2nd Day Reviewer

Math
Operations on Integers and Polynomials – for reference
go to notebook and papers
Factoring Perfect Square Trinomial and Quadratic
Trinomial – for reference go to notebook and papers

Science
Periodic Table of Elements
Elements – are pure substances that are made up of only one type of atom,
are the building blocks of mater, there are currently known 118 elements,
some of the elements occur naturally on Earth some are synthesized in
modern science laboratories
Johann Dobereiner – attempted to group the elements by threes based on
the observed similar properties among them called LAW OF TRIADS in 1817
Alexander Beguyer de Chancourtois – 1st scientist to recognize the interval
between the elements when they are arranged in order in terms of their
atomic weights, he created a 3-dimensional arrangements and
representation of elements called the TELLURIC SCREW as the element
telluric was situated in the center, he illustrated the elements as a
continuous spiral around a metal cylinder divided into 16 parts, he dealt
mainly with geological concept
John Newlands – proposed that elements can be arranged using the atomic
weights with similar properties known as LAW OF OCTAVES in 1863
Dmitri Mendeleev – in 1869 a Russian scientist and professor noticed not
many reference to study chemistry, He made a book called titled “The
Principles of Chemistry, known as the “Father of Modern Periodic Table”, he
created the frame work that became the modern periodic table, leaving
gaps for elements that were yet to be discovered
Lothar Meyer – in the same year as Dmitri Mendeleev he published his own
arrangement of elements based on the increasing atomic mass,
unfortunately both arrangements were not fully accepted
Henry Moseley – in 1963 he determined the atomic number of each known
element at that time and from his experiments he realized that elements
may be arranged in increasing Atomic number order rather than atomic
weights
Periodic Law – states that similar properties would repeat periodically when
elements are arranged in increasing atomic number
Glenn Seaborg – in 1940 he was able to successfully synthesize transuranic
elements, his discovery of all transuranic elements eventually resulted in the
last major changes in the periodic table—the placing of the actinide and
lanthanide series below. In 1951, Seaborg was awarded the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry, and the element seaborgium (Sg) was named after him
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) – is the
international body that represents chemistry and related sciences and
technologies, is the recognized authority for maintaining chemical
standards, nomenclature (way of naming compounds), measurements,
standard atomic masses, and naming of the elements that appear in the
periodic table

(Note: After the discovery of the subatomic particles many have changed,
names and chemical symbols for the elements, elements are arranged
according to increasing atomic number, elements are organized in columns
(groups) and rows (periods))
THREE TYPES OF ELEMENTS
Metal
Nonmetal
Metalloid
(Note: general properties exhibited by each type of elements see page 251)
Valence Electron – the outermost electrons of atom, can be used to tell the
group where the element belongs to, also elements found in the same
group also have similar properties because of the same number of valence
electrons
Periods or Series – the horizontal arrangement in the periodic table shows
the highest energy level of the electron (principal quantum number) of an
element
Groups – the elements are numbered from 1 to 18, from left to right of the
periodic table (see page 255-258 for groups)

 Electron Configuration
Electron configuration - describes the location and energy of the electrons in
an atom, also shows the distribution of electrons in each energy level
located in various locations or orbitals
Electron cloud – region in the atom where electrons may be found, or where
the electrons are most likely to be found at a given time
QUANTUM NEUMBERS
Atomic orbital – region in which there is a high probability of finding
electrons
Quantum number – is a value that is used when describing the energy levels
of electrons in atoms, can also be used to describe the location and space in
which an electron may be found
  Principal Quantum Number or Main Energy Level (n)
 Principal quantum number – specifies the energy of an electron and
the size of the orbital and its distance away from the nucleus, all
orbitals that have the same value of n are said to be in the same level
 Angular momentum Quantum Number or Sublevel (l)
Angular momentum quantum number – represents the shape of the
sublevel in each energy level, which may be expressed from 0 to (n – 1)
 Magnetic Quantum Number or Orbitals (ml)
Magnetic quantum number – describes the orientation in space of an orbital
of a given energy (n) and shape (l)
 Spin Quantum Number (ms)
Spin quantum number – describes the spin of an electron in an orbital, an
electron can spin only in 2 directions, which is either clockwise (m s = + ½) or
counterclockwise (ms = - ½)
(Note: FOR REFERENCE AT THE TABLE LOOK AT THE BOOK!!! Pg.236)
RULES IN THE DISTRUBUTION OF THE ELECTRONS IN EACH ORBITAL
1. Aufbau Principle
It states that a lower energy orbital should be filled first before the
next higher energy orbital
the arrangements of orbital energy as follows S -) P -) D -) F
2. Pauli Exclusion Principle
No two electrons can have exactly the same set of quantum numbers
3. Hund’s Rule
This rule states that every orbital of the same energy must be singly
occupied with one electron before any orbital is doubly occupied, fill
first all of the empty orbitals before pairing
 Summary of Steps on how to write the electron configuration of an
element
1. Determine the atomic number of the element remember that in a
neutral atom, the atomic number is also equal to the number of
electrons.
2. Fill the sublevel with the superscript that shows its number of
electrons.
3. Do not forget to take into consideration the maximum number of
electrons in each sublevel
4. After the sublevel 3p, the sequence of the electron configuration
varies, so you need to be familiar with the order of the orbitals

 Periodic Trends

Atomic Radius – is one-half the distance between the nuclei of 2 atoms

Ionization Energy – is the amount of energy required to remove an electron
from a neutral atom in its gaseous phase
Electronegativity –the ability of an element to attract valence electrons
Electron Affinity – the ability of an atom to accept an electron
Metallic Character – the tendency of an element to lose electrons and form
positive ions or cations
(Note: for reference about their trends see paper)

Laws of Motion
Force – any push or pull
TYPES OF FORCES
 Applied – force that is applied on an object through direct pushing or
pulling
 Gravitational – force exerted by gravity, also known as weight
 Normal – is perpendicular to the surface an object is in contact with, if
there is no surface in contact with there is no normal force, a force
that exists whenever an object is in contact with a surface
 Elastic – present in springs
 Tension – present in cables, strings, cords, and other similar materials
 Frictional – impedes motion
Law of Inertia – states that a body at rest will continue to be at rest, a body
in constant motion will continue to be in constant motion unless acted upon
by force
a = acceleration in meter per second squared (m/s2)
f = net external force in newtons (N)
m = mass in kilograms (kg)
F/M=A
F/A=M
AxM=F
Inertia – tendency of a body to resist any change in its motion
(Note: The greater the mass of the object, the greater the inertia it has, and
lesser mass less inertia)
(Note: Mass – the measure of inertia)
(Note: Isaac Newton was born on December 25, 1642, he developed the 3
laws of motion, law of universal gravitation, made discoveries in the field of
infinitesimal calculus)
(Note: if the force acting on an object are balanced, the object will either be
at rest or in constant motion along a straight line)
Law of Acceleration – states that acceleration is directly proportional to the
force and is inversely proportional to the mass (go pg.11 for formula of
science book)
(Note: greater force greater acceleration, greater mass lesser acceleration,
lesser mass greater acceleration)
Law of Interaction / Law of Action and Reaction – states that for every action
there is an equal and opposite reaction
(Note: action and reaction forces do not cancel each other because they act
on separate bodies, action and reaction forces act simultaneously, and
action and reaction forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction)

Comets, Meteoroids, and Asteroids

Comets – also known as dirty snowballs, made up of frozen gases, rocks and
dust that orbit the sun
3 COMET PARTS
Nucleus
 Solid and known as the central part of the comet
 Made up of rock, dust, and frozen gasses
 Generally around 50km across or less
Coma
 When the comet gets close to the sun the gasses sublimate and form a
cloud around the nucleus
 Some comets such as Comet Holmes is estimated to be larger than the
diameter of the sun
Tail
 Radiation and solar wind of the sun pushes some of the dust particles
away from the coma creating a tail
 Also observed that ion tails may extend to 1 astronomical unit (AU) or
more
(Note: the word comet comes from the Greek word kometes, which
means “long- haired star”)
CLASSIFICATION OF COMETS
Long-period comests are believed to come from the Oort cloud
Short-period comets are believed to come from the Kuiper Belt

Oort cloud – named after John Oort, is found at the outermost part of the
solar system
Kuiper Belt – an area where most comets are found and is located near
the orbits of Neptune up to Pluto and a little beyond
Halley’s Comet – one of the most famous comet that comes near earth
every 75 to 76 years, is visible to the human eye, and due to its shot-
period orbit, it can be seen twice in a human lifetime

Meteoroids – are debris that are usually rocky and metallic in nature that
orbit the solar system
Meteor – a meteoroid that enters earth’s atmosphere and burns up,
often called shooting star due to the streak of light they create or falling
stars, are also called fireballs especially when they are bigger than Venus
Meteorites – meteoroids that reach the earth’s surface is called
meteorites
(Note: meteor showers usually occur when earth as it orbits the sun
passes through a comets path, meteor showers usually occur every year)
  Meteoroids are generally composed of nickel and iron, but some
show composition similar to earths chondrites

3 TYPES OF METEORITES
 Iron(metallic) meteorite
 Stony(rocky) or stone meteorite
 Stony-iron(combination of rocky and metallic) meteorite

Asteroids – are generally rocky and irregularly shaped celestial objects that
are formed for over 4.6 billion years ago from the remnants of the formation
(or the debris) of the solar system
(Notes: the closer the asteroid is to the sun the less silicate it has, the
asteroids near the sun are generally composed of carbon with a few
amounts of nonmetals such as oxygen and hydrogen)

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

There are 930,664 identified asteroids in the solar system as of 2019

ACCORDING TO COMPOSITION
C-Type – also known as chondrite, refers to asteroids that are mostly made
of clay and silicates
S-Type – which means stony, usually rocky in nature and generally made up
of nickel, iron, and other silicates
M-Type – refers to metallic asteroids and usually made up of pure nickel and
iron
(Note: Asteroids are rocky celestial objects that are also known as planetoids
and minor planets)

ACCORDING TO LOCATION
Main Belt – the asteroid belt, which is located between the orbits of Mars
and Jupiter
Near-Earth asteroids – are asteroids that pass near earth
Trojans – are asteroids located near Jupiter Lagrange
(Note: Most asteroids are found in the asteroid belt, a region located
between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter with roughly around 1.9 million
asteroids with diameters larger than 1000m or 1km)
Largest known asteroid in the inner solar system is 4 Vesta with an average
diameter of 55 km, 4 Vesta is the 2nd most massive celestial bode nest to
Ceres found in the asteroid belt, it has a mass equal to 9% of all combined
asteroids,
Heinrich Willhelm Olbers – the one who discovered 4 Vesta in 1807 in
Bremen, Germany