Flow and TRansport in Porous Media

MCieTAT
Flow and transport in porous media

Ground Engineering
MCieTAT_Flow and transport in porous media. Professor I. Alhama
Contents
Ground Engineering
Contents
Ground Engineering
Contents
Ground Engineering
About the assessment criteria
4 It´s not mandatory.

Only to get an
higher mark
Ground Engineering
Piezometric head and Bernuille theorem

Hydrostatic condition
Examples to clarify ideas.
Groundwater movement
Energy related with pressure and position
Concepts
Piezometry
Hydraulic gradient
Equipotential line
Piezometric and phreatic level
Classification of hydrogeological formations
Equipotential lines
Lakeage, recharge zone
Hidraulic conductivity
Darcy's Law
The equation groundwaterflow in porous media and generalized Darcy's law
Graphical and analitical solution of flow equation
Variable density flow equation
The pictures that appear in this presentation belong in their majority to other authors (Geological Engineering ‐L I. I. Vallejo‐ among others).
This presentation is an unpublished didactic material used by the teacher as a tool for the development of the classes. The teacher is not
responsible for grammatical errors or inaccuracies that it may contain, as well as the total or partial reproduction of its content. It is
necessary to consult the books available in the bibliography for the study of the lessons.
Ground Engineering
Introduction
Most rocks, soils or sediments have pores or fractures that can be occupied by water or air.
Water can circulate through the pores of the soil according to a field of potentials (energy levels)
Image from USGS_www.whoi.edu

Ground Engineering
Conservation of energy principle. Non porous media.
Los tres tipos de energía que afectan al movimiento del agua en el terreno son:
Aplicando el principio de conservación de la energía (fluido no viscoso e

incompresible, sin rozamiento)
Para el mismo fluido y la misma gravedad (teorema de Bernoulli)
Las dimensiones da cada sumando (m) miden una Es un principio de conservación de la energía. La energía total de un
altura piezométrica volumen de agua en movimiento (sin viscosidad ni rozamiento) se
mantiene constante o la capacidad de ésta para realizar un trabajo
en un punto se define como la carga o potencial hidráulica o
piezometría:
Ground Engineering
Total head and Bernulli theorem; free flow
It is a principle that explains the conservation of energy. The total energy of a volume of water at a
particular point in a fluid in motion is defined as
Harr, 1962: Groundwater and seepage

Ground Engineering
H is the hydraulic head (measured in meters), the first adding the

geometric height (gravitational potential energy with respect to a
reference plane z = 0), the second the height of pressures (energy due to
pressure) and the third the height of speed (kinetic energy).
Ground Engineering
Ejercicio 1. Check that the hydraulic head remains constant at any point in the pool, where the water is at rest.
As it is a fluid at rest and there are no forces that carry out work,
the hydraulic head H must remain constant in any two point in the
pool. As the sum of the height and pressure energy is always a
constant, and the fluid is at rest, the energy associated with the
velocity is zero.
Ground Engineering
Se dispone de dos tanque conectados mediante una tubería con una compuerta situada en la mitad del recorrido. Al
abrir la compuerta, parte de la masa de agua se transfiere de un tanque a otro hasta alcanzar una nueva situación de
reposo, representada en la figura siguiente. Al abrir las compuertas, un elemento de volumen adquirirá una aceleración y
posteriormente una desaceleración.
 (caso A). Si se tratara de un fluido ideal y no existieran fricciones (caso A)
con las paredes del tanque, entonces la masa de fluido iría de un
tanque a otro indefinidamente, a modo de péndulo, adquiriendo
aceleración y desaceleración conforme tiene lugar la
transferencia. No habría pérdida de energía. (caso A)
 (caso B). Si consideramos la fricción con las paredes y un fluido no
ideal, el agua se transferiría de un tanque a otro para quedar en
equilibrio, con un aceleración inicial y una desaceleración
posterior. Una vez en reposo, habría una pérdida de energía total
mediante disminución de energía potencial, pues el centro de
masas ha experimentado un descenso. La energía se ha invertido
(caso B)
en la fricción con las paredes, viscosidad, ruido y aumento de
temperatura
 (caso C). En el último caso, mediante una pantalla móvil,
permitimos que el fluido se desplace a velocidad constante muy
(caso C)
baja hasta alcanzar el equilibrio. El fluido habrá hecho un trabajo
que se ha recuperado o invertido en el dispositivo aplicado a la
placa (energía hidráulica)
(caso C)
Ground Engineering
Se dispone de un tanque con el agua en reposo y se aplica la ecuación de Bernouille a los puntos A y B. H
permanecerá constante y se puede apreciar que entre un punto y otro solo hay transferencia entre
energía potencial gravitatoria y energía de presiones.
Cuando abrimos la compuerta situada junto al punto B, estamos cambiando una condición de contorno y
transfiriendo toda la energía de presiones y de posición a energía cinética. Al no haber obstáculos, la
pérdida de energía es mínima (únicamente con los bordes del recipiente y fricción interna del fluido, casi
despreciable en el caso del agua). La presión en el punto B es mínima, debido a la velocidad del fluido y al
contacto con la atmósfera.
A A
PA=0
PB= gzA
VA= 0
VB= 0 𝟐𝒈𝝆𝒁𝑨
ZA=ZA
ZB=0 B B
Ground Engineering
Groundwater movement. Porous media. Position head (hz) and pressure head (hp)
ℎ ℎ Adden negligible
Thinking. A high value of average velocity in the porous medium would

be around 0.6m / min. Calculate the value of the velocity head and
assess whether it is reasonable to omit it (5 ∙ 10‐6m). The value is less
than the precision to measure the height of the water within a
piezometer (Lambe and Whitam, 1979).
The value 0.3 m / s would be the maximum speed limit to maintain the
condition of the laminar flow (Nº Reynolds) in medium sands (0.3 mm
diameter) which would be equivalent to a water sheet height of 0,0046
m, which is still negligible (Azizi, 2000).
Ground Engineering
Total head and Bernulli theorem. Porous media
What´s in a porous‐saturated soil?

In the case of incompressible and inviscid fluid I a pipe flow (no porous media), the total energy (hydraulic head)
remains constant regardless of the position of the point.
If conditions are:
‐ Saturated soil.
‐ Porous media.
‐ Laminar flow (Reynolds)
there is a lost of energy due to friction, and the energy between to point is no longer constant.
Harr, 1962: Groundwater and seepage

Ground Engineering
(caso D). En este caso tenemos la misma situación de partida, solo que el medio es poroso. Al abrir la
compuerta, el agua se desplaza a velocidad constante debido a la fricción con el medio por lo que, al igual
que en el caso C, existe un trabajo adicional que se ha consumido reteniendo la velocidad del elemento de
volumen. Esa energía se ha empleado en la fricción con las partículas del medio poroso, moviéndolas,
erosionándolas, generando ruido, aumentando la temperatura, para vencer la viscosidad del agua (casi
despreciable). La H del sistema ha disminuido.
(caso D)
(caso C)
=
Ground Engineering
En el tanque superior el agua se encuentra libre de manera que, salvo la energía

A invertida en la fricción consigo misma y con las paredes del recipiente, apenas existen
pérdidas de energía. Existe una transferencia de energía potencial gravitatoria energía
cinética, puesto que la presión sigue siendo la atmosférica.
PA=0
PB=0
VA=0
VB= 𝟐𝒈𝝆𝒁𝑨
ZA=ZA
B ZB=0
En el tanque inferior podemos comprobar que la pérdida de energía potencial

gravitacional se ha transformado en otro tipo de energía, ya que la velocidad de
salida puede considerarse despreciable y la presión sigue siendo la atmosférica (se
considera cero). ¿Dónde se ha ido esta energía?
El agua no es un fluido ideal, tiene cierta viscosidad, y al chocar con las partículas del
medio poroso precisa energía para vencer el rozamiento, erosionar partículas o
moverlas. Esa pérdida de energía supone una pérdida de energía total entre los
puntos A y B, que supone un ∆H. PA=0
PB=0
VA=0
VB= 0
ZA=ZA
≠
ZB=0
Ground Engineering
Groundwater movement. Position head (hz) and pressure head (hp)
The pressure change alone does

not explain the movement Custodio y Llamas; 1976
hz
Ground Engineering
Concepts: piezometry H
Piezometry in a point (H = hydraulic head= piezometric height = piezometric level) is a measure of the
hydraulic head of a small volume of water at a point in the porous medium. The way to measure it is by
means of piezometers, which are an opened to atmospheric pressure tubes placed at a point on the
ground and through which the water ascends until the height reached in it, is balanced with the pressures
in the point. So, u can be measured controlling the height reached in the piezometer.
The height reached by the water inside the
piezometer, measured with respect to z = 0, is
piezometry or hydraulic head H. Therefore, the
difference in piezometric height within a porous
medium will indicate the direction of flow;
towards where H. decreases.
In the figure you can see a piezometer installed
at depth B and another at depth D. It is assumed
that there is no water movement, therefore the
H must be the same between the two points.
B:
D:
Ground Engineering
Concepts: hydraulic gradient

The hydraulic gradient is defined as the variation of the piezometric height between two points of the
porous medium, divided by the distance in a straight line between them.
www.gg.uwyo.edu
Ground Engineering
Concepts: equipotential line

Equipotential lines (= isopotential) are the lines (or surfaces for three dimensions) that join the points of
equal hydraulic head. For all the piezometers that are placed in the same equipotential, the water will reach
the same height.
The movement of water at a point (the velocity vector) is
always perpendicular to the equipotential surface passing
through that point.
The movement of a mass in a gravitational field, a charge
in an electric field, are examples to illustrate similarities.
Compare with contour height lines and maximum slope
lines.
Ground Engineering
Concepts: water table (or phreatic level) and piezomtric level

We distinguish phreatic level (free aquifers, where the surface of the groundwater is in contact with the
air) and piezometric level (confined aquifers), where the upper surface of the groundwater is in contact
with an impermeable layer (wall of the upper formation) and at higher pressure than the atmospheric.
The position of the piezometric level reveals a virtual position of the water (just cheeked with
piezometers)
FCIHS
FCIHS(2009)
(2009)
phreatic aquifer, free aquifer,

unconfined groundwater, water Confined aquifer
table aquifer
Confined aquifer acting

as free aquifer
Ground Engineering
Hydrostatic case
Impermeable formation
A Confined aquifer
Z
B
zA
zB
plano ref.
Z = 20 m
¿ uA ? ¿ hA ?
zA = 16 m
No Flow
uA = (z-zA)w = 4 t/m2
hA = zA + uA/w = 16 m + 4 m = 20 m = hB = z
Ground Engineering
A Confined aquifer
B
zA
zB
Reference plane
hB>hA → Flow direction from B to A
Reminder: h = z + u/w
Ground Engineering
A Confined aquifer
Impermeable formation B
zA
zB
plano ref.
hB<hA → Flow direction from A to B
Reminder: h = z + u/w
Ground Engineering

Ground Engineering
Concepts: leakage
Try to explain the phenomenon by lowering the initial position of the piezometric level. Initially, both the
water table and the piezometric level are in the same position.
Ground Engineering
Concepts: recharge zone
e-ducativa.catedu.es
Ground Engineering
Concept: hydraulic conductivity K
The hydraulic conductivity K of the soil is a parameter that measures the capacity of the ground to allow
the movement of the water in its sine. The unit of measure is m / s (m/d, cm/s ...) and depends on:
• The granulometry (the greater the granulometry, the greater the permeability)
• The heterogeneity (the greater the homogeneity, the greater the permeability)
• The effective porosity of granular soils (the greater the porosity, the greater the permeability)
• The density (related to porosity)
• The orientation of the particles in the porous medium
• Characteristics of the fluid (density, viscosity…)
Ground Engineering

Ground Engineering
Berry (1993) y Braja (1999)

CTE_SE-C
Powers (1992)
Conductividad hidráulica
Ground Engineering
Darciy´s law
Having seen the concepts of permeability and hydraulic gradient, we can proceed to present the
experimental law deduced by Darcy in 1856 and which establishes that the velocity of water in the porous
medium is directly proportional to the hydraulic gradient, with a constant of proportionality that is called
hydraulic conductivity.
• The negative sign is placed because the gradient

decreases in the direction of flow.
• Speed refers to the average speed for a given
section, which is different from the real speed.
• In ground engineering we will normally use flow
rate, rather than speed.
Ground Engineering
Flow equation in porous media. Continuity equation for steady flow
What´s steady flow? Water flowing in is the same as water flowing out, the level is time‐independent,
the storage doesn´t changes.
The balance of water in the elementary volume
can be calculated by applying Taylor series
solution, ignoring infinitesimals higher than the
first order, on the three directions (Q=v∙A).
Groundwater volume that crosses two opposite sides, for

steady flow condition
Ground Engineering
Every addends represents the OUTFLOW ‐ INFLOW applied to a direction‐> m3/s

Ground Engineering
Assuming:
‐ Soil with constant density and saturated.
‐ Stationary regime (no storage).
‐ Absence of springs and drains.
‐ Water is considered to be uncompressible.
The continuity equation is expressed as:
Darcy´s law For isotropic

medium, Ec. Laplace Ec. Laplace for heat
transfer
The Laplace equation express that the ingoing mass is equal to the outgoing trough a volume of porous
media. So, it is obtained by applying continuity equation and Darcy´s law together.
Ground Engineering
Flow equation in porous media. Laplace equation
The resolution of the equation can be addressed by analytical methods, numerical methods or graphical
resolution.
Ground Engineering
Flow equation in porous media. Laplace equation, example

Flow between trenches.
Ground Engineering
Flow equation in porous media. Laplace equation, example

Flow towards wells.
Thiem solution (1906). Confined aquifer, permanent flow regime, no

springs nor drains.
* Extracto de L.I. Vallejo (2002)

Ground Engineering
Transport equation in porous media
Advection: Process of transfer of mass by a velocity field. The particles are swept along with the velocity of
the fluid
The mass flow is defines as

Ground Engineering
Advection. In this example, an injection well located in the middle of the is pumping contaminated water into the aquifer
at a very low rate. No diffusion is considered. The isoconcentration contour lines are very near to each other, a shaper
gradient between the inside (1000 mg/l) and the outside (0 mg/l).
Ground Engineering
Diffusion: movement of the particles from one point to another of the fluid as a consequence of a
concentration gradient. It is based on Brownian motion (Fick's law), associated with the second principle of
thermodynamics that explains how systems with energy tend to a state of major entropy.
Ground Engineering
Diffusion. Pure diffusion process is simulated in the scenario. A constant contaminated cell is located in the middle (100
mg/l). Diffusion process induced density gradient which produces water movement (see vector in green). Over time,
contamination tend to spread and occupy the whole space.
After 1 year After 2 year After 3 year After 10 year
300
700
500 200 750
650
After 1 year After 10 year

Ground Engineering
Diffusion and advection. In this scenario, an initial salinity condition is set in a cell (not constant) along with a
natural flow gradient. The contour lines change position due to advection and occupy more extension due to
diffusion.
50 days
1000 days
4000 days
Ground Engineering
Dispersion: Spread of dissolved matter in flowing water caused by diffusion and/or Advection. As a
consequence velocity variability, physical mixing of particles takes place.
Ground Engineering
The mass flux for hydrodynamic dispersion is:
The dispersion coefficient is the coefficient of proportionality

between the dispersive flux of a solute and its concentration
gradient.
Ground Engineering
Advection and longitudinal dispersion. In this scenario, an initial salinity condition is set in a cell (not constant)
along with a natural flow gradient. The contour lines change position due to advection and occupy more
longitudinal extension due to longitudinal dispersion.
Ground Engineering
The equation is as follows
M´ represents mass source from boundaries. Diffusion and dispersion are considered in the same add
(Di)
If groundwater flows in the same direction

Ground Engineering
Flow and transport in porous media; a coupled phenomenon
Transport equation
Flow equation
Porous media constitutive

equation
Ground Engineering
Flow and transport in porous media; a coupled phenomenon

Flow and TRansport in Porous Media - 2021-22

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MCieTAT

About the assessment criteria

4 It´s not mandatory.

Piezometric head and Bernuille theorem

Image from USGS_www.whoi.edu

Conservation of energy principle. Non porous media.

Aplicando el principio de conservación de la energía (fluido no viscoso e

Para el mismo fluido y la misma gravedad (teorema de Bernoulli)

Total head and Bernulli theorem; free flow

Harr, 1962: Groundwater and seepage

Total head and Bernulli theorem; free flow

H is the hydraulic head (measured in meters), the first adding the

Total head and Bernulli theorem; free flow

Total head and Bernulli theorem; free flow

Total head and Bernulli theorem; free flow

Thinking. A high value of average velocity in the porous medium would

Total head and Bernulli theorem. Porous media

What´s in a porous‐saturated soil?

Harr, 1962: Groundwater and seepage

Total head and Bernulli theorem. Porous media

Total head and Bernulli theorem. Porous media

En el tanque superior el agua se encuentra libre de manera que, salvo la energía

En el tanque inferior podemos comprobar que la pérdida de energía potencial

Groundwater movement. Position head (hz) and pressure head (hp)

The pressure change alone does

Concepts: hydraulic gradient

Concepts: equipotential line

Concepts: water table (or phreatic level) and piezomtric level

phreatic aquifer, free aquifer,

Confined aquifer acting

Concepts: water table (or phreatic level) and piezomtric level

Concepts: water table (or phreatic level) and piezomtric level

hB>hA → Flow direction from B to A

Concepts: water table (or phreatic level) and piezomtric level

hB<hA → Flow direction from A to B

Concepts: water table (or phreatic level) and piezomtric level

Concepts: recharge zone

Concept: hydraulic conductivity K

Concept: hydraulic conductivity K

Concept: hydraulic conductivity K

Berry (1993) y Braja (1999)

• The negative sign is placed because the gradient

Flow equation in porous media. Continuity equation for steady flow

Groundwater volume that crosses two opposite sides, for

Flow equation in porous media. Continuity equation for steady flow

Every addends represents the OUTFLOW ‐ INFLOW applied to a direction‐> m3/s

Flow equation in porous media. Continuity equation for steady flow

The continuity equation is expressed as:

Darcy´s law For isotropic

Flow equation in porous media. Laplace equation

Flow equation in porous media. Laplace equation, example

Flow equation in porous media. Laplace equation, example

Thiem solution (1906). Confined aquifer, permanent flow regime, no

* Extracto de L.I. Vallejo (2002)

Transport equation in porous media

The mass flow is defines as

Transport equation in porous media

Transport equation in porous media

Transport equation in porous media

After 1 year After 2 year After 3 year After 10 year

After 1 year After 10 year