SUBJECT: Essentials of Engineering Construction Materials
Masonry – Masonry refers to the construction technique that involves the use of
FAMILIARIZATION OF CONSTRUCTION TOOLS
Classification of Construction Tools
● Carpentry tools
Carpentry – refers to skilled trade that focuses on working with wood to create,
construct, install, repair, and maintain various wooden structures and items.
Measuring Tools
1. Two foot for folding rule - a measuring tool that is typically utilized for short
distances
2. Extension rule - used to measure interior distances such as those between
doors, windows, shelves, etc.
3. Push-pull tape rule - is utilized to calculate great distances.
4. Slide caliper rule - is employed to calculate a cylinder object's outside
diameter.
Marking tools
1. Chalk line - is used to mark up an unpolished work.
2. Round pencil lead - is used to mark up a plain work.
3. Scriber - is employed to mark fine craftsmanship. It is made of sharp,
hardened steel with the purpose of marking fine lines.
4. Compass - is used to engrave circles or arcs.
Guiding Tools
1. Level - Without them, it would be impossible to determine whether the
structure you are constructing is level.
Fastening tools
1. Claw hammer - a particular kind of hammer that is primarily used for driving
nails into or pulling them out of wood.
2. Wrenches - A jaw-and-handle hand tool with a handle that may be placed to
the nuts head of a bolt that is being tightened or loosened.
Toothed Cutting Tools
1. Crosscut saw - perfect for rough-cutting wood and clipping branches.
Sharp-Edged Cutting Tools
1. Chisel - an indispensable tool in carpentry which is also considered as the
most abused tool often used for prying, can opener, open cases or as driver.
Hoding Tools
1. Clamps - Tools that can hold work securely in place temporarily.
2. Vises - A tool used to hold a piece of material rigidly secured in place to
absorb severe blows.
3. Work bench - a crucial item in carpentry work because of the numerous tools
it can hold.
● Masonry tools
individual units, such as bricks, concret blocks, or stone to build structures.
1. Mason’s Axe/Hammer - axe hammer used in two different ways; chisel and
driving nails.
2. Cross peen hammer - is a cross head hammer where one is shaped like a
wedge.
3. Brick Hammer - is another type of combination hammer which is used for
dressing and cutting bricks, stone, or concrete.
4. Cold chisel - is a common tool for masonry work used for dressing or cutting
stones, concrete, metal and other materials with the aid of hammer.
5. Patent Hammer - is a hammer composed of a group of thin chisels.
6. Star drill - used for boring or drilling holes on hard surface such as rock, stone
and concrete.
7. Crandall - a tool with sharp pointed steel spikes used for dressing stone or
concrete.
8. Bolster - a tool similar in appearance with the cold chisel including its
services but has a wide blade edge.
9. Wrecking bar - a very useful tool made of steel bar used in demolition work
and in pulling-off large nails.
10. Bull float - a tool used to smooth freshly placed concrete.
Surface Finishing Tools
1. Common Float - used for smoothing or for producing textured surfaces on
cement or plaster.
2. Angle float - used for finishing corners or for plastering.
3. Devil/Nail Float - a tool used to roughen the surface of plaster to provide a
key for the next coat.
4. Carpet Float - used in plastering to produce a fine grained texture in sand
finishes.
Trowels
1. Ordinary Trowel - similar in appearance as the ordinary float but with a steal
blade.
2. Buttering Trowel - a small trowel used to pread mortar on bricks and tiles
before it is laid.
3. Pointing Trowel - a trowel used in pointing or removing and laying mortar in
masonry joints.
4. Edger - a finishing trowel used on the edges of fresh concrete or plaster to
form a rounded corner.
5. Brick Trowel - its sides has a box-like appearance spread mortar.
6. Margin Trowel - especially used for working corner angles.
Miscellaneous Masonry Tools
1. Spade - a basic construction tool used in many of the dirty work in the
concrete mix of plaster.
2. Mason’s box - a shallow box, made of wood,used to contain mortar or plaster
to make it easily accessible to the mason.
3. Gi pail - in the absence of a chute or a buggy, it is used as a vessel in handling
concrete mix, mortar or plaster.
4. Measuring Box - a box, made of board or plywood with handle used for
measuring sand, gravel etc.
5. Mixing Board - usually made of wood or concrete used for mixing concrete in
the absence of a concrete mixer.
6. Rubber Foam - used to obtain a fine-grained texture in plastering.
7. Painter’s Brush - it is used in masonry work similar to the foam.
8. Plastic/Nylon String - used for making and guiding the block laying, tile
laying, etc.
9. Aligning Stick - a straight piece of lumber, used in plastering the pavement to
assure alignment or a straight surface.
● Tinsmithing tools
Tinsmithing – Tinsmithry or tinsmithing refers a traditional metalworking trade that
involves the shaping, cutting, and joining of thin sheets of metal, typically tinplate.
Tnsmithing Tools
1. Tinsmith’s anvil - essentially flat, strong metal bases that give tinsmiths a
stable platform on which to hammer or form metal.
2. Hammer - are incredibly adaptable tools, commonly used for shaping sheet
metal
3. Tin snips - hand tools that can easily cut through sheets of metal with the same
ease that conventional scissors do with paper.
4. Seaming Pliers - are used to tightly grasp, bend, and fold over sheet metal
edges.
5. Stakes - are used in tinsmithing to shape metal objects.
6. Soldering Iron - Through melting a filler metal at the joint, two metals are
bonded through the process of fusing.
7. Flat scrapers - An easy-to-use hand tool called a flat scraper is used to remove
metal from flat surfaces.
8. Pipe expanders - are specialized instruments made to resize a sheet metal
pipe's end diameter for a variety of plumbing purposes.
● Painter tools
Painting - refers to the application of paint, pigment, color to a solid surface. In the
context of construction, painting refers to the application of paint or a protective
coating to various surfaces, such as walls, ceilings, doors, and windows of a
building.
Painter’s Tools
1. Hook scraper - often referred to simply as a "scraper," is a hand tool used for
removing unwanted materials such as paint, adhesive, or varnish, from a
surface.
2. Wall scraper - also called a ‘stripper’ is a small, hand-held tool used for
removing old paint or wallpaper from walls.
3. Putty knife - also known as a paint putty knife or spackling knife, has a flat,
thin, and flexible blade with a tapered edge.
4. Putty Plate - is a tool used by painters and other tradespeople for various
purposes, particularly for mixing and applying putty, filler compounds, or
other similar materials during painting and construction projects.
Paint Rollers
1. Corner Roller - a specialized paint application tool used in painting and
decorating, designed to facilitate the painting of the corners of walls.
2. Trim roller - also known as a mini roller or trim paint roller, is a tool designed
for painting trim work and other detailed surfaces.
3. Cutting-in roller - a specialized roller designed with a built-in guide wheel or
edge that allows for precise cutting-in along corners, edges, and ceiling lines.
4. Paint brush - hand-held tools with bristles or filaments attached to a handle.
a. Small Bristles Brush
i. Angle Sash Brush - have bristles that are cut at an angle,
typically around 3 degrees from the handle.
ii. Round Brush - paint brushes for decorative painting and
furniture, like chair and table legs.
b. Large Paint brush - large paint brushes are generally used for a large
area of the house.
5. Wire Brush - come in various types and designs, each tailored to specific
applications in cleaning, surface preparation, and other tasks.
a. Wire Scratch Brush - are used for removing rust, paint, scale, and
corrosion from metal surfaces.
b. Wire Tube Brush - are used for cleaning the interior of tubes, pipes, and
other cylindrical objects, such as gun barrels and plumbing pipes.
c. Brass Wire Brush - are non-sparking and gentler on surfaces, making
them suitable for cleaning and polishing softer materials without
causing damage.
 6. Paint Sprayer - a device used to apply paint, coatings, and other liquids to
surfaces using a spray or mist of fine particles. ● Electrical tools
a. HVLP (High VolumeLow Pressure) Paint Sprayer - a device used to Electricity - is the flow of electrical power or charge. Electricity refers to the
apply paint, coatings, and other liquids to surfaces using a spray or mist electrical systems, components, and installations used in building and construction
of fine particles. projects.
b. Cup Gun Sprayer - a device used to apply paint, coatings, and other Electricity Tools
liquids to surfaces using a spray or mist of fine particles. 1. Screwdrivers - is a hand tool used for turning screws.
2. Nut Driver - are similar to screwdrivers but have a socket-like end for
● Plumbing tools tightening or loosening nuts on bolts.
Plumbing - refers a system of pipes, valves, and other components used to transport 3. Pliers - are hand tools designed for gripping, bending, cutting, and twisting
fluids within a building or from one location to another. wires and electrical components.
Plungers 4. Wire Stripper - are used to remove the insulation from electrical wires without
1. Cup Plunger - used for unclogging showers, sinks, and bathtubs by putting a damaging the conductor.
rubber cap over the drain. 5. Multimeter - is a versatile tool used to measure voltage, current, resistance,
2. Flange Plunger - is a plunger specifically made for unclogging toilets. and continuity in electrical circuits.
Pliers - used to move and grip small objects, and bend small wires and rods. 6. Voltage Tester - are used to check for the presence of electrical voltage in
1. Tongue-in-Groove Pliers - You can slide its jaw and lock it in place, outlets, wires, and components without direct contact.
commonly used for turning and holding nuts and bolts, gripping irregularly 7. Circuit Tester - often referred to as a "test light," is used to identify live wires
shaped objects, and clamping materials. and test for circuit continuity.
Screwdrivers - are part of a plumber's toolkit and are tailored to meet the needs of 8. Cable Cutter - are designed for cutting thick electrical cables, such as those
working with plumbing fixtures, and pipes used in power distribution.
1. Power Screwdrivers 9. Electrical Tape - used to insulate and protect electrical connections and to
2. Interchangeable Heads Screwdrivers bundle and label wires.
Wrenches 10. Power Drill - are used for drilling holes, driving screws, and other fastening
1. Pipe Wrench - a fitting plumbing tool that is used to loosen or tighten the tasks.
connections of pipes, joints, nuts, etc.
2. Strap Wrench - is a type of wrench that uses a flexible strap or belt to grip and WOOD AND UNIT MEASUREMENTS
turn objects. Woods - Fibrous substances which compose the trunk and branches of the tree that
3. Adjustable Wrench - a versatile hand tool that features an adjustable jaw, lies between the pith and the bark. The most common of the building materials
allowing it to accommodate a range of sizes of nuts, bolts, and other fasteners. Principal Parts and Cross-Section of a Tree
4. Hacksaw - a cutting plumbing tool that is used to cut the plastic pipes, steel 1. Bark - the physical barrier for protection,
hollow roads, steel thin sheets, angles, etc. insulation, and moisture control.
5. Tube and Plastice Pipe Cutters - are specialized tools used for cutting tubes a. Outer Bark - composed of dead
and plastic pipes cleanly and accurately in plumbing, construction, and cells, commonly referred to as ‘cork’.
various DIY projects. b. Inner Bark - composed of cells
6. Plumber’s tape (Thread Sealing Tape) - also known as Teflon tape or PTFE that transport sap and nutrients throughout the
tape, serves a crucial purpose in plumbing by providing a secure and tree.
watertight seal between threaded pipe connections. 2. Cambium Layer - It is a thin layer of
7. Plumber’s Putty - a soft, pliable sealing compound used to make watertight growing tissues that produces new cells that become xylem (cells on the
seals around faucets, drains, and other plumbing parts.
 inside) , phloem (cells on the bark side), or more cambium. The cambium is 5. Grain
what makes the trunk; branches and roots grow larger in diameter. a. Straight
a. Phloem Cells - transport sap and other nutrients throughout the tree. b. Cross
b. Xylem Cells - transport water and minerals throughout the tree. c. Fine
3. Sapwood - composed of the xylem cells created by the layer surrounding it, d. Coarse
the vascular cambium layer. Sapwood is responsible for water transport and 6. Nature of the surface when sawed
storage through the tree’s daily water cycle. a. Plain b. Grained c. Figured or marked
4. Heartwood - is a layer of wood composed of dead xylem cells and fiber Characteristics and Properties of Wood
bundles. It can be darker, lighter or the same color as sapwood Wood has unique characteristics when it is compared to other building materials
5. Pith - The center most portion of the tree. The pith or medulla is surrounded a. Natural d. Work ability
by a ring of xylem cells, which is then surrounded by a ring of phloem cells. b. Biodegradable e. Renewable
a. Medullary Rays - horizontal rays that extend away from the core of a c. Recyclable f. Hygroscopic (the ability to absorb water)
tree towards the bark. Wood has particular properties that are important to how it’s used
Commercial Classification of Wood 1. Degradation - Wood is subject to degradation by bacteria, fungi, insects,
Wood is classified into 2 kinds: marine borers, and climatic, mechanical, and thermal factors.
a. Hardwood - ‘deciduous’ trees that have broad leaves. Most Philippine timber 2. Sensory characteristics - Sensory characteristics include colour, lustre, odour,
is of this latter kind texture, grain, figure, weight, and hardness of wood.
b. Softwood - come from the conifers (evergreens) which have needles instead of 3. Mechanical Properties - The mechanical properties of wood are its ability to
leaves e.g. pine resist applied or external forces.
Wood is classified according to: a. Elastic Properties:
1. Mode of growth i. Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) - material's ability to resist elastic
a. Exogenous - are those outward growing trees (which are most preferred deformation when stress is applied to it
for lumbering) ii. Modulus of Rupture (MOR) - is a measure of a specimen's
E.g. oak, mahogany, redwood, spruce strength before rupture.
b. Endogenous - are those inside growing trees (and are not preferred for b. Strength Properties:
lumbering because they produced a soft center core.) i. Compression - application of balanced inward pushing forces to
E.g. bamboo, pal, cane different points on a material or structure.
2. Density ● Compression parallel to the grain
a. Soft ● Compression perpendicular to the grain
b. Hard ● Compression at an angle to the grain
3. Leaves ii. Tension - Pulling forces transmitted axially by the means of a
a. Needle shape (conifer) string, a cable, chain, or similar object.
b. Broad shape ● Tension parallel to the grain
● Tension perpendicular to the grain
4. Shade of Color iii. Shear - force acting in a direction that is parallel to a surface or
a. White cross section of a body
b. Yellow ● Vertical shear
c. Red ● Horizontal shear
d. Brown ● Rolling shear
e. Black
 iv. Bending - when loaded in bending, the portion of the wood on Kinds of Wood Preservation
one side of the neutral axis is stressed in tension parallel to grain, Wood does not simply decay because of age or because it is completely dry or wet. It
while the other side is stressed in compression parallel to the decays because of other elements, such as:
grain. a. Fungi
v. Shock resistance - ability of the wood to quickly absorb and then b. Insects and worms
dissipate energy through deformation. c. Sunlight
4. Physical Properties **Wood Preservation**
a. Directional properties - Longitudinal, Radial, Tangential. 1. Internal Processing
b. Dimensional Changes - occur in wood due to the changes in moisture - most effective preservation method
content and temperature. - uses a preservative chemical solution
c. Density - calculated by counting its weight per unit volume. - solution is applied under pressure
d. Specific Gravity - Wood fiber has a specific gravity of 1.5 - pressure is achieved through the use of machine
5. Hygroscopic Properties - it expands when it absorbs moisture and shrinks 2. External Processing
when it dries or loses moisture. - Preservative meant to only sit on the wood surface
a. Moisture Content - the weight of the water it contains - Preservatives applied externally
b. Fiber Saturation Point - It is a term used especially in wood drying, to 3. External Non-Pressuring Processing
denote the point in the drying process at which only water bound in the a. Brushing
cell walls remains and all other water, called free water, having been - Preservative are applied through brushing
removed from the cell cavities. - Much better if oil type preservative is used
c. Shrinkage and Swelling - Wood undergoes dimensional changes. Loss - Preservative must be applied hot
of moisture results in shrinkage, and gain results in swelling. b. Spray
6. Thermal properties - wood expands and contracts with varying temperature. - Preservative are applied using spray gun
Only temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F) have the potential to cause dimensional - Time saving and as effective as brushing
changes to the wood. c. Immersion
7. Electrical Properties - Dry wood is an excellent electrical insulator. However, - Submerges the wood in a pool of preservatives
the resistivity decreases dramatically as moisture content increases in the - Much better in preserving than brushing and spraying
hygroscopic range. - It’s a long process
8. Acoustical Properties - Wood can produce sound (by direct striking) and can d. Charring Method
amplify or absorb sound waves originating from other bodies. - Burning the surface of the wood usually by using blowtorch
Methods of Lumbering Wood Seasoning and Finishing
Wood is used to make many things—from homes to furniture to toothpicks. The Green - It contains a lot of water
lumber industry transforms the trees of the forests into the lumber from which other Green Lumber - Cannot be used in Construction
products are made. Its tasks include logging—cutting trees down, sawing them into Wood Seasoning - performed to reduce the moisture of the wood 19% or less
logs, and carrying the logs to the sawmill to be sawed into boards and timbers, or
NATURAL SEASONING ARTIFICIAL SEASONING
lumber.
1. Felling the tree (cutting the tree) AIR SEASONING SEASONING BY BOILING
2. Limbing and bucking ● most common method of seasoning ● Basically, just boiling wood in
3. Moving the logs to the sawmill ● stores the wood in a cool, dry, and water
4. Sawing logs into lumber, laminated wood, plywood, & etc. shaded place ● Also done to remove the sap
● Large amount of wood is steamed
rather than directly being boiled
 Board Measurement
WATER SEASONING CHEMICAL SEASONING
● wood is submerged in flowing ● Salt solution is used to reduce the LUMBER - enerally sized according to thickness, as in the case of rough sawn
water to remove the wood sap moisture of the wood lumber, or in specific widths, thicknesses and/or lengths as in the case of dimensional
● Wood sap is part of the moisture ● Salt draws out moisture lumber. Here we will define each to help you better understand the sizing methods
content of the wood used when referring to lumber "size".
DIMENSIONAL SIZING -
KILN SEASONING This measuring method is
● Most effective way seasoning
probably the most recognized
wood
● Uses a special room or large by the average person. It is
chamber that can control the air used in almost all
circulation, humidity and "Do-It-Yourself" type stores
temperature that sell lumber, or any place
selling lumber for construction
ELECTRICAL SEASONING
purposes. We recognize such
● Alternating current is used to dry
wood “sizes” as 2x4, 2x6, 4x4, 1x2,
● The use of electricity in seasoning etc. This measurement refers to
is very expensive the thickness and width of the
lumber, with the length
varying. In reality, these
Wood Finishing - process of polishing and protecting the wood to prepare it for
measurements are not a true
woodwork, especially for furniture
measurement of the lumber’s
Types of Wood Finishes
thickness or width. The true
1. Surface finishing - Finishes that are meant to stay on the wood surface
measurement of a 2x4 is
a. LAYERED FINISHES
actually about 1.5′′ x 3.5′′.
i. Polyurethane
When the board is first rough
- Most popular finish as of today
sawn from the log, it is a true
- It’s shiny and has an artificial finish
2x4, but the drying process and
- It almost has the same look and finish as varnish
planning of the board reduce it
ii. Lacquer
to the finished 1.5′′ x 3.5′′ size.
- It has a high gloss and shiny finish so it’s mostly used in high
The lumber is then sold as a
end furniture
“2x4” because the cost of the
- It’s also available in spray can
drying and machining are figured in. It is also much easier to refer to a board as a
- Lacquer is more expensive compared to other finishes
“2x4”, rather than a “1.5 x 3.5”.
2. Penetrating Finishing - Its purpose is to protect the wood all the way to its
inside.
i. OIL FINISHES
- It offers a more natural look compared to layered finishes
- It makes the color of the wood more vibrant and make the
wood grains pop up without it looking artificially done
- It’s lacking in protection compared to layered finishes
Different Types of wood and its Uses on Woodworking
on cherry and maple
● Can be extremely expensive
● Difficult to find
● Creates fine dust when you sand
or saw it
● Not water-resistant and hence
exhibits a tendency to soak up
water and swell
● Doesn’t hold screws very well

CONCRETE AND CONCRETE PRODUCTS

SOLID WOOD
Soft wood - a lumber that comes from a
conifer tree
Pine boards are commonly used in
home construction and framing.
Advantages:
● easy to work with.
● cuts and sands smoothly
Disadvantages:
● Soft
● scratch and dent easier
● curved and warped boards
Hard wood
Advantages:
● lasts for years or hundreds of
years, any hardwood is a good
choice.
● Hardwood is rarely stained.
Walnut and Maple for example
are commonly seen in
chessboards
Disavantages:
● The density of hardwood can
make them tough on tools and
they can be difficult to work with.
Less than sharp saw blades are
notorious for leaving burn marks
MANUFACTURED
Plywood
Advantages:
● fairly inexpensive compared to
solid lumber.
● Plywood is very strong and stable.
● with high strength and stiffness to
weight ratio.
● It's equally strong in either
direction.
Disadvantages:
● heavy and difficult to move
around and manage alone.
● The edges can be a little bit of an
eyesore.
● can be tricky to cut.
● Urea and phenol formaldehyde
used for gluing causes cancer.
Medium Density Fiber Board (MDF)
Advantages:
● Easy to machine and work with. It
cuts like butted, and edge profiles
rout out easily.
● Does not splinter
● Its surface is very smooth and has
no knots, which makes a great
base for painting and finishing.
Disadvantages:
● Can be a bit fragile especially
near the edged where it can
collapse like cardboard if you’re
not careful.
● Extremely heavy
Concrete can be defined as the composite material composed of the binding
medium, such as a mixture of cement, water, and different fine and coarse
aggregates. Concrete has been used for centuries and has proven to be a reliable and
cost-effective choice for construction projects. It offers strength and stability, making
it suitable for various applications such as foundations, walls, and pavements.
Concrete Materials
1. CEMENT - is a substance that holds other materials together and makes them
harder.
2. SAND - provides weight, strength, and stability to other building materials,
including asphalt, concrete, mortar, render, cement, and screed.
3. AGGREGATES - Raw materials like gravel, crushed stone, and sand that
come from natural sources and are taken out of pits and mines are called
aggregates. It has two types:
a. FINE AGGREGATES -are construction materials with a small particle
dimension. Fine aggregates are utilized in mortar, plaster, concrete,
road pavement layers, and other applications.
b. COARSE AGGREGATE - construction material that has particle sizes.
Coarse aggregates are primarily used in concrete, ballast for railroad
tracks, etc.
4. FLY ASH - Fly ash improves the workability of plastic concrete, and the
strength and durability of hardened concrete.
5. WATER - is required for preparation of mortar, mixing of cement concrete and
for curing work etc during construction work. The amount and quality of
water used in construction works have a big impact on how strong mortar and
cement concrete are.
Measuring and Mixing of Materials
CONCRETE MIXING RATIO - It is a proportion of cement, sand, aggregate and
water used to create concrete mix. This ratio affects the strength, durability, and
workability of the product.
 a. CLASS AA ( 1 : 1 ½ : 3 ) Effects of Excess Water in a Concrete Mix
Cement: 1 sand: 1 ½ aggregate: 3 The presence of excessive water in a concrete mix although may facilitate the easy
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH: 4000 PSI placement of concrete but it is also lower the overall quality of product.
1. Strength reduction
b. CLASS A ( 1 : 2 : 4 ) 2. Drying Shrinkage
Cement: 1 sand: 2 aggregate: 4 3. Loss of abrasive resistance
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH: 3500 PSI 4. Increase in permeability
5. Dusting and scaling
c. CLASS B ( 1 : 2 ½ : 5 ) 6. Reduced durability
Cement: 1 sand: 2 ½ agreggate: 5
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH: 3000 PSI Transporting and Placing Concrete
TRANSPORTING OF CONCRETE - is a way to move fresh concrete from where it
d. CLASS C ( 1 : 3 : 6 ) is mixed to where it will likely be used in the structure.
Cement: 1 sand: 3 aggregate: 6 IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORTING CONCRETE
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH: 2500 PSI ● Weather conditions
● Size of construction,
WHY IS MEASURING OF MATERIALS AND THE RATIO IMPORTANT? ● Type of construction,
- A well-balanced concrete mixing ensure that the structure has a necessary ● Topography,
strength and stability. ● Location of the batching plant,
● An incorrect ratio can lead to issues such as weak concrete, cracks or ● Cost of transportation
even structural failure 11 BEST METHODS FOR TRANSPORTATION OF CONCRETE
● It is essential to follow the recommended ratios for different applications 1. Mortar Pan - used when the concrete is carried out in small quantities.
to achieve better results. 2. Wheelbarrow - used for transporting concrete at ground level.
3. Crane bucket and ropeway - are the methods for transporting concrete above
Proportion and Water Content the ground level.
Water is an essential component when making a concrete. The moisture that water 4. Chute - adapted for transporting concrete from ground level to the lower level.
provides also gives concrete its strength during the curing process. The accurate 5. Skip and Hoist - adopted for transporting concrete vertically for high rise
quantity of water for a mix depends your selection of water cement ratio, building construction.
compressive strength, workability, durability, maximum nominal size of aggregate, 6. Transit mixer - is one of the most popular equipment for transporting concrete
grading,type of aggregates , absorption and the degree of control. The ratio of the over a long distance mostly in RMC plant (Ready Mixed Concrete plant).
amount of water to the amount of cement materials by weight is called the 7. Belt conveyors - are used for a small horizontal distance such as 5-meter to
water-cement ratio or w/c ratio. 10-meter.
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 8. Pumps and Pipelines - Pumping of concrete is universally accepted and more
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 reliable method of concrete transportation and placing.
9. Tremie - is the most common method for underwater transportation of concrete,
tremie pipe is used for that.
10. Dumpers and trucks - are the ordinary open steel tipping lorries used for long
hauls in horizontal transport at ground level.
11. Monorail system - consists of a track and a power wagon mounted on the single
rail track, which can move at a speed of 80-90 meter/minute.
Placing of Concrete DURATION OF CURING
PLACING OF CONCRETE - is an important process in the construction that The curing period typically lasts for at
determine the success of the structure and its life. least seven days for most concrete
1. Shotcrete - a method of applying concrete projected at high velocity primarily mixes, although it can be longer for
on to a vertical or overhead surface. certain applications. It could be 20 or
2. Slip Forming - a construction method in which concrete is poured into a more days to get the best concrete
continuously moving form. results.
PROTECTION DURING CURING
Hardening and Curing It's essential to protect the curing
Hardening - a drying process of cement that is made up of mixed materials. With a concrete from external factors like rain,
chemical reaction it forms a hard substance as hard as a rock. extreme temperature fluctuations, and
● PERIODS OF HARDENING OF A CONCRETE physical damage and other things that
○ INITIAL SETTING TIME - The initial setting time of concrete is the could cause damage to the concrete.
period during which the concrete begins to harden. This is the point at Temperatures should be controlled as
which it can no longer be easily molded or worked with. well, atleast 5°C - 15°C to obtain best results.
○ FINAL SETTING TIME - The final setting time is the moment where
concrete is hardened to the point where it can support some load without Surface Finishing
damage. CONCRETE SURFACE FINISHING - It is the process of creating a concrete
○ HYDRATION PROCESS - Hardening is a result of the hydration process. surface of the desired smoothness, texture, and durability.
Cement and water react with water to form chemical compounds, which 8 Types of Concrete Surface Finishing
give concrete its strength. 1. Troweled Finish - After the concrete is laid in the formwork and leveled, the
○ TEMPERATURE AND MOISTURE CONTROL - Maintaining the right trowel is used to smooth and fine-level the surface of concrete.
temperature and moisture conditions during the hardening phase is a. Power trowel
crucial. Temperature can hardly affect the concrete's strength and b. Manual trowel
durability. 2. Broom finish - A broom is dragged across the surface of the concrete after it
Curing - a process that is responsible for the moisture of the cement and also ensures has been smoothed to generate microscopic ridges that give traction control,
the hydration of the cement, which is very important to maintain temperature especially when the concrete is wet.
conditions to further enchance the strength and durability of the cement. 3. Exposed Aggregate Finish - obtained by placing concrete and then removing
● CURING METHODS OF A CONCRETE the outer 'skin' of cement paste to uncover decorative coarse aggregate (either
○ MEMBRANE CURING - Applying curing compounds or membranes to batched into the concrete mix or seeded onto the surface). Because of its
the concrete surface to retain moisture. durability and skid resistance, an exposed aggregate finish is ideal for most
○ STEAM CURING - Boosting curing by exposing the concrete to steam flatwork including:
○ WATER CURING - Keeping the concrete surface continuously wet by, a. Sidewalks d. Pool decks
sprinkling water, or using wet burlap or curing blankets. This will prevent b. Driveways e. Plazas
the concrete from losing too much water. c. patios
4. Salt finish - obtained by inserting coarse rock salt crystals using rollers on the
freshly placed concrete surface and washing it off with streams of water after
the concrete is set.
 5. Stamped concrete - is a form of decorative concrete that requires heavy
stamps and texturizing mats that mimic the shapes and textures of other
building materials like tile, wood planks, and natural stone slabs.
6. Swirl finish - is a one-of-a-kind concrete finish that is achieved by spreading
the concrete surface in a circular pattern that is evenly overlapping.
7. Polished finish - is achieved by a mechanical process of grinding and
polishing with the help of a penetrant chemical to provide different texture
with the help of specialized tools and equipment.
8. Colored finish - can be carried out by either pigment or strains. The pigmented
colored concrete can be accomplished by adding the pigments directly to the
concrete mix prior to pouring.
Precast Concrete - is a form of concrete that is prepared, cast and cured off-site,
usually in a controlled factory environment, using reusable moulds. Precast concrete
elements can be joined to other elements to form a complete structure.
MASONRY
Masonry- is the art of constructing a structure out of brick, stone, or a substance
comparable to those materials, including plastering, which are often laid in, bound
and pasted together by mortar (a workable paste which hardens to bind building
blocks, mixture of sand, water, and cement or lime which is put between bricks to
hold them together); the term masonry can also refer to the actual building materials
(stone, brick, etc.).
APPLICATIONS: Masonry is used in a wide range of construction projects,
including residential buildings, commercial structures, retaining walls, bridges, and
more.
HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Many ancient and historical structures were built
using masonry techniques. The Great Wall of China, the Pyramids of Egypt, and
various European castles are examples of monumental masonry constructions.
CONSTRUCTION PROCESS: The process involves arranging the units in a specific
pattern or layout, then binding them together with mortar, which is a mixture of
cement, sand, and water.
● Advantage:
1. Longer lifespan
2. Doesn't rot, and insects, ants, and termites can't destroy its structure.
3. Known for its durability, fire resistance, and thermal mass properties.
● Disadvantage:
1. More expensive compare to others
2. Takes longer to build
DIFFERENT PROPERTIES OF MASONRY
1. Durability - Masonry is known for its durability and longevity. Properly
constructed masonry structures can last for centuries.
2. Structural Strength - It provides excellent compressive strength, making it
suitable for supporting heavy loads and resisting structural stresses.
3. Fire Resistance - Masonry materials, especially bricks and concrete blocks,
have high fire resistance, providing a level of safety in the event of a fire.
4. Thermal Mass - Masonry has high thermal mass, which means it can store and
release heat slowly. This helps in regulating temperature variations in a
building.
5. Weather Resistance - Properly constructed masonry walls can withstand harsh
weather conditions, including rain, wind, and temperature fluctuations.
6. Variety of Finishes - Masonry products come in various finishes, allowing for
a wide range of aesthetic possibilities.
7. Aesthetic Variety - Masonry units are available in a diverse range of materials,
sizes, colors, textures, and shapes. This versatility empowers architects to craft
visually appealing and customized structural elements.
8. Environmental Impact - Considerations for sustainability and environmental
impact are increasingly important, and some masonry products may be
manufactured with eco-friendly practices or materials.
DIFFERENT PROPERTIES OF MASONRY PRODUCTS
BRICKS - Made from fired clay
● Composition: Usually made of clay, which is fired in a kiln.
● Dimensional Accuracy: Bricks are manufactured with precise dimensions,
ensuring uniformity in construction.
● Color and Texture: Depending on the type of clay and firing process, bricks
can vary in color and texture.
● Weight: Bricks can be relatively heavy, which influences design
considerations.
CONCRETE BLOCKS - Composed of cement, sand, and aggregate, concrete blocks
are known for their uniform dimensions.
● Composition: Made from a mixture of cement, sand, and aggregate.
● Dimensional Accuracy: Concrete blocks are typically manufactured with high
precision.
● Variety of Finishes: Can have a smooth or textured finish, and can be painted
or left exposed.
● Insulating Properties: Some concrete blocks are designed to have insulating
properties, contributing to energy efficiency.
HARDWARE FERROUS AND NON - FERROUS METALS
METALS - A solid material with good electrical and thermal conductivity that is
often hard, opaque, and shiny.
FERROUS METALS - Metals that contain as the primary element. They are and
can be easily shaped of form. However, due to their high-carbon content many
ferrous metals are prone to rusting.
PROPERTIES OF FERROUS METALS
Mechanical properties - It is refer to the characteristics of a material that describe its
behavior under applied forces or loads.
● MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FERROUS METAL
○ Tensile Strength - The tensile strength of ferrous metals used in
construction, ranges from 400 to 550 megapascals (MPa).
○ Yield Strength - Ferrous metals used in construction, have a yield
strength ranging from 250 to 450 megapascals (MPa).
○ Ductility - A ductility test is a way to measure how easily the metal
can be stretched or deformed without breaking.
○ Impact Resistance - Ferrous metal is known for its exceptional
impact resistance. It can effectively absorb energy from sudden
impacts, such as those from heavy machinery, accidental collisions,
or extremeweather conditions
Physical Preperties - Characteristics that can be observed or measured without
changing its composition.
● PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FERROUS METALS
○ Strength and Durability - Ferrous metals, are known for their
excellent strength and durability, making them highly suitable for
various construction applications.
○ Weldability - The strong and durable welds contribute to the
overall strength and load-bearing capacity of the constructed
structures, making ferrous metals a preferred choice in the
construction industry.
○ Corrosion and Resistance to Rust - Ferrous metals generally have a
high carbon content, which as a result, makes them vulnerable to
rust when exposed to the elements.
○ Cost Effectiveness - Ferrous metals a cost-effective choice for
construction projects, contributing to their widespread use in the
industry.
TYPES OF FERROUS METALS
1. MILD STEEL – is a type of Carbon steel with a low amount of carbon— It is
actually known as because it does not contain large amount of other elements
besides Iron
Properties
1. Ductility – Mild steel exhibits high ductility, allowing it to be easily formed, bent,
stretched without losing its structural integrity.
2. Malleability – Mild steel possesses excellent malleability, making it well-suited
for processes such as rolling, forging, and extrusion.
3. Weldability – Mild steel is highly weldable, allowing for the efficient and effective
joining of pieces through welding.
4. Strength – Mild steel exhibits a good balance of strength, allowing it to bear
significant loads and stresses.
2. CARBON STEEL – is a type of steel that contains carbon as the main alloy
element. High carbon content in steel enhances strength and hardness when heat
treated, but reduces ductility and malleability, making it less weldable and lower
in melting point.
Properties
1. High strength – Carbon steel exhibits high tensile strength, making it suitable for
applications where structural integrity and load-bearing capacity are essential.
2. Hardness – Carbon steel can achieve high hardness levels through heat treatment
processes, such as quenching and tempering.
3. Machinability – Carbon steel generally has good machinability, meaning it can be
easily processed using various machining techniques, such as drilling, milling, and
turning.
4. Versatility in Heat treatment – Carbon steel is highly versatile in terms of heat
treatment. Through processes like quenching and tempering, the material can be
tailored to achieve specific hardness, strength, and toughness levels.
3. STAINLESS STEEL – Stainless steel is a corrosion-resistant alloy of iron,
chromium, and often other elements, such as nickel or molybdenum.
Properties
1. Corrosion Resistance – The addition of chromium forms a protective chromium
oxide layer on the surface, preventing rust and corrosion.
2. High strength and Durability – Stainless steel combines high strength with
durability, providing reliable performance in various applications. Stainless steel's
robustness contributes to its longevity and suitability for long-term use.
4. CAST IRON - Cast iron is a strong and brittle alloy of iron, carbon, and silicon, Metallurgy
with additional elements such as manganese, sulfur, and phosphorus. It is ● The word derives from the Greek roots metallon, "metal, "and ergon,
produced by melting iron and then casting it into molds. "work."
Properties ● Is the branch of science and technology that deals with the study of metals
1. Heat Retention – Cast iron has a high thermal mass, meaning it can absorb and including their properties, and the process of extracting, refining, and
store a significant amount of heat. utilizing metallic elements.
2. Castability – Cast iron exhibits excellent castability, allowing it to be easily poured
into intricate molds and shapes. PROPERTIES NON-FERROUS METALS
3. High strength and Durability – Cast iron is known for its high strength and ● Non-magnetic – Non-ferrous is non-magnetic, meaning they do not possess
hardness. It can withstand heavy loads and has excellent wear resistance, making it magnetic properties making them ideal for wirings and electronics.
ideal for applications where durability and resistance to abrasion are essential. ● Lightweight – Non-ferrous are often lighter than ferrous metals. However,
not all non-ferrous metals are lightweight.
5. WROUGHT IRON - Wrought iron is a form of iron with a very low carbon ● Resistant to Rust and Corrosion – Non-ferrous metals do not have
content, typically less than 0.08%. It is produced by a labor-intensive process significant iron content, making them highly resistant to rust and corrosion
known as "wrought iron smelting" involving repeated folding and hammering of ● Good Conductivity – Non-ferrous materials are high in conductivity,
iron to remove impurities and create a fibrous structure. allowing electric current or heat to flow with minimal resistance.
Properties ● Traditionally Valued – Non-ferrous is high in demand that its supply,
1. Highly Ductile and Malleable – Wrought iron is highly ductile and malleable, making them quite expensive to acquire.
allowing it to be easily forged and shaped into intricate designs. ● Recyclability – Non-ferrous metals can be recycled severally with minimal
2. Corrosion resitance – It can demonstrate good corrosion resistance under certain risk of degradation compared to ferrous metals.
conditions. The fibrous slag inclusions, a result of the manufacturing process, can act EXAMPLES OF NON - FERROUS METALS
as barriers against corrosion. Aluminum
3. Elasticity – Its fibrous structure contributes to a degree of elasticity. When - Silvery white color
subjected to moderate stress, wrought iron can deform and then recover its original - Lightweight metal
shape, making it suitable for applications where some flexibility is desirable. - Good conductor of heat and electricity
- Inexpensive and used for casting
NON-FERROUS METALS Copper
- Non-ferrous metals are metals that do not contain iron or ferrous. - Red / Brown in color
Consequently, all metals in their pure form are non-ferrous, aside from Iron. - Ductile and malleable metal
These metals are often higher in resistance and corrosion and properties - Good conductor of heat and electricity
such as high conductivity, lightweight, and non-magnetic. Lead
- One of the heavy metals
HISTORY - Soft and malleable metal
- Non-ferrous metals were the first metals used by humans for metallurgy. - Bluish-white / Dull grayish color
They have a rich history, and early humans were attracted to these metals Zinc
because they hardly corrode. - Resistant to corrosion
- One of the first non-ferrous metals discovered by man is copper, and this - Used as coating steel
signaled the start of the copper age. - Ductile and malleable metal
Tin
- Bright silver in appearance
- Ductile and malleable metal
- Resistant for corrosion
- Used for coating
Gold
- Luster and bright yellow in color
- Dense and malleable metal
- It won't tarnish and discolor
Silver
- Soft white lustrous transition metal
- Highest thermal and electrical conductivity
- Pure and free elemental form
Magnesium
- Silvery white in color
- Lightweight metal
- Often used in automotive industry
- Slightly tarnish when exposed to air
Brass
- Dark reddish brown to light silvery yellow in color
- Easy to form in various shapes
- Good conductor of heat
- Resistant to corrosion
Bronze
- Hard and brittle metal
- High resistance to corrosion
Solder
- Fusible metal alloy, used to join the metals together