Professional Documents
Culture Documents
A Hierarchical Fuzzy Axiomat ic Design Survey for Ergonomic Compat ibilit y Evaluat ion of Adva…
Salvador Morales
Lean-Six Sigma Framework for Ergonomic Compat ibilit y Evaluat ion of Advanced Manufact uring Tech…
Juan L Hernandez
An Expert Syst em Approach for Ergonomic Evaluat ion of Advanced Manufact uring Technology
Jorge Luis Garcia
CHAPTER 1
THE DISCIPLINE OF ERGONOMICS
AND HUMAN FACTORS
Waldemar Karwowski
University of Louisville
Louisville, Kentucky
L
INTERACTIONS 5
7.3 Applications of Axiomatic Design 22
IA
3 HFE AND ECOLOGICAL
COMPATIBILITY 8 8 THEORETICAL ERGONOMICS:
SYMVATOLOGY 23
ER
4 DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF THE
CONTEMPORARY HFE DISCIPLINE 9 CONGRUENCE BETWEEN
AND PROFESSION 13 MANAGEMENT AND ERGONOMICS 24
AT
5 PARADIGMS FOR THE ERGONOMICS 10 INTERNATIONAL ERGONOMICS
DISCIPLINE 15 ASSOCIATION 26
6 ERGONOMICS COMPETENCY AND 11 FUTURE CHALLENGES 28
M
LITERACY 17
REFERENCES 28
7 ERGONOMICS DESIGN 18
D
TE
Ergonomics (Gr. ergon + nomos), the study of work, ment of ergonomics internationally can be linked to a
was originally defined and proposed by the Polish sci- project initiated by the European Productivity Agency
entist B. W. Jastrzebowski (1857a–d), as a scientific
PY
K. U. Smith as treasurer, and E. Grandjean as secre- optimize human well-being and overall system per-
tary. The Committee for the International Association formance. Ergonomists contribute to the design and
of Ergonomic Scientists met in Zurich in 1959 dur- evaluation of tasks, jobs, products, environments, and
ing a conference organized by EPA, and decided to systems to make them compatible with the needs,
retain the name International Ergonomics Association. abilities, and limitations of people. Ergonomics dis-
On April 6, 1959, at a meeting in Oxford, England, cipline promotes a holistic, human-centered approach
Grandjean declared the founding of the International to work systems design that considers physical, cogni-
Ergonomics Association (IEA). The committee met tive, social, organizational, environmental, and other
again in Oxford later in 1959 and agreed on a set of relevant factors (Grandjean, 1986; Wilson and Cor-
bylaws for the IEA. These were formally approved lett, 1990; Sanders and McCormick, 1993; Chapa-
by the IEA General Assembly at the first Interna- nis, 1999; Salvendy, 1997; Karwowski, 2001; Vicente,
tional Congress of Ergonomics, held in Stockholm 2004; Stanton et al., 2004).
in 1961. Traditionally, the domains of specialization within
Over the last 50 years, ergonomics, a term that is HFE cited most often are physical, cognitive, and
used here synonymously with human factors (denoted organizational ergonomics. Physical ergonomics is
HFE), has been evolving as a unique and independent concerned primarily with human anatomical, anthro-
discipline that focuses on the nature of human–artifact pometric, physiological, and biomechanical charac-
interactions, viewed from the unified perspective of the teristics as they relate to physical activity (Chaffin
science, engineering, design, technology, and manage- and Anderson, 1993; Pheasant, 1986; Kroemer et al.,
ment of human-compatible systems, including a vari- 1994; Karwowski and Marras, 1999; NRC, 2001).
ety of natural and artificial products, processes, and Cognitive ergonomics focuses on mental processes
living environments (Karwowski, 2005). The various such as perception, memory, information process-
dimensions of the ergonomics discipline are shown in ing, reasoning, and motor response as they affect
Figure 1. interactions among humans and other elements of
The International Ergonomics Association (IEA, a system (Vicente, 1999; Hollnagel, 2003; Diaper
2003) defines ergonomics (human factors) as the sci- and Stanton, 2004). Organizational ergonomics (also
entific discipline concerned with the understanding of known as macroergonomics) is concerned with the
the interactions among humans and other elements optimization of sociotechnical systems, including
of a system, and the profession that applies theory, their organizational structures, policies, and pro-
principles, data, and methods to design in order to cesses (Reason, 1999; Holman et al., 2003; Nemeth,
PHILOSOPHY
(SOCIAL THEORY
NEEDS)
DESIGN MANAGEMENT
Table 2 Objectives of the HFE Discipline National Academy of Engineering in the United States
Basic operational objectives
(NAE, 2004), in the future, ongoing developments
Reduce errors in engineering will expand toward tighter connections
Increase safety between technology and the human experience, includ-
Improve system performance ing new products customized to the physical dimensions
Objectives bearing on reliability, maintainability, and capabilities of the user, and the ergonomic design
availability and integrated logistic support of engineered products.
Increase reliability
Improve maintainability 2 HUMAN–TECHNOLOGY INTERACTIONS
Reduce personnel requirements Whereas in the past, ergonomics has been driven
Reduce training requirements by technology (reactive design approach), in the
Objectives affecting users and operators future, ergonomics should drive technology (proactive
Improve the working environment design approach). Technology can be defined as the
Reduce fatigue and physical stress entire system of people and organizations, knowledge,
Increase ease of use processes, and devices that go into creating and
Increase user acceptance
operating technological artifacts, as well as the artifacts
Increase aesthetic appearance
Other objectives
themselves (NRC, 2001). Technology is a product and
Reduce losses of time and equipment a process involving both science and engineering.
Increase economy of production Science aims to understand the “why” and “how”
of nature (through a process of scientific inquiry
Source: Chapanis (1995). that generates knowledge about the natural world).
Engineering represents “design under constraints” of
cost, reliability, safety, environmental impact, ease
of use, available human and material resources,
2004). Examples of relevant topics include commu- manufacturability, government regulations, laws, and
nication, crew resource management, design of work- politics (Wulf, 1988). Engineering seeks to shape the
ing times, teamwork, participatory work design, com- natural world to meet human needs and wants: a body
munity ergonomics, computer-supported cooperative of knowledge of design and creation of human-made
work, new work paradigms, virtual organizations, products and a process for solving problems.
telework, and quality management. The traditional Contemporary HFE discovers and applies informa-
domains noted above, together with new domains, are tion about human behavior, abilities, limitations, and
listed in Table 1. other characteristics to the design of tools, machines,
According to the discussion above, the paramount systems, tasks, jobs, and environments for productive,
objective of HFE is to understand interactions between safe, comfortable, and effective human use (Sanders
people and everything that surrounds us, and based and McCormick, 1993; Helander, 1997b). In this con-
on such knowledge to optimize human well-being text, HFE deals with a broad scope of problems
and overall system performance. Table 2 provides relevant to the design and evaluation of work sys-
a summary of specific HFE objectives as dis- tems, consumer products, and working environments,
cussed by Chapanis (1995). As pointed out by the in which human–machine interactions affect human
6 THE HUMAN FACTORS FUNCTION
Human–Machine Relationships
processing, decision making, memory, attention,
Figure 2 Expanded view of the human–technology
feedback, and human response processes. Further-
relationships. (Modified from Meister, 1999.) more, the human work taxonomy can be used to
describe five distinct levels of human functioning,
ranging from primarily physical tasks to cognitive
tasks (Karwowski, 1992a). These basic but univer-
According to Meister (1987), the traditional con- sal human activities are (1) tasks that produce force
cept of a human–machine system is an organization (primarily, muscular work), (2) tasks of continu-
of people and the machines they operate and main- ously coordinating sensory-monitoring functions (e.g.,
tain in order to perform assigned jobs that implement assembling or tracking tasks), (3) tasks of convert-
the purpose for which the system was developed. ing information into motor actions (e.g., inspection
In this context, system is a construct whose char- tasks), (4) tasks of converting information into out-
acteristics are manifested in physical and behavioral put information (e.g., required control tasks), and
phenomena (Meister, 1991). The system is critical to (5) tasks of producing information (primarily cre-
HFE theorizing because it describes the substance of ative work) (Luczak et al., 1999). Any task in a
the human–technology relationship. General system human–machine system requires processing of infor-
variables of interest to HFE discipline are shown in mation that is gathered based on perceived and inter-
Table 6. preted relationships between system elements. The
The human functioning in human–machine systems information processed may need to be stored by either
can be described in terms of perception, information a human or a machine for later use.
Table 6 General System Variables The scope of HFE factors that need to be con-
sidered in the design, testing, and evaluation of any
1. Requirements constraints imposed on the
human–system interactions is shown in Table 7 in the
system
form of an exemplary ergonomics checklist. It should
2. Resources required by the system be noted that such checklists also reflect practical
3. Nature of its internal components and processes application of the discipline. According to the Board
4. Functions and missions performed by the of Certification in Professional Ergonomics (BCPE), a
system practitioner of ergonomics is a person who (1) has a
5. Nature, number, and specificity of goals mastery of a body of ergonomics knowledge, (2) has
6. Structural and organizational characteristics of a command of the methodologies used by ergonomists
the system (e.g., its size, number of subsystems in applying that knowledge to the design of a prod-
and units, communication channels, hierarchical uct, system, job, or environment, and (3) has applied
levels, and amount of feedback) his or her knowledge to the analysis, design testing,
7. Degree of automation and evaluation of products, systems, and environments.
8. Nature of the environment in which the system The areas of current practice in the field can best be
functions described by examining the focus of the Technical
9. System attributes (e.g., complexity, sensitivity, Groups of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society,
flexibility, vulnerability, reliability, and as illustrated in Table 8.
determinancy)
10. Number and type of interdependencies
3 HFE AND ECOLOGICAL COMPATIBILITY
(human–machine interactions) within the system
and type of interaction (degree of dependency)
HFE discipline advocates systematic use of knowledge
11. Nature of the system’s terminal output(s) or concerning relevant human characteristics to achieve
mission effects compatibility in the design of interactive systems
Source: Meister (1999). of people, machines, environments, and devices of
all kinds to ensure specific goals [Human Factors
and Ergonomics Society (HFES), 2003]. Typically,
such goals include improved (system) effectiveness,
productivity, safety, ease of performance, and the
1. Are the differences in human body size accounted for by the design?
2. Have the right anthropometric tables been used for specific populations?
3. Are the body joints close to neutral positions?
4. Is the manual work performed close to the body?
5. Are any forward-bending or twisted trunk postures involved?
6. Are sudden movements and force exertion present?
7. Is there a variation in worker postures and movements?
8. Is the duration of any continuous muscular effort limited?
9. Are the breaks of sufficient length and spread over the duration of the task?
10. Is the energy consumption for each manual task limited?
Table 7 (continued)
10. Is there enough room for the legs and feet?
11. Is there a sloping work surface for reading tasks?
12. Have combined sit–stand workplaces been introduced?
13. Are handles of tools bent to allow for working with the straight wrists?
III. Factors Related to Manual Materials Handling (Lifting, Carrying, Pushing and Pulling Loads)
Control
Table 7 (continued)
9. Are labels or symbols identifying controls used properly?
10. Is the use of color in controls design limited?
Human–computer interaction
Illumination
1. Is the light intensity for normal activities in the range 200 to 800 lux?
2. Are large brightness differences in the visual field avoided?
3. Are the brightness differences between task area, close surroundings, and wider surroundings limited?
4. Is the information easily legible?
5. Is ambient lighting combined with localized lighting?
6. Are light sources properly screened?
7. Can light reflections, shadows, or flicker from the fluorescent tubes be prevented?
Climate
Table 8 Subject Interests of Technical Groups of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society
Technical Group Description/Areas of Concern
I. Aerospace systems Applications of human factors to the development, design, operation, and
maintenance of human–machine systems in aviation and space environments
(both civilian and military).
II. Aging Human factors applications appropriate to meeting the emerging needs of older
people and special populations in a wide variety of life settings.
III. Cognitive engineering Research on human cognition and decision making and the application of this
and decision making knowledge to the design of systems and training programs. Emphasis is on
considerations of descriptive models, processes, and characteristics of human
decision making, alone or in conjunction with other people or with intelligent
systems; factors that affect decision making and cognition in naturalistic task
settings; technologies for assisting, modifying, or supplementing human decision
making; and training strategies for assisting or influencing decision making.
IV. Communications All aspects of human-to-human communication, with an emphasis on
communication mediated by telecommunications technology, including
multimedia and collaborative communications, information services, and
interactive broadband applications. Design and evaluation of enabling
technologies and infrastructure technologies in education, medicine, business
productivity, and personal quality of life.
V. Computer systems Human factors aspects of (1) interactive computer systems, especially
user-interface design issues; (2) the data-processing environment, including
personnel selection, training, and procedures; and (3) software development.
VI. Consumer products Development of consumer products that are useful, usable, safe, and desirable.
Application of the principles and methods of human factors, consumer research,
and industrial design to ensure market success.
VII. Education Design of educational systems, environments, interfaces, and technologies, as well
as human factors education. Improvement in educational design and addressing
educational needs of those seeking to increase their knowledge and skills in the
human factors/ergonomics field.
VIII. Environmental design Ergonomic and macroergonomic aspects of the constructed physical environment,
including architectural and interior design aspects of home, office, and industrial
settings. Promotion of the use of human factors principles in environmental
design.
IX. Forensics professional Application of human factors knowledge and technique to ‘‘standards of care’’ and
accountability established within legislative, regulatory, and judicial systems.
Emphasis on providing a scientific basis to issues being interpreted by legal
theory.
X. Industrial ergonomics Application of ergonomics data and principles for improving safety, productivity,
and quality of work in industry. Concentration on service and manufacturing
processes, operations, and environments.
XI. Internet Human factor aspects of user-interface design of Web content, Web-based
applications, Web browsers, Webtops, Web-based user assistance, and Internet
devices; behavioral and sociological phenomena associated with distributed
network communication; human reliability in administration and maintenance of
data networks; and accessibility of Web-based products.
XII. Macroergonomics Improving productivity and quality of work life and integrating psychosocial, cultural,
and technological factors with human–machine performance interface factors in
the design of jobs, workstations, organizations, and related management systems.
XIII.Medical systems and All aspects of the application of human factors principles and techniques toward the
functionally impaired improvement of medical systems, medical devices, and the quality of life for
populations functionally impaired user populations.
XIV. Perception and The relationship between vision and human performance, including (1) the nature,
performance content, and quantification of visual information and the context in which it is
displayed; (2) the physics and psychophysics of information display;
(3) perceptual and cognitive representation and interpretation of displayed
information; (4) workload assessment using visual tasks; and (5) actions and
behaviors that are consequences of visually displayed information.
XV. Safety Research and applications concerning human factors in safety and injury control in
all settings and attendant populations, including transportation, industry, military,
office, public building, recreation, and home improvements.
(continued overleaf)
12 THE HUMAN FACTORS FUNCTION
Table 8 (continued)
Technical Group Description/Areas of Concern
XVI. System development Concerned with research and exchange of information for integrating human factors
into the development of systems. Integration of human factors activities into
system development processes in order to provide systems that meet user
requirements.
XVII. Surface transportation Human factor aspects of mechanisms for conveying humans and resources:
(1) passenger, commercial, and military vehicles, on- and off-road; (2) mass
transit; maritime transportation; (3) rail transit, including vessel traffic services;
(4) pedestrian and bicycle traffic; (5) and highway and infrastructure systems,
including intelligent transportation systems.
XVIII. Test and evaluation A forum for test and evaluation practitioners and developers from all areas of human
factors and ergonomics. Concerned with methodologies and techniques that
have been developed in their respective areas.
XIX. Training Fosters information and interchange among people interested in the fields of
training and training research.
XX. Virtual environment Human factors issues associated with human–virtual environment interaction,
including (1) maximizing human performance efficiency in virtual environments;
(2) ensuring health and safety; and (3) circumventing potential social problems
through proactive assessment.
contribution to overall human well-being and quality as a highly unpredictable area of human scien-
of life. Although the term compatibility is a key tific endeavor, today HFE has positioned itself as
word in the definition above, it has been used a unique, design-oriented discipline, independent of
primarily in a narrow sense only, often in the context engineering and medicine (Moray, 1994; Sanders and
of the design of displays and controls, including McCormick, 1993; Helander, 1997a; Karwowski,
studies of spatial (location) compatibility or the 1991, 2003).
intention–response–stimulus compatibility related to
Figure 3 illustrates the human-system compatibil-
the movement of controls (Wickens and Carswell,
1997). Karwowski and his co-workers (Karwowski ity approach to ergonomics in the context of quality
et al., 1988; Karwowski, 1985, 1991) advocated the of working life and system (an enterprise or busi-
use of compatibility in a greater context of the ness entity) performance. This approach reflects the
ergonomics system. For example, Karwowski (1997) nature of complex compatibility relationships among
introduced the term human-compatible systems to a human operator (human capacities and limitations),
focus on the need for comprehensive treatment of technology (in terms of products, machines, devices,
compatibility in the human factors discipline. processes, and computer-based systems), and broadly
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English defined environment (business processes, organiza-
Language (Morris, 1978) defines compatible as tional structure, the nature of work systems, and the
(1) capable of living or performing in harmonious, effects of work-related multiple stressors). The oper-
agreeable, or congenial combination with another or ator’s performance is an outcome of the compatibil-
others; and (2) capable of orderly, efficient integra-
tion and operation with other elements in a sys- ity matching between individual human characteristics
tem. From the beginning of contemporary ergonomics, (capacities and limitations) and the requirements and
measurements of compatibility between the system affordances of both the technology and environment.
and the human, and evaluation of the results of The quality of working life and system (enterprise)
ergonomics interventions, were based on the mea- performance is affected by matching of the positive
sures that best suited specific purposes (Karwowski, and negative outcomes of the complex compatibility
2001). Such measures included the specific psy- relationships among the human operator, technology,
chophysiological responses of the human body (e.g., and the environment. Positive outcomes include such
heart rate, electromyography, perceived human exer- measures as work productivity, performance times,
tion, satisfaction, comfort or discomfort), as well as product quality, and subjective psychological (desir-
a number of indirect measures, such as the inci- able) behavioral outcomes such as job satisfaction,
dence of injury, economic losses or gains, sys-
employee morale, human well-being, and commit-
tem acceptance, or operational effectiveness, qual-
ity, or productivity. The lack of a universal matrix ment. The negative outcomes include both human and
to quantify and measure human-system compatibility system-related errors, loss of productivity, low quality,
is an important obstacle in demonstrating the value accidents, injuries, physiological stresses, and subjec-
of ergonomics science and profession (Karwowski, tive psychological (undesirable) behavioral outcomes
1998). However, even though 20 years ago ergonomics such as job dissatisfaction, job/occupational stress, and
was perceived by some (see, e.g., Howell, 1986) discomfort.
THE DISCIPLINE OF ERGONOMICS AND HUMAN FACTORS 13
EARLY DEVELOPMENTS
PHILOSOPHY PRACTICE
CONTEMPORARY STATUS
4 DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF THE 7. HFE attempts to “by-step” the need for funda-
CONTEMPORARY HFE DISCIPLINE mental understanding of human–system interactions,
AND PROFESSION without separation from a consideration of knowledge
utility for practical applications, in the quest for imme-
The main focus of the HFE discipline in the twenty- diate and useful solutions (Figure 5).
first century is on the design and management of
systems that satisfy customer demands in terms of 8. HFE enjoys limited recognition by decision
human compatibility requirements. Karwowski (2005) makers, the general public, and politicians as to the
has discussed 10 characteristics of contemporary value that it can bring to a global society at large,
HFE discipline and profession. These distinguishing especially in the context of facilitating socioeconomic
features are as follows: development.
9. HFE has relatively weak and limited profes-
sional educational base.
1. HFE is very ambitious in its goals, but poorly 10. HFE is adversely affected by the ergonomics
funded compared to other contemporary disciplines. illiteracy of students and professionals in other disci-
2. HFE experiences continuing evolution of its plines, the mass media, and the public at large.
“fit” philosophy, including diverse and ever-expanding
human-centered design criteria (from safety to com- Theoretical ergonomics is interested in the fun-
fort, productivity, usability, or affective needs such as damental understanding of the interactions between
job satisfaction or life happiness). people and their environments. Also central to HFE
3. HFE has yet to establish its unique disciplinary interests is an understanding of how human–system
identity and credibility among other sciences, engi- interactions should be designed. On the other hand,
neering, and technology. HFE also falls under the category of applied research.
4. HFE covers extremely diverse subject matters Taxonomy of research efforts with respect to the
in a manner similar to medicine, engineering, and quest for fundamental understanding and the con-
psychology (see Table 1). sideration of use, originally proposed by Stokes
(1997), allows for differentiation of main cate-
5. HFE deals with very complex phenomena that gories of research dimensions as follows: (1) pure
are not easily understood and cannot be simplified basic research, (2) use-inspired basic research, and
by making nondefendable assumptions about their (3) pure applied research. Figure 5 illustrates inter-
nature. pretation of these categories for HFE theory, design,
6. Historically, HFE has been developing from and applications. Table 9 presents relevant special-
the “philosophy of fit” toward practice. Today, HFE ties and subspecialties in HFE research as outlined
is developing a sound theoretical basis for design and by Meister (1999), who classified them into three main
practical applications (Figure 4). categories: (1) system/technology-oriented specialties,
14 THE HUMAN FACTORS FUNCTION
PRODUCTS
BUSINESS PERCEPTUAL PROCESSES DEVICES
PROCESSES MOTOR PROCESSES MACHINES
ORGANIZATIONAL COGNITIVE PROCESSES PROCESSES
STRUCTURE AFFECTIVE PROCESSES COMPUTER-
WORK SYSTEMS OTHER BASED SYSTEMS
WORK-RELATED
STRESSORS OTHER SYSTEMS
Human Human
Capabilities Limitations
Environmental Technological
Requirements Requirements
Human
Performance
Environmental Technological
Affordances Affordances
NEGATIVE POSITIVE
OUTCOMES OUTCOMES
CONSIDERATIONS OF USE?
NO YES
Figure 5 Considerations of fundamental understanding and use in HFE research. (After Karwowski, 2005.)
THE DISCIPLINE OF ERGONOMICS AND HUMAN FACTORS 15
Process-Oriented Specialties
1. Biomechanics: human physical strength as it is manifested in such activities as lifting and pulling.
2. Industrial ergonomics (IE): related primarily to manufacturing; processes and resultant problems (e.g., carpal tunnel
syndrome).
3. Methodology/measurement: ways of answering HFE questions or solving HFE problems.
4. Safety: closely related to IE but with a major emphasis on analysis and prevention of accidents.
5. System design/development: processes of analyzing, creating, and developing systems.
6. Training: how personnel are taught to perform functions/tasks in a human–machine system.
(2) process-oriented specialties, and (3) behaviorally In view of the above, Karwowski (2005) dis-
oriented specialties. In addition, Table 10 presents a cussed the following paradigms for HFE disci-
list of contemporary HFE research methods that can be pline: (1) ergonomics theory, (2) ergonomics abstrac-
used to advance knowledge, discovery, and utilization tion, and (3) ergonomics design. Ergonomics theory
through its practical applications. is concerned with the ability to identify, describe,
and evaluate human–system interactions. Ergonomics
abstraction is concerned with the ability to use those
5 PARADIGMS FOR THE ERGONOMICS
interactions to make predictions that can be compared
DISCIPLINE with the real world. Ergonomics design is concerned
with the ability to implement knowledge about those
interactions and use them to develop systems that sat-
The paradigms for any scientific discipline include
isfy customer needs and relevant human compatibility
theory, abstraction, and design (Pearson and Young,
requirements.
2002). Theory is a foundation of the mathematical sci-
ences. Abstraction (modeling) is a foundation of the Furthermore, the pillars for any scientific disci-
natural sciences, where progress is achieved by formu- pline include a definition, a teaching paradigm, and
lating hypotheses and following the modeling process an educational base (NRC, 2001). A definition of
systematically to verify and validate them. Design as ergonomics discipline and profession adopted by IEA
the basis for engineering, where progress is achieved (2003) emphasizes fundamental questions and sig-
primarily by posing problems and systematically fol- nificant accomplishments, recognizing that the HFE
lowing the design process to construct systems that field is constantly changing. A teaching paradigm for
solve them. ergonomics should conform to established scientific
16 THE HUMAN FACTORS FUNCTION
Table 10 (continued)
Team decision requirement exercise: making team decision requirements explicit
Targeted acceptable responses to generated events or tasks
Behavioral observation scales
Team situation assessment training for adaptive coordination
Team task analysis
Team workload
Social network analysis
Environmental Methods
Thermal conditions measurement
Cold stress indices
Heat stress indices
Thermal comfort indices
Indoor air quality: chemical exposures
Indoor air quality: biological/particulate-phase contaminant
Exposure assessment methods
Olfactometry: human nose as a detection instrument
Context and foundation of lighting practice
Photometric characterization of the luminous environment
Evaluating office lighting
Rapid sound-quality assessment of background noise
Noise reaction indices and assessment
Noise and human behavior
Occupational vibration: a concise perspective
Habitability measurement in space vehicles and earth analogs
Macroergonomic Methods
Macroergonomic organizational questionnaire survey
Interview method
Focus groups
Laboratory experiment
Field study and field experiment
Participatory ergonomics
Cognitive walk-through method
Kansei engineering
HITOP analysis TM
TOP-Modeler C
CIMOP system C
Anthropotechnology
Systems analysis tool
Macroergonomic analysis of structure
Macroergonomic analysis and design
Source: Based on Stanton et al. (2004).
standards, emphasize the development of compe- area, although not generally in other areas of applica-
tence in the field, and integrate theory, experimen- tion, similar to medicine or engineering.
tation, design, and practice. Finally, an introductory One of the critical issues in this context is the
course sequence in ergonomics should be based on ability of users to understand the utility and limita-
the curriculum model and the disciplinary descrip- tions of technological artifacts. Ergonomics literacy
tion. prepares people to perform their roles in the workplace
and outside the working environment. Ergonomically
6 ERGONOMICS COMPETENCY AND literate people can learn enough about how technolog-
LITERACY ical systems operate to protect themselves by making
As pointed out by the National Academy of Engi- informed choices and making use of beneficial affor-
neering (Pearson and Young, 2002), many consumer dances of the artifacts and environment. People trained
products and services promise to make people’s lives in ergonomics typically possess a high level of knowl-
easier, more enjoyable, more efficient, or healthier, but edge and skill related to one or more specific area
very often do not deliver on this promise. Design of of ergonomics application. Ergonomics literacy is a
interactions with technological artifacts and work sys- prerequisite to ergonomics competency. The following
tems requires involvement of ergonomically competent can be proposed as dimensions for ergonomics literacy
people: people with ergonomics proficiency in a certain (Figure 6):
18 THE HUMAN FACTORS FUNCTION
High
applicability Practical
Ergonomics
Highly
Developed
Ergonomics Ways of
Ergonomics Thinking and Acting
Knowledge
Extensive
1. Ergonomics knowledge and skills. A person Table 11 Standards for Ergonomics Literacy:
has a basic knowledge of the philosophy of human- Ergonomics and Technology
centered design and principles for accommodating An understanding of:
human limitations.
Standard 1: characteristics and scope of
2. Ways of thinking and acting. A person seeks ergonomics
information about benefits and risks of artifacts Standard 2: core concepts of ergonomics
and systems (consumer products, services, etc.) and Standard 3: connections between ergonomics
participates in decisions about purchasing and use and other fields of study, and
and/or development of artifacts/ systems. relationships among technology,
3. Practical ergonomics capabilities. A person can environment, industry, and society
Standard 4: cultural, social, economic, and
identify and solve simple task (job)-related design
political effects of ergonomics
problems at work or home and can apply basic Standard 5: role of society in the development
concepts of ergonomics to make informed judgments and use of technology
about usability of artifacts and the related risks and Standard 6: effects of technology on the
benefits of their use. environment
Standard 7: attributes of ergonomics design
Standard 8: role of ergonomics research,
Finally, Table 11 presents a list of 10 standards development, invention, and
for ergonomics literacy, which were proposed experimentation
by Karwowski (2005) in parallel to a model of Abilities to:
technological literacy reported by National Academy
Standard 9: apply the ergonomics design
of Engineering (Pearson and Young, 2002). Eight process
of these standards are related to developing an Standard 10: assess the impact of products and
understanding of the nature, scope, attributes, and systems on human health,
the role of HFE discipline in modern society; two well-being, system performance,
standards refer to the need for developing the abilities and safety
to apply the ergonomics design process and evaluate
the impact of artifacts on human safety and well-being. Source: Karwowski (2005).
7 ERGONOMICS DESIGN
Ergonomics is a design-oriented discipline. However, is that typically there are multiple functional sys-
as discussed by Karwowski (2003), ergonomists do tem–human compatibility requirements that must be
not design systems; rather, HFE professionals design satisfied at the same time. To address this issue, struc-
the interactions between artifact systems and humans. tured design methods for complex human–artifact sys-
A fundamental problem involved in such a design tems are needed. In such a perspective, ergonomics
THE DISCIPLINE OF ERGONOMICS AND HUMAN FACTORS 19
FUNCTIONAL
REQUIREMENTS DESIGN PARAMETERS
HUMAN TECHNOLOGY-
CAPABILITIES ENVIRONMENT
AND REQUIREMENTS
f AND
LIMITATIONS
AFFORDANCES
COMPATIBILITY MAPPING
TECHNOLOGY-
SYSTEM-HUMAN g ENVIRONMENT
COMPATIBILITY COMPATIBILITY
NEEDS REQUIREMENTS
AND AFFORDANCES
CA FR DP PV
The information content will be additive when there The axioms above can be adapted for ergonomics
are many functional requirements that must be satisfied design purposes as follows.
simultaneously. In the general case of m FRs, the
information content for the entire system, Axiom 1: Independence Axiom This axiom stip-
ulates a need for independence of the functional com-
Isys = − log2 P{m} patibility requirements (FCRs), which are defined as
the minimum set of independent compatibility require-
where P{m} is the joint probability that all m FRs are ments that characterize the design goals [defined by
satisfied. ergonomics design parameters (EDPs)].
THE DISCIPLINE OF ERGONOMICS AND HUMAN FACTORS 21
Axiom 2: Human Incompatibility Axiom This noted that if Ai > Ri , then C can be set to 1 and
axiom stipulates a need to minimize the incompati- the related incompatibility due to considered design
bility content of the design. Among those designs that variable will be zero. In both of the cases described
satisfy the independence axiom, the design that has the above, the human–system incompatibility content can
smallest incompatibility content is the best design. be assessed as discussed below.
As discussed by Karwowski (2001, 2003), in
ergonomics design, axiom 2 can be interpreted as 1. Ergonomics design criterion: minimize exposure
follows. The human incompatibility content of the when Ai > Ri . The compatibility index Ci is defined
design Ii for a given functional requirement (FRi ) by the ratio Ri /Ai , where Ri is the maximum exposure
is defined in terms of the compatibility Ci index (standard) for design parameter i and Ai is the actual
satisfying FRi : value of a given design parameter i:
? Theoretical basis
Practice of ergonomics
ergonomic s
of ergonomics
ergonomic s
Theoretical basis
Practice of ergonomics
ergonomic s
of ergonomics
ergonomic s
Axiomatic
Ax iomatic design
design Human-compatible
in ergonomics
ergonomic s products and systems
sy stem s
Figure 10 Science, technology, and design of human-compatible systems. (After Karwowski, 2005.)
The solution that was implemented two decades application) of interaction processes that define, trans-
ago utilizes a new concept for the rear lighting of form, and control compatibility relationships between
the braking system (NRLS). The new design is based artifacts (systems) and people. An artifact system is
on addition of the third brake light, positioned in the defined as a set of all artifacts (meaning objects made
center and at a height that allows this light to be seen by human work) as well as natural elements of the
through the windshields of the car preceding the car environment and their interactions occurring in time
immediately in front. This new design solution has two and space afforded by nature. A human system is
design parameters: defined as a human (or humans) with all the char-
acteristics (physical, perceptual, cognitive, emotional,
DP1 = a new rear lighting system (NRLS) etc.) that are relevant to an interaction with the artifact
system.
DP2 = efficient braking mechanism To optimize both the human and system well-
(EBM)(the same as before) being and performance, system–human compatibility
should be considered at all levels, including the physi-
cal, perceptual, cognitive, emotional, social, organiza-
The formal design classification of the new solution tional, managerial, environmental, and political. This
is uncoupled design. The design matrix for this new requires a way to measure the inputs and outputs
design is as follows: that characterize the set of system–human interac-
tions (Karwowski, 1991). The goal of quantifying arti-
FR1 X 0 DP1 fact–human compatibility can be realized only if we
FR2 = 0 X DP2 understand its nature. Symvatology aims to observe,
identify, describe, perform empirical investigations,
MLRT X 0 NRLS and produce theoretical explanations of the natural
phenomena of artifact–human compatibility. As such,
ASB 0 X EBM symvatology should help to advance the progress of
ergonomics discipline by providing methodology for
design for compatibility, as well as design of com-
It should be noted that the original (traditional) rear
lighting system (TRLS) can be classified as decoupled patibility between the artificial systems (technology)
design. This old design (DP1,O ) does not compensate and humans. In the perspective described above, the
for the lack of early warning that would make it goal of ergonomics should be to optimize both human
possible to maximize the driver’s lead response time and system well-being and their mutually dependent
(MLRT) whenever braking is needed, and therefore performance. As pointed out by Hancock (1997), it is
violates the second functional requirement (FR2 ) for not enough to assure the well-being of humans; one
a safe braking requirement. The design matrix for must also optimize the well-being of systems (i.e.,
new system (NRLS) is an uncoupled design that artifact-based technology and nature) to make proper
satisfies the independence of functional requirements uses of life.
(independence axiom). This uncoupled design (DP1,N ) Due to the nature of the interactions, an artifact
fulfills the requirement of maximizing lead response system is often a dynamic system with a high level
time (MLRT) whenever braking is needed and does of complexity, that exhibits nonlinear behavior. The
not violate the FR2 (safe braking requirement). American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language
(1978) defines complex as consisting of intercon-
nected or interwoven parts. Karwowski et al. (1988)
8 THEORETICAL ERGONOMICS: and Karwowski and Jamaldin (1995) proposed repre-
SYMVATOLOGY senting an artifact–human system as a construct that
It should be noted that the system–human interactions contains a human subsystem, an artifact subsystem,
often represent complex phenomena with dynamic an environmental subsystem, and a set of interac-
compatibility requirements. The are often nonlinear tions occurring between the various elements of these
and can be unstable (chaotic) phenomena, modeling subsystems over time. In the framework above, com-
of which requires a specialized approach. Karwowski patibility is a dynamic, natural phenomenon that is
(2001) indicated a need for symvatology as a corrobo- affected by the artifact–human system structure, its
rative science to ergonomics that can help in develop- inherent complexity, and its entropy or the level of
ing solid foundations for the ergonomics science. The incompatibility between the system’s elements. Since
proposed subdiscipline is symvatology, the science of the structure of system interactions determines the
the artifact–human (system) compatibility. Symvatol- complexity and related compatibility relationships in
ogy aims to discover the laws of artifact–human com- a given system, compatibility should be considered in
patibility, propose theories of artifact–human compat- relation to the system’s complexity.
ibility, and develop a quantitative matrix for measure- The system space, denoted here as an ordered set
ment of such compatibility. Karwowski (2001) coined [(complexity, compatibility)], is defined by four pairs:
the term symvatology by joining two Greek words: (high, high), (high, low), (low, high), (low, low).
symvatotis (compatibility) and logos (logic, or reason- Under the best scenario (i.e., the most optimal state
ing about). Symvatology is the systematic study (which of system design), the artifact–human system exhibits
includes theory, analysis, design, implementation, and high compatibility and low complexity levels. It should
24 THE HUMAN FACTORS FUNCTION
be noted that the transition from a high to a low others in the field have described in terms of difficul-
level of system complexity does not necessarily lead ties encountered when humans interact with consumer
to an improved (higher) level of system compatibility. products and technology in general. For example,
Also, it is often the case in most of artifact–human according to Norman (1989), the paradox of technol-
systems that improved (higher) system compatibility ogy is that adding functionality to an artifact typi-
can be achieved only at the expense of increasing cally comes with the trade-off of increased complex-
system complexity. ity. These added complexities often lead to increased
As discussed by Karwowski and Jamaldin (1995) human difficulty and frustration when interacting with
lack of compatibility, or ergonomics incompatibility these artifacts. One reason for the above is that technol-
(EI), defined as degradation (disintegration) of an arti- ogy, which has more features, also has less feedback.
fact–human system, is reflected in the system’s mea- Moreover, Norman noted that added complexity can-
surable inefficiency and associated human losses. To not be avoided when functions are added, and can
express the innate relationship between the systems’s be minimized only with good design, which follows
complexity and compatibility, Karwowski et al. (1988, natural mapping between system elements (i.e., con-
1994a) proposed the complexity–incompatibility prin- trol–display compatibility). Following Ashby’s (1964)
ciple, which can be stated as follows: As arti- law of requisite variety, Karwowski and Jamaldin
fact–human system complexity increases, the incom- (1995) proposed a corresponding law, called the law
patibility between system elements, as expressed of requisite complexity, which states that only design
through their ergonomic interactions at all system complexity can reduce system complexity. This means
levels, also increases, leading to greater ergonomic that only added complexity of the regulator, expressed
(nonreducible) entropy of the system and decreasing by system compatibility requirements, can be used to
reduce ergonomics system entropy (i.e., reduce overall
the potential for effective ergonomic intervention.
artifact–human system incompatibility).
The foregoing principle was illustrated by Kar-
wowski (1995) using as examples design of a chair (see
Figure 12) and design of a computer display, two com- 9 CONGRUENCE BETWEEN MANAGEMENT
mon problems in the area of human–computer inter- AND ERGONOMICS
action. In addition, Karwowski and Jamaldin (1996) Advanced technologies with which humans inter-
discussed the complexity–compatibility paradigm in act toady constitute complex systems that require
the context of organizational design. It should be noted a high level of integration from both the design
that the principle reflects the natural phenomena that and management perspectives. Design integration
E(H1)
E(S1)
E(S2)
DESIGN: E(R1)
REGULATOR
ENTROPY E(R)
ERGONOMIC
INTERVENTION E(R2)
(COMPATIBILITY
REQUIREMENTS)
typically focuses on the interactions between hard- categories of organizational and individual factors:
ware (computer-based technology), organization (orga- (1) decision related to task demands; (2) work envi-
nizational structure), information system, and people ronment demands, including physical, perceptional,
(human skills, training, and expertise). Management and cognitive task demands, as well as quality of
integration refers to interactions among various system the work environment (i.e., adjustment of tools and
elements across process and product quality, work- machines to human characteristics and capabilities);
place and work system design, occupational safety and (3) role demands related to relations with supervisor
health programs, and corporate environmental protec- and co-workers; and (4) interpersonal demands, which
tion polices. can cause conflict between workers (e.g., management
Scientific management originated with the work style, group pressure). Human resource management
of Frederick W. Taylor (1911), who studied, among includes the provision of safe work conditions and
other problems, how jobs were designed and how environment at each workstation, workplace, and in
workers could be trained to perform these jobs. The the entire organization.
natural congruence between contemporary manage- It should also be noted that the elements of manage-
ment and HFE can be described in the context of the ment discipline described above, such as job design,
respective definitions of these two disciplines. Man- human resource planning (job analysis and job specifi-
agement is defined today as a set of activities, includ- cation), work stress management, and safety and health
ing (1) planning and decision making, (2) organizing, management, are essential components of an HFE sub-
(3) leading, and (4) controlling, directed at an orga- discipline often called industrial ergonomics. Industrial
nization’s resources (human, financial, physical, and ergonomics investigates human–system relationships
information) with the aim of achieving organizational at the individual workplace (workstation) level or at the
goals in an efficient and effective manner (Griffin, work system level, embracing knowledge that is also
2001). The main elements of the management def- of central interest to management. From this point of
inition presented above and central to ergonomics view, industrial ergonomics, in congruence with man-
are (1) organizing, (2) human resource planning, and agement, is focusing on organization and management
(3) effective and efficient achievement of organiza- at the workplace level (work system level) through the
tional goals. In the description of these elements, the design and assessment (testing and evaluation) of job
original terms proposed by Griffin (2001) are applied tasks, tools, machines, and work environments in order
to ensure precision of the concepts and terminology to adapt these to the capabilities and needs of workers.
used. Organizing is deciding which method of organi- Another important subdiscipline of HFE with
zational element grouping is best. Job design is the respect to the central focus of management disci-
basic building block of organization structure. Job pline is macroergonomics. According to Hendrick and
design focuses on identification and determination of Kleiner (2001), macroergonomics is concerned with
the tasks and activities for which the particular worker the analysis, design, and evaluation of work systems.
is responsible. Work denotes any form of human effort or activ-
It should be noted that the basic ideas of manage- ity. System refers to sociotechnical systems, which
ment (i.e., planning and decision making, organizing, range from a single person to a complex multina-
leading, and controlling) are also essential to HFE. tional organization. A work system consists of people
Specifically, common to management and ergonomics interacting with some form of (1) job design (work
are the issues of job design and job analysis. Job design modules, tasks, knowledge, and skill requirements),
is widely considered to be the first building block of an (2) hardware (machines or tools) and/or software,
organizational structure. Job analysis as a systematic (3) internal environment (physical parameters and psy-
analysis of jobs within an organization allows deter- chosocial factors), (4) external environment (political,
cultural, and economic factors), and (5) organizational
mination of a person’s work-related responsibilities.
design (i.e., the work system’s structure and processes
Human resource planning is an integral part of human
used to accomplish desired functions).
resource management. The starting point for this busi- The unique technology of human factors/ergono-
ness function is a job analysis: a systematic analysis mics is the human–system interface technology.
of the workplaces in an organization. Job analysis Human–system interface technology can be classi-
consists of job description and job specification. Job fied into five subparts, each with a related design
description should include description of task demands focus (Hendrick, 1997; Hendrick and Kleiner, 2001):
and work environment conditions, such as work tools,
materials, and machines needed to perform specific 1. Human–machine interface technology: hard-
tasks. Job specification determines abilities, skills, and ware ergonomics
other worker characteristics necessary for effective and
efficient task performance in particular jobs. 2. Human–environment interface technology: en-
The discipline of management also considers vironmental ergonomics
important human factors that play a role in achiev- 3. Human–software interface technology: cogni-
ing organizational goals in an effective and efficient tive ergonomics
way. Such factors include work stress in the context 4. Human–job interface technology: work design
of individual worker behavior and human resource ergonomics
management in the context of safety and heath man- 5. Human–organization interface technology:
agement. Work stress may be caused by the four macroergonomics
26 THE HUMAN FACTORS FUNCTION
In this context, as discussed by Hendrick and inquiries, methodological basis, and practical appli-
Kleiner (2001), the HFE discipline discovers knowl- cations (Meister 1997, 1999; Chapanis, 1999; Stanton
edge of human performance capabilities, limitations, and Young, 1999; Kuorinka, 2000; Karwowski, 2001;
and other human characteristics in order to develop IEA, 2003). As a profession, the field of ergonomics
human–system interface (HSI) technology, which has seen the development of formal organizational
includes interface design principles, methods, and structures (i.e., national and cross-national ergonomics
guidelines. Finally, the HFE profession applies HSI societies and networks) in support of HFE profes-
technology to the design, analysis, test and evaluation, sionals internationally. As of 2004, the International
standardization, and control of systems. Ergonomics Association (www.iea.cc), a federation of
42 ergonomics and human factors societies around
10 INTERNATIONAL ERGONOMICS the world, accounted for over 14,000 HFE members
ASSOCIATION worldwide (see Table 12). The main goals of the IEA
Over the past 20 years, ergonomics as a scientific are to elaborate and advance the science and prac-
discipline and as a profession has grown rapidly tice of ergonomics at the international level and to
by expanding the scope and breadth of theoretical improve the quality of life by expanding the scope
of ergonomics applications and contributions to global IEA has also developed several actions for stimu-
society (Table 13). lating development of HFE in industrially developing
Past and current IEA activities focus on the devel- countries (IDCs). Such actions include the following
opment of programs and guidelines to facilitate the elements:
discipline and profession of ergonomics worldwide.
Examples of such activities include: • Cooperating with international agencies such
as the ILO (International Labour Organisation),
• International directory of ergonomics programs WHO (World Health Organisation), and pro-
• Core competencies in ergonomics fessional scientific associations with which the
• Criteria for IEA endorsement of certifying IEA has signed formal agreements
bodies in professional ergonomics • Working with major publishers of ergonomics
• Guidelines for the process of endorsing a journals and texts to extend their access to
certification body in professional ergonomics federated societies, with particular focus on
developing countries
• Guidelines on standards for accreditation of
ergonomics education programs at the tertiary • Development of support programs for develop-
(university) level ing countries to promote ergonomics and extend
ergonomics training programs
• Ergonomics quality in design (EQUID) pro-
gram • Promotion of workshops and training programs
in developing countries through educational kits
More information about these programs can be and visiting ergonomists
found on the IEA Web site: www.ie.cc. In addition • Extending regional ergonomics networks of
to the above, the IEA endorses scientific journals in countries to countries with no ergonomics
the field. A list of the core HFE journals is shown programs in their region
in Table 14. A complete classification of the core • Support to non-IEA member countries in apply-
and related HFE journals was proposed by Dul and ing for affiliation to IEA in conjunction with the
Karwowski (2004). IEA Development Committee
Mechanical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Jamaldin, B., and Karwowski, W. (1997), “Quantification of
Birmingham England. Human–System Compatibility (HUSYC): An Applica-
Goldman, S. L., Nagel, R. N., and Preiss, K. (1995), Agile tion to Analysis of the Bhopal Accident,” in From Expe-
Competitors and Virtual Organizations, Van Nostrand rience to Innovation: Proceedings of the 13th Triennial
Reinhold, New York. Congress of the International Ergonomics Association,
Gould, J. D., and Lewis, C. (1983), “Designing for Usability: P. Seppala, T. Luopajarvi, C.-H. Nygard, and M. Mat-
Key Principles and What Designers Think,” in Proceed- tila, Eds., Tampere, Finland, Vol. 3, pp. 46–48.
ings of the CHI ’83 Conference on Human Factors in Jastrzebowski, W. B. (1857a), “An Outline of Ergonomics,
Computing Systems, ACM, New York, pp. 50–53. or the Science of Work Based upon the Truths Drawn
Grandjean, E. (1986), Fitting the Task to the Man, Taylor & from the Science of Nature, Part I,” Nature and Industry,
Francis, London. Vol. 29, pp. 227–231.
Griffin, R. W. (2001), Management, 7th ed., Houghton Jastrzebowski, W. B. (1857b), “An Outline of Ergonomics,
Mifflin, Boston. or the Science of Work Based upon the Truths Drawn
Hancock, P. (1997), Essays on the Future of Human–Machine from the Science of Nature, Part II,” Nature and
Systems, BANTA Information Services Group, Eden Industry, Vol. 30, pp. 236–244.
Jastrzebowski, W. B. (1857c), “An Outline of Ergonomics,
Prairie, MN.
or the Science of Work Based upon the Truths Drawn
Harre, R. (1972), The Philosophies of Science, Oxford
from the Science of Nature, Part III,” Nature and
University Press, London. Industry, Vol. 31, pp. 244–251.
Helander, M. G. (1995), “Conceptualizing the Use of Axio- Jastrzebowski, W. B. (1857d), “An Outline of Ergonomics,
matic Design Procedures in Ergonomics,” in Proceed- or the Science of Work Based upon the Truths Drawn
ings of the IEA World Conference, Associação Brasileira from the Science of Nature, Part IV,” Nature and
de Ergonomia, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, pp. 38–41. Industry, Vol. 32, pp. 253–258.
Helander, M. G. (1997a), “Forty Years of IEA: Some Reflec- Karwowski, W. (1985), “Why Do Ergonomists Need Fuzzy
tions on the Evolution of Ergonomics,” Ergonomics, Sets?” in Ergonomics International 85, Proceedings
Vol. 40, pp. 952–961. of the 9th Congress of the International Ergonomics
Helander, M. G. (1997b), “The Human Factors Profession,” Association, Bernemouth, England, I.D. Brown, R.
in Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics, 2nd Goldsmith, K. Coombes and M.A. Sinclair, Eds.,
ed., G. Salvendy, Ed., Wiley, New York, pp. 3–16. London, Taylor & Francis, pp. 409–411.
Helander, M. G., and Lin, L. (2002), “Axiomatic Design Karwowski, W. (1991), “Complexity, Fuzziness and Ergono-
in Ergonomics and Extension of Information Axiom,” mic Incompatibility Issues: The Control of Dynamic
Journal of Engineering Design, Vol. 13, No. 4, Work Environments,” Ergonomics, Vol. 34, No. 6,
pp. 321–339. pp. 671–686.
Helander, M. G., Landaur, T. K., and Prabhu, P. V., Eds. Karwowski, W. (1992a), “The Complexity–Compatibility
(1997), Handbook of Human–Computer Interaction, Paradigm in the Context of Organizational Design of
Elsevier, Amsterdam. Human–Machine Systems,” in Human Factors in Orga-
Hendrick, H. W. (1997), “Organizational Design and Macro- nizational Design and Management, V. O. Brown and
ergonomics,” in Handbook of Human Factors and H. Hendrick, Eds., Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 469–474.
Ergonomics, G. Salvendy, Ed., Wiley, New York, pp. Karwowski, W. (1992b), “The Human World of Fuzziness,
594–636. Human Entropy, and the Need for General Fuzzy
Hendrick, H. W. and Kleiner, B. M. (2001), Macroergono- Systems Theory,” Journal of the Japan Society for Fuzzy
mics—An Introduction to Work System Design The Theory and Systems, Vol. 4, No. 5, pp. 591–609.
Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, Santa Monica, Karwowski, W., (1994), “A General Modelling Framework
CA. for the Human-Computer Interaction Based on the
Hendrick, H. W., and Kleiner, B. W. (2002a), Macroer- Principles of Ergonomic Compatibility Requirements
gonomics: An Introduction to Work Systems Design, and Human Entropy,” in Fourth International Scien-
Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, Santa Monica, tific Conference Book of Short Papers, Molteni, G.,
Occhipinti, E. and Piccoli, B., Eds., Institute of Occu-
CA.
pational Health, University of Milan, October 2–5, Vol.
Hendrick, H. W., and Kleiner, B. M., Eds. (2002b), Macroer-
1, pp. A12–A19.
gonomics: Theory, Methods, and Applications, Lawrence Karwowski, W. (1995), “A General Modeling Framework for
Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ. the Human–Computer Interaction Based on the Prin-
Hollnagel, E., Ed. (2003), Handbook of Cognitive Task ciples of Ergonomic Compatibility Requirements and
Design, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ. Human Entropy,” in Work with Display Units, Vol. 94,
Holman, D., Wall, T. D., Clegg, C. W., Sparrow, P., and A. Grieco, G. Molteni, E. Occhipinti, and B. Piccoli,
Howard, A. (2003), New Workplace: A Guide to the Eds., North-Holland, Amsterdam, pp. 473–478.
Human Impact of Modern Working Practices, Wiley, Karwowski, W. (1997), “Ancient Wisdom and Future
Chichester, West Sussex, England. Technology: The Old Tradition and the New Science
HFES (2003), Directory and Yearbook, Human Factors and of Human Factors/Ergonomics,” in Proceedings of the
Ergonomics Society, Santa Monica, CA. Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 4th Annual
Iacocca Institute (1991), 21st Century Manufacturing Enter- Meeting, Albuquerque, NM, Human Factors and
prise Strategy: An Industry-Led View, Vol. 1 and 2, Ergonomics Society, Santa Monica, CA, pp. 875–877.
Iacocca Institute, Bethlehem, PA. Karwowski, W., (1998), “Selected Directions and Trends
IEA (2003), IEA Triennial Report, 2000–2003, IEA Press, in Development of Ergonomics in USA” (in Polish),
Santa Monica, CA. Ergonomia, Vol. 21, No. 1–2, pp. 141–155.
30 THE HUMAN FACTORS FUNCTION
Karwowski, W. (2000), “Symvatology: The Science of an Karwowski, W., Siemionow, W., and Gielo-Perczak, K.
Artifact–Human Compatibility,” Theoretical Issues in (2003), “Physical Neuroergonomics: The Human Brain
Ergonomics Science, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 76–91. in Control of Physical Work Activities,” Theoretical
Karwowski, W., Ed. (2001), International Encyclopedia of Issues in Ergonomics Science, Vol. 4, No. 1–2,
Ergonomics and Human Factors, Taylor & Francis, pp. 175–199.
London. Kroemer, K., and Grandjean, E. (1997), Fitting the Task to
Karwowski, W., (2005), “Ergonomics and Human Factors: the Human, 5th ed., Taylor & Francis, London.
The Paradigms for Science, Engineering, Design, Tech- Kroemer, K., Kroemer, H., and Kroemer-Elbert, K. (1994),
nology, and Management of Human-Compatible Sys- Ergonomics: How to Design for Ease and Efficiency,
tems,” Ergonomics, (in press). Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Karwowski, W. (2006), “On Measure of the Human–System Kuorinka, I., Ed. (2000), History of the Ergonomics Associ-
Compatibility,” Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Sci- ation: The First Quarter of Century, IEA Press, Santa
ence (in press). Monica, CA.
Karwowski, W., and Jamaldin, B. (1995), “The Science Luczak, H., Schlick, C., and Springer, J. (1999), “A Guide
of Ergonomics: System Interactions, Entropy, and to Scientific Sources of Ergonomics Knowledge,” The
Ergonomic Compatibility Measures,” in Advances Occupational Ergonomics Handbook, W. Karwowski
in Industrial Ergonomics and Safety, Vol. VII, and W. S. Marras, Eds., CRC Press, London, S. 27–50.
A. C. Bittner, Jr., and P. C. Champney, Eds., Taylor & Meister, D. (1987), “Systems Design, Development and
Francis, London, pp. 121–126. Testing,” in Handbook of Human Factors, G. Salvendy,
Karwowski, W., and Jamaldin, B. (1996), “New Method- Ed., Wiley, New York, pp. 17–42.
ological Framework for Quantifying Compatibility of Meister, D. (1991), The Psychology of System Design, Else-
Complex Ergonomics Systems,” Proceedings of the 6th vier, Amsterdam.
Pan Pacific Conference on Occupational Ergonomics, Meister, D. (1997), The Practice of Ergonomics, Board of
Taipei, Taiwan, Vol. 10, pp. 676–679. Certification in Professional Ergonomics, Bellingham,
Karwowski, W., and Marras, W. S., Eds. (1999), The Occu- WA.
pational Ergonomics Handbook, CRC Press, Boca Meister, D. (1999), The History of Human Factors and
Raton, FL. Ergonomics, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, London.
Karwowski, W., and Mital, A., Eds. (1986), Applications of MITI (2001), “Major Predictions for Science and Technology
Fuzzy Set Theory in Human Factors, Elsevier Science, in the Twenty First Century,” Japan Ministry of
Amsterdam. Education, Science and Technology, Tokyo, unpublished
Karwowski, W., and Rodrick, D. (2001), “Physical Tasks: report.
Analysis, Design and Operation,” in Handbook of Indus- Moray, M. (1994), “The Future of Ergonomics: The Need
trial Engineering, 3rd ed., G. Salvendy, Ed., Wiley, New for Interdisciplinary Integration,” in Proceedings of the
York, pp. 1041–1110. IEA Congress, Human Factors and Ergonomics Society,
Karwowski, W., and Salvendy, G., Eds. (1994), Organization Santa Monica, CA, pp. 1791–1793.
and Management of Advanced Manufacturing, Wiley, Morris, W., Ed. (1978), The American Heritage Dictionary
New York. of the English Language, Houghton Mifflin, Boston.
Karwowski, W., Marek, T., and Noworol, C. (1988), “The- NAE (National Academy of Engineering) (2004), The
oretical Basis of the Science of Ergonomics,” in Pro- Engineer of 2020: Visions of Engineering in the New
ceedings of the 10th Congress of the International Century, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
Ergonomics Association, Sydney, Australia, August, Nemeth, C. (2004), Human Factors Methods for Design.,
Taylor & Francis, London, pp. 756–758. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Karwowski, W., Marek, T., and Noworol, C. (1994a), “The Nielsen, J. (1997), “Usability Engineering,” in The Computer
Complexity–Incompatibility Principle in the Science of Science and Engineering Handbook, A. B. Tucker, Jr.,
Ergonomics,” in Advances in Industrial Ergonomics and Ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 1440–1460.
Safety, Vol. VI, F. Aghazadeh, Ed., Taylor & Francis, Nielsen, J. (2000), Designing Web Usability: The Practice of
London, pp. 37–40. Simplicity, New Readers, Indianapolis, IN.
Karwowski, W., Salvendy, G., Badham, R., Brodner, P., Norman, D. (1988), The Design of Everyday Things, Double-
Clegg, C., Hwang, L., Iwasawa, J., Kidd, P. T., Koba- day, New York.
yashi, N., Koubek, R., Lamarsh, J., Nagamachi, M., Norman, D. A. (1993), Things That Make Us Smart, Addison
Naniwada, M., Salzman, H., Seppälä, P., Schallock, B., Wesley, Reading, MA.
Sheridan, T., and Warschat, J. (1994b), “Integrating NRC (National Research Council) (2001), Musculoskeletal
People, Organization and Technology in Advance Disorders and the Workplace: Low Back and Upper
Manufacturing,” Human Factors and Ergonomics in Extremities, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
Manufacturing, Vol. 4, pp. 1–19. Opperman, R. (1994), “Adaptively Supported Adaptability,”
Karwowski, W., Kantola, J., Rodrick, D., and Salvendy, G. International Journal of Human–Computer Studies,
(2002a), “Macroergonomics Aspects of Manufactur- Vol. 40, pp. 455–472.
ing,” in Macroergonomics: An Introduction to Work Parasuraman, R. (2003), “Neuroergonomics: Research and
System Design, H. W. Hendrick and B. M. Kleiner, Practice,” Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science,
Eds., Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ, Vol. 4, No. 1–2, pp. 5–20.
pp. 223–248. Pearson, G., and Young, T., Ed. (2002), Technically Speak-
Karwowski, W., Rizzo, F., and Rodrick, D. (2002b), “Ergo- ing: Why All Americans Need to Know More About Tech-
nomics in Information Systems,” in Encyclopedia of nology, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
Information Systems, H. Bidgoli Ed., Academic Press, Pheasant, S. (1986), Bodyspace: Anthropometry, Ergonomics
San Diego, CA, pp. 185–201. and Design, Taylor & Francis, London.
THE DISCIPLINE OF ERGONOMICS AND HUMAN FACTORS 31
Putz-Anderson, V., Ed. (1988), Cumulative Trauma Disor- Taylor, F. W. (1911), The Principles of Scientific Manage-
ders: A Manual for Musculoskeletal Diseases of the ment Harper Bros., New York.
Upper Limbs, Taylor & Francis, London. Vicente, K. J. (1999), Cognitive Work Analysis: Towards
Reason, J. (1999), Managing the Risk of Organizational Safe, Productive, and Healthy Computer-Based Work,
Accidents, Ashgate, Aldershot, Hampshire, England. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.
Rouse, W., Kober, N., and Mavor, A., Eds. (1997), The Case Vicente, K. J. (2004), The Human Factor, Routledge, New
of Human Factors in Industry and Government: Report York.
of a Workshop, National Academy Press, Washington, Waters, T. R., Putz-Anderson, V., Garg, A., and Fine, L. J.
DC. (1993), “Revised NIOSH Equation for the Design
Salvendy, G., Ed. (1997), Handbook of Human Factors and and Evaluation of Manual Lifting Tasks,” Ergonomics,
Ergonomics, 2nd ed., Wiley, New York. Vol. 36, No. 7, pp. 749–776.
Sanders, M. M., and McCormick, E. J. (1993), Human Fac- Wickens, C. D., and Carswell, C. M. (1997), “Information
tors in Engineering and Design, 7th ed., McGraw-Hill, Processing,” in Handbook of Human Factors and
New York. Ergonomics, 2nd ed., G. Salvendy, Ed., Wiley, New
Silver, B. L. (1998), The Ascent of Science, Oxford Univer- York, pp. 89–129.
sity Press, Oxford. Wilson, J. R., and Corlett, E. N., Eds. (1995), Evaluation
Stanton, N. A., and Young, M. (1999), A Guide to Method- of Human Work: A Practical Ergonomics Methodology,
ology in Ergonomics: Designing for Human Use, Taylor 2nd ed., Taylor & Francis, London.
& Francis, London. Woodson, W. E., Tillman, B., and Tillman, P. (1992), Human
Stanton, N., Hedge, A., Brookhuis, K., Salas, E., and Hen- Factors Design Handbook, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New
drick, H. W. (2004), Handbook of Human Factors and York.
Ergonomics Methods, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. Womack, J., Jones, D., and Roos, D. (1990), The Machine
Stokes, D. E. (1997), Pasteur’s Quadrant: Basic Science and That Changed the World, Rawson Associates, New York.
Technological Innovation, Brookings Institution Press, Wulf, W. A. (1988), “Tech Literacy: Letter to the White
Washington, DC. House,” National Academy of Engineering Website.
Suh, N. P. (1990), The Principles of Design, Oxford Univer- Available online at: www.nae.edu/nae/naehome.nse/web-
sity Press, New York. links/NAEW-4NHM87.
Suh, N. P. (2001), Axiomatic Design: Advances and Applica-
tions, Oxford University Press, New York.