DETERMINANTS

A determinant is a scalar quantity defined in terms of the elements of a square matrix

Determinants
determinant of square matrix A of order n, may be indicated by one of the forms:
A determinant is a scalar quantity defined in terms of the elements of a square matrix. Th
• Adeterminant
determinant is a scalar
of square matrixquantity
A of orderdefined
n, may in indicated
be terms ofby
the elements
one of the of
forms:
a11 a12 . . . a1n
a square matrix. The determinant of square matrix A of order n, may
be indicated Dby one det
A = of the
A = forms:
|A| = a21 a22 . . . a2n
a11 a12 . . . a1n
. . .
DA = det A = |A| = a21 a22 . . . a2n
an1 an2 . . . ann
. . .
an1 aof
For low-order (n = 2 or 3) matrices, the value n2 the. .determinant
. ann may be found directl
• Forsimple
low-order
rules. (n = 2for
Thus, ora3)second-order
matrices, the value
matrix, theof the determinant
determinant is may
be
Forfound directly
low-order (n = 2by simple
or 3) rules.
matrices, theThus, forthe
value of a second-order
determinant may matrix
be found directly b
simple rules.det
Thus,
A =for aa11second-order
a12 = a11amatrix, the determinant is
22 - a12a21
a21 a22
det A = a11 a12 = a11a22 - a12a21
• which is the product
a 21
ofa22the elements on the main diagonal minus the
which is the product of the elements on the main diagonal minus the product of the e
product of the elements on the other diagonal.
on the other diagonal.
 which is the product of the elements on the main diagonal minus the product of the elements
on the other diagonal.
Determinants
A similar procedure may be applied to calculate the determinant of a third-order matrix. In this
• A similar procedure
case the products of threemay beareapplied
elements foreach
taken so that a third-order
of them belongs tomatrix.
different rows
and columns. Choosing the product elements and their proper signs may be done in accordance
• Thewith
products
the followingofscheme.
threeForelements
convenience,are taken
the first so that
and second each
columns of them
are repeated belongs
at the
to different rows
right, or the first and columns
and second withattheir
rows are repeated proper
the bottom signs.
of the array:

a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13

a21 a22 a23 a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33
+ –

• For The
convenience, thebyfirst
determinant is found addingand
the 3 second columns
sets of products may(along
of 3 elements be main
repeated
diagonal) at the
and subtracting the 3 sets of products of 3 elements (along the other diagonal).
right, or the first and second rows are repeated at the bottom
• TheThus,
determinant
det A = a11a22ais
33 +found
a12a23a31 by
+ a13adding
a21a32 – a13the
a22a313
– asets of– aproducts
11a23a32 along main
12a21a33. For example

diagonal and subtracting

4 2 6 =the 3 (4)(9)(8)
sets of products+ (2)(1)(7) along the other. Thus.
+ (6)(5)(3)
det det
A =A =a11a225 a339+ a12 1 a a +- a
23 31 13a21a32 – a13a22a31 – a11a23a32 – a12a21a33
(4)(1)(3) - (2)(5)(8) - (6)(9)(7)
7 3 8 = 288 + 14 + 90 - 12 - 80 - 378 = -78
Thus, det A = a11a22a33 + a12a23a31 + a13a21a32 – a13a22a31 – a11a23a32 – a12a21a33.
Determinants
For example
• For example
4 2 6 4 2 = (4)(9)(8) + (2)(1)(7) + (6)(5)(3)
5 9 1 5 9 - (6)(9)(7) - (4)(1)(3) - (2)(5)(8)
7 3 8 7 3 = 288 + 14 + 90 -378 - 12 - 80 = -78
• A more general procedure for any order is by expanding determinant in
terms of a row or column, which is called Laplaces' expansion.
• If the an expansion is made along the ith row of an array, it has the form
detA = |A| = 𝝨aikAik for k = 1 to n
• where all aik are the elements of A along row i and Aik (△ik) are cofactors.
• These cofactors are formed by deleting the ith row and kth column of the
array (so that the remaining elements form a determinant, called minor
M, which is of order one less than |A|) and prefixing the result by (-1)i+k.
a determinant, called minor M, which is of order one less than |A|) and prefixing the result by
the multiplier (-1)i+k, which predetermines the sign of the minor.
Determinants
Thus, for example, if i = 2, k = 3 and n = 4, we have
• For a 4th-order determinant, the cofactor A23 is determined as
a11 a12 a13 a14 a11 a12 a14
A23 = (-1)5 a21 a22 a23 a24 = - a31 a32 a34 = -M
23
a31 a32 a33 a34 a41 a42 a44
a41 a42 a43 a44
• Expanding the determinant by its 2nd row, we have
and expanding the above fourth-order array determinant IAI by its second row yields
|A| = a21A21 + a22A22 + a23A23 + a24A24
• By the use of|A| the =expansion,
a21A21 + a22A22 +determinant
the a23A23 + a24A24of an nth order array can
be expressed as a function of (n-1)th order thdeterminants. These, in turn,
By the use
mayofbe
equation for detasA,athe
expressed determinant
function of of an norder
(n-2)th order array can be expressed
determinants. The as a
of (n-1)thisorder
functionprocess determinants. These, in turn, may be expressed
continued until the value of the determinant is obtained.as a function of (n-2) th

order determinants. The process is continued until the value of the determinant is obtained.
 th
By theorder
use ofdeterminants.
equation for The
det A, the determinant
process is continuedofuntil
an nthe order
valuearray
of
For can
the be expressed
determinant
example as a
is obtained.
function of (n-1)th order determinants. These, in turn, may be expressed as a function of (n-2)th
order For
determinants.
the above example, Determinants: Example
The process
usingisrow
continued until the the
1 for expanding value of the determinant
determinant, we4have is
2 obtained.
6 4
• For the previous example using row for 5 9 1 5
det A =using4row 19for expanding
For the above example, 1 -2 determinant,
the 5 1 we have6 5 9
expanding the determinant, 3 we have
8 7 8
7 37 8
3
7
det A = 4 9 1 -2 5 1 6 5 9
= 4 ( 72 – 3 ) – 2 ( 40 – 7 ) + 6 (15 – 63 ) = -78
3 8 7 8 7 3
It would be wise to choose the row or column with many 0 elements, since there is no need to
= 4for( 72
evaluate the minor the–zero
3 ) –element.
2 ( 40 –For
7 ) the
+ 6example
(15 – 63below,
) = -78we don’t have to evaluate an
• It wise
include theto choose
minor for afor expansion,
32 and roware
a33, since they orboth
column
zeros.with many 0 elements
ADJOINT MATRIX
1 2 -3 4
The adjoint matrix (or adjugate matrix) of square matrix A is formed by replacing each
-4 2 1 3 2 -3 4 1 2 -3
element aij by its cofactor Aij and transposing the result.
3 0 0 -3 = (-1)3+1 (3) 2 1 3 + (-1)3+4 (-3) -4 2 1
2 0 -2 adj A = [Aij]T = [Aji] 0 -2 3
3 2 0 -2
= +3(20) + 3(-4) = 48
Then the inverse matrix is determined by dividing the adjoint matrix by the determinant of A
 ADJOINT MATRIX Inverse by Adjoint Matrix
• The adjointmatrix
The adjoint matrix (or(or adjugate
adjugate matrix) matrix) of square
of square matrix
matrix A A is by
is formed formed by each
replacing
element aij each
replacing by its cofactor
elementAijaand transposing the result.
ij by its cofactor Aij and transposing the result.
adj A = adj
[Aij]AT == [A[Ajiij]]T = [Aji]
• Then the inverse matrix is determined by dividing the adjoint matrix by
Then the inverse matrix is determined by dividing the adjoint matrix by the determinant o
the determinant of A
-1
A = (adj A)=/ (adj
-1 A |A|A) / |A|
• As anexample,
As an example, letlet us evaluate
us evaluate the inverse
the inverse of thematrix
of the given givenA matrix A
1 2 2
A = 3 3 1
1 3 2

The minors of |A| are

 1 2 2
A = 3 3 1
Inverse by Adjoint Matrix: Example
1 3 2

• Theofminors
The minors |A| areof |A| are

3 1 3 1 3 3
M11 = 3 2 = 3 M12 = 1 2 = 5 M13 = 1 3 = 6

2 2 1 2 1 2
M21 = 3 2 = -2 M22 = 1 2 = 0 M23 = 1 3 = 1

2 2 1 2 1 2
M31 = 3 1 = -4 M32 = 3 1 = -5 M33 = 3 3 = -3

The cofactors ( = (-1)i+j M ) and the adj A (transposed of the matrix of cofactors) are
A11 = 3 A12 = -5 A13 = 6
 2 22 2 1 12 2 1 12 2
M31 MInverse by Adjoint Matrix: Example
= 31 =3 31 1= -4 = -4 M32 = 3
M32 =
31 1= -5 = -5 = 33 = 3
M33 M
33 3= -3 = -3

i+j
The The
• The cofactors
cofactors ( = (-1)
i+j
( = (-1)and
cofactors Mthe M adj
) and) and the
theAadj Aadj A (transposed
(transposed
(transposed of of
the of
the the matrix
matrix
matrix of cofactors)
of cofactors)
of cofactors) areare
are
A11 =A113 = 3 A12 =A-5 12 = -5 A13 =A13
6= 6
3 3 2 2-4 -4
A21 =A212 = 2 A22 =A22 0 = 0 A23 =A-1 23 = -1
= A =-5 -5 0 0 5 5
adj Aadj
A31 =A-4
31 = -4 A32 =A325 = 5 A33 =A-3 33 = -3
6 6-1 -1 3 3
• The
The The determinant
determinant
determinant |A|
|A| |A|
may bemay
may be obtained
be obtained
obtained by expansion
by expansion
by expansion alongalong thealong
the first first the first row
row row
|A| = 1(3) +|A|2(-5)
|A| +=2(6)
= 1(3) 1(3) += 2(-5)
+ 2(-5) 5+2(6)+2(6)
=5 =5
Therefore the inverse of A is
• Therefore,
Therefore
0.6 0.60.4 0.4-0.8 -0.8
-1 1
= = -1 0 0 1
-1
A-1 =A =adj Aadj A / |A|
/ |A|
1.2 1.2-0.2 -0.2-0.6 -0.6

-1 -1
 Cramer’s Rule
Solution by Cramer's rule

Let the coefficient matrix and the column matrices of unknowns and constants be
• Let the coefficient matrix and column matrices of unknowns and constants be
a11 a12 ... a32 x1 b1
A = a12 a22 ... a32 x2 b2
. . . X = . B = .
a1n a2n . . . a3n xn bn
The solution of the matrix equation AX = B using Cramer’s Rule is given by
• The solution of the matrix equation AX = B using Cramer’s Rule is given by
x1x1==|A
|A1|/|A|
1
| / |A| x =x2|A
2
= |A 2| / |A|
2|/|A| ...
. . . x =xn|A
n
= |A n| / |A|.
n|/|A|.
• where
where |A||A|is is
thethe determinant
determinant of matrixof
A matrix
and |Ai| isAtheand |Ai| is the
determinant determinant
formed formed by
by replacing the
replacing
ith column ofthe ith column
a coefficients in AAbyby
thethe column
column of b-constants,
of b-constants, i.e. i.e.
b1 a12 . a32 a11 b1 . a32 a11 a12 . b1
|A1| = b2 a22 . a32 |A2| = a12 b2 . a32 |An| = a12 a22 . b2
. . . . . . . . .
bn a2n . a3n a1n bn . a3n a1n a2n . bn

This method is sometimes referred to as the determinant solution of the simultaneous

 In accordance with equation of Cramer’s Rule, we write the solution for i1, i2 and i3 as follows
-2i1 + 4i2 – i3 = 4
i1 = |A1| / |A| i2 = |A2| / |A| i3 = |A3| / |A|.
i1-3i=1 |A
– i21|+/6i|A|
3 = -2 i2 = |A2| / |A| i3 = |A3| / |A|.
Cramer’s Rule: Example
In accordance with equationEvaluateof Cramer’s Rule,
all the we write
required the solution for i1, i2 and i3 as follows
determinants
• Solve
Evaluate therequired
all the following system of equations using Cramer’s Rule
determinants
’s Rule, we write
• 5ithe i12 –
= 3i
solution
1 –2i
|A31=10
| / |A|
for i1, i2 and i3 ias
2 =follows
|A2| 5/ |A|-2 -3i3 = |A3| / |A|. 10 -3 -3
5– i3 =4
-2 -3 -1 10= -343 -3
= |A2| / |A|• -2i1 +i3 4i=2 |A |A| = -2 4 |A1| = 4 4 -1
3| / |A|.
•|A|
-3i =– i -2
+ 6i 4
=-2 -1 = 43 |A 1| =6
4 4 -1 = 284
-3 -1 -2 -1 6
Evaluate all1the 2required3 determinants
-3 -1 6 -2 -1 6
• Evaluate all the required determinants
5 -2
-2 -3 5 10 -3 10 -3 -3 5 -2 10
10
5 10 -3
-3 -2 5= 212-2 10 -2
|A| = -2 4 |A
-1 == =2 | =43 4 -1
|A1| = -2 4 4 |A=
-1 = 284
3 | = 4 4
43 |A21|| ==
|A -24 44 -1
-1 262 -3
212 |A | = 4 4 152 -3
-3 -1 6 -2 3 6 -2 -1 6 -1 -2
-2 -2
-3 -1 66 -3 -1 -2
The solution for the system of equations:
5 10
The solution for the5system -3 5 -2 10
-2 of 10
equations:
The solutions are
|A2| = -2 -2 4 =
-1 i1== 212 |A | = -2 4 4 = 152
212 |A3| = 4 4 262/43 = 6.09
152 3 i2 = 212/43 = 4.39 i3 = 153/43
i1 = 262/43-3= 6.09-2 6 i2 = 212/43 = 4.39 i = 262 / 43
1 -3i3 = -1153/43 = 6.09
-2 = 3.53
-3 -1 -2
i2 = 212 / 43 = 4.39
ns:
The solution for the system of equations: i3 = 153 / 43 = 3.53
 Practice Problems
• Find the determinants of the following:
1 4 -3 5 -2 -7 8
|A| = 2 6 -7 |B| = 0 2 0 1
-9 8 5 0 3 2 -3
-6 0 4 9

• Solve the following system of equations using Cramer’s Rule

9v1 – 4v2 – 2v3 = 12
-4v1 + 8v2 – 3v3 = 21
-2v1 – 3v2 + 6v3 = 18