LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT 18e

John W. Santrock

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 Chapter 2

Biological Beginnings

© 2021 McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill.
 Chapter Outline
• The Evolutionary Perspective.
• Genetic Foundations of Development.
• Reproductive Challenges and Choices.
• Heredity-Environment Interaction: The Nature-Nurture
Debate.

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 The Evolutionary Perspective: Topics
• Natural selection and adaptive behavior.
• Evolutionary psychology.

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 Natural Selection and Adaptive Behavior
• Natural selection: an evolutionary process by which individuals
of a species that are best adapted are the ones that survive and
leave the most fit offspring.
• Adaptive behavior: behavior that promotes an organism’s
survival in the natural habitat, because an organism possesses
characteristics needed for survival.

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 Evolutionary Psychology 1

Evolutionary psychology: emphasizes the importance of

adaptation and reproduction to ensure survival.
• Offspring that adapts, develops behaviors, and possesses
self-protective traits survive.

Evolutionary developmental psychology:

Interest has grown in using the concepts of evolutionary
psychology to understand human development.
Psychological mechanisms are domain-specific.
• For example, we developed sets of problem-solving skills for
recurring problems like finding food.

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 Evolutionary Psychology 2

Connecting evolution and life-span development:

• The benefits conferred by evolutionary selection decrease with
age.
• Natural selection primarily operates during the first half of life
and during reproductive viability.
• Older adults weaken biologically and need culture-based
resources such as cognitive skills, literacy, medical technology,
and social support.

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 Evolutionary Psychology 3

Evaluating evolutionary psychology:

Criticisms include that it:
• Does not adequately value social/environmental factors.
• Relies on after-the-fact explanations.
• Cannot be tested scientifically.

Evolution does not dictate behavior.

• An alternative bidirectional view suggests environmental and
biological conditions influence each other.
• People have used their biological capacities to produce diverse
cultures.

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 Evolutionary Psychology 4

FIGURE 2: BALTES’ VIEW OF EVOLUTION AND CULTURE ACROSS

THE LIFE SPAN.

Benefits derived from evolutionary selection decrease as we age, whereas the need for culture increases
with age.

Access the text alternative for slide images.

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 Evolutionary Psychology 5

• Evolution occurs on a time scale that does not lend itself to

empirical study.
• Thus, the ideas coming out of evolutionary psychology are
perhaps best tested by studying specific genes in humans and
other species, and their links to traits and behaviors.

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 Genetic Foundations of Development:
Topics
• The collaborative gene.
• Genes and chromosomes.
• Genetic principles.
• Chromosomal and gene-linked abnormalities.

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 The Collaborative Gene 1

Human life begins as a single cell.

The nucleus of each cell contains chromosomes.
• Chromosomes: threadlike structures made up of
deoxyribonucleic acid.
• DNA: a complex double-helix molecule that contains genetic
code or information.

Genes: units of hereditary information composed of DNA.

• Help cells to reproduce themselves.
• Manufacture the proteins that maintain life.

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 The Collaborative Gene 2

FIGURE 3: CELLS, CHROMOSOMES, DNA, AND GENES

(Top) The body contains trillions of cells. Each cell contains a central structure, the nucleus.
(Middle) Chromosomes are threadlike structures located in the nucleus of the cell. Chromosomes are
composed of DNA. (Bottom) DNA has the structure of a spiral staircase. A gene is a segment of DNA.
Access the text alternative for slide images.

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 The Collaborative Gene 3

• Each gene has its own location—its designated place on a

particular chromosome.
• Today, researchers strive to discover the specific locations of
genes that are linked to certain functions and developmental
outcomes.
• The Human Genome Project mapped the human genome—the
complete genetic content of our cells.
• Humans have only about 22,000 genes.
• Genes collaborate with each other and with nongenetic factors
both inside and outside the body.

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 The Collaborative Gene 4

Whether a gene is expressed—working to assemble proteins—is a

matter of collaboration.
• Genetic expression is affected by their environment.
• Hormones in the blood can turn genes “on” and “off.”

Certain genes are turned on or off as a result of exercise, mainly

through methylation:
• Tiny molecules attach themselves to the outside of a gene,
making the gene less capable of receiving and responding to
biochemical signals from the body.
• Stress, exercise, nutrition, radiation, temperature, and lack of
sleep can negatively influence gene expression.

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 Genes and Chromosomes 1

All of the cells in the body, except the sperm and egg, have 46
chromosomes in 23 pairs.
Mitosis: the cellular reproduction in which the cell’s nucleus
duplicates itself into two new cells.
• Each contains the same DNA as the original cell.
Meiosis: cell division forming eggs and sperm (or gametes).
Fertilization: the reproductive stage when egg and sperm fuse to
create a zygote.
• Zygote: a single cell, formed through fertilization, in which 23
unpaired chromosomes from the egg and 23 unpaired
chromosomes from the sperm combine.

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 Genes and Chromosomes 2

FIGURE 5: THE GENETIC DIFFERENCE

BETWEEN MALES AND FEMALES

Set (a) shows the chromosome structure of a male and set (b)
shows the chromosome structure of a female. The last pair of
23 pairs of chromosomes is in the bottom right box of each
set. Notice that the Y chromosome of the male is smaller than
the X chromosome of the female. To obtain this kind of
chromosomal picture, a cell is removed from a person’s body,
usually from the inside of the mouth. The chromosomes are
stained by chemical treatment, magnified extensively, and
then photographed.

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 Genes and Chromosomes 3

Sources of variability:
Combining the genes of two parents in offspring increases
variability in the population.
• The chromosomes are brought together in the zygote in a
unique combination.
• In identical twins (or monozygotic twins), a single zygote splits
into two genetically identical replicas and becomes two
individuals.
• In fraternal twins (or dizygotic twins), two eggs fertilized by
different sperm create two nonidentical zygotes as genetically
similar as ordinary siblings.

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 Genes and Chromosomes 4

Other sources of variability:

• Mutated gene: a permanently altered segment of DNA.
• Susceptibility genes: genes that make the individual more
vulnerable to specific diseases or accelerated aging.
• Longevity genes: genes that make the individual less vulnerable
to certain diseases and more likely to live to an older age.

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 Genes and Chromosomes 5

Genotype: a person’s genetic material.

Phenotype: how an individual’s genotype is expressed in
observable and measurable physical and psychological
characteristics.
Expression is influenced by environmental factors.
• For example, a genetic potential for height may be stunted by
lack of access to proper nutrition.

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 Genetic Principles 1

Genetic principles determine how a genotype is expressed to

create a particular phenotype.
Dominant-recessive genes principle:
• One gene of a pair always exerts its effects, overriding the
potential influence of the other gene.

Sex-linked genes:
• When a mutated gene is carried on the X chromosome, the
result is called X-linked inheritance.
• Most X-linked inherited diseases manifest in males, who have
only one X chromosome.

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 Genetic Principles 2

Genetic imprinting:
Genetic imprinting occurs when the expression of a gene has
different effects depending on whether the gene is passed on by
mother or father.
• A chemical process prevents one member of the gene pair from
expressing itself.
Imprinting is normal but can go awry, disturbing development and
leading to growth disorders or cancer.

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 Genetic Principles 3

Polygenic inheritance:
• Many different genes interacting, plus environmental influences,
determine a characteristic or developing disease.

Gene-gene interaction: studies focusing on the interdependence of

two or more genes in influencing characteristics, behavior,
diseases, and development.

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 Chromosomal Abnormalities 1

Down syndrome: a form of an intellectual disability caused by the

presence of an extra copy of chromosome 21.
• Can cause intellectual and physical issues.

Chromosomal abnormalities known as sex-linked involve the

presence of an extra X or Y chromosome or the absence of one X
chromosome in females.
Klinefelter syndrome: a sex-linked chromosomal disorder in
which males have an extra X chromosome, making them XXY
instead of XY.
• Characteristics are underdeveloped testes, enlarged breasts,
and becoming tall.

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 Chromosomal Abnormalities 2

Fragile X syndrome (FXS): a sex-linked disorder involving an

abnormality in the X chromosome, which becomes constricted and
often breaks.
• Can cause intellectual disability, learning disability, or short
attention span.
Turner syndrome: a sex-linked disorder in females in which either
an X chromosome is missing or the second X chromosome is
partially deleted.
• Can cause intellectual disability and sexual underdevelopment.

XYY syndrome: a sex-linked disorder in which males have an

extra Y chromosome.
• Can cause above-average height.

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 Chromosomal Abnormalities
Name Description
Down syndrome An extra chromosome causes mild to
severe intellectual disability and
physical abnormalities.
Klinefelter syndrome An extra X chromosome causes
(XXY) physical abnormalities.
Fragile X syndrome An abnormality in the X chromosome
can cause intellectual disability,
learning disabilities, or short
attentions span.
Turner syndrome A missing X chromosome in females
(XO) can cause intellectual disability and
sexual underdevelopment.
XYY syndrome An extra Y chromosome can cause
above-average height.
TABLE 6: SOME CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
The treatments for these abnormalities do not necessarily erase the problem but may improve the
individual’s adaptive behavior and quality of life.
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Treatment Incidence
Surgery, early 1 in 1,900 births at age 20;
intervention, infant 1 in 300 births at age 35;
stimulation, and special 1 in 30 births at age 45
learning programs.
Hormone therapy can be 1 in 1,000 male births
effective.
Special education, speech More common in males than
and language therapy in females
Hormone therapy in 1 in 2,500 female births
childhood and puberty.
No special treatment 1 in 1,000 male births
required
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 Chromosomal Abnormalities 4

Gene-linked abnormalities are produced by harmful genes.

Phenylketonuria (PKU): a genetic disorder in which an individual
cannot properly metabolize an amino acid called phenylalanine.
• If left untreated, it results in intellectual disability and
hyperactivity.

Sickle-cell anemia: a genetic disorder that affects the red blood

cells and occurs most often in people of African descent.
• Red blood cells become hook-shaped and cannot carry
oxygen properly.

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 Chromosomal Abnormalities 5

Name Description Treatment Incidence

Cystic fibrosis Glandular disfunction that interferes with mucus
production; breathing and digestion are
hampered, resulting in a shortened life span.
Diabetes Body does not produce enough insulin, which
causes abnormal metabolism of sugar.
Hemophilia Delayed blood clotting causes internal and
external bleeding.
Huntington’s disease Central nervous system deteriorates, producing
problems in muscle coordination and mental
deterioration.
Phenylketonuria (PKU) Metabolic disorder that, left untreated, causes
intellectual disability and hyperactivity.
Sickle-cell anemia Blood disorder that limits the body’s oxygen
supply; it can cause joint swelling, as well as
heart and kidney failure.
Spina bifida Neural tube disorder that causes brain and
spine abnormalities.
Tay-Sachs disease Deceleration of mental and physical
development caused by an accumulation of
lipids in the nervous system.
Physical and oxygen therapy, 1 in 2,000 births
synthetic enzymes, and antibiotics;
most individuals live to middle age.
Early onset can be fatal unless 1 in 2,500 births
treated with insulin.
Blood transfusions/injections can 1 in 10,000 males
reduce or prevent damage due to
internal bleeding.
Does not usually appear until age 35 1 in 20,000 births
or older; death likely 10 to 20 years
after symptoms appear.
Special diet can result in average 1 in 10,000 to 1 in 20,000
intelligence and normal life span. births
Penicillin, medication for pain, 1 in 400 African American
antibiotics, blood transfusions, and children (lower among other
hydroxyurea. groups)
Corrective surgery at birth, 2 in 1,000 births
orthopedic devices, and
physical/medical therapy.
Medication and special diet are used, 1 in 30 American Jews is a
but death is likely by 5 years of age. carrier.

TABLE 7: SOME GENE-LINKED ABNORMALITIES

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 Chromosomal Abnormalities 6

Dealing with genetic abnormalities:

Every individual carries DNA variations that predispose the person
to serious physical disease or mental disorder.
Genes that are missing, nonfunctional, or mutated can contribute
to disorders.
Identifying genetic flaws enables medical professions to:
• Predict an individual’s risks.
• Recommend healthy practices.
• Prescribe the safest and most effective drugs.

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 Reproductive Challenges and Choices:
Topics
• Prenatal diagnostic tests.
• Infertility and reproductive technology.
• Adoption.

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 Prenatal Diagnostic Tests 1

A number of tests can indicate whether a fetus is developing

normally:
• Ultrasound sonography.
• Brain-imaging techniques.
• Chorionic villus sampling.
• Amniocentesis.
• Maternal blood screening and cell-free DNA.
• Noninvasive prenatal diagnosis (NIPD).
• Fetal sex determination.

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 Prenatal Diagnostic Tests 2

FIGURE 8: A FETAL MRI, WHICH IS INCREASINGLY BEING USED IN

PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS OF FETAL MALFORMATIONS
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses a powerful magnet to generate detailed images of the body’s
organs and structures. Fetal MRI, or fMRI, is increasingly being used.

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 Infertility and Reproductive Technology 1

Infertility: the inability to conceive a child after 12 months of regular

intercourse without contraception.
In vitro fertilization (IVF): a process in which eggs and sperm are
combined in a laboratory dish by experts.
• One or more of the resulting zygotes is transferred into the
woman’s uterus.
• Multiple zygotes can increase health risks.
• IVF success rate depends on the mother’s age and other
factors.

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 Infertility and Reproductive Technology 2

FIGURE 9: SUCCESS RATES OF IN VITRO FERTILIZATION VARY

ACCORDING TO THE WOMAN’S AGE

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 Adoption 1

Adoption is a social and legal process that establishes a parent-

child relationship between persons unrelated at birth. The
Increased diversity of adopted children and adoptive parents:
U.S. couples are adopting a wide diversity of children.
• From other countries.
• From other ethnic groups.
• Children with physical and/or mental problems.
• Children who had been neglected or abused.

Increased diversity has also characterized adoptive parents.

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 Adoption 2

Types of adoption:
• Domestic adoption from the public welfare system.
• Domestic infant adoption through private agencies and
intermediaries.
• International adoption.
Outcomes for adopted children.
• Adopted children fare much better than children raised in long-
term foster care.
• Children who are adopted at a very early age are more likely to
have positive outcomes.

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 Heredity-Environment Interaction: The
Nature-Nurture Debate: Topics
• Behavior genetics.
• Heredity-environment correlations.
• The epigenetic view and gene × environment (G × E)
interaction.
• Conclusions about heredity-environment interaction.

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 Behavior Genetics
Behavior genetics: the field that seeks to discover the influence
of heredity and environment on individual differences in human
traits, development, and behavior.
Twin study: the behavioral similarity of identical twins is compared
with the behavioral similarity of fraternal twins.
Adoption study: seeks to discover whether behavioral and
psychological characteristics of adopted children are more like
those of their adoptive parents or biological parents.
• Adoptive parents provided the home environment.
• Biological parents contributed their heredity.

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 Heredity-Environment Correlations 1

• Passive genotype-environment correlations: occur because

biological parents provide a rearing environment for the child.
• Evocative genotype-environment correlations: occur
because a child’s genetically-influenced characteristics elicit
certain types of environments.
• Active (niche-picking) genotype-environment correlations:
occur when children seek out environments that they find
compatible and stimulating and suited for their genetically
influenced abilities.

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 Heredity-Environment Correlations
Heredity-
Environment
Correlation Description
Passive Children inherit genetic tendencies from
their parents, and parents also provide an
environment that matches their own
genetic tendencies.
Evocative The child’s genetic tendencies elicit
stimulation from the environment that
supports a particular trait. Thus genes
evoke environmental support.
Active Children actively seek out “niches” in their
(niche-picking) environment that reflect their own
interests and talents and are thus in
accord with their genotype.
TABLE 10: EXPLORING HEREDITY-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATIONS
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Examples
Musically inclined parents
usually have musically inclined
children, and they are likely to
provide an environment rich in
music for their children.
A happy, outgoing child elicits
smiles and friendly responses
from others.
Libraries, sports fields, and a
store with musical instruments
are examples of environmental
niches children might seek out if
they have intellectual interests in
books, talent in sports, or
musical talents, respectively.
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 The Epigenetic View and Gene ×
Environment (G × E) Interaction 1

Epigenetic view: development is the result of an ongoing,

bidirectional interchange between heredity and environment.
Gene × environment (G × E) interaction: the interaction of a
specific measured variation in the DNA and a specific measured
aspect of the environment.
• The epigenetic mechanisms involve the actual molecular
modification of the DNA strand as a result of environmental
inputs in ways that alter gene functioning.

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 The Epigenetic View and Gene ×
Environment (G × E) Interaction 2

FIGURE 11: COMPARISONS OF THE HEREDITY-ENVIRONMENT

CORRELATION AND EPIGENETIC VIEWS OF DEVELOPMENT

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 Conclusions about Heredity-Environment
Interaction
• The relative contributions of heredity and environment are not
additive.
• Genes produce proteins—or not—in many different
environments throughout the life span.
• Complex behaviors are influenced by genes and environments
in a way that gives people a propensity for a particular
developmental trajectory.
• We also can author a unique developmental path by changing
the environment.

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© 2021 McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill.