Human Sexuality Self Society and Culture 1st Edition Herdt Solutions Manual

Chapter 9: Gender and Identity: Process,
Roles, and Culture

Learning Objectives
Understanding Gender in Development and in Context
• Define the difference in the use of the words sex and gender.
• Explain the spectrum of gender based on masculinity and on femininity.
• Describe five genetic intersex conditions.
Gender Identity and Expression
• Explain the difference between gender identity and sexual orientation.

• Describe the relationship between gender identity and transsexuality.
• Explain the difference between androgyny and transgender.
Gender Roles
• Explain how culture influences gender roles and how they vary across cultures.
• Explain the role of power, stereotypes, and control in gender roles.
• Identify the five major social institutions that influence gender roles.
Gender Norms and Variance
• Describe how norms influence conformity to traditional masculine and feminine behavior.
• Define gender nonconformity.
Gender Identity Rights and Sexual Well-Being
• Describe gender identity rights for individuals who choose a nonconforming gender
orientation.
Chapter Outline
Chapter 9: Gender and identity: Process, Roles, and Culture
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© 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized
for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded,
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Learning Objectives 9.1 Discussion Topic 9.1
Discussion Topic 9.2

I. Understanding Gender in Development and in Context
A. Gender and Sex
• The process of gender and sexual differentiation is an intricate constellation of

chromosomes, hormones, and body tissues in the context of culture and socialization.
These elements often work together to determine two things:
o Sex
o Gender
• Sex is based on biological elements, whereas gender is based primarily on external
social, cultural, and environmental elements.
• For the most part, a person’s biological sex is often the same as his or her gender
identity, but it is not that way for all people. In fact, there are individuals who
consider themselves to be neither male nor female but distinct in their gender.
Healthy Sexuality
Sex and Gender Terminology
• When it comes to the discussion of sex and gender, the terminology can be confusing. To
increase your understanding and to reduce any confusion, refer to the definitions of these
terms:
o Sex—the biological differentiation into male or female, based upon genes, hormones,
and other internal developmental factors. With the term sex, the focus is on:
▪ Biological structures and development
▪ Hormones and endocrine processes
▪ Genes, chromosomes, and DNA
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© 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized
for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded,
distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
o Gender—the social differentiation into masculine or feminine, based upon
institutions, roles, and meanings of a particular culture. With gender, the focus is on:
▪ Social individuals defined by society
▪ Gender meaning as defined by culture
▪ Institutions and roles as defined by society
o Gender identity—the sense of maleness or femaleness, inside of someone’s own
experiences of growing up. The term gender identity focuses on:
▪ Individual self-awareness and subjectivity
▪ The sense of maleness or femaleness, or something different
▪ Development in the context of family and peers
o Gender role—the culturally patterned expression of masculinity or femininity that is
identified with particular tasks, knowledge, and power. Sometimes gender roles are
referred to as sex roles. The term gender roles focuses on:
▪ Social categories of men and women
▪ Cultural codes of masculinity and femininity
▪ Power and who gets to use it in society
B. Biological Processes in the Development of Sex
• The biological process of sexual differentiation—that is, developing into a male or

female—begins before conception and continues during fetal development. At
conception, chromosomes for being male or female are fixed. This process continues
as the fetus develops gonads, produces hormones, develops internal and external
reproductive structures associated with being male or female, and then culminates
with the sex differentiation of the brain.
• A person’s biological sex is determined at the moment of conception. Both the ovum
and sperm cells carry sex chromosomes. Each ovum normally carries an X
chromosome. Each sperm cell normally carries either an X or a Y chromosome. An
XY chromosomal combination will typically produce a male child and an XX
combination will typically produce a female child.
C. Biological Sex Variations and Intersexuality
• Though we often discuss anatomy as it relates to male or female bodies, sexual

dimorphism—being either female or male—does not account for the variation
among all human bodies. In fact, some children are born with an extra sex
chromosome or a missing sex chromosome.
• When the process of sexual differentiation follows an atypical path, intersexuality
may result. Intersexuality in humans refers to intermediate or atypical combinations
of physical features that typically differentiate male from female. Intersexuality is
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© 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not
authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated,
forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
congenital, and involves chromosomal, genital, and gonadal variations. People who
are intersex may have biological characteristics of both the male and female sexes.
• Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia—The most common cause of sexual ambiguity in
XX individuals with XX sex chromosomes is congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH),
which occurs in 1 in 10,000 to 18,000 people (White, 2011). In this endocrine
disorder, the adrenal glands produce abnormally high levels of hormones that
masculinize the female body, retarding breast development and pubic hair growth.
• Progestin-Induced Virilization—Another condition of individuals with XX sex
chromosomes is caused by the mother’s use of progestin during pregnancy. In the
United States, mothers were given this drug in the 1950s and 1960s to prevent
miscarriage. If the timing is right, virilization occurs, which means the fetal genitals
are masculinized.
• Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome—It occurs when a fetus with XY sex
chromosomes is unable to respond to androgens. This insensitivity ranges from mild
to extreme and results in the newborn having female genitalia. In its mild form there
may be some variation in the appearance of the genitals.
• Klinefelter Syndrome—In the condition known as Klinefelter Syndrome (Figure 9.3),
people inherit an extra X chromosome from either the father or the mother. The
typical result, then, is XXY sex chromosomes.
• Turner Syndrome—In Turner syndrome (Figure 9.4), which occurs only in females,
cells are missing all or part of an X chromosome. Most commonly, then, the female
has only one X chromosome. Some may have two X chromosomes, but one of them
is incomplete. Sometimes, a female has some cells with two X chromosomes, and
other cells have only one.
• 5-Alpha-Reductase Deficiency—The rare condition 5-alpha-reductase deficiency
occurs in genetic males. In developed societies such as the United States, this
biological condition occurs at the rate of 1 in 200,000 individuals, but in
communities that experience inbreeding, it can be as high as 1 in 200. This condition
does not allow a fetus to convert testosterone to dihydrotestosterone (DHT), which is
necessary for the development of male genitalia. The absence of DHT tends to result
in ambiguous genitalia at birth; there may be a small or microscopic penis with testes
and a vagina and labia. The small penis is capable of ejaculation but it looks like a
clitoris at birth. This results in many of these boys being raised as girls. When
additional sex hormones are released during puberty around age 11 or 12, these boys’
genitals develop to look more like an adult male penis and testes, though smaller.
II. Gender Identity and Expression
• Gender identity is the sense of feeling that you are male or female or, for some
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individuals, neither male nor female but intersexed. When this sense of gender identity
is expressed as masculine and feminine, you get a spectrum of meanings.
A. Gender Identity—A Brief History
• Theorists about gender identity believe that it is the rock of our self-awareness and
truly cannot be changed, no matter what (Bailey, 2003; Stoller, 1974; Zucker &
Bradley, 1995). There is one well-known story that highlights just how critical
gender identity is to our sense of who we are and how we interact with the world
around us. Because of this story, in the late 1950s psychologists and medical doctors
created the clear concept of “gender identity.” At that time there were reports of
individuals seeking to change their gender identity from being male to female. One
was Christine Jorgensen.
• During Christine’s era, all cases of gender identity change were male to female.
Today, we see a dramatic shift, as females now also transition into a male gender
identity.
• Many psychological and behavioral effects are attributed to gender identity. These
range from the trivial preference for either pink or blue, to whether a child likes to
climb trees or to play with dolls, to whether someone prefers to sit down or to stand
up when peeing.
B. Biology and Gender Identity Development
• In trying to understand biology’s effects on gender identity, some scientists have

looked at the role of hormones. While many scientists believe that hormones are part
of gender identity development, it is difficult to study this in human beings. It would
be unethical to subject people to hormonal changes to study how they impact gender
identity. This means we rely on studying individuals with hormonal disorders to gain
insight into how hormones may affect gender identity.
• Dr. John Money in the mid-1950s founded a gender identity clinic at Johns Hopkins
University Hospital. This was a time of strict gender roles, due to Cold War pressures
to ensure that men were very masculine and fit for war, while women were prepared
to be homemakers and mothers. This clinic began to receive increases in parents’
requests to examine and possibly treat their children who seemed to be different in
terms of gender identity.
C. Transgender—A New Identity
• In the United States, some individuals appear to depart from traditional gender identities.
They are called transgender, an umbrella term for persons whose gender identity, gender
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expression, or behavior does not conform to that typically associated with the sex assigned to
them at birth. The term transgender also includes people who may refer to themselves as
gender-variant, gender or sex-changing, gender-bending, and gender-blending. Unlike
transsexuals who wish to have their genitals and bodies altered, transgender people do not
necessarily feel that they wish to have surgery.
• One form of prejudice is transphobia, a term that describes the fear and hatred of
transgender people. Transphobia can result in violence directed toward transgender people.
D. Transexualism
• Since 1950s, some individuals have sought sex change using surgery to obtain a body
for life that more closely reflects their gender identity. This process of “re-becoming”
is known as transsexualism.
• A transsexual is a transgender person who has changed or is changing from his or her
biological sex to a self-identified gender through actions, dress, hormone therapy, or
surgery. Transsexualism has often been spoken of as a man’s feeling that he is
trapped in a woman’s body or a woman’s feeling that she’s trapped in a man’s body.
It occurs at the rate of roughly 1 in 30,000 males and 1 in 100,000 females who seek
sexual reassignment in the United States.
• In the United States, and in many other countries, transsexualism is treated as a
medical condition in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM), a reference book that mental health professional’s worldwide use. The DSM
currently refers to transsexualism as “[a] desire to live and be accepted as a member
of the opposite sex, usually accompanied by a sense of discomfort with, or
inappropriateness of, one’s anatomic sex, and a wish to have surgery and hormonal
treatment to make one’s body as congruent as possible with one’s preferred sex”
(APA, 2000).
• Many surgeons require extensive therapy before agreeing to perform sex change
surgeries. Additionally, a complete sex change usually requires a few stages of
surgical procedures. The good news is that most individuals who do undergo these
procedures are satisfied and feel better adjusted in their own body (De Cuypere et al.,
2005).
E. Androgyny
• Some people seem to have a greater degree of both masculine and feminine traits in
their personality and behavior, a phenomenon commonly referred to as androgyny.
In the view of an expert on this issue, Dr. Sandra Bem (1993), being androgynous is
a good thing and may mean that you are psychologically healthy and creative. She
believes that androgynous men and women seem to be both more flexible and
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mentally healthier than individuals who are either more strictly masculine or
feminine.
• Gender stereotypes are simplistic generalizations about the gender attributes,
differences, and roles of individuals and/or groups.
III. Gender Roles
• Gender roles are the behaviors, attitudes, and characteristics that any given society
expects of males and females. These gender roles are the bedrock of many societies’
systems of power relations due to the economic, political, religious, familial, and even
military attitudes that are directed toward men and women in the roles expected of them.
A. Gender Roles Across Time and Cultures
• Gender roles connect individuals’ behaviors and lives to the history, culture, and
context in which individuals grow up and express their sexuality. This means that the
societal standards have changed, and the meaning of gender identity expression is
still changing, as we learned.
B. Social Institutions and Gender Role Development
• How do we learn what each society considers to be appropriate gender roles? In each
sphere of society, be it home, school, or work, forces are at work that shape gender
roles and behaviors.
• Parents and caregivers—Parents and caregivers are the first to influence gender roles.
In some ways they may be the most significant influence until late childhood. They
teach children the ways of society and how to behave in it. This is reflected in
everything from the toys that children receive, to parental responses to their apparent
masculinity or femininity, to the way that parents model their own gender roles for
children.
o Gender expectations are also conveyed through the toys that parents give their
children. Although an increasing number of parents appear to be more open to
allowing their children to play with whatever pleases them, many parents still
encourage their children to play with toys that reinforce the gender roles and
stereotypes society holds.
• Peers—Children are among the most powerful teachers of gender roles to each other.
Studies show that both the emotional and cognitive sides of peer group learning help
the process of becoming a boy or becoming a girl along. As children mature they
tend to play in groups that are either all male or all female. In play, girls appear to use
their verbal skills and to learn cues that help them understand societal rules. Their
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play reinforces the relational and emotional skills exhibited by their mothers,
teachers, and other adult women.
• School—One function of school is to teach societal standards and institutional
expectations, and gender roles are very powerful parts of such expected learning.
Most studies show that, on average, girls do better in school than boys. Girls get
higher grades and complete high school at a higher rate compared to boys. For years,
researchers have wondered if these gender differences in ability in school subjects
were more a product of biological differences or of social impact. Parents, as a
socializing agent, may tip the scale in this nature versus nurture balance. Some
parents tend to view math as more important for sons and language arts and social
studies as more important for daughters.
• The media—Children early on begin to learn gender roles on television and the
Internet. Today, they grow up with a sense that these media are a natural extension of
the self and imitate dress, makeup, behavioral and emotional expression, and games
they see in the media. Then they apply what they learn from these sources to
interactions with family and peers.
• Religion—Religion influences gender socialization, especially regarding attitudes
about morality, masculinity/femininity, and sexual expression (Regnerus, 2007). In
fact, historically, most clergy were men and this male role has had an important
effect on how the imagery of religious teaching works.
C. Sexism and Gender Roles
• For many women, part of that historical reality of power is the continuing prejudice
of sexism that holds them back from achieving their fullest human potential, and full
equality. Sexism in our society is defined in a number of ways.
• Sexism is considered to be a prejudice based on biological sex. It is a belief system
that assumes a hierarchy of human worth based on the social construction of the
differences between the sexes.
• In the United States, sexism is an ideology of male supremacy, superiority, and
authority.
IV. Gender Norms and Variance
• People who manifest gender behaviors that go beyond or against the norm of their
community may be referred to as gender nonconforming. A gender nonconformist is
“someone who adopts gendered traits that are stereotypically associated with member of
the opposite sex” (Lester, 2002, p. 4). Researchers treat gender nonconformity as being
motivated by biological forces such as genes and hormones (Money & Ehrhardt, 1972;
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Stoller, 1974).
• Gender variance is different from the physical forms of biological development,
although in popular culture and in the public mind they are often confused. The causes
of gender variance are probably complex and may be thought of in terms of the
interaction of biology, culture, and individual characteristics such as personality and
temperament.
A. Factors of Gender Nonconformity
• Many children were once punished for exhibiting gender variant behaviors, and in
some conservative communities they still are. Why? Parents may fear that their
child’s actions may become permanent expressions of gender variance in adulthood.
• Now, in the United States, girls have much more freedom to engage in such activities
without being labeled as gender nonconforming. It does seem, however, that boys
who engage in gender nonconforming behaviors still provoke strong reactions.
V. Gender Identity Rights and Sexual Well-Being
• Recognizing that some individuals do not identify as either male or female, the
Australian state of New South Wales has adopted a passport application that includes a
box called “unspecified,” in addition to the traditional male or female option for sex.
Someday “other” gender categories for all legal documents may become the norm.
Key Terms
Sex—the genes and biological development that determines whether we are male or female
Gender—the social assignment of people to one sex or the other in an historical culture
Gender identity—the sense of being male (maleness) or female (femaleness)
Gender role—the socialization of people as masculine or feminine
Sexual differentiation—the process of developing into a male or female that begins before
conception and continues during fetal development
Sexual dimorphism—being either female or male
Intersexuality—the condition of being biologically between a male and female
Virilization—the masculinization of the human body and genital structures
Transgender—someone whose self-identification and behavior do not match the traditional
gender role for their assigned sex
Transphobia—fear and hatred of transgender people
Transsexualism—the condition of changing one’s biological sex to a self-identified gender,
through actions, dress, hormone therapy, or surgery
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Androgyny—characteristics of a male or female who has a high degree of both feminine
(expressive) and masculine (instrumental) characteristics
Gender stereotypes—traditional notions about being masculine or feminine
Sexism—prejudice directed toward women
Gender nonconforming—individuals who manifest gender behaviors that go beyond or
against the norm of their community
Gender variance—nonconforming gender behavior that may result from the interaction of
biology, culture, and individual characteristics, such as personality and temperament
Discussion Topics
Discussion 9.1: Studies of 5-Alpha-Reductase Deficiency
Since ancient times, there have been reports of individuals changing their sex because of the
confusion they have over their own body and genitals. For example, among the ancient
Greeks was Tiresias, a blind prophet who was said to have been born a boy, later lived as a
woman for 7 years, and then went back to being a man. Did these changes occur because he
had the genitals of both sexes at different times in his life? Though we may not have the
answer about the case of Tiresias, anthropological research has examined more recent
incidences of 5-alpha-reductase deficiency. Individuals with this deficiency help us to
understand the influences of culture, anatomy, and biology in sexual development. This
research also suggests that in some cultures there may be at least three sex categories of
humans (Herdt, 1994; Money, 1991; Sterling, 2001). Medical doctors conducted studies in the
Dominican Republic because people with 5-alpha-reductase deficiency have been born there
with regularity over generations. In fact, the local culture created a term for a third-sex
category for these newborns. They were called guevedoche, roughly translated as “testicles at
12,” meaning they will develop testicles when they are about 12 years old (Herdt, 1994;
Imperato-McGinley et al., 1981). Among five villages this condition has occurred, perhaps the
result of long-term inbreeding.
Researchers noted that 38 individuals (out of several hundred people in the five villages) were
seen as guevedoche. Many were reared as girls. In time, however, 33 of them underwent a sex
change. Seventeen changed to male gender identity because they felt more like men, and
developed the awareness that they had a male gender identity. Sixteen reported changing to a
male gender role because by age 16 they no longer felt like a girl. As men, these former girls
assumed such male gender roles as farmers and woodsmen, and some married women. The
researchers decided that it was the biology and hormones that caused these individuals to
change from female to male (Imperato-McGinley et al., 1979). The researchers did not explain
what happened to the individuals who did not change to male gender identity or roles. But
what is the role of culture and context here? The term guevedoche is about both biology and
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culture, because part of it refers to anatomy (nature) and part of it refers to what people in
their culture expect regarding how a male or a female will act (nurture).
The Sambia people of Papua New Guinea have a similar intersex condition known as
kwoluatwul, colloquially known as “turnem man” or “changing into a man. ” Fieldwork
revealed that 12 individuals were born with this condition over a period of several generations
(Herdt & Davidson, 1988). From birth, they were reared as a turnem man and grew up
expecting to be men but probably not marrying. Or at birth they were mistaken to be female
and reared as a girl. Late in adolescence some of those who were raised as girls tried to
become men and to marry. This did not work in their own villages, perhaps because people
could not “change” their perception to think of them as male, not female. In this situation,
culture created perceptions that were as powerful as the biology. So the turnem man raised as
girls had to move to towns far away, where they could be seen as male.
One intersex individual was Sakulambei, who had a tiny penis and an odd-looking scrotum at
birth (Herdt & Stoller, 990). He was treated as a turnem man, because people knew that the
appearance of his genitals would change around puberty. His father rejected him in childhood,
and his mother died when he was 5 years old. His mother’s brother, a powerful shaman, loved
and reared him as a son in another village. Saku married, against great odds and with some
stigma, which he overcame, in part, because he also became a powerful shaman (Herdt &
Stoller, 1990).
Discussion 9.2: Gender
In most cultures sex is extremely important. One of the first questions we ask a pregnant
woman is what are you having? Likewise when we see a newborn, “How cute! Is it a boy or a
girl? With the emphasis that we place on sex is it no wonder that having an intersexed child
may be viewed as being a bad thing?
Discussion 9.3: Transgender Day of Visibility
The more visible transgender people are, the more likely it is that they will be harassed. To
address this issue, a new national day has been created to celebrate being transgender and
being open about transgender identity. The Transgender Day of Visibility (March 31) was
created by Rachel Crandall, for people to celebrate and express their unique gender qualities
as transgender people. The topics to think about and discuss with others on this day include
the following:
• What is gender? Why is gender so essential in this society?

• Is gender limitless, or limiting?
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• What do you identify as your gender? How did your self-discovery occur?
• What steps or changes can we make on a local, national, and global level to become more
inclusive of transgender individuals?
• How has the media impacted visibility and progression for members of the transgender
community?
• Discuss pioneers of the transgender movement for equality and visibility. By discussing
these topics, we can help families, peers, and professionals support transgender people in
positive ways that create safety, self-awareness, and acceptance.
Discussion 9.4: Are the Genders More Different or More Similar?
Gender studies traditionally look at the differences between males and females, but
psychologist Janet Hyde (2005) suggests that far too often we look for differences, rather than
similarities, between genders. In reviewing a huge number of studies that assessed such things
as cognition, communication, personality, well-being, and motor coordination, Hyde found
strong and consistent similarities between males and females. Surprisingly, in 78% of the
individual studies, the differences were either small or nonexistent. In fact, in the 40 studies
she reviewed, gender similarities were more compelling and consistent than gender
differences. In short, differences may have been exaggerated. This does not mean that there
are no differences; only that males and females are a lot more alike than people know.
Discussion 9.5: Do Parents “Teach” Gender?
There is evidence that parents “teach” sex roles by actively encouraging sex-typed behavior.
Fagot & Leinbach (1989), in a longitudinal study, found that parents are encouraging sex-
appropriate play and responding negatively to cross-sex play during the second year. This is
BEFORE the child has even acquired a basic gender identity and before they display a clear
preference for sex-typed activities. By 20-24 months girls are reinforced for behaviors like
dancing, dressing up, playing with dolls, and are likely to be discouraged from running,
jumping, and climbing. Conversely, boys are punished for “feminine behaviors” like asking
for help or playing with dolls. They are encouraged to play with trucks and masculine items.
Are kids influenced? YES! The parents who show the strongest and clearest pattern have the
kids who quickly (1) identify themselves as M or F (2) develop firm sex-typed activity and
toy preference, and (3) more quickly acquire a understanding of gender stereotypes.
So how strongly do others react to cross-sex play?
Langolis & Downs looked at reaction of mothers, fathers, and peers to their 3-5 year old kids
playing with either cross-sex or same-sex toys. Results indicate that fathers reward kids for
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playing with same-sex toys and actively suppress their kids from playing with cross-sex toys.
Moms behave pretty much the same with their daughters but permit sons to play with either
same-sex or cross-sex toys. Peers who are boys belittle, ridicule, and disrupt the play of boys
playing with cross-sex toys whereas girls are critical of girls who play with boys.
Discussion 9.6: Media Influence of Sex-Typed Behavior
Generally media sources portray the sexes in highly stereotyped manners, e.g., jobs, clothes,
activities, etc. Research shows 5-11 year old kids who watch more than 25 hours of TV a
week are more likely to prefer gender stereotyped toys and hold highly stereotyped views of
Masculine / Feminine then kids who watch little TV.
BUT research also shows that as TV roles become more egalitarian these views and
stereotypes change thus having less impact.
Discussion 9.7: The Study of Gender: Individual Differences and Social Context
Approaches
Traditionally, gender research emerged out of the individual differences approach which
attempts to explain wide variation among individuals by classifying individuals by some
antecedent variable (such as age, sex, or an aspect of the environment). The goal is to
determine how much of the variance among individuals, in their performance on a given task,
can be accounted for by the antecedent variable. Issues have been raised regarding this
approach. For example, very few attributes differ consistently when comparing the average
values for the two sexes, and when consistent differences are found, the within-group variance
is considerable relative to the between-group differences.
While there are some replicable sex differences of moderate magnitude (math and spatial
abilities, aggression), most research has found null findings when making comparisons of
male and female individuals. Maccoby (1990) suggests that the null findings are an artifact of
the individual differences approach. That is, there really are differences between males and
females when you examine behavior in a social context. Given that social behavior is never a
function of the individual alone, the social context must be considered when examining social
behavior. Individuals interact differently with different partners. When behavior is summed
across all categories of social partners, important differences may be obscured or missed
altogether.
Here are a couple of research examples from Maccoby’s article to illustrate the importance of
considering the social context when examining gender. Jacklin and Maccoby (1978) observed
the social behavior of preschoolers on a time-sampling basis. Positive and negative behaviors
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(sharing, hugging, grabbing a toy, etc.) were recorded when the children were interacting with
a previously unacquainted child. Same-sex dyads and opposite dyads were examined.
Using an individual differences approach (the sex of the partner was not taken into account),
there were no overall sex differences in the amount of social behavior. However, when the sex
composition of the dyad was examined (social context approach), there were several
important findings.
• Same-sex dyads had a much higher level of social behavior than did opposite-sex dyads.
• Girls’ passive behavior was greatly influenced by the sex of the partner. Girl-girl dyads
rarely displayed passive behavior; however, when girls interacted with a boy, passive
behavior was prominent (boys tended to monopolize the toys).
• The conclusion is that social behavior is situationally specific and is influenced by the sex
composition of the dyad.
Greeno’s research (as cited in Maccoby, 1990) provides another example that the sex
composition of the group influences social behavior. Four-child groups of kindergartners
played in a large playroom with attractive toys. The groups were all-boy, all-girl, or two boys
and two girls. A female adult sat at one end of the room and, halfway through the session, she
moved to the other side of the room. Greeno assessed whether the sex composition of the
groups influences proximity to the teacher. Girls in the all-girl groups actually stayed farther
away from the adult than did the boys in the all-boy groups. The girls moved away from the
adult when she changed her position. The boys did not change their location. However, when
two boys were present, the girls maintained close proximity to the teacher. The girls moved
with the adult when she changed her location. Greeno concluded that proximity-seeking was
not a general trait of the girls, rather it was a function of the sex composition of the group.
Sources:
Jacklin, C. N., & Maccoby, E. E. (1978). Social behavior at 33 months in same-sex and
mixed-sex dyads. Child Development, 49, 557–569.
Maccoby, E. E. (1990). Gender and relationships: A developmental account. American
Psychologist, 44, 127–133.
Discussion 9.8: Proving Your Masculinity
A consistent finding of gender studies in the United States is that boys as early as second and
third grades begin to use the term fag to say what is “bad” about things, including their peers’
behavior (Cahill, 2008). Sociologist C. J. Pascoe discovered what happens in high school to
boys who grew up this way. She discusses in her book, Dude, You’re a Fag: Masculinity and
Sexuality in High School, that boys were very cruel in stigmatizing other males whom they
perceived to be even slightly gender nonconforming. The conforming boys used strict
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standards for gender. If a boy was too expressive or artistic, they would identify that behavior
as “fag.” She also found that these boys had strict views about what was and was not “manly”:
For example, if someone was not being rough enough in team sports, that person was not
manly.
Having sex with a girl definitely influenced the perception that a boy was not a “fag.” Some
of the “coolest guys” in the high school believe that “if a guy wasn’t having sex, he’s no one.
He’s nobody” (Pascoe, 2007, p. 88). In fact, some of the boys felt that having a girlfriend
“served as proof of heterosexuality” (Pascoe, 2007, p. 89). Some boys chose to remain
virgins, but they felt that they had to hide this fact, to preserve their masculinity. Their
ultimate way of getting each other to stick to a masculine gender role norm was to call anyone
a “fag” who failed to act masculine. The gay and bisexual boys in the school were picked on
and bullied, sometimes mercilessly. Also, some heterosexual boys who were not very
aggressive were also called “fags” and bullied.
Gender variance appears to be a big challenge to young males who are trying to prove
themselves in our society.
Polling Questions
Polling 9.1: Gender & Sex Reassignment
In most cultures sex is extremely important. One of the first questions we ask a pregnant
woman is what are you having? Likewise when we see a newborn, “How cute! Is it a boy or a
girl? How many of you care if your child is a specific sex? How many of you would prefer a
male child? How many of you would prefer a female? If your child was born intersexed,
would you do surgery prior to 5 years of age to “assign” gender? How many of you think that
the biological, chromosomal sex of a child has more of an effect than anything else?
Polling 9.2: Gender Identity and Sexual Well-Being
Recognizing that some individuals do not identify as either male or female, the Australian
state of New South Wales has adopted a passport application that includes a box called
“unspecified,” in addition to the traditional male or female option for sex. How many of you
think there should be a third category of “sex” in terms of checking boxes on surveys or
applications? Societally, is this needed?
Activities
Activity 9.1: John Money

15
One of the early leaders in the area of intersexed conditions was a man by the name of John
Money. Have students research Money and some of his work on intersexed children and sex
reassignment surgeries. Have them present their findings to the class via presentation, written
assignment or discussion board.
Activity 9.2: The Effects of Hormones and the Environment on Brain Development
The Brain: Teaching Modules
Part of the Brain series, this clip examines gender differences in the development of the brain.
(http://www.learner.org/resources/series142.html) or through the McGraw Hill Higher
Education General Resources for Students and Faculty Annenberg / CPB projects link
(http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/psychology/psychonline/general.html)
Activity 9.3: The Case of David Reimer AKA John / Joan
One of John Money’s most infamous cases was the case of a Canadian boy named David
Reimer. David was born a genetic male. At about 8 months old, his penis was destroyed when
he was circumcised. Dr. Money suggested that he be assigned to the female sex, given the
name “Brenda,” and be reared as a girl. Doctors created a vagina for him and later gave her
hormone treatments to promote breast development and other female secondary sex
characteristics. This history was hidden from her until she was 13. Brenda, however, never
felt like a girl; she felt like a boy and seemed to express the interests and behaviors of a boy.
In fact, she experienced bouts of depression and feelings of alienation and worthlessness. At
age 14, Brenda had surgery and hormonal treatment to change her back to a male person and
he chose the name David. He attempted to live a normal life and even married a woman and
became a stepfather. Unfortunately, at age 38, David succumbed to depression and killed
himself in 2004.
Have students read the following: Diamond, Milton. (1997). “Sexual identity and sexual
orientation in children with traumatized or ambiguous genitalia” Journal of Sex Research. Vol
34(2), 1997, 199-211. A video can also be found at http://documentarystorm.com/dr-money-
and-the-boy-with-no-penis/. Have them then discuss how this case seems to indicate that
chromosomes weigh more than social standing.
Activity 9.4: Being True to Yourself:
Imagine Being the Other Gender—for 5 Minutes. Let yourself relax in your favorite
comfortable chair in a quiet room. Close your eyes and allow yourself to be fully focused on
16
your body and feelings. For 5 minutes, imagine that you are changing gender. Imagine that
you are changing your gendered body image and that, from head to toe, you begin to see
yourself as the other sex. As you imagine the change, notice whether your appearance
changes. What kind of clothes are you wearing? Is your body the same or has it changed?
Now allow yourself to come back to your real body and identity and gradually open your
eyes. Once you feel fully in the present, do this self-assessment to see what is true for you:
• How did you feel being in the body of the other gender? Was it pleasant or unpleasant,
exciting or fearful, or all of this?
• On a scale of 1–5, with 1 being the lowest and 5 being the highest, how would you rate
your sense of being the other gender?
• What did you feel about your body image as the other gender?
• Did you feel that your self-awareness changed?
• Did you experience any sexual changes, such as a different sense of desire or possibly
attraction?
• How did you feel when you returned to your present body and gender identity? Happy,
sad, relieved, anxious?
Were you able to experience another gender, if only for 5 minutes? Some people may be
unable to imagine the change—and there is nothing wrong with that. In our experience males
have considerably more difficulty with this exercise than females, although times are
changing, and more young adult men are able to imagine the change.
Activity 9.5: Movie: Boys Don’t Cry (1999)
Starring: Hilary Swank, Chloë Sevigny, and Peter Sarsgaard
One form of prejudice is transphobia, a term that describes the fear and hatred of transgender
people. Transphobia can result in violence directed toward transgender people (Valentine,
2007). In fact, several cases of transgender murder in the United States have occurred.
Brandon Teena, a female who was transitioning into the gender role of male and passing as
masculine, was killed in Nebraska. This story is depicted in the film: Boys Don’t Cry.
Activity 9.6:Do You Display Characteristics Commonly Attributed to Men or to

Women?
Some surveys (Ruble, 1983; Williams, Satterwhite, & Best, 1999) have asked college students
to indicate which traits characterize the “typical” man or the “typical” woman. As an exercise,
rate yourself using this scale to indicate the extent to which you think you display each
attribute. (Note: There are no right or wrong answers.)
17
Scale:
1: Really Unlike Me
2: Sort of Unlike Me
3: Neither Unlike nor Like Me
4: Sort of Like Me
5: Really Like Me
Trait Trait
1 Active __________ 17 Aware of others’ feelings __________
2 Adventurous __________ 18 Considerate __________
3 Aggressive __________ 19 Creative __________
4 Ambitious __________ 20 Curious ____________
5 Competitive __________ 21 Other-oriented __________
6 Dominant __________ 22 Sexy __________
7 Independent __________ 23 Artistic __________
8 Good leader _______ 24 Excitable __________
9 Mathematical __________ 25 Empathic __________
10 Decisive __________ 26 Affectionate __________
11 Mechanical __________ 27 Charming __________
12 Outspoken __________ 28 Neat ___________
13 Persistent __________ 29 Sensitive __________
14 Self-confident __________ 30 Soft-hearted __________
15 Strong __________ 31 Tactful __________
16 Tough __________ 32 Understanding __________
The higher the total score for traits 1–16, the more your outlook may be masculine; the higher
the total score for traits 17–32, the more your outlook may be feminine. If you have an equally
high score for both sets of traits, you may be androgynous; if you have an equally low score
for both sets of traits, you may be undifferentiated.
Source:
David R. Shaffer (2009). Social and Personality Development, 6th ed. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, p. 242. Retrieved 10/10/2012 from books.google.com/books?
UUisbn=0495600385. Used with permission.
Activity 9.7: Do Parents Really Treat Boys and Girls Differently?
18
This exercise works well as a full-class discussion, as most students are quite eager to discuss
this topic. Have students discuss how parents reward and punish boys and girls differently and
thereby contribute to gender differences in behaviors, beliefs, and so forth. Encourage them to
provide specific examples. Ask students the question: Do parents treat their daughters and
sons differently in terms of helping them with their education? This can also be done as a
writing assignment or a discussion topic in an online class.
Use the research of Carter and Wojtkiewicz (2000) to provide insight as to whether or not
parents are involved differently with the education of their adolescent daughters and sons.
These researchers found that:
• female students engaged more frequently in school discussion with parents than did male
students;
• parents had higher expectations for the educational attainment of daughters;
• parents are more involved with the school on behalf of their sons;
• parents were less likely to check the homework of daughters as compared with sons;
• females were more likely than males to have their parents limit the amount of time spent
socializing with friends; and,
• parental attendance at events in which the student participated was more likely for
daughters than for sons.
Sources:
Carter, R. S. & Wojtkiewicz, R. A. (2000, spring). Parental involvement with adolescents’
education: Do daughters or sons get more help?
Activity 9.7: Gender Development: Social Influences
The Brain: Teaching Modules
Part of the Brain series, this clip examines differences in interaction by gender as well as
gender roles, expectations and perceptions in ability.
(http://www.learner.org/resources/series142.html) or through the McGraw Hill Higher
Education General Resources for Students and Faculty Annenberg / CPB projects link
(http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/psychology/psychonline/general.html)
Activity 9.8: Gender and Age Roles in Magazine Advertisements
Have students investigate gender and age stereotypes in magazines. Instruct students to look
at one widely circulated magazine and evaluate how ads depict males and females of various
ages (adolescence and early, middle, and late adulthood). You can also have them look at
gender non-conforming images in advertisements as well. They should evaluate physical
19
appearance, personality, conformity and behaviors as they are depicted in the magazine ads.
They should tally the number of persons in each age group and determine the percentage of
ads depicting each age group. You might want to assign specific magazines to students so that
you can explore the effects of type of magazine on gender images (e.g., Sports Illustrated vs.
Ladies Home Journal) or age images (e.g., Seventeen vs. Modern Maturity). Another option
could be to have students evaluate two issues of the same magazine, a current issue and one
more than 20 years old, to explore changes in images over the years.
Activity 9. 9: Changing Gender Schemas
These cognitive networks of associations that guide our perceptions about gender begin taking
shape early in childhood. We begin accumulating information as to what is “girl-like” and
“boy-like.” We continually add information to our schema to enable us to understand and
form expectations about males and females. Because this is viewed as being influenced by
many societal factors, what was once traditionally considered “male” and “female” is
changing. Society has experienced the feminist movement and the “sensitive male”
movement, and perceptions of gender-appropriate behavior continue to evolve with the more
visible presence and acceptance of homosexuality. With more women than ever being career-
oriented and fathers becoming more active caregivers, gender roles and our schemas for them
are not what they used to be.
Ask students to write about their gender schema. What do you consider “female” and “male”?
Include notions of physical appearance and functioning, societal roles, and relationship
participation. Have your current views of gender functioning changed from when you were
growing up? If so, what contributed to the change? Do you have a problem with the way
society currently views either gender? Explain.
You can also use this for class discussion by asking students for characteristics of “males” and
“females,” and write them in two columns on the board. After the students have exhausted
their lists, assess the accumulation of items in each list. Are there contradictory characteristics
within each list? Are there more contradictory items for one gender than another? If so, why
might this be? How many characteristics do both sexes share? Are there any outdated
characteristics? Why? What might be the result of society’s changing gender schemas? Do
students feel confused in any way as to what their gender role should encompass? Why?
Internet Resources
http://www.plannedparenthood.org/health-topics/sexual-orientation-gender/gender-gender-
identity-26530.htm
Planned Parenthood Homepage. A great site that has information on gender identity, gender
typed behaviors, stereotypes and roles.
20
http://www.apa.org/topics/sexuality/transgender.pdf
A FAQ about transgender people and gender expression. Includes information on the
relationship between transgender and sexual orientation.
http://www.hormone.org/Resources/upload/treatment-of-transexuals-060810.pdf
A brief article looking at hormonal treatments in transsexuals.
http://lgbthealth.webolutionary.com/
The LGBT health homepage.
http://www.genderpsychology.org
http://community.pflag.org/Page.aspx?pid=194&srcid=-2
The PFLAG homepage.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/tvradio/programmes/horizon/dr_money_prog_summary.shtml
A BBC overview of John Money’s work.
http://www.npr.org/templates/transcript/transcript.php?storyId=5549668
A streamed interview regarding John Money.
http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/psychology/psychonline/general.html
McGraw Hill Higher Education General Resources for Students and Faculty.
http://www.apa.org/
The APA website.
http://www.apa.org/topics/sexuality/index.aspx
APA site for research on sexuality.
The Ten-Minute Test
Name: __________
Answer the questions below utilizing the following terms:
Transsexual Gender Sex

Transgender Roles Peers
Intersexed Norms Nonconforming
Sexual differentiation
21
1. _____ is the biological differentiation into male or female, based upon genes, hormones,
and other internal developmental factors.
2. The social differentiation into masculine or feminine, based upon institutions, roles, and
meanings of a particular culture, is _____.
3. The biological process of creating male or female sexual structures during conception and
in fetal development is called _____.
4. When a human is born with intermediate or atypical combinations of physical features

that usually differentiate one sex from the other, they are said to be _____.
5. _____ is an identity that may involve a different feeling of being both male and female
and can occur without wanting to have genital surgery and changing identity in one’s
presentation of self to society.
6. _____ is the state of feeling trapped as a woman in a man’s body or a man in a woman’s
body, and thus surgery and hormonal and related treatments may be requested to integrate
them.
7. Gender _____are the culturally patterned expression of masculinity or femininity that are
identified with particular tasks, knowledge, and power.
8. Five major socializers influence gender roles: parents and caregivers, _____, school, the
media, and religion.
9. Gender _____are one force in society that encourages people to conform to what is
perceived to be traditional masculinity and femininity.
10. When people depart from the norms of masculinity and femininity in their society they
are said to be gender _____.
Answers to the Ten-Minute Test
1. Sex
2. Gender
3. Sexual differentiation
4. Intersexed
22
5. Transgender
6. Transsexual
7. Roles
8. Peers
9. Norms
10. Nonconforming
23

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Human Sexuality Self Society and Culture 1st Edition Herdt Solutions Manual

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Chapter 9: Gender and Identity: Process,

Roles, and Culture

Understanding Gender in Development and in Context

Gender Identity and Expression

• Explain the difference between gender identity and sexual orientation.

Gender Norms and Variance

Gender Identity Rights and Sexual Well-Being

Chapter 9: Gender and identity: Process, Roles, and Culture

Learning Objectives 9.2 Discussion Topic 9.3

Learning Objectives 9.3 Discussion Topic 9.4

Learning Objectives 9.4 Discussion Topic 9.8

I. Understanding Gender in Development and in Context

A. Gender and Sex

• The process of gender and sexual differentiation is an intricate constellation of

B. Biological Processes in the Development of Sex

• The biological process of sexual differentiation—that is, developing into a male or

C. Biological Sex Variations and Intersexuality

• Though we often discuss anatomy as it relates to male or female bodies, sexual

II. Gender Identity and Expression

A. Gender Identity—A Brief History

B. Biology and Gender Identity Development

• In trying to understand biology’s effects on gender identity, some scientists have

C. Transgender—A New Identity

III. Gender Roles

A. Gender Roles Across Time and Cultures

B. Social Institutions and Gender Role Development

C. Sexism and Gender Roles

IV. Gender Norms and Variance

A. Factors of Gender Nonconformity

V. Gender Identity Rights and Sexual Well-Being

Discussion 9.1: Studies of 5-Alpha-Reductase Deficiency

Discussion 9.2: Gender

Discussion 9.3: Transgender Day of Visibility

• What is gender? Why is gender so essential in this society?

Discussion 9.4: Are the Genders More Different or More Similar?

Discussion 9.5: Do Parents “Teach” Gender?

So how strongly do others react to cross-sex play?

Discussion 9.6: Media Influence of Sex-Typed Behavior

Discussion 9.8: Proving Your Masculinity

Polling 9.1: Gender & Sex Reassignment

Polling 9.2: Gender Identity and Sexual Well-Being

Activity 9.1: John Money

The Brain: Teaching Modules

Activity 9.3: The Case of David Reimer AKA John / Joan

Activity 9.4: Being True to Yourself:

Activity 9.5: Movie: Boys Don’t Cry (1999)

Starring: Hilary Swank, Chloë Sevigny, and Peter Sarsgaard

Activity 9.6:Do You Display Characteristics Commonly Attributed to Men or to

Activity 9.7: Do Parents Really Treat Boys and Girls Differently?

Activity 9.7: Gender Development: Social Influences

The Brain: Teaching Modules

Activity 9.8: Gender and Age Roles in Magazine Advertisements

Activity 9. 9: Changing Gender Schemas

The Ten-Minute Test

Answer the questions below utilizing the following terms:

Transsexual Gender Sex

4. When a human is born with intermediate or atypical combinations of physical features

Answers to the Ten-Minute Test

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