to use course material to develop a checklist of dimensions of quality for
the assessment. Some key dimensions are included below as a guide as well. Information obtained can be
incorporated into a short, written report (5-7 pages). The write-up should include integration of course
material.

Instructors may need to help smooth the way for students to visit a licensed day care centre in the
community. That is, instructors might call ahead with students present and speak with the director of the
centre and explain that students are conducting a class activity and would like to visit the centre for about
a half-hour. If a student works in a centre, another centre should be used for this project in order to get a
more objective picture of the quality variables being assessed. We suggest omitting “in-home” care as this
type of care varies so widely and care providers are less likely to let students visit. This activity may be
conducted with teams of students. Instructors will need to work with students using the procedures given
below to prepare them to be unobtrusive observers.

We suggest having students assess the following dimensions at a minimum and include other dimensions
as they wish:

1. Caregiver-child ratio
2. Staff turnover (Lower turnover is usually an indicator of better quality).
3. Staff training in childcare and child development and emergency procedures such as CPR, etc.
4. Adequacy of nutrition of the food and snacks provided.
5. The appearance of the facility—Do things appear to be clean and organized for the most part?
What procedures are used to keep toys clean and sick children isolated from other children?
6. What costs are involved in placing a child in care at the centre and is there a waiting list for care
and if so, how long is it?

Before students conduct this activity, it is advisable to cover information on daycare quality in class.
Students should read text material on this topic, as well, before undertaking this activity. Instructors also
will need to discuss with students how to unobtrusively conduct field observations without disturbing
those individuals being observed.

Students then conduct site visits and make assessments. There will not be time to simply take notes.

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Life-span Development, 5th Canadian Edition 6-16

Rather students should have developed checklists and adopted a shorthand style of some sort to keep
track of observations. It is often helpful to leave a centre and stop at a fast food restaurant after a visit and
fill in notes more completely. Also, two sets of eyes and ears are usually better than one, so to conduct
this activity in teams of two students is a good idea. Field notes should be incorporated into a 5-7 page
evaluation report. Instructors should encourage students to discuss their field observation experiences
with the class. There are a number of possible discussion themes; however, discrepancies between student
expectancies and the realities of daycare might be most interesting. Students should include realistic
recommendations for centre improvements in their evaluations. Directors of centres may request
evaluations but care should be exercised in this regard as students are novice observers and their findings
may not be conclusive. The focus on this activity is on giving students experience with field observations
and evaluating daycare quality in terms of course material, not on finding faults with various centres.

Feature Films and Videos

In this section of the Instructor's Manual we suggest films that may be available from local video rental
outlets. Have the students examine the YouTubes, on various topics in this chapter (www.youtube.com)

The following films and videos supplement the content of chapter 6.

Daddy Day Care (2003)

Starring Eddie Murphy, Jeff Garlin, Steve Zahn
Directed by Steve Carr

Two men fired from a large advertising firm decide to start a day care for their own sons and eight other
children. In over their heads, the pair of Dads have to quickly learn what it takes to raise children. After
hiring a man who seems to relate very well with the children they begin to build a successful business.
Their day care reviles the elite day car of their former employer, leading to a humorous showdown.

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Life-span Development, 5th Canadian Edition 6-17

Website Suggestions

The URLs for general sites, common to all chapters, can be found at the front of this Instructor’s Manual
under Useful Web Sites. At the time of publication, all sites were current and active, however, please be
advised that you may occasionally encounter a dead link.

Attachment Research and Mary Ainsworth

http://www.psychology.sunysb.edu/attachment/

A Comment on Quebec’s Daycare Policy from Down Under

http://www.smh.com.au/news/opinion/a-childcare-lesson-from-canada/2008/01/18/1200620205875.html

Becoming a Good Father

www.cfc-efc.ca/docs/fscan/00000009.htm

Canada’s Universal Child Care Plan

www.universalchildcare.ca

Statistics Canada’s Summary Tables on Children and Child Care (2007)

http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/ind01/l2_20000.htm

Temperament
http://www.temperament.com/

Vanier Institute of the Family

http://www.vifamily.ca/about/about.html

Finding quality child care

http://www.findingqualitychildcare.org/

Childcare and Research Unit

http://www.childcarecanada.org

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Life-span Development, 5th Canadian Edition 6-18

Handout 1 (CA 3)
Critical Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions

1. In chapter 6, the authors describe many claims about social development during infancy. The quality
of the evidence that supports each claim is quite varied. Which of the following claims is LEAST
supported? Which evidence is LEAST convincing according to scientific criteria? Circle the letter of
the best answer and explain why it is the best answer and why the other answers are not as good.

a. Caregivers of disorganized babies often neglect or physically abuse their babies.

b. Under stress, infants show stronger attachment to their mothers than their fathers.
c. Extensive daycare during the first year of an infant's life is associated with negative outcomes
later in life.
d. The expression of emotions by infants follows a predictable developmental course.
e. During the second year of life, an infant experiences conflict between autonomy versus shame
and doubt.

2. In previous chapters, there has been little opportunity to apply the various theories of development
you have learned before. Chapter 6, however, presents research and theorizing motivated by several
of these theories. The authors directly identify some of these, but do not do so for all topics. Listed
below are topics from chapter 6 paired with theoretical perspectives. Decide which of these pairs is
accurate. Circle the letter of the best answer and explain why it is the best answer and why the other
answers are not as good.

a. reciprocal socialization: psychoanalytic theory

b. attachment: cognitive theory
c. temperament: ethological theory
d. the father's role: behavioural theory
e. daycare: ecological theory

3. Attachment is a major topic in the study of infant social development. Which of the following
statements best represents an assumption by researchers, rather than an inference or an observation?
Circle the letter of the best answer and explain why it is the best answer and why the other answers
are not as good.

a. An infant cries when separated from its mother because it is attached to its mother.
b. The most important relationship in an infant's life involves attachment to a primary caretaker.
c. Stressed 12-month-old babies direct their behaviour toward their mothers.
d. Providing an infant with a comfortable, safe environment creates an attachment bond between an
infant and caretaker.
e. Some babies do not look at their mothers or try to be near them in the Strange Situation.

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Life-span Development, 5th Canadian Edition 6-19

Handout 2 (CA 3)
Suggested Answers for Critical Thinking Multiple-Choice Questions

1. In chapter 6, the authors describe many claims about social development during infancy. The quality
of the evidence that supports each claim is quite varied. Which of the following claims is LEAST
supported? Which evidence is LEAST convincing according to scientific criteria? Circle the letter of
the best answer and explain why it is the best answer and why the answers are not as good.

a. The statement caregivers of disorganized babies often neglect or physically abuse their babies
requires at least correlational evidence for support. Main and Solomon's research reported in the
text provides it.
b. Lamb's study reported in the text is an experimental test of the hypothesis that under stress,
infants show stronger attachment to their mothers than their fathers. The research confirmed that
tired infants exposed to a Strange Situation sought their mothers instead of their fathers.
c. Extensive daycare during the first year of an infant's life is associated with negative outcomes
later in life is not the best answer. While the evidence is mixed, there is research that documents
the association between daycare early in infants' lives and later negative outcomes. The
contradictions in the research seem to be satisfactorily resolved by the claim that later outcomes
are a function of the quality of daycare the infants attend.
d. Izard's research represents years of observational study and the development of a meticulous
system for classifying infant facial expressions. Furthermore, longitudinal work has documented
that the expression of emotions by infants follows a predictable developmental course, as
indicated in the table presented in the text.
e. This is the best answer because no evidence is presented to support the claim that during the
second year of life, an infant experiences conflict between autonomy versus shame and doubt.
Rather, the informal observations of a clinical psychologist are described. No systematic research
of any type is cited.

2. In previous chapters, there has been little opportunity to apply the various theories of development
you have learned before. Chapter 6, however, presents research and theorizing motivated by several
of these theories. The authors directly identify some of these, but do not do so for all topics. Listed
below are topics from chapter 6 paired with theoretical perspectives. Decide which of these pairs is
accurate. Circle the letter of the best answer and explain why it is the best answer and why the other
answers are not as good.

a. Reciprocal socialization: psychoanalytic theory is not an accurate pair. While psychoanalytic

theory does stress the importance of early relationships to personality development, it does not
focus on the influence of an infant's behaviour on an adult caretaker's behaviour. In fact, the
theory seems to imply a unidirectional analysis, focusing on how adult behaviour determines
personality outcomes in interaction with the developmental stage of the infant. The detailed
analysis of adult-infant interaction as a system of mutually regulated and synchronized
behaviours, intensively studied through observational techniques, is better paired with
behavioural or ethological theories.
b. Attachment: cognitive theory is not an accurate pair. Cognitive theory would focus on mental
processes such as schemes or information processing, or perhaps would include notions of innate
abilities to discriminate attachment figures from nonattachment figures. The emphasis in research
on attachment, however, is on observation of social interactions in well-defined contexts; and
attachment theorists speak of interacting systems of behaviour between infant and the attachment
figure. While the phenomenon of attachment seems to be related to cognitive development during
infancy, cognitive theory is not the source of the concept.
c. Temperament: ethological theory is the most accurate pair. A major claim is that temperament

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Life-span Development, 5th Canadian Edition 6-20

 has a biological basis and survival value, which is the focus of ethological theory. An interest in
individual differences is also a mark of the biological heritage of ethological theory.
d. The father's role: behavioural theory is not an accurate pair. If behavioural theory had motivated
research in this area, there would be an analysis of the rewards and punishments currently
operating in families or societies to encourage or discourage fathers from taking part in child
rearing. However, the focus is a more observational study of what fathers are doing. It is not clear
that the material in the chapter derives from any specific theoretical perspective.
e. Daycare: ecological theory is not an accurate pair. As was the case with item “d,” it is not clear
that a specific theoretical approach has motivated research on daycare. The stimulus appears to
be more pragmatic and empirical—namely, the simple need to analyze and evaluate a major
change in the early social life of infants that has occurred over the past three decades.
Interestingly, the ecological perspective could be used to organize and discuss information in this
area, but that has not been done explicitly in this chapter. Also, Belsky, who views families as
subsystems of individuals, is a researcher in this area, suggesting that he has done some systems
analysis of daycare and its effects on children.

3. Attachment is a major topic in the study of infant social development. Which of the following
statements best represents an assumption by attachment researchers, rather than an inference or an
observation? Circle the letter of the best answer and explain why it is the best answer and why the
other answers are not as good.

a. The following statement is an inference: an infant cries when separated from its mother because it
is attached to its mother. It is an explanation offered to account for the observation that infants
often cry when they are separated from their mothers.
b. The most important relationship in an infant's life involves attachment to a primary caretaker is
the assumption. One indication is Kagan's challenge that attachment is not as important as other
researchers think it is. Another is that this point is taken for granted in the text, without evidence
or justification. A third is that if researchers did not believe this, so much work would probably
not have been invested in studying it.
c. The statement that stressed 12-month-old babies direct their behaviour toward their mothers is an
observation and a summary of data collected by Lamb and others in their studies of the correlates
of securely and insecurely attached infants. Simply stated, infants who were classified as
insecurely attached were later seen to be more likely to fuss, cry, or be angry if they were
challenged with a problem or difficult task.
d. Providing an infant with a comfortable, safe environment creates an attachment bond between an
infant and caretaker is an inference from the conclusion of a variety of studies of the causes of
attachment in humans and monkeys. Researchers have tested hypotheses about the causes of
attachment in experimental and correlational studies. They have concluded from this work that
comfort and safety are primary determinants of attachment.
e. The observation that some babies do not look at their mothers or try to be near them in the
Strange Situation is seen in both systematic and casual observations of infants. It is one way that
researchers and caregivers have seen babies behave in the presence of their mothers.

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Life-span Development, 5th Canadian Edition 6-21

Handout 3 (CA 4)
Critical Thinking Essay Questions

Your answers to this kind of question demonstrate an ability to comprehend and apply ideas discussed in
this chapter.

1. Explain how developmentalists have studied emotions in infants.

2. Discuss what we learn about infant cognitive and social development by studying infant smiling and
crying.

3. Analyze your own temperament. Indicate how your temperament can be explained by the Chess and
Thomas approach. Also indicate how stable your temperament has been over the course of your
development and what factors may have contributed to this stability or lack of stability.

4. Explain Erikson's concept of trust versus mistrust. Give a hypothetical situation of a parent-infant
interaction that leads to the infant developing trust and an example in which the infant would develop
mistrust.

5. Compare and contrast Mahler's and Erikson's explanations for the development of independence and
the self during infancy.

6. Explain the main criticisms of the Strange Situation procedure.

7. Indicate and explain the individual differences in attachment, and the relationship of early attachment
to later social interactions.

8. Explain reciprocal socialization. Provide at least two examples of how parents socialize their
children and two examples of how children socialize their parents in your response.

9. What does it mean to think of a family as a system? Illustrate your answer using the concepts of
reciprocal socialization, scaffolding, or attachment.

10. Compare and contrast fathers' and mothers' ability to care for infants, and each parent's typical
caregiving practices.

11. If you were a parent who could choose whether to stay home with your children or place them in
daycare, what factors would you consider in making this decision?

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Life-span Development, 5th Canadian Edition 6-22

Handout 4 (CA 4)
Ideas to Help You Answer Critical Thinking Essay Questions

1. Begin by thinking about emotions. In your own words, what are they? How many are there? How
easy or difficult are they to describe and explain? Have you ever felt that others don’t understand
your emotions? After considering the nature of emotions, explain how developmental psychologists
study them, considering the tremendous challenge of this endeavor and the creativity involved in the
methodology.

2. To help you put the significance of these two behaviours in perspective, consider your argument to
the notion that a baby is “just smiling” or “only crying.” In other words, through your discussion
convey the profound developmental issues present in these behaviours.

3. Re-read the Chess and Thomas approach to understanding and explaining temperament. Describe
and analyze yours according to their classification.

4. Preface your explanation with a description of Erikson’s basic theoretical approach to personality.
What is the notion behind the concept of trust vs. mistrust? What does Erikson theorize follows this
concept? Explain the stage and present your examples within this context.

5. Begin by defining independence and what is meant by the notion of self. Compare and contrast from
there.

6. Briefly explain Ainsworth’s approach to attachment and the reasoning behind the Strange Situation.
Having established this basis, discuss the criticisms.

7. What is meant by attachment? Establish an understanding of the concept; then discuss individual
differences, and how attachment relates to subsequent social interaction.

8. Think about your own relationships and the interactions that take place within them. Identify
examples of the bidirectionality of influence. Do you exhibit behaviours or have you developed
opinions similar to those close to you? Have others become more like you in their thinking and
mannerisms? With these images in mind, explain the occurrence of reciprocal socialization in parents
and children.

9. Describe a “scene” from your own family—current or childhood. Do you recognize aspects of a
system present in that scene? Continue your discussion by addressing reciprocal socialization,
scaffolding, and/or attachment.

10. Create a chart: “Mom vs. Dad.” Make a list of the particular aspects of caregiving, and note each
one’s involvement, participation, effectiveness, investment, etc.

11. Address each factor presented in the text. How relevant a factor is each to you? What factors would
weigh more heavily in your decision? Why?

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Life-span Development, 5th Canadian Edition 6-23

Handout 5 (RP 1)
Development of Self in Infants

This project examines the development of the self in infants. Prior to the start of the research, the project
must be approved by the human subjects review board at your school and you must get a signed informed
consent form from the infants' parents. You will test an 8-month-old infant and an 18-month-old infant
with a mirror recognition task. Each infant will be assessed with two tasks: one will test for mirror
recognition of the self and the other task will assess the infant's mirror recognition of an object near the
infant. After you have completed the tasks, answer the questions about your observations. The task
descriptions, worksheet, and questions are provided below.
Task 1:
Have the mother stand behind the infant and hold an attractive toy above and slightly behind the
infant's head, so that the infant can see the toy in the mirror but cannot see the toy itself. Record
whether the infant reaches for the reflection of the toy in the mirror or turns around and reaches for
the toy itself.
Task 2:
For one minute, count the number of times the infant touches its nose while looking in the mirror.
Then have the mother put a dab of rouge on the infant's nose and turn the infant back toward the
mirror. For the next minute count the number of times the infant touches its nose and the number of
times it touches the reflection of its nose.
Child 1 Child 2
Sex ____ Age ____ Sex ___ Age ____

Task 1
Reaches to mirror

Reaches to toy

Task 2
Touches mirror

Touches nose

Questions:

1. Does the 8-month-old infant reach for the object? Does the 18-month-old reach for the object?
Does either infant reach for the reflection of the toy in the mirror? If so, which infant?

2. How does the 8-month-old infant react to his or her image in the mirror with the rouge on his or
her nose? How does the 18-month-old infant react to the image in the mirror with the rouge on
the nose? Do the two infants react differently? Explain.

3. Is there a difference in the development of the ability to recognize the self and the ability to
recognize an object in a mirror? If so, why would this be?

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Life-span Development, 5th Canadian Edition 6-24

Handout 6 (RP 2)
Attachment Behaviours

The objectives of this project are for you to become more familiar with attachment behaviours and to
practice your naturalistic observational techniques. Go to either the local shopping mall or a local park
and observe a caregiver with an infant 12 to 18 months old. The observation period should be 15 minutes.
Describe the behaviours you see occurring. Then, you should answer the provided questions.

Behaviours Child: Age ____ Sex ____

Talking

Laughing

Tickling

Clinging

Crying

Escaping

Retrieving

Mutual gaze

Hitting

Smiling

Yelling

Generally positive interaction

Generally negative interaction

Questions:

1. What kinds of behaviours did your caregiver-infant pair engage in? Did the infant use the
caregiver as the base for exploration? Was the infant allowed to explore?

2. According to the categories secure and insecure, how did this pair seem? Were interactions
generally positive or generally negative? Did the relationship seem warm and affectionate or
hostile?

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Life-span Development, 5th Canadian Edition 6-25