CHAPTER 65
low-resistance for slippage
SECRETION
TYPES OF GIT GLANDS
SINGLE-CELL MUCOUS GLANDS
- mucous cells or globet cells
- present on the surface of the epithelium (of
most part of the GIT)
SPECIALIZED SECRETORY CELLS
- located in the pits (invagination of epithelium
to submucosa)
- crypts of Liberkuhn in the small intestine
TUBULAR GLANDS
- stomach and upper duodenum
- acid- and pepsinogen-secreting gland of the
stomach)
COMPLEX GLANDS
- salivary, pancreatic, liver
- provide secretions for digestion
emulsification of food
REGULATION AND STIMULATION OF
SECRETION
1. ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
- sensitive tactile stimulation, chemical
irritation, distention of the gut wall
- direct contact stimulation by the presence of
food in a particular segment of the GI tract
stimulates secretion
2. AUTONOMIC STIMULATION
- parasympathetic: increases GIT secetion
rate
- sympathetic: dual effect
- hormones: regulate volume and character
of secretions
MECHANISM OF SECRETION 3.
4. cause fecal particles to adhere = feces
● ORGANIC SUBSTANCES 5. strong resistant to digestion
1. nutrient material must diffuse or be actively 6. glycoproteins have amphoteric properties
transported (capable of buffering small amounts of acids
2. mitochondria use oxidative energy to form or alkalies); contains moderate quantities of
ATP bicarbonate ions to neutralize acids
3. energy from ATP used to synthesize
secretory substances
4. secretory materials transported through
tubules of endoplasmic reticulum
5. Golgi complex: materials discharged in the
form of secretory vesicles, stored in apical
ends of secretory cells
6. Exocytosis: calcium enters and cause
vesicles to fuse with apical cell membrane
- vesicles remained stored until
nervous/hormonal control signals cause cells
to extrude
2. SALIVA
● WATER AND ELETROLYTE - produced by parotid, submandibular,
SECRETION sublingual and buccal glands
- second necessity for glandular secretion - daily secretion: 800-1500mL
or - secretion of salivary glands: nervous - contains 2 major types of protein secretion:
stimulation causes water and salts to pass  SEROUS: contains ptyalin for starch
through the glandular cells, washing organic digestion
substances through secretory border of cells  MUCUS: contains mucin for lubricating
at the same time and for surface protective purposes
- hormones acting on cell membrane of some
glandular cells cause secretory effects FORMATION AND SECRETION OF SALIVA
BY A SUBMANDIBULAR GLAND
VARIOUS GIT SECRETIONS
1. MUCUS
- thick secretion composed of water,
electrolytes, mixture of several glycoproteins
(composed of large polysaccharides)
- excellent lubricant and protectant for the gut
wall
1. adherent qualities, spread as thin film
2. sufficient body coats the wall of the gut and
prevent actual contact of food particles
- compound gland
- contain acini and salivary ducts
SALIVARY SECRETION
- two-stage operation
a. acini ( secrete primary secretion that
contains ptyalin and/or mucin)
salivary ducts
SALIVA FOR ORAL HYGIENE
- flow of saliva helps wash away pathogenic
bacteria
- contains several factors that destroy bacteria
(thiocyanate ions, proteolytic enzymes)
- contains significant amounts of antibodies
that can destroy oral bacteria
NERVOUS REGULATION OF SALIVARY
SECRETION
● Parasympathetic nervous signals all
the way from the superior and inferior
salivatory nuclei in the brain stem:
excited by taste and tactile stimuli from
the tongue and other areas of mouth and
pharynx
● Higher centers of the CNS (appetite
area): excited by signals from taste and
smell area of the cerebral cortex and
amygdala
● Reflexes originating in the stomach
and upper small intestines
● Sympathetic stimulation
● Blood supply to the glands
GASTRIC SECRETION
Types of tubular glands in the stomach
1. OXYNTIC (GASTRIC) GLANDS)
- located on the inside surfaces of the body
and fundus of the stomach (proximal 80% of
the stomach)
a. - 3 cells: mucous neck cells (mucus), peptic
(chief) cells (pepsinogen) , parietal (oxyntic)
cells (hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor);
enterochromaffin-like cells (secrete histamine)
2. PLYORIC GLANDS
- antral portion of the stomach (distal 20% of
the stomach)
- secrete mucus for protection of the pyloric
mucosa from the stomach acid; gatrin
HYDROGEN-POTASSIUM PUMP (H+-K+
adenosine triphosphatase [ATPase])
- main driving force for hydrochloric acid
secretion
1. Water dissociates into H+ and OH-
2. H+-K+ATPase Pump: H+ actively secreted
into the canaliculus in exchange for K+
3. OH- accumulates and form HCO3- from
CO2; reaction catalyzed by carbonic
anhydrase
4. HCO3- transported along basolateral
membrane into extracellular fluid in exchange
for CL-
5. Cl- ions secreted through chloride channels
in the canaliculus
4. PEPSIN
- activated from contact of pepsinogen and
HCl
- functions as an active proteolytic enzyme in
a highly acidic medium
- necessary for protein digestion in the
stomach
STIMULATION OF GASTRIC SECRETION
 ACETYLCHOLINE: excites secretion of
peptic, parietal and mucus cells
 GASTRIN: stimulates secretion of acid
only
 HISTAMINE: stimulates secretion of acid
only
PHASES OF GASTRIC SECRETION AND
THEIR REGULATION
 CEPHALIC PHASE: via vagus;
parasympathetics excite pepsin and acid
production
 GASTRIC PHASE: local nervous
secretory reflexes, vagal reflexes, gastrin-
histamine stimulation
 INTESTINAL PHASE: nervous
mechanisms, hormonal mechanisms
PANCREATIC SECRETION
 DIGESTIVE ENZYMES: secreted by
pancreatic acini for digesting proteins,
carbohydrates, and fats
 NaHCO3: secreted by epithelial cells of
small ductules and larger ducts for
neutralizing the acidity of the chyme
 Secretion (both of enzymes and NaHCO3)
flows through long pancreatic duct that
normally joins the hepatic duct before it
empties into the duodenum through the
papilla of Vater
REGULATION OF PANCREATIC
SECRETION
 ACETYLCHOLINE: from the
parasympathetic vagus nerve endings
and the enteric nervous system;
pancreatic enzymes >> water and
electrolytes
 CHOLECYSTOKININ: secreted by the
duodenal and upper jejunal mucosa;
pancreatic enzymes >> water and
electrolytes
 SECRETIN: secreted by the duodenal
and jejnual mucosa; water and
NaHCO3 >> enzymes
PHASES OF PANCREATIC SECRETION
 CEPHALIC: causes moderate amounts of
enzymes to be secreted; accounts for
20% of total secretion
 GASTRIC: accounts for 5-10% of
pancreatic enzyme secretion
 INTESTINAL: copious secretion occurs
mainly in response to secretin
Pnacreatic digestive enzymes
 Proteins: trypsin, chymostrypsin,
carboxypolypeptidease
 Carbohydrates: pancreatic amylase
 Fats: pancreatic lipase, cholesterol
esterase, phospholipase
SECRETION OF BICARBONATE IONS
1. CO2 diffuses from the blood to the
pancreatic duct cell; combines with H2O;
reaction catalyzed by carbonic anhydride
produces carbonic acid (H2CO3)
2. H2C03 dissociates into HCO3- and H+
3. Additional HCO3- enter the cell via co-
transport with Na+
4. HCO3- are then exchanged for Cl- by
secondary active transport through the luminal
border
REGULATION OF PANCREATIC
SECRETION
BILE SECRETION BY THE LIVER
BILE
- plays an important role in fat digestion and
absorption (bile acids)
- serves as a means for excretion of several
important waste products from the blood
(bilirubin, cholesterol)
- stored and concentrated in the gallbladder
(maximum volume: 30-60mL)
BILE SECRETION
1. Initial secretion: contains large amounts of
bile acids, cholesterol, and other organic
constituents; hepatoyctes, caniculi, terminal
bile duct, hepatic duct, common bile duct
2. Additional secretion: watery solution of
Na_ and HCO3 ions secreted by epithelial
cells that line the ductules and ducts;
SECRETIN
COMPOSITION OF BILE
GALLBLADDER EMPTYING
- rhythmical contractions of the GB wall and
simultaneous relaxation of the sphincter of
Oddi
- Cholecystokinin (CKK): most potent
stimulus for causing GB contractions;
presence of fatty food in the duodenum
causes its release into the blood from the
duodenal mucosa
- acetylcholine-secreting nerve fibers from
both vagi and the intestinal enteric nervous
system
BILE SALTS
- emulsifying or detergent action:
decreases the surface tension of fat particles
and allow agitation in the intestinal tract to
break fat globules into minute sizes
- help in the absorption of fatty acids,
monoglycerides, cholesterol, and other lipids
from the intestinal tract
GALLSTONE FORMATION
SECRETIONS OF THE SMALL INTESTINE
 BRUNNER’S GLANDS: located in the
wall of the duodenum; secrete alkaline mucus
in response to tactile or irritating stimuli on the
duodenal mucosa, vagal stimulation, and GI
hormones
 Pits (Crypts of Lieberkuhn): located
over the entire surface of the small intestine;
epithelium is composed of globlet cells and
enterocytes
- volume of secretion: 1800mL/day of almost
pure alkaline extracellular fluid
- regulated by local enteric nervous reflexes
Active secretion of Cl- and HCO3 ions cause
electrical drag of Na+ through the membrane
and into the secreted fluid thus causing
osmotic movement of H2O
Digestive Enzymes:
 Peptidases: split small peptides into
amino acids
 Sucrase, Maltase, Isomaltase, Lactase:
split disaccharides into monosaccharides
 Intestinal Lipase: split neutral fats into
glycerol and fatty acids
LARGE INTESTINAL SECRETION
- mucosa of the large intestine has many
crypts of Lieberkuhn but contains no villi
- epithelial cells secrete almost no digestive
enzymes. Instead they contain mucus cells
that secrete only mucus, containing moderate
amounts of HCO3 ions
MUCUS IN THE COLON
- protects the intestinal wall against
excoriation and provides and adherent
medium for holding fecal matter together
- protects the intestinal wall from the great
amount of bacterial activity that takes place
inside the feces
- mucus plus the alkalinity of the secretion
provides a barrier to keep acids formed in the
feces from attacking intestinal wall
CHAPTER 66
PRINCIPLES
- digestion of all 3 major food types
(carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) involves
the same basic process of HYDROLYSSIS
- the only difference lies in the types of
enzymes required to promote the hydrolysis
reactions for each type of food
- hydrolysis: chemical breakdown of
compound due to reaction with water
- all digestive enzymes are proteins
HYDROLYSIS OF CARBOHYDRATES
- sucrose + water = glucose + fructose
- either large polysaccharides or
disaccharides, which are combinations of
monosaccharides bound to one another by
condensation
- H+ and OH- has been removed
- two monosaccharides combine at these sites
of removal
- carbohydrates are digested, this process is
reversed, and the carbohydrates are
converted into monosaccharides
- hydrolysis: specific enzymes in the
digestive juices of the gastrointestinal tract
return the H+ and OH− from H2O to the
polysaccharides and thereby separate the
monosaccharides from each other
HYDROLYSIS OF FATS
- triglyceride + water --> glycerol + 3 fatty
acids
- consists of triglycerides (neutral fats), which
are combinations of three fatty acid molecules
condensed with a single glycerol molecule
-during condensation: three molecules of
water are removed
HYDROLYSIS OF PROTEINS
- protein --> amino acids
- alanine, glycine
- formed from multiple amino acids that are
bound together by peptide linkages
- OH- and H+ has been removed
- successive amino acids in the protein chain
are also bound together by condensation
- all digestive enzymes are proteins
DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
- major carbohydrate sources: sucrose,
lactose, starches
- others: amylose, glycogen, alcohol, lactic
acid, pyruvic acid, pectins, dextrins, cellulose
- occurs in the mouth, stomach and small
intestine
- digestive enzymes: pytalin, pancreatic
amylase, lactase, sucrase, maltase,
dextrinase
The final products of carbohydrate digestion:
all monosaccharides (80% glucose, 10%
frutose, and galactose; all water soluble and
absorbed immediately into the portal blood)
DIGESTION OF PROTEINS
- pepsin: (in the stomach) only initiates the
process of digestion, usually providing only
10-20% of the total protein digestion to
convert the protein to proteoses, peptones,
and a few polypeptides
- most protein digestion: occurs in upper
small intestine, in the duodenum and jejunum
- digestive enzymes: trypsin, chymotrypsin,
carboxypolypeptidase, elastase,
aminopolypeptidase, dipeptidase
DIGESTION OF FATS
- dietary fats: neutral fats or triglyercides,
phospholipids, cholesterol, cholesterol esters
- small amount of triglycerides is digested in
the stomach by the lingual lipase secreted by
the lingual glands in the mouth but the amount
of digestion is <10%
- all fat digestion occurs in the small intestine

FAT EMULSIFICATION
- first step in fat digestion
- physically break the fat globules into small
sizes so that the water-soluble digestive
enzymes can act on the globule surfaces
- begins by agitation in the stomach to mix
the fat with the products of stomach digestion;
then occurs in the duodenum under the
influence of bile
- bile does not contain any digestive enzymes
but contains a large quantity of bile salts and
lecithin (makes the fat globules readily
fragmentable by agitation with water in the
small intestine)
ABSORPTION
PRINCIPLES
- total quantity of fluid absorbed each day is
equal to the ingested fluid (1.5L) plus that
secreted in the various GI secretions (7L)
- stomach: poor absorptive area of the GIT
because it lacks the typical villus-type of
absorptive membrane and because of the
tight junctions in between epithelial cells
- absorptive surfaces of the small intestine:
 Valvulae conniventes (folds of
Kerkring): increases absorptive surface
area by 3x
 Villi: 10x
 Brush border of microvilli: 20x
ABSORPTION OF WATER AND IONS
- water: transported through the intestinal
membrane entirely by diffusion following the
law of osmosis (high to low)
- sodium, chloride, bicarbonate ions
- calcium, iron, potassium, magnesium,
phosphate: actively absorbed through the
intestinal mucosa
Na+, Cl-, and HCO3- Absorption
1. Na+ absorption via active transport and co-
transport mechanisms
2. Cl- absorption via diffusion and via chloride-
bicarbonate exchanger
3. HCO3- absorption in exchange for Cl- ions
ABSORPTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
- all carbohydrates in food are absorbed in the
form of monosaccharides: glucose (80%),
galactose and fructose (20%)
- glucose and galactose absorption occurs in
the co-transport mode with active transport of
sodium
- fructose is transported by facilitated
diffusion all the way through the intestinal
epithelium and is not coupled with sodium
transport
ABSORPTION OF PROTEINS
Co-trasnport or secondary transport
- most peptide or amino acid molecuels bind
in the cell’s microvillus membrane with a
specific transport protein that requires
sodium binding before trasport can occur
- after binding, the sodium ion then moves
down its electrochemical gradient to the
interior of the cell and pulls the amino acid or
peptide along with it
ABSORPTION OF FATS
- bile micelles: soluble in chyme
- monoglycerides and free fatty acids are
carried to the surfaces of the microvilli of the
intestinal brush border and then penetrate into
the recesses among the moving agitating
microvilli
- both the monoglycerides and fatty acids
diffuse immediately out of the micelles and
into the interior of the epithelial cells
ABSORPTION IN THE LARGE INTESTINE
- absorbing colon: proximal half where most
of the absorption occurs (5-8L/day); active
absorption of sodium and chloride; osmotic
diffusion of water
- storage colon: distal half which functions
principally for feces storage
- composition of feces: 3/4 water and 1/4
solid matter (30% dead bacteria, 10-20% fat,
10-20% inorganic matter, 2-3% protein, 30%
undigested roughage)