Module 8 - Kiss Notes

KISS Resources for NSW Syllabuses & Australian Curriculum.
® KEEP IT SIMPLE SCIENCE

keep it simple science PhotoMaster Format
Earth & Environmental Science Module 8
Resource Management
Topic Outline
1. Using Our
Natural Resources
Australian renewable resources:
3. Sustainability
agricultural, water & energy What is “sustainability”?
Mining & the environment Human impacts on sustainability
Reclamation after mining Loss of biodiversity by habitat loss
Resource case study: Uranium Overharvesting
Involvement of traditional owners Indigenous management practices
Land Rights & Councils
2. Waste Pathways to sustainability
Management
Garbage “dumps” & modern landfills
Management options for solid waste... the 5 R’s
Recycling, including “E-Waste”
Towards sustainability... “recycling tax” strategy
What is this topic about?

To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S. Principle) this topic covers:
1. Using Our Natural Resources
Australian renewable resources: agricultural, water resources, renewable energy.
Mining & the environment. Reclamation & rehabilitation of a mining site.
Involvement of the traditional owners. Case study of a reource:
2. Waste Management
The traditions of “garbage dumps”. Modern landfill methods.
Management options for solid waste... the 5 R’s. Aspects & strategies fror recycling.
E-Waste problems & possible strategies.
3. Sustainability
Definitions & rationale of “sustainability”. Human activities which affect sustainability.
Biodiversity; meaning & importance. Loss of biodiversity due to habitat destruction.
Overharvesting impacts. Ecological cascades.
Indigenous resource management. Land Rights & Councils.
Pathways to sustainability... and human survival?
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1. Using Our Natural Resources
Australian Renewable Resources
Agriculture Wheat Harvesting
Agriculture includes all the ways in which Image by Michael Gabler.
CCA-SA3.0
humans grow, catch or exploit living things in
order to produce our food, fibres or other
useful substances.
The main types of agriculture are:
• farming of crops to produce food, or fibres

such as cotton.
• animal husbandry and grazing for food, or
fibres such as wool.
• forestry of natural-growth forests or plantations, East v. West
for timber, or for paper manufacture. The western three-quarters of Australia has been
• fisheries, fish-farming, oyster-growing, etc. largely above sea level, flat and stable for as long as
900 million years. The soils are the most ancient in
Australian agriculture supplies most of our food and the world and are of very low fertility.
is an essential contributor to the economy. A large
amount of Australian agricultural output (eg wheat, Due to extreme weathering and leaching the soils in
wool, cotton) is exported to other countries. the west are very low in phosphorus, nitrogen and
potassium and may be totally lacking in minor
Identifying Agricultural Resources nutrient minerals important for agriculture.
The main agricultural resources (on land) are, of
course, soil & water. Water resources will be Eastern soils are generally younger and more fertile,
discussed separately very soon. but are still poor by world standards. There have
been isolated episodes of volcanic activity in the
Identifying where the useful agricultural soils are east, and the volcanic rocks have weathered to
located is all a matter of climate. This map shows produce red or brown clay soils. This soil is
the general climate & natural vegetation zones of reasonably fertile, but still requires phosphate
Australia. Basically, every area which is not a desert fertilisers for agriculture.
is used for agriculture in some form.
Perhaps the best example is the fertile Liverpool
Plains. (Gunnedah-Narrabri area of NSW) The soils
have formed by weathering of the volcanic rock
Tropical forests associated with the spectacular Warrumbungle
& rainforests
volcanic formations.
Semi-arid grasslands
Soil Problems
The major problems of erosion and soil salinity
were covered (including case studies) in Module 4.
Desert Sub- These should be revised.
tropical
Desert forests
G As noted in Mod.4, our agricultural systems have
ra
ss become more sophisticated and better able to avoid
la ds and counteract these serious threats to soil
Fo
nd
s lan
ss resources. Avoiding soil erosion & degradation
s e
re
st at
st ra
re er
s G leads to greater sustainability of our agriculture.

fo mp
Te
Aquatic Resources
Australian agriculture also includes many water-
Image by Nobletripe environments. Most of our coastal estuaries support
CCA-SA3.0 oyster farming as well as local fishing industries.
There are also large fishery industries specialising
Many of the forests have been cleared so that 48% in catching wild tuna, prawns, lobsters, etc.
(in 2016) of our total land area is used for
agriculture. Since deserts occupy 35%, this leaves In recent decades, “fish-farming” (notably salmon)
just 17% for not only our cities & towns, but the has grown into a major industry in Tasmanian
protected areas, nature reserves & national parks coastal waters.
needed to preserve some pristine ecosystems and
natural landscapes. The future sustainability of all wild-catch fisheries is
a major challenge.
®
Australian Renewable Resources (cont.)
Water Resources
Australia is the driest inhabited continent on Earth. Australia’s natural ecosystems and our native
The overall average rainfall is less than 500 mm per plants & animals have evolved for millions of years
year, but (of course) this varies enormously from to cope with arid conditions. The indigenous people
place to place. However, as a simple comparison, have lived here for at least 50,000 years and their
the average rainfall in neighbouring countries to our culture has allowed them to survive in the dry
north is about 10,000 mm/year... 20 times higher! conditions by never taking any resources beyond
Therefore, of all our renewable resources, water is what the country provides.
one of the most critically important.
Modern Australia’s greatest single need for water is
While Australian governments continue to pursue agricultural irrigation, especially for rice & cotton.
policies favouring continued population growth to Obviously our cities & towns need water supplies
sustain & grow the economy, it should be noted that for homes, industry & services. Water resources are
we may have already reached or surpassed the also used for hydro-electricity, but once used for
sustainable “carrying capacity” of our water energy, the water is still available for other uses.
resources.
Identifying Water Resources
Over 80% of Australians live near the coast, mostly the
east coast. This is partly due to history, (early settlers Australian Groundwater Basins
arrived by ship, so settlements were coastal) but also
due to availability of water.
The Great Dividing Range forces air to rise and creates Daly River
precipitation. Therefore, there are many coastal rivers
along the east coast, allowing the growth of farming, Canning Great
cities & industries. Artesian
Basin
Murray-Darling Basin
Officer
This is our greatest inland river system. The east-coast Carnarvon
rivers, plus the Murray- Eucla Murray
Basin
Darling sytem add up
to 87% of all the Perth
surface water flows for
the entire continent.
Murray-
Darling Unlike the regular Many parts of Australia are totally reliant on water
Basin seasonal rain patterns from underground aquifers. Despite a desert
of much of the northern surface, much of inland Australia has artesian
hemisphere, Australia’s water under it. (revise in Module 4)
rainfall is highly
variable due to the The “Great Artesian Basin” is the largest &
effects of ENSO and deepest artesian groundwater basin in the world.
other phenomena It sits under almost one-quarter of Australia’s land
covered in Module 6. area & is up to 3km deep.
To try to even-out flows Artesian water aquifers have made it possible to

& regulate water populate the west coast, and develop agriculture
supply, 4 major dams, and grazing in many inland areas.
14 weirs & 5 coastal
barriers have been built Where the groundwater rises above the surface,
image by into the system. wetlands are formed which are very important in
Martyman providing habitats for water birds, fish and plant life.
CCA-SA3.0
Typically, our dams &
reservoirs need to be about 6 times larger than similar In 2016, Australia’s “State of the Environment
structures in Europe (to get through a drought) and Report” (SoE) warned that many aquifers are
these present ecological problems of their own. being used faster than they can be replenished.
Critically low flows & massive fish-kills in 2018-19 have Desalination

alerted us all to the serious state of the system. The Many major cities now have desalination plants to
future sustainability of the Murray-Darling and the produce fresh water from seawater. This source is
survival of many “bush towns” hang in the balance. unlimited, but requires huge amounts of energy.
Australian Renewable Resources (cont.)

®

The sources of Sources of Australian Electricity, 2017
Australia’s energy
supplies were
covered in
Module 7... revise.
Despite rapid
growth in the use
of electric cars,
rooftop solar
panels, wind
generators & new
projects such as
“Snowy Hydro 2.0”,
Australia is still Image by MzstByse. CCA-SA 4.0 Int.
highly reliant on
fossil fuels. Not only is this an issue for CO2 emissions & climate change, but the mining operations
themselves may have profound environmental impacts.
Try Worksheet 1
Mining & Environment
The different methods of mining were outlined way back in Module 1. Here is a re-cap.
Surface (Pit or Open-Cut) Mining “The Big Pit” open-cut gold mine, Kalgoorlie, WA.
Image by Brian Voon Yee Yap
For solid minerals which are relatively close to the surface
and spread out over large areas, the usual mining method
is “open-cut mining”. Surface layers of soil & rock are
removed, then the resource is simply extracted by cutting,
scraping, bucket excavators, etc., often after loosening
with explosives if necessary.
In Australia, this is used for mining coal, the extraction of

low-yield gold ores and for iron ore in the wide-open
spaces of WA.
The photo (right) has little to help judge the scale. The tiny
speck arrowed is a huge mining truck.
Drilling
Extraction of petroleum or natural gas is usually done by drilling a pipe down into
the resource. Originally, drill-rigs were all on land, but new technologies of (firstly)
discovering the oil and (secondly) to drill under the sea-bed, have resulted in many
offshore platforms.
A relatively recent technique, called “fracking”, is used mainly for extracting coal-
seam gas (CSG). A pipe is drilled into the porous rock containing the gas, then high-
pressure water & chemicals are pumped down until the rock fractures & cracks. This
allows the gas to flow to the extraction pipeline more readily & efficiently.
Underground Mining
If the mineral resource is deep underground, mining is The mining tunnels can radiate from the shaft at
usually achieved by shafts & tunnels. The deepest various levels & in all directions, often for
Australian mine is almost 2km deep at Mt.Isa, QLD. At several kilometers.
Broken Hill, the main mine tunnel spirals down to the
ore body, so that motorised equipment can drive up & Coal mining often involves “long-wall” &
down without requiring a vertical shaft & lift. “gallery” mining rather than tunneling. This
means that wide-area “rooms” are excavated for
In some cases, tunnels can follow the ore seams the coal, rather than simple tunnels. Regular
horizontally into the side of a mountain. However, in columns of rock must be left in place to prevent
many cases a vertical shaft is needed, with elevators to roof collapse. Alternatively, supporting pillars &
move workers, equipment & ore between surface & beams of steel & concrete are used for support.
mining tunnels. (But this is expensive)
®
Mining & the Environment (cont.)
Mining Impacts Mt Lyell “moonscape”, 1986 Firstly, the trees were cut
down for timber & firewood.
One of the most famous (or
Next, the toxic fumes from
infamous) environmental
the smelter killed most
impacts from mining in
other plant life.
Australia was around the
Mt Lyell copper mine, near
Without any plant cover,
Queenstown, TAS.
the high rainfall of this area
quickly eroded all the soil
In its hundred year history
from the steep hillsides.
the mine produced over
This meant that, without
A$4 billion (today’s values)
remedial help, the
worth of copper, silver & gold.
environment would take centuries to recover.
During most of that time there were few, if any,
Today, the mine is no longer operational and efforts
regulations to protect the environment, so that an
to restore the environment continue. Dams have
estimated 100 million tonnes of toxic mine “tailings”
been built to capture toxic run-off for neutralisation
were dumped into local rivers. These rivers soon
and treatment.
became totally lifeless, and carried acidic, toxic
sediments into Macquarie Harbour.
The “moonscape” is gradually being repaired by
the painstaking methods of manually replacing soil
The smelting operations resulted in the surrounding
countryside becoming a “moonscape”. and planting of native species.
Reclamation & Rehabilitation of a Mining Site

Modern mining projects plan the rehabilitation of the site BEFORE
before mining even begins. In fact, this is a legal image by Iain Thompson
CCA-SA2.0
requirement for government approval of any mining
project. The exact details of what is involved in the
rehabilitation varies from site to site, but depends on
what the land will be used for after rehabilitation.
For example, a mining site near an urban area might be

needed as vacant land for a new suburb of housing. In a
more remote area, the site may need to be returned to a
state in which the original ecosystem can be re-
established.
Possible Rehabilitation Steps

Waste dumps are flattened out to reduce run-off & erosion. AFTER
If toxic ores are involved, the waste dumps will need to be image by Richard Webb
CCA-SA2.0
covered & sealed with clay. Long-term monitoring of site
drainage & treating of seepage may be needed.
Pits & open cut areas may be filled with rubble, then
topsoil. (photo: coal mine before & after rehabilitation)
The original topsoil may have been stockpiled since the
start of the mining operation.
The area may need to be contoured to the original or

desired new land shape before planting of vegetation.
Drilling sites need to have the bore-hole totally
sealed & capped with concrete (including under Shafts must be covered & securely fenced to prevent
water sites) before removal of drilling / pumping people or animals falling in. Very often, these partially
equipment. fill up with groundwater. (During mining operations it is
common that pumps are needed to continually pump
Mine shafts & tunnels water out.)
Underground mining sites are generally easier to
rehabilitate than large open pits. Tunnels can be Tailings Dams which catch waste water & run-off from
partially or comletely back-filled with any “spoil- mines (see Mod.4, p12) are allowed to evaporate. Toxic
dumps” or waste stockpiles. This effectively gets sediments may be removed, then the dam area filled &
rid of all the mining wastes from the surface. sealed with clay. Finally come topsoil & native plants.
® Case Study: An Important Australian Resource

keep it simple science Uranium
Note: By defining uranium as an “important” resource we refer to its economic significance. Australia has
the largest known deposits of uranium ores and is the 3rd largest producer of “yellowcake” (purified ore).
Australia exports about 10,000 tonnes per year, which has a value around one billion Australian dollars.
Occurrence of Uranium Finding & Mining Uranium
Uranium is chemical element No.92 and its atoms Locating uranium deposits is generally done by
are the largest which occur naturally on Earth. It is a traditional methods of geological surveys and test
rare metal, although it is actually more abundant drilling to obtain core samples for analysis.
than tin, mercury or silver in the Earth’s crust.
However, in one case a major deposit in NT was
It is radioactive and therefore poses severe health accidentally discovered when a survey aircraft
hazards in concentrated forms. Its radioactivity carrying radiation detectors flew over the area on its
makes it extremely useful in radiometric dating of way to carry out an unrelated task. Its radiation
rocks in the study of ancient Earth history. detectors went ballistic, prompting geologists to do
some further exploration.
Past Uses
The most common ore of uranium is There are currently only a few uranium mines
called “pitchblende” (or uraninite) and operating in Australia, but many smaller mines were
was used to extract radium in the open in the past.
early 20th century, after its discovery
There are Ranger
by the famous French scientists Marie
& Pierre Curie. many
known
Radium was used to make luminous paint for watch deposits
dials and various “health tonics”. Such uses are not being
now banned because of the dangers to health. mined... yet.
Current Uses All up, Olympic Beverley

Uranium is the only naturally occurring element Aust’s total Dam
which can undergo nuclear fission. This is the basis uranium

of all nuclear power stations and also of the “atomic reserves
bomb” developed during World War 2. are the
largest in Major known deposits.
During the “Cold War” (approx. the world. (current mining sites named)
1947-90) the demand for uranium
skyrocketed as world military Mining Methods
powers produced nuclear Uranium ores typically contain only about 0.1-0.2%
weapons & developed nuclear uranium oxide and often cover extensive areas, so
power stations to make “open-cut” methods are favoured.
electricity.
The ore is crushed, then undergoes several
Nuclear-made electricity is chemical treatment steps to separate & concentrate
produced by 31 countries and the uranium. The final product is a heavy yellow
generates about 10% of the powder called “yellowcake” which is mostly
world’s electricity supply. uranium oxide, U3O8.
(But up to 50% of power in those countries.)
Nuclear power was discussed briefly in Module 7 in Yellowcake is as far as Australian processing goes.
relation to replacement of fossil fuels... revise. In the countries which buy it, it undergoes a highly
technical & expensive process to prepare “enriched
Future Uses uranium” suitable for nuclear power production.
Who Knows? Some countries may expand their
nuclear power usage in order to cut back on coal Is It Sustainable?
burning. Other nuclear countries (mainly in Europe) In a word... No! Like all geological mineral deposits,
are looking to shut down their nuclear plants. once dug up and removed it cannot be replaced.
Nuclear weapons will always be with us, but Some would suggest that it should never be mined
(theoretically) this will not affect Australia’s uranium in the first place. Opponents point to the dangers of
industry. This is because our government’s policy is nuclear weapons, accidents at nuclear power plants,
NOT to sell any uranium to nations with nuclear problems with storage & disposal of nuclear wastes
weapons unless they have signed a treaty to and the potential danger of nuclear materials falling
guarantee it is not used to build weapons. Such into the hands of terrorists.
treaties are subject to verification by UN
inspections of nuclear facilities. And the controversy begins with the mining...
®
Uranium Mining (cont.) After this page,
keep it simple science Try Worksheet 2
Political & Social Controversy
The Federal Govt. has the power to veto or Of the major political parties:
prevent mining (of any kind, not just uranium)
based on any dangers to the environment or • one side has traditionally opposed uranium mining & for
indigenous lands. Furthermore, it controls decades had a policy to strictly limit it. However, that
decisions as to which countries uranium can be policy was quietly dropped from the party’s platform about
sold to, according to certain international 10 years ago. The party seems indecisive & is possibly
treaties to limit nuclear weapons. waiting for popular opinion to guide future policy.
However, it is State Governments which control the • the other side is not so much in favour of mining
exploration and initial approval of mining. uranium as such, but is enthusiastically in favour of
As of 2019: economic development. Confident that environmental
safeguards will always work, they tend to approve
• Vic, NSW & QLD do NOT allow uranium anything likely to increase wealth, whenever in power.
mining, although QLD may be about to “back- When the economy is weak, they get a lot of votes.
flip” on that.
• WA, SA & Tas support uranium mining. • the main “environmental party” is vehemently opposed
(but Tas. doesn’t have any known deposits) to uranium mining because of its link to nuclear energy
• NT is under Commonwealth control & as well as environmental risks & threats to indigenous
currently allows one of the most controversial lands & people. They seem unlikely to govern, but often
operations to continue. hold some “balance of power” in the Senate. This way
they can often influence government decisions.
Involvement of Traditional Owners in Planning, Mining & Restoration
Case Study: Ranger Uranium Mine, NT
The Mine Ore processing plant The Mirarr People
The Ranger Uranium Mine are the traditional owners of
began operations in 1980, the land right across the
the same year that Kakadu Kakadu area and beyond.
was declared a national park.
To represent their people
they formed the
The mining area is totally “Gundjeihmi Aboriginal
surrounded by the national Corporation” (GAC) in 1995.
park. Kakadu NP has been
declared a “World Heritage” “Gundjeihmi” is the
area on the basis of both language of the Mirarr.
cultural and natural
significance. The GAC’s role is to protect
Ranger No.3 Pit. Image by Geomartin CCA-SA3.0 the people’s traditional
The mine is operated by lands & their culture, while
supporting sustainable development through
Energy Resources of Australia, (ERA) a subsidiary education, employment & business opportunities.
of the multi-national company Rio Tinto. Two huge The GAC receives, manages & distributes the
open-cut pits have been mined-out & current mining royalties from ERA.
production involves the processing of stockpiled
ore. There are other ore-bodies within Kakadu NP They are closely involved in any decisions
including the controversial Jabiluka deposit. ERA concerning both the Ranger mine AND the
has discovered another ore body deep under the pit management of Kakadu NP, which is a major tourist
in the photo above and has plans to access it with attraction in NT.
deep underground shaft methods.
According to GAC’s website, they feel that the
Permission to open the Ranger mine in 1980 was opening of the Ranger mine was forced upon the
highly controversial and proceded only under the Mirarr and they have always been opposed to it.
scrutiny of a Commonwealth monitoring team... the They were appalled by the Fukushima nuclear
“Supervising Scientist Branch” which constantly disaster in 2011 because they know that Ranger’s
monitors environmental protection issues. ERA uranium was involved. As traditional owners, they
acknowledges many accidents & breaches of safety feel a responsibility for products from their lands.
regulations detected by the supervisors.
They are continually concerned by the potential for
According to ERA’s website, the company has negative impacts of the mine operation on human
always worked in consultation with the traditional health & the environment. They point to over 200
owners of the area, the Mirarr people. ERA pays leaks, spills & breaches of conditions attributed to
royalties to the Mirarr and has a policy to train & the mine since 1980.
employ as many locals as possible. It plans to
rehabilitate the mine sites and ultimately to return “The promises never last, but the
the area to its previous natural ecosystem state. problems always do”

2. Waste Management
Garbage Disposal
Human communities have traditionally disposed of
unwanted garbage by simply dumping it into a
convenient out-of-the-way spot. By about the mid-20th
century, the size of cities and the growing mass of
garbage produced by each household meant that
garbage dumps were becoming a problem because:
• dangerous microbes and/or toxic chemicals were

seeping from garbage dumps into streams and
groundwater aquifers.
• the sheer volume of garbage was becoming difficult
to handle. For example, in New York city, millions of image
tonnes of garbage was being shipped 100 km out into Fun4life
the Atlantic ocean & dumped at sea because all the
landfill sites were overwhelmed.
• fermentation of rotting organic matter produces Selecting a Landfill Site
methane gas which can cause upheavals, explosions Traditionally, dump sites were chosen for simple
and fires. (It is also a potent greenhouse gas) convenience. Today, dump sites are chosen for a
• dumps often had huge populations of vermin, such as number of geological features:
disease-carrying flies and rats.
• open dumps were smelly, unsightly and unhygenic. • There needs to be impervious rock under the
site i.e. rock that doesn't let water through. This
Additionally, using materials & resources just once, means that there can never be any leakage of
then dumping them makes no sense when recycling toxic or unhygenic liquids from the waste site to
saves energy and conserves resources. the water table. If the rock is not impervious to
water then it has to be sealed with plastics or
Thankfully, things have changed in modern garbage clays liners.
disposal. Firstly, it is no longer “Garbage Disposal”,
but rather “Waste Management”. Attempts are made to • The bedrock should not have any fractures or
recycle as much waste as possible so that the amount faults in the rock that might allow seepage.
of landfill is minimised & resources are conserved.
A Modern Landfill Waste Facility

Gone are the days when general garbage was simply dumped, pushed around by a bulldozer, and allowed to
fester and rot while the flies and rats abounded. In a modern Australian community, recycling has reduced
the amount of garbage by about 60%, and the methods of disposal are becoming more scientific, hygenic,
environmentally and aesthetically acceptable. This diagram summarises the features of a modern landfill
system known as a “Bioreactor”. As each parcel of landfill is completed, it can be reclaimed as shown.
Methane collected and

used as a fuel for Vegetation and landscaping, playing fields, etc as required
industrial heating or
power generation.
Topsoil
Compacted clay “capping”

Seepage pumped
back to trickle
through garbage Layer of Waste Matter
layer again. With accelerated decomposition, due to recycling the
Perforated bacteria-laden seepage water, the waste layer decomposes to a stable,
The seepage gas-collection safe state within a few years, rather than
contains bacteria sump the 100 years taken by traditional “dumps”.
which accelerate
decomposition of
organic matter.
Layer of Sand and gravel with perforated pipes collects seepage
PUMP
Compacted clay
Synthetic membrane
seal, such as Impervious Bedrock
plastic sheeting
®
Landfills (cont.) Typical Australian landfill site
Unfortunately, the “bioreactor” landfill system shown on
the previous page is being used in only a few places in
Australia. Many Australian towns & cities still have
“dumps” as shown in the top photo, although the
standards have improved in the past 20 years.
In most places, re-cycling has reduced the amount of

landfill waste greatly, and local authorities make sure that Image by Ashley Felton
the waste is buried much faster than in the past.
The second photo shows a landfill in Hawaii called a

“daily cover” system. The waste deposited each day is
confined in a “grid system” layout and buried every day.
This is the “next-best” process to a bioreactor system.
By international standards, Australia is lagging well

behind in waste management. Several European countries Note the plastic
have policies & practices in place to eliminate landfills membrane under
entirely by 2022. the waste layers.
Image by Eric Guinther CCA-SA3.0
How Can Landfill Waste be (almost) Eliminated?
Modern Options for Waste Management

The Waste Hierachy
Most Preferred
Option REDUCE This diagram summarises what has become the
“mantra” for the waste management industry.
RE-USE Reduce
In medicine the saying is, “prevention is better than
RECYCLE cure”. By analogy, it is better to avoid creating unwanted
wastes than to have to deal with those wastes later.
RECOVER
RESIDUAL One important strategy is to reduce the “one-use” packaging

(land of things we buy. All states in Australia (except NSW) have now
Least Preferred fill) banned the free soft-plastic “supermarket bags”. (In NSW, the
Option major retailers have voluntarily removed them, but they have NOT
been banned by law.)
Re-Use
This comes before “recycle”, although According to a Federal Government report, 6 billion
you might think it’s the same thing. “supermarket” bags were used in Australia in 2002. Organisations
such as “Clean Up Australia” reported that these were very
“Re-Use” means to return containers commonly found in litter.
(eg glass bottles) to the manufacturer
who filled them, to be washed & re-filled Concerns have also been raised about
with the same product. the impacts of plastic litter on wildlife.
This photo shows the toothbrush, Image by
This was commonly done for milk, soft, fishing-line & plastic “bolus” removed US Fisheries &
drinks, beer and other products through from the gut of an albatross found dead Wildlife Service
most in the Pacific Ocean.
of the 20th century.
A major strategy is to get manufacturers to use LESS packaging on
It was dropped in favour of (cheaper) single- products, ranging from fresh fruit to clothing items to electronics.
use plastic bottles, thin single-use glass, (Why do fresh apples need a plastic tub and plastic wrap?)
aluminium cans and the “cartons” used for
milk, juice, etc.
To achieve this will probably require pressure from both
A simple example of re-use is to use the governments and from consumers. However, this firstly requires
same shopping bags over & over, or re- that governments and society WANT this to happen.
use cardboard boxes for storage
containers, instead of buying plastic The “bottom line” for reduction of waste is really the reduction of
storage boxes. the rate of consumption of goods in general. “Do I really need
this?” is a question which needs to be asked more often by all
Op-Shops are an important method of consumers.
re-using furniture, clothes, toys, However, this would be a denial of the basic principles of
kitchenware, books, etc. Capitalism which relies on continual growth of the economy.
“Retail Therapy” seems to be embedded deeply in our culture.
®
Options for Waste Management (cont.)
If you have reduced where possible and re-used whatever you can, the next step is:
Typically, modern garbage Recycling For example, the energy required to recycle
collection services involve 2 or aluminium containers is only 4%, as
Image by Bidgee CCA-SA3.0
3 separately-collected much as is required to mine and process
“wheelie-bins” so that most the ore to make new aluminium.
household garbage can be
recycled. • reduces environmental impacts. For
example, by reducing energy usage
Recycling minimises the (which in Australia come mainly from
amount of garbage to be burning coal) we reduce the emission of
disposed of in landfill, but “greenhouse gases”.
more importantly it: Yellow Lid = Green Lid = Red Lid =
Recycling: garden & (smaller)
for
In many local government areas, garden
paper, some food wastes
• helps conserve natural plastics, cans, for wastes (lawn clippings, etc) are
Landfill
resources by reducing the bottles composting collected separately in the “Green Bin”.
need to manufacture new These are processed to become garden
glass, plastic, metal and paper products. mulch or compost. This recycling not only returns
plant material to the soil, but eliminates what used
• reduces energy usage, because the energy to be the single biggest source of organic matter in
involved in recycling many substances is only a landfill dumps. This reduces the amount of methane
fraction of the energy required to make it originally. (a greenhouse gas) seeping from landfill sites.
Container Deposits (“Return & Earn”) Australian Recycling?

One strategy to enhance & encourage recycling was According to data from the Aust.Bureau of
introduced in NSW in Dec. 2017. It involves a deposit on Statistics (2017) Australia generates 67
many types of drink cans & bottles (both glass & plastic) million tonnes of “garbage” wastes per year,
which is paid for by consumers when the product is 55% of which is recycled. (That’s still a lot
purchased. Returning containers to collection points of landfill !)
pays back the deposit of 10 cents for each bottle or can.
In some categories, local industries
This strategy was introduced to: consume a high percentage of the recycled
• reduce littering in public areas. material. For example, about 90% of
• improve the quality of recycled containers. recycled aluminium (mostly drink cans) is
(Surveys have shown that a lot of containers previously processed into new aluminium products.
recycled via “yellow bins” were badly contaminated with food
wastes, etc. and had to be sent to landfill.) On the other hand, our re-processing of
recycled plastics & paper is only about 50%.
The managers of the Return & Earn system claim that In the past, millions of tonnes of waste
both these objectives have been achieved since the plastics & paper were exported to other
scheme began. countries (especially China) where there is
greater demand for such material.
It should be noted that similar schemes have been
operating successfully in other places for many years. However, new Chinese standards for
South Australia began this strategy in 1977... over 40 maximum levels of “contamination” have
years ago! resulted in the partial collapse of these
exports in 2018-19. The result is that
In many European countries, container deposits are very Australian stockpiles of recycled materials
high (up to A$1 per bottle) so that everyone returns their have increased dramatically.
empties at the time of the next purchase. This is usually
the method involved with re-use of containers, (re-filling) A 2019 report from the Aust.Dept.of
rather than just recycling of materials. The retailers act Environment revealed major declines in
as the collection points & they return the bottles to the exports of recycled materials, between 40%
manufacturers as a “back-load” each time they receive a to 80% less. Some media reports are
truckload of products from them. declaring that a “crisis” is looming.
The Principle of “Stewardship” Using this principle, companies which package their
One idea that may be used in the future to guide products excessively, or deliberately design things
policies & practices for reducing, re-using & to have a short lifespan (“planned obsolescence”)
recycling is that those who manufacture & sell should be forced to pay for, or deal with, the waste
products should take the responsibility (at least in materials consequences. This idea is particularly
part) for the wastes their products generate. important in the area of “E-Waste”... next page...
®
Recycling of “E-Waste”
keep it simple science Electronic waste (“E-Waste”) refers to the electronic equipment thrown out by people and
includes TV’s, computers, cell phones, etc. A lot of this equipment is replaced & thrown away because it is “out
of date” and has been replaced for reasons of keeping up with new technology, or fashion & status.
It is estimated that 50 million tonnes of E-Waste is generated globally per year and less than 20% of this is
recycled. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has estimated that E-Waste in landfill is
responsible for at least 70% of toxic metal (eg lead, mercury, etc.) contamination around landfill operations.
Most of the E-Waste which is handed in to Recycling “dump” in Ghana.
recycling centres is not processed locally, but Image by Marlenenapoli
often exported to developing countries where
labour is cheaper.
For example, the country of Ghana (W.Africa) has

become a major centre for E-Waste recycling.
However, the methods used are crude and
dangerous, such as open-air burning the of the
insulation on wiring, to recover the metals.
The health hazards involved in the smoke &

fumes and in the run-off from these open-air
“dumps” are well below modern safety standards.
In Australia, there are companies whose business

is to recycle electronic equipment & appliances in a
safe & efficient way. However, they charge fees for This way, the costs associated with E-Waste (which
their services because of the high costs of specialist includes landfill costs, cleaning up illegal dumping,
workers & techniques. Paying to have your recycling potential health hazards, etc.) are pre-paid before
processed is (of course) a major deterent, so much of the equipment becomes waste.
Australia’s E-Waste ends up in landfill, or is dumped
illegally in the bush or on roadsides. The increased retail prices might also deter
consumers from buying new gadgets quite so often,
Recycling Taxes? and slow down the growth of the E-Waste problem.
It has been suggested one possible strategy to
reduce the problems associated with E-Waste would Opponents of this idea point to the increased cost
be to place a special “recycling tax” on sales of some of appliances & electronic equipment. They argue
(or all) electronics & appliances. that this will especially disadvantage low-income
families and will hurt the economy, by reducing
It might work this way: consumer spending.
Every sale of these products would include an
additional tax (say 5%) which would be collected from Other people, who believe in the idea of
retailers by governments. (State or Federal) “ownership” or stewardship of problems, say that
applying a “recycling tax” at the retail sales level
This revenue would be used to establish collection does not do enough to put the responsibility back
centres for E-Waste and to pay recycling companies onto the manufacturers.
to process the waste safely & appropriately. (and NOT
just export it to Ghana!) The resources recovered However, since the vast majority of these products
(including some valuable metals) could become are imported into Australia, it is difficult to imagine
important to local manufacturers. how we can make the manufacturers reponsible.
Try Worksheet 3
Sustainability of Waste Management
The syllabus asks you to evaluate how sustainable a waste A 2018 government report stated that
management option is. The possible definitions of Australia produces more waste and
“sustainable” will be outlined in the next section, but we recycles less (per capita) than most other
suggest that the only truly sustainable (long-term) options for comparable countries.
waste management involve: (And even if we were the best, that doesn’t
necessarily mean it’s sustainable.)
• reduction of our waste production. Currently Australians
produce 2.7 tonnes of waste per person per year. (2017) Waste management is just one tiny part of
AND the sustainability question. Over-use of
• improvements in the percentage of waste recycled and the resources and climate change loom as far
final outcomes of our recycling programs. greater issues.

3. Sustainability
Definitions & Rationale
A simple definition of “sustainability” is Regardless of precise definition, the most
“the ability of human civilization and the basic rationale behind sustainability is
Earth’s biosphere to co-exist that the survival of human civilization
indefinitely.” is totally dependant upon healthy
ecosystems & livable environments.
Another definition is:
“a situation in which usage of There is considerable scientific
resources & human impacts on evidence that our current rate of
the environment do NOT prevent “economic development” is NOT
future generations from meeting sustainable.
their needs & aspirations.”
We are using resources faster than
There may be many others. they can be renewed. Ecosystems
Opinions vary as to which one is are being degraded and biodiversity
most accurate or meaningful. is diminishing. Climates are changing
to the detriment of all life on Earth.
Human Activities Affecting Sustainability

Many of the human impacts on climate, soil, water & resource usage have been covered earlier in this, or
previous modules. Here we look at just a few more human activities which detract from sustainability.
Australia is rated as having one of the largest ecological & biodiversity “footprints” in the world. This is
nothing to be proud of! It means that, per capita, Australians have one of the largest negative impacts on
climate change, ecosystem & biodiversity damage & loss, in the world.
This assessment is based upon consideration of factors such as:

• heavy reliance on fossil fuel usage for power & transport.
• high rates of land clearance & habitat destruction.
• over-extraction of water from rivers & aquifers.
• over-exploitation of natural resources, including fisheries & forests.
• high rates of individual consumption of metals, plastics, electronics, etc.
with fast “turnover” and low rates of re-use & re-cycling.
Many of these are simply the consequences of most Australians living in a privileged, wealthy society,
supported by a strong economy and enjoying a comfortable lifestyle. We don’t set out to destroy our
environment; it is merely the “collateral damage” of progress.
Biodiversity
Biodiversity refers to the range of different At another level, “Biodiversity” can refer to the number of
species living in an ecosystem. They all different ecosystems which exist within an area. Although
depend on each other so that the ecosystem each may be thought of as a separate system, there are
can function properly. Plants are dependant on many connections from one ecosystem to another. For
different types of birds and insects for example, the fruit bats which roost in a rainforest might
pollination. Some animals are dependant on fly to a paperbark wetland ecosystem to feed when the
different types of plants for food and/or shelter, paperbarks trees are flowering. Both ecosystems benefit
while other animals are dependant on prey from this connection: the bats are important pollinators
animals for food. The micro-organisms recycle of the paperbarks, while the bat droppings are vital
the nutrients so the whole system continues. fertiliser for the nutient-poor rainforest.
As a general rule, the more diversity of species, the more genetic diversity within each species,
and the greater the complexity of relationships within, and between different ecosystems,
the more stable and resilient the whole system will be.
Biodiversity is essential to survival of the natural environment.

Loss of Biodiversity by Habitat Destruction

®

Environments which are changed and disrupted by Maintaining biodiversity is important for what we
human activity can suffer a loss of biodiversity. don’t yet know, as much as for what we do know.
There are so many living species on Earth that we
Land clearing, even if only partial, can reduce the know very little about most of them, especially the
habitat available and fragment the ecosystems. fungi and microbes. Many of these may be potential
This isolates small populations of animals, leading sources of medicines and useful genes for future
to in-breeding and loss of genetic biodiversity. genetic engineering. Whenever an ecosystem is
destroyed, we may be losing vital organisms that we
Clearing natural bush for agriculture causes loss of don’t even know about.
diversity of species. With their natural plant foods,
nesting sites, roosts and hiding places less There are also aesthetic and ethical reasons for
common, many species are forced to move away or maintaining biodiversity. The natural beauty of a
else decline in numbers in that area. complex ecosystem is a resource which should be
retained for future generations.
Those that can cope with the altered environment
may increase in abundance. Eastern Grey Kangaroos We do not have the right to destroy the environment
are a good example: cleared pastures and farm dams and selfishly deprive our great-grandchildren of the
provide ideal conditions, so their numbers have pleasures of nature.
increased. People driving along highways see them
and think this is a sign of natural, healthy An Attitude for Survival
environments. In fact, one species is abundant, but Perhaps the most important reason for trying to
many others are rare & endangered. preserve biodiversity is all about attitudes to our
own long-term survival. If we don’t care about
As well as habitat loss and fragmentation, conservation of natural environments, and don’t aim
introduced species cause a loss of biodiversity by to achieve sustainability, then we will end up
preying on or competing with native species. following a path toward self-destruction.
Examples were covered in earlier modules.
Humans rely on natural ecosystems to recycle
oxygen and decompose our wastes. We rely on the
natural cycles of nature for water supplies, and
fertile soil to grow our food.
An attitude of unlimited resource usage, waste,

pollution and lack of concern for the environment
leads ultimately to our own extinction.
We also have little idea of how vital and yet fragile

are some of the relationships in an ecosystem.
For example, we are just learning that even though

we may protect a remnant area of rainforest, in fact
it may be already doomed.
Some animals require a minimum area for their Which Environment would you prefer?
habitat, or else they cannot find enough food, or Then get an attitude!
cannot hold enough territory for successful
breeding. That species will disappear from that
patch of rainforest and we may think that that’s sad,
but that the forest can survive.
But maybe it cannot!
If the missing animal is the sole pollinator of a tree

species, then that plant will die out in that area. It
may take 100 years for all the mature trees of that
species to die, but eventually they will. Then some
other animal which relies on that tree for food or
nest sites will disappear, and so it snowballs.
Each little loss of biodiversity can lead to more.

Overharvesting
®

Overharvesting (or Overexploitation) A famous case is that of the sea otter along the
Pacific coast of N.America. Sea otters were hunted
refers to harvesting a natural, renewable resource at
almost to extinction for their valuable fur. In 1911,
a rate beyond its ability to renew itself.
hunting was finally banned because it was realised
that they were almost all gone.
It can apply to the wild-catch of animals, harvesting
of forests, or extraction of water from rivers or Kelp Forest
aquifers. In the case of harvesting living things, this Image by US NOAA
may result in extinction of one or more species.
Overharvesting is nothing new. It is

possible that the extinction of the
“megafauna” in many parts of the
world between 40,000-10,000 years
ago was due to human hunting.
In more recent history, we have Diana Images

famous cases such as the extinction of the Dodo
The otters’ favourite food was sea-urchins which fed
(17th century) and near-extinction of the American
on the great kelp “forests” in coastal waters. When
Bison. (19th century)
otters disappeared, the urchins over-populated and
ate the kelp forests to total destruction in places,
One of the most dramatic cases is that of the
then starved to death themselves. Hundreds of
Atlantic Cod. This species was caught for food for
other species depended on the kelp and also died
centuries off the east coast of Canada. The graph
out, in local areas. This “cascade of death” caused
shows that for at least a century the fishery seemed
widespread collapse of the ecosystem.
sustainable. Then around 1960, increased demand
and new fishing technologies increased the catch
Today, after 100 years of protection, the otter
dramatically. After declining catches in the 1980’s,
population is back to about half of its original size.
the fishery collapsed totally in 1992.
It cannot yet recover fully because, in places, the
Atlantic Cod Fisheries Catch 1850-1992 kelp ecosystem has not been able to re-establish.
Australian Overharvesting
Some of the following examples have been outlined
Tonnes of Fish Caught
earlier in this, or earlier modules. For others,

perhaps some brief research could be illuminating.
Water
Reports in recent years indicate that the Murray-
Darling river system is being overexploited and is in
danger of “total system collapse”. There is also
evidence that our groundwater aquifers are
declining and in danger of being exhausted.
Image by Lamiot Australian Fur Seal

CCA-SA1.0 Almost hunted to extinction... recovery v. slow.
Orange Roughy
This deep-water fish species is long-lived & slow-
At the time it was thought that if fishing was breeding. It was a popular restaurant dish in the
stopped for (say) 20 years, then the population of 1980-1990’s, but the fishery is no more...
cod would gradually recover. THIS DIDN’T HAPPEN.
Forests
The cod species is NOT extinct, but the numbers are Only 3% of our original rainforests remain. Laws
low and show no sign of recovery of population preventing excessive clearing have helped, but our
size. This is probably due to an ecological cascade forestry industries may be of dubious sustainability.
effect.
Ecological Cascade
This is a highly destructive phenomenon which
occurs when the sudden decline in the population of
one species causes a “domino effect” through an
ecosystem. Other species may decline to extinction,
or (sometimes) increase catastrophically. In some
cases, the entire ecosystem can collapse. Image by TJ Watt CCA-SA3.0

Indigenous Resource Management
Traditional Land Management
The various groups of Aboriginal people of
Australia are descended from ancient people who
arrived here over 50,000 years ago. This is by far
the longest time that any cultural group of humans
have occupied any place on Earth.
Over this time, the Aborigines came to believe that

they were part of the environment and had a duty to
protect and care for the land. Their culture included
ways to manage the environment in sustainable
ways such as:
“Fire-Stick Farming”
Many Aboriginal groups carried out “controlled
burning” of their lands. Areas with a small amount
of grass were burned regularly, areas with thicker Aborigine “Fire Rangers” at a controlled-burn in
grass were burned less frequently and those areas Arnhem Land, NT. The equipment is modern,
but the methods are ancient.
with fire-sensitive plants were left untouched. Photo courtesy of Jawoyn Association, NT
This burned-off the dry, dead materials so that a later dangerous bushfire was less likely. The burnt area
regenerated after rain with new plant growth fertilised by the ashes. This made the land more productive.
Fire-stick farming produced more open grasslands and less scrub country. There was more food for plant
eating animals (e.g. kangaroos) and better hunting for the people. The fact that the Aborigines did this over
50,000 years proves that it is a sustainable practice which creates a stable environment.
In contrast, European farming methods have severely damaged many Australian environments in only 230
years since settlement.
“Controlled burning” as a way to reduce the risk of severe bushfires has now been
adopted by environmental authorities across the nation.
More and more, traditional Aboriginal land-care practices are being valued and used.
Land Councils & Land Rights in Australia

According to the National Indigenous Land Councils
Australians Agency, (NIAA) the rights & The granting of “Native Title” to indigenous people does
interests of Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander not give any single person ownership of land. Rather, it
people are formally recognised for about 40% grants control to the “traditional owners” of each area, to
of Australia’s total land area. be held & managed for the good of all, with these rights
& obligations to be passed on to future generations.
“Connection to land is of central importance
to Indigenous Australians.” (NIAA, 2019) The organisations which have been formed to accept &
hold “Native Title” are the “Land Councils”. These
This basic principle underlies the legal councils vary in size across the nation.
frameworks of “Native Title” to land and
general concepts of “Aboriginal Land Rights” An example of one such organisation was outlined
which have developed since the landmark earlier as part of the case study on uranium mining.
“Mabo Case” of 1992. This precedent, and the
many legal decisions since then, form a “de The various Land Councils advise & negotiate with State
facto” treaty between the the various Australian & Local Government agencies, National Parks
governments and all Indigenous people. management and with local businesses. Their objective
(Australia is one of very few nations which was originally colonised
by Europeans WITHOUT a formal treaty being made with the is always based on sustainability of the land, its
indigenous peoples. This fact is still a “sore point” to many.) resources, its people & their culture.
Local Sustainability Initiatives

The syllabus asks you to research & present Often these projects involve weed conrol, destruction
information about an initiative in your local area. of introduced species & prevention of land erosion.
We can’t do this for you, but suggest that in Contact your local Council or National Parks office to
many places these initiatives are small-scale & gather information, or (better still) to volunteer your
often carried out by volunteers. eg Land Care. time to help with a project.

A Final Note: Pathways to Sustainability
Opinions vary, but it seems that the overall 2. Population
strategies for humans to achieve sustainability fall Others believe that the human population is the
into 3 broad categories. Organisations & main problem, so they think that sustainability will
governments which strive towards sustainability tend come from population control. History tells us that
to use all three categories, but each may apply the key to this is improvements in wealth, health
different priorities. and equality, especially of females in male-
dominated societies.
1. Reduce Consumption
Many people believe that the best path to Strategies include better education, promoting
sustainability is to reduce the per capita female equality and better access to birth control.
consumption in “rich” countries. This is seen by
others as a frontal attack on Capitalism, so it is not 3. Technology
yet politically favoured, nor likely, in countries such Another line of thought sees new technologies as
as USA or Australia. the main pathway. Strategies include switching to
renewable energy, Geo-engineering & various
Strategies include things like reducing the methods to “De-couple” human development from
production & usage of plastics, better energy environmental damage.
efficiency & less vehicles, more bikes, more walking.
(The background here is that history shows us many examples
“Poor” nations are generally taking the opposite where improvements in human wealth and affluence have come at
path, as they strive to “catch up” to the affluence the cost of environmental degradation. Our current concerns about
Global Warming are perhaps the most significant example of this.)
they see elsewhere... who can blame them for that?
Measuring Sustainability
“You cannot change what you cannot measure.”
This diagram / graph shows the results Human Welfare v. Ecological Footprints
of measuring, then comparing, the level
of human affluence & welfare to the
“ecological footprint” (per capita) in a
range of countries.
“Human Development Index”
The data was gathered from UN sources

in 2009 and put together by an
organisation called the “Global Footprint
Network”, which acts as a “think-tank” “Ecological Footprint”
and political lobbyist agency. measures the “global area” of the Earth required
(per capita) to sustain the current “standard of
living” & welfare of people in each country.
In the diagram, the heavy dashed lines The “carrying capacity” of the Earth is estimated
define: to be 2.1 hectare for the current total population.
“Human Development Index”

• the minimum “developmental index” measures the food, infrastructure, health
score. (This is like a minimum affluence services, education, etc. in each country.
Image by
The minimum value for acceptable development
score for happy, healthy societies. Note Travelplanner.
of a human society is an index = 0.8
CCA-SA3.0
that Australia scores well above this.)
• the maximum “ecological footprint” in “Ecological Footprint” (hectares used per person)
terms of how much of the Earth’s surface
is available to be exploited for one person’s benefit. The shaded rectangle in the top left corner
shows where a nation would score if it meets the
This maximum “footprint” is 2.1 hectares per person. minimum affluence, with less than than
The average Australian is using about 7.5ha. maximum footprint, for an acceptable AND
sustainable future. This is where the whole world
One way to think of this is that each Australian is using must be, for equitable, sustainable development.
over three times the amount of Earth’s resources than
they should be entitled to. There is only ONE nation which actually scores
in this zone... Cuba! Try Worksheet 4
Notice that many countries (mostly in Africa) are
existing on a lot less. In a sense, our affluence is based Quite a few other nations are close, but are not
on depriving others of their fair share of resources, named on the chart. They are mainly in Latin
wealth, health and opportunity. America, with a few in Asia-Pacific.
Farewell from KISS Resources. Have a good life and try to be nice to the Earth.
Oh, maybe it would be a good idea to learn to speak Spanish!

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® KEEP IT SIMPLE SCIENCE

2. Waste Pathways to sustainability

What is this topic about?

keep it simple science

The main types of agriculture are:

• farming of crops to produce food, or fibres

s G leads to greater sustainability of our agriculture.

To try to even-out flows Artesian water aquifers have made it possible to

Critically low flows & massive fish-kills in 2018-19 have Desalination

Australian Renewable Resources (cont.)

keep it simple science

In Australia, this is used for mining coal, the extraction of

Reclamation & Rehabilitation of a Mining Site

For example, a mining site near an urban area might be

Possible Rehabilitation Steps

The area may need to be contoured to the original or

® Case Study: An Important Australian Resource

Current Uses All up, Olympic Beverley

which can undergo nuclear fission. This is the basis uranium

keep it simple science

• dangerous microbes and/or toxic chemicals were

A Modern Landfill Waste Facility

Methane collected and

Compacted clay “capping”

In most places, re-cycling has reduced the amount of

The second photo shows a landfill in Hawaii called a

By international standards, Australia is lagging well

Modern Options for Waste Management

RESIDUAL One important strategy is to reduce the “one-use” packaging

Container Deposits (“Return & Earn”) Australian Recycling?

For example, the country of Ghana (W.Africa) has

The health hazards involved in the smoke &

In Australia, there are companies whose business

keep it simple science

Human Activities Affecting Sustainability

This assessment is based upon consideration of factors such as:

Biodiversity is essential to survival of the natural environment.

Loss of Biodiversity by Habitat Destruction

keep it simple science

An attitude of unlimited resource usage, waste,

We also have little idea of how vital and yet fragile

For example, we are just learning that even though

If the missing animal is the sole pollinator of a tree

Each little loss of biodiversity can lead to more.

keep it simple science

Overharvesting is nothing new. It is

In more recent history, we have Diana Images

earlier in this, or earlier modules. For others,

Image by Lamiot Australian Fur Seal

keep it simple science

Over this time, the Aborigines came to believe that

Land Councils & Land Rights in Australia

Local Sustainability Initiatives

keep it simple science

The data was gathered from UN sources

“Human Development Index”

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