Carbon and its compounds – Part 4

1. Combustion

• All the allotropic forms of carbon burn in the presence of oxygen releasing carbon
dioxide along with heat and light.

• The chemical equation for the carbon compounds undergoing combustion are as
follows:

(i) C + O2 → CO2 + heat and light

(ii) C2H6 (Ethane) + O2 → CO2 + H2O + heat and light

(iii) C5H11OH (Pentanol) + O2 → CO2 + H2O + heat and light

• Saturated hydrocarbons undergo combustion giving a clean flame. But in the

presence of limited supply of air hydrocarbons produces a sooty flame as a result
of incomplete combustion.

Gas stove at home has inlets for sufficient supply of oxygen and hence the mixture
burns giving a clean blue flame. But if the inlets get blocked the fuel remains unburnt
and hence the bottom part of the cooking vessels gets blackened.

Combustion of fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum containing nitrogen and sulphur
leads to the formation of oxides of nitrogen and sulphur that acts as major pollutants in
the environment

Take a gas stove having clean inlets for sufficient supply of oxygen. Burn the stove and
heat a spoon. The spoon will not get a deposition of a black layer.

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Take another gas stove having blocked inlets and heat the spoon. Soon deposition of a
black layer over the spoon can be easily observed due to insufficient supply of oxygen
resulting in the production of unburnt carbon particles.

Fig. Experiment to prove that in limited supply of air hydrocarbons produces a sooty
flame and deposits black layer on the utensils

• Unsaturated carbon compounds will give a yellow flame releasing an enormous

amount of black smoke.

Formation of Coal

1. About 300 million years ago, there were dense forests in low lying areas on Earth.

2. Those forests got buried under the soil due to natural processes such as flooding.

3. Many layers of soil were deposited in these buried forests during the course of time.

4. As they sink deeper and deeper into the Earth, there is an increase in temperature.

5. Hence, all of those plants were converted into coal due to intense pressure and heat
inside the Earth.

6. The process of conversion of this vegetation or plants into coal is called

carbonization.

7. The plants buried under the soil undergo carbonization and change into coal.

8. Coal burns and produces mainly carbon dioxide when heated in the presence of the
air.

Formation of Petroleum

Like coal, carcasses of dead plants and animals were buried at the bottom of the sea
millions of years ago. They got covered with layers of sand and clay over the period of
decomposition of organic matter. Due to high pressure, increased temperature and
absence of air, they are transformed into petroleum.

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Petroleum is obtained by digging oil wells in the Earth’s crust. When an oil well reaches
a petroleum deposit or natural gas, if present, it is first released with tremendous
pressure. The petroleum, which is also under pressure, then rises. It no longer rises
naturally when the pressure of the petroleum falls. After this, water, gases, etc., are
injected into the well to force more oil.

2. Oxidation

Carbon compounds gets readily oxidised on combustion. The following equation shows
the conversion of alcohols to carboxylic acid.

3. Addition Reaction

• During addition reaction an unsaturated hydrocarbon adds hydrogen to the

reaction in the presence of catalysts.
• Catalysts such as palladium or nickel proceed a reaction to a different rate
without affecting the reaction to give saturated hydrocarbons.

Unsaturated compound Saturated compound

Ethene Ethane

• This reaction is extensively used in the hydrogenation of vegetable oils

containing long unsaturated carbon chains using a nickel catalyst.
• Animal fats on the other hand have saturated carbon chains.

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 • Vegetable oils are healthy. Animal fats generally contain saturated fatty acids
which are said to be harmful for health. Oils containing unsaturated fatty acids
should be chosen for cooking.

4. Substitution Reaction

A reaction in which one functional group or atom is replaced by another functional group
or atom is called substitution reaction.

In the presence of sunlight addition of chlorine to hydrocarbons is a fast reaction that

results in replacement of the hydrogen atoms one by one. This is an example of
substitution reaction because chlorine replaces the hydrogen attached to the carbon
atom in the hydrocarbon.

CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl (in the presence of sunlight)

Methane Chlorine Choro methane Hydrochloric acid

Properties of Ethanol

• Ethanol exists in liquid state at room temperature.

• Mixture of alcohol to ethane results in the formation of ethanol and it is the active
ingredient of all alcoholic drinks. Even a small quantity of ethanol if consumed
can causes drunkenness.
• Being a good solvent, it is also used in medicines like tincture of iodine, cough
syrups, and many other tonics.
• Reactions of Ethanol
• Reaction with sodium –

Reaction of alcohols with sodium leads to the evolution of hydrogen. Reaction of sodium
with ethanol the product formed along with hydrogen is sodium ethoxide.

• Reaction to give unsaturated hydrocarbon:

Reaction of ethanol with excess concentrated sulphuric acid acting as dehydrating

agent at 443 K results in the dehydration of Ethanol leading to the formation of Ethene.

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Alcohol as a fuel

Sugarcane plants are one of the most efficient convertors of sunlight into chemical
energy. Sugarcane juice can be used to prepare molasses which is fermented to give
alcohol (ethanol). Some countries now use alcohol as an additive in petrol since it is a
cleaner fuel which gives rise to only carbon dioxide and water on burning in sufficient air
(oxygen)

Alcohols affect living beings

When large quantities of ethanol are consumed, it tends to slow metabolic processes
and to depress the central nervous system. This results in lack of coordination, mental
confusion, drowsiness, lowering of the normal inhibitions, and finally stupor. The
individual may feel relaxed without realising that his sense of judgement, sense of
timing, and muscular coordination have been seriously impaired. Unlike ethanol, intake
of methanol in very small quantities can cause death. Methanol is oxidised to methanal
in the liver. Methanal reacts rapidly with the components of cells. It coagulates the
protoplasm, in much the same way an egg is coagulated by cooking. Methanol also
affects the optic nerve, causing blindness. Ethanol is an important industrial solvent. To
prevent the misuse of ethanol produced for industrial use, it is made unfit for drinking by
adding poisonous substances like methanol to it. Dyes are also added to colour the
alcohol blue so that it can be identified easily. This is called denatured alcohol.

Properties of Ethanoic Acid

• Ethanoic acid commonly known as acetic acid belongs to a group of carboxylic

acids.
• Vinegar used in our day to day life is a 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water. It is
extensively used as a preservative in pickles.

Fig. Bottle of vinegar

• Pure ethanoic acid has a melting point of 290 K due to which it often freezes in
cold climates giving rise to its name as glacial acetic acid.
• Esterification reaction:

Esters are produced as a result of the reaction of an acid such as ethanoic acid and an
alcohol such as ethanol in the presence of an acid catalyst.
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Esters are sweet-smelling substances and used for various purposes like in perfumes
and also used as flavouring agents.

Reaction of ester with sodium hydroxide, results in the conversion of ester to alcohol
and sodium salt of carboxylic acid.

The reaction is known as saponification and is extensively used in the preparation of

soap.

Fig. Perfume bottle (right) and adding flavouring agents to food items (left)

• Reaction with a base

Ethanoic acid reacts with base leading to the production of salt and water. For example,
it reacts with sodium hydroxide to give salt of sodium ethanoate or commercially known
as sodium acetate and water. The reaction is as follows:

Sodium ethonoate
Or
Sodium acetate

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 • Reaction with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates:

Carbonates are salt of carbonic acid possessing carbonate ion, CO2−3. On the other
hand Hydrogen carbonates are formed when CO2 reacts with water.

Ethanoic acid reacts with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates leading to the
production of salt, carbon dioxide and water. The salt produced is commonly known as
sodium acetate.

2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 → 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2

CH3COOH + NaHCO3 ---> CH3COONa + H2O + CO2

Soaps

• A soap is the salt of a strong base (sodium hydroxide) and a weak acid (carboxylic acid), so
a solution of soap in water is basic in nature.
• Being basic, a soap solution turns red litmus paper to blue.

MANUFACTURE OF SOAP
• Heating of animal fat or vegetable oil with concentrated sodium hydroxide solution (caustic
soda solution) forms soap.
• Reaction of fats or oils with sodium hydroxide forms soap and glycerol:

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 STRUCTURE OF A SOAP MOLECULE
• A soap molecule makes up of two parts:
o A long hydrocarbon parts
o A short ionic part containing – COO–Na+ group.
• The soap molecule is said to have a tadpole structure.

• The long hydrocarbon chain is hydrophobic (water-repelling), so the hydrocarbon part of

soap molecule is insoluble in water but soluble in oil and grease.
• The ionic portion of the soap molecule is hydrophilic (water-attracting) due to the polar
nature of water molecules. So, the ionic portion of soap molecule is soluble in water but
insoluble in oil grease.
• If on the surface of water, soap is present then the hydrophobic tail which is not soluble in
water will align along the water surface.

CLEANSING ACTION OF SOAP

• Dirt is mostly oily in nature and hence it does not dissolve in water.
• Sodium or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acids make up the molecule of soap so
that the carbon chain dissolves in oil and the ionic end dissolves in water.

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• Thus the soap molecules form structures called micelles. One end of micelles is towards
the oil droplet and the other end which are ionic faces outside.

• So, it forms emulsion in water and helps in dissolving the dirt.

• In a soap micelle, the soap molecules arrange radially with hydrocarbon ends directed
towards the centre and ionic ends directed outwards.

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• On putting a dirty cloth is put in water containing dissolved soap, attaches the hydrocarbon
ends of the soap molecules in the micelle to the oil or grease particles present on the
surface of the dirty cloth.
• In this way the soap micelle entraps the oily or greasy particle by using its hydrocarbon end.
• The ionic ends of the soap molecules in the micelles, however, remain attached to water
as colloidal solutions.
• The oily and greasy particles present on its surface, entrapped by soap micelles get
cleaned thoroughly by rinsing in clean water a number of times.
• The soap solution appears cloudy as it forms a colloidal solution which scatters light.

DETERGENTS

• Detergents are also called ‘soap-less soaps.

• This is because though they act like soap in having the cleansing properties, they do not
contain the usual ‘soaps’ like sodium stearate, etc.
• A detergent is the sodium salt of a long chain of benzene sulphonic acid (or the sodium salt
of a long chain alkyl hydrogen sulphate) which has cleansing properties in water.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SOAPS AND DETERGENTS

Soaps Detergents

Soaps are the sodium salts (or potassium Detergents are the sodium salts of long chain
salts) of the long chain of carboxylic acids benzene sulphonic acids or long chain alkyl
(fatty acids). The ionic group in soaps is – hydrogen sulphates. The ionic group in a
COO-Na+ detergent is –SO3-Na+

Soaps are not suitable for washing purposes Detergents can be used for washing even when
when the water is hard. the water is hard.

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 Soaps are biodegradable.
Some of the detergents are not biodegradable.

Soaps have relatively weak cleansing action. Detergents have a strong cleansing action.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DETERGENTS

OVER SOAPS
• Detergents have a number of advantages over soaps due to which they are replacing soaps
as washing agents.
• Detergents are better than soaps because of the following reasons:
o Detergents can be used even with hard water whereas soaps are not suitable for use with
hard water.
o Detergents have a stronger cleansing action than soaps.
o Detergents are more soluble in water than soaps.
• A notable disadvantage of detergents over soaps is that some of the detergents are not
biodegradable.

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