Chapter 3.
1 (Midterms) Hydraulics, Hydrology, & Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics
Hydraulics
 Greek word “Hudor” that means water.
 The science that deals with the mechanical
behavior of water at rest or in motion
 Deals with the application of fluid mechanics
to engineering devices involving liquids,
usually water or oil.
 Deals with problems as the flow of fluids
through pipe or in open channels, the
design of storage dams, pumps, and water
turbines, and with other devices for the
control or use of liquids such as nozzles,
valves, jets, and flowmeters.
 Hydraulic Engineering
- the application of fluid mechanics
principles to problems dealing with
the collection, storage, control,
transport. regulation, measurement,
and use of water.
 Hydraulic Engineer
- Concerned with the transport of
sediment by the river, the interaction
of the water with its alluvial
boundary, and the occurrence of
scour and deposition.
- Develops conceptual designs for the
various features which interact with
water such as spillways and outlet
works for dams, culverts for
highways, canals and related
structures for irrigation projects, and
cooling-water facilities for thermal
power plants.
Branches of Hydraulics
 Hydrostatics
- Study of liquids at rest
 Hydrokinetics
- Study of pure motion in liquids.
 Hydrodynamics
- Study of forces, including velocity
and acceleration exerted by or upon
liquids in motion.
 Fluid Mechanics
- The study of fluids under all
conditions of rest and motion.
- Fluids may be gaseous or liquids,
including water.
- Deals with fluids of all types
- The approach is more mathematical
and the emphasis is on
understanding the behavior of
hydraulic systems by employing the
basic principles of science (physics).
- Mother of hydraulics
 Hydrology
- The study of space, time, and
frequency characteristics of the
quantity and quality of waters of the
earth encompassing their
occurrence, movement, distribution,
circulation, storage, exploration, and
development (Singh, 1992)
- Deals with water in all forms: liquid,
solid, ice, and snow, and water
vapor
- Deals with occurrence of water
- More empirical in its approach than
hydraulics
 Hydraulics
- Deals primarily with water
- Its approach is more empirical and
the emphasis is on finding a solution
of practical value
- Applied fluid mechanics
- Deals with liquid water
- Does not deal with occurrence of
water.
 Where:
Q = Volume Flow Rate/ Discharge in m3/s or
ft3/s

M = Mass Flow Rate

W = Weight Flow Rate
A = Cross-sectional Area in m2 or ft2
𝒗 = Mean Velocity of Flow m/sec or ft/sec
ϒ = Unit Weight of Fluid in N/m3 or lb./ft3
ρ = Mass Density of Fluid in kg/m3 or
slugs/ft3

Energy Equation
Fundamentals of Fluid Flow
 The energy of the flowing fluid per unit time
passing any upstream section is the same
Discharge or Flow rate
as the energy per unit time passing any
 Discharge
downstream section plus the loss of head
- The amount of fluid passing a
between the two sections.
section of a stream in unit time.
 Daniel Bernoulli
Discharge, Q = A 𝒗
- Swiss mathematician, who showed
that as the velocity of fluid
Discharge is also expressed as mass flow rate and
increases, the pressure
weight flow rate.
decreases, a statement known as
the Bernoulli Principle.
Mass Flow Rate, M = ρ Q
Weight Flow Rate, W = ϒ Q
Applying the law of conservation of energy to
fluids that may be considered incompressible,
Basic Equations of Hydrodynamics
Bernoulli's theorem may be stated as follows:
Continuity Equation (Continues Flow)
- Neglecting head lost, the total
- By the principle of conservation of
amount of energy per unit weight is
mass, continuous flow occurs when
constant at any point in the path of
at any time, the discharge Q at every
flow.
section of the stream is the same.

- The amount of fluid per unit of time  Limitations on the use of Bernoulli
passing every section of a flowing Equation:
stream is constant.
1. Steady Flow
2. Negligible viscous effects
1. For Compressible Fluids
3. No shaft work/ no work done (no
pump or turbines)
Q = A1 𝑣1 = A2 𝑣2 = A3 𝑣3 = constant
4. Incompressible flow
5. Negligible heat transfer (adiabatic)
2. For Incompressible Fluids
6. Flow along a streamline
M = ρ1 A1 𝑣1 = ρ2 A2 𝑣2 = ρ3 A3 𝑣3 = constant
Energy and Head
 Energy
W = ϒ1A1 𝑣 1 = ϒ2 A2 𝑣2 - Defined as ability to do work. Both
= ϒ3 A3 𝑣3 = constant
energy and work are measured in
Newton-meter (or pounds-foot in
English).
  Kinetic Energy & Potential Energy
- The two commonly recognized forms Total Head, E:
of energy.
E = Velocity Head + Pressure H. + Elevation H.
- In a flowing fluid, potential energy
may in turn be subdivided into 𝒗𝟐 𝒑
energy due to position or elevation 𝑬= + +𝒛
𝟐𝒈 𝜸
above a given datum, and energy
due to pressure in the fluid.
Where:
𝒗 = Mean Velocity of Flow (m/s or ft/s)
 Head
p = Fluid Pressure (N/m2 or Pa in SI & lb./ft2 or psf
- The amount of energy per Newton
in English)
(or per pound) of fluid.
z = Position of Fluid above or below the datum plan
(m or ft).
g = Gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2 or 32.2
 Kinetic Energy & Velocity Head ft/s2)
- Kinetic energy is the ability of a ϒ = Unit weight of Fluid (N/m3 or lb./ft3)
mass to do work by the virtue of its
velocity Power & Efficiency
 The rate of doing work per unit of time.
 Elevation Energy & Elevation Head
 For a fluid of unit weight ϒ (N/m3) flowing at
- In connection to the action of gravity,
the rate of Q (m3/sec) with a total energy of
elevation energy is manifested in a
E (m).
fluid by virtue of its position or
 The power (watt) is
elevation with respect to a horizontal
datum plane.
Power = Q ϒ E
 Pressure Energy & Pressure Head 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
- A mass of fluid acquires pressure Efficiency = × 100%
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
energy when it is in contact with
other masses having some form of 1 Horsepower (hp) 746 Watts
energy. Pressure energy therefore is
an energy transmitted to the fluid by 1 Horsepower (hp) 550 ft – lb./sec
another mass that possesses some 1 Watt 1 N – m/sec 1 Joule/sec
energy.
Energy Equation Neglecting Head Loss
Velocity Head in Circular Pipes
 Without head losses, the total energy at
 The velocity head of a circular pipe of
point 1 is equal to the total energy at point
diameter D flowing full can be found as
2.
follows:
 No head lost is an ideal condition leading to
theoretical values of the results
𝒗𝟐 𝟖𝑸𝟐 E1 = E2
=
𝟐𝒈 𝝅𝟐 𝒈𝑫𝟒
𝒗𝟐𝟏 𝒑𝟏 𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝒑𝟐
Total Energy of Flow + + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝟐
𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸
 The total energy (E) of head in a fluid is
the sum of kinetic and potential
energies. Recalling that potential
energies are pressure energy and
elevation energy.

Total Energy (E):\

E = Kinetic E. + Pressure E. + Elevation E.
Energy Equation Considering Head Loss (HL) Energy Equation with Turbine (HE)
 The actual values can be found by  Turbines extract flow energy and converted
considering head losses in the computation it into mechanical energy which in turn
of flow energy converted into electrical energy

E1 – HL1-2 = E2 E1 = E2 + HL1-2 + HE
or
E1 = E2 + HL1-2 𝒗𝟐𝟏 𝒑𝟏 𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝒑𝟐
+ + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝟐 + 𝑯𝑳𝟏−𝟐 + 𝑯𝑬
𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸
𝒗𝟐𝟏 𝒑𝟏 𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝒑𝟐
+ + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝟐 + 𝑯𝑳𝟏−𝟐
𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸 Input power of turbine = Q ϒ HE

Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)

 Hydraulic grade line, also called hydraulic
Energy Equation with Pump (HA) gradient and pressure gradient, is the
 Pumps are used to raise water from lower graphical representation of the potential
elevation to higher elevation. head (pressure head + elevation head). It is
 The use of pump is to increase the energy the line to which liquid rises in successive
of flow. piezometer tubes. The line is always at a
 The pump consumes electrical energy distance (p/y + z) above the datum plane.
(Pinput) and delivers flow energy (Poutput)
Characteristics of HGL
E1 + HA = E2 + HL1-2  HGL slopes downward in the direction of
flow but it may rise or fall due to change in
pressure.
𝒗𝟐𝟏 𝒑𝟏 𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝒑𝟐
+ + 𝒛𝟏 + 𝑯𝑨 = + + 𝒛𝟐 + 𝑯𝑳𝟏−𝟐
𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸  HGL is parallel to EGL for uniform pipe
cross section.
Output power of pump = Q ϒ HA
 For horizontal pipes with constant cross
section, the drop in pressure gradient
between two points is equivalent to the
head lost between these points.

Energy Grade Line (EGL)

 Energy grade line is always above the
hydraulic grade line by an amount equal to
the velocity head. Thus, the distance of
energy gradient above the datum plane is
always (v2/2g+p/y + z). Energy grade line
therefore is the graphical representation of
the total energy of flow.
Characteristics of EGL Types of Orifices
 EGL slopes downward in the direction of  According to size:
flow and will only rise with presence of - Small orifice
pump. - Large orifice

 The vertical drop of EGL between two  According to Shape

points is the head lost between those - Circular orifice
points. - Rectangular orifice
- Triangular orifice
 EGL is parallel to HGL for uniform pipe
cross section.  According to shape of edge:
- Sharp-edged
 EGL is always above the HGL by v2/2g. - Bell-Mouthed
Neglecting head loss, EGL is horizontal.
 According to nature of discharged:
- Fully submerged orifice
- Partially submerged orifice

Hydraulic Coefficients
The following 4 coefficients are known as hydraulic
or orifice coefficients:

 Coefficient of Contraction
 Coefficient of Velocity
 Coefficients of Discharge
 Coefficient of Resistance

Vena-Contracta
 The maximum contraction takes place at a
section slightly on the downstream side of
the orifice, where the jet is more or less
Chapter 3.2 (Midterms) horizontal.
Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics

Fluid Flow Measurement (Devices)

Orifices
 An opening, in vessel, through which the
liquid flows out

 The Typical purpose of an orifice is the

measurement of discharge.

 May be provided in the vertical side of a Coefficient of Velocity

vessel or in the base. But the former one is
more common.  The ratio of actual velocity of the jet, at
vena-contracta, to the theoretical velocity is
known as coefficient of velocity.

 The theoretical velocity (vt) of jet at vena-

contracta is given by the relation:

𝒗𝒕 = √2𝑔ℎ

Where:
h = head of water at vena-contracta
  Consider a square, rectangular or circular
 Mathematically coefficient of velocity: tank of uniform cross-sectional area,
containing some liquid and having an orifice
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎 𝒗 at its bottom.
𝑪𝒗 = =
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝒗𝒕

𝑽 = 𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻

Coefficient of Contraction
 The ratio of the area of the jet, at vena-
contracta, to the area of the orifice is known
as coefficient of contraction. Mathematically
coefficient of contraction,

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎 𝒂

𝑪𝒄 = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑨

𝑸 = 𝐶𝐶 𝐴𝐶𝑣 √2𝑔𝐻  When two vessels, containing liquid, are

connected together by means of an orifice;
the liquid will flow from the vessel with a
 The value of Coefficient of contraction
higher level to the vessel with a lower level
varies slightly with the available head of the
irrespective of their areas. In such a case
liquid, size and shape of the orifice. The
the liquid level will fall in one vessel with a
average value of is 0.64.
corresponding rise in the other. The orifice,
through which the flow takes place, is a
Coefficient of Discharge
drowned one and the liquid head causing
 The ratio of an actual discharge through an
flow will be the difference between the two
orifice to the theoretical discharge is known
liquid levels.
as coefficient of discharge.

 The value of coefficient of discharge varies

with the values of C and C. An average of
coefficient of discharge varies from 0.60 to
0.64.

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑄
𝑪= =
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑄𝑡

𝑪 = 𝐶 𝐴√2𝑔𝐻 Venturi Meter

Coefficient of Resistance
 The ratio of loss of head in the orifice to the
head of water available at the exit of the
orifice is known as coefficient of resistance.
 The loss of head in the orifice takes place,
because the walls of the orifice offer some
resistance to the liquid as it comes out. The
coefficient of resistance is generally
neglected, while solving numerical
problems.
 Venturi Meter is used to measure the
velocity of flow of fluids in a pipe.
 They consist of a short length of pipe
shaped like a vena-contracta, or the portion
with the least cross-sectional area, which
fits into a normal pipe-line.
 The obstruction caused to the flow of liquid
at the throat of the venturi produces a local
pressure drop in the region that is
proportional to the rate of discharge.

𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑸 = 𝐶 𝐴√2𝑔ℎ

𝑪𝒓 =
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Characteristics of Venturi Meters Pitot Tube
 Theoretically there is no restriction to the  Named after the French physicist and
flow down the pipe. engineer Henri Pitot.

 They can be manufactured to fit any
required pipe size.
 The temperature and pressure within the
pipe do not affect the meter or its accuracy.
 There are no moving parts.
 A bent (L-shaped or U-shaped) tube with
both ends open and is used to measure the
velocity of fluid flow or velocity of air flow as
used in airplane speedometer.
𝑽 = √2𝑔ℎ

 Unfortunately, the accurate shape required

of the inside of the meter makes them
relatively expensive to manufacture.

Gates
 An opening in a dam or other hydraulic
structure to control the passage of water. It
has the same hydraulic properties as the
orifice.

Nozzle
 A converging tube installed at the end of a
pipe or hose for the purpose of increasing
the velocity of the issuing jet.

𝑸 = 𝐶 𝐴 𝑛√2𝑔ℎ
Current Meter
 A current meter consists simply of a
propeller assembly immersed in flowing
water together with a mechanism. calibrated
to convert the turning of the propeller to a
velocity.

Weirs
 Weirs are overflow structures which are built
across an open channel for the purpose of
measuring or controlling the flow of liquids.

 They are commonly used to measure the

flow of water, but it is now being adopted to
measure the flow of other liquids.

Definition of Terms
 Nappe
- The overflowing stream in a weir.

 Crest of Weir
- The edge or top surface of a weir
with which the flowing liquid comes
in contact

 Contracted weir
- Weirs having sides sharp-edged, so
that the nappe is contracted in width
or having end contractions, either
one end or two ends.
 Suppressed weir or full-width weir
- Weirs having its length L being equal
to the width of the channel so that
the nappe suffers no end
contraction.
 Drop-down curve
- The downward curvature of the
liquid surface before the weir.
 Head, H
- The distance between the liquid
surface and the crest of the weir,
measured before the drop-down
curve.
-
Types of Weirs
There are many types of weirs depending upon
their shape, nature of discharge, width of crest and
nature of crest. But the following are important from
the subject point of view:
According to the Shape:
Rectangular weir
c = Discharge coefficient
3
𝑸= 𝑐𝐿𝐻 2 Q = Discharge, cfs
L = effective crest length,
ft
H = Head above crest, ft
The discharge coefficient is an empirically
determine multiplier that accounts for a number of
hydraulic factors difficult to describe mathematically

Cipolletti Weir
 A trapezoidal variation of the sharp-crested
weir devised to compensate for loss of flow
quantity due to contractions at the vertical
edges of a rectangular weir. By sloping the
edges at approximately 1:4 (horizontal to
vertical), the increasing cross-sectional area
 of flow, as H increases, compensates for
loss of flow due to end contraction.
According to the Nature of Discharge:
Ordinary Weir
Submerged or Drowned Weir
According to the width of crest:
Narrow Crested Weir
Broad Crested Weir
 A broad-crested weir, which is rectangular,
is commonly employed in outlet structures
for dams and detention basins.
 A variation of the broad-crested weir used to
regulate discharge more precisely is the
multistage weir. Discharge for the two-stage
weir shown in Figure 5-9 is computed by
adding the discharge for the primary crest
and the discharge for the secondary crest.
According to the Nature of Crest
Sharp Crested Weir
 A rectangular, sharp-crested weir is perhaps
the most basic type and is used for
measuring flow in a channel and also as a
simple spillway structure.
 Computation of the discharge, Q, for this
type of weir depends on the dimensions of
the weir in relation to the channel and the
head, H.
 As water flows past the vertical sides of the
weir, a loss of energy takes place, which is
called contraction. This contraction can be
accounted for by reducing the actual
measured length of the weir to a lesser
value called effective length. Effective
length, L, is computed by
L = L’ – 0.1nH
Where:
L’ = Actual measured crest length, ft
n = Number of contractions
H = head above the crest, ft
 If the weir is centered in the channel with L'
less than channel width, B, there are two
ends
 contractions and n-2. If L-B, there are no
end contractions and n-0. If the weir crest
is against one side of the channel and not
the other, there is one contraction and n-1.
 The height of the weir above the channel
bottom also has an effect on the discharge,
Q. This effect is accounted for by adjusting
the discharge coefficient, c, in accordance
with the height, P.
𝐻
𝒄 = 3.27 + 0.40
𝑃
Where:
P = height of crest above the channel bottom,
ft
V-Notch Weir
 A variation of the sharp-crested weir is the
triangular, or V-notch weir, which is used to
measure flow when very low quantities are
expected. Discharge over a V-notch weir is
computed by using
𝜃 5
𝑸 = 𝑐 {𝑡𝑎𝑛 } 𝐻 2
2
 where ϴ is the angle (in degrees) made by
the notch as shown in Figure 5-8. Although
e varies under different conditions, it is
taken generally to be 2.5.
Ogee Weir
 A type of rectangular weir that is commonly
used as the spillway for a dam is the ogee
weir
 Its smooth, rounded surface is designed to
reduce energy loss by edge contraction as
water passes over the crest, thus increasing
the discharge Q for a given head H, in
comparison to sharp-or broad-crested weirs.

Velocity of Approach
 Sometimes, a weir is provided in a stream
or a river to measure the flow of water. In
such a case, the water, approaching the
weir, has got some velocity, known as
velocity of approach. It is assumed to be
uniform over the whole weir.
𝑄 -
𝒗=
𝐴 negative, it is called a depressed
Where:
A = Cross sectional area of the channel on the
upstream side of the weir
Q = Discharge over the weir Velocity of approach
Ventilation of Rectangular Weirs
It has been observed that whenever water is
flowing over a rectangular weir, having no end
contractions, the nappe (i.e., the sheet of water
flowing over the weir) touches the side walls of the
channel. After flowing over the weir, the nappe falls
away from the weir, thus creating a space beneath
the water as shown in fig-1. In such a case, some
air is trapped beneath the weir.
 Free Nappe
- If the atmospheric pressure exists
beneath the nappe, it is known as a
free nappe as shown in fig-2(a).
- A free nappe is obtained by
ventilating a weir.
 Depressed Nappe
- Sometimes a weir is not fully
ventilated, but is partially ventilated.
If the pressure below the nappe is
nappe.
- The discharge of the nappe, in this
case, depends upon the amount of
ventilation and the negative
pressure. Generally, the discharge
of a depressed nappe is 6% to 7%
more than that of a free nappe.
 Clinging Nappe
- Sometimes, no air is left below the
water, and the nappe adheres or
clings to the downstream side of the
weir.
- Such a nappe is called clinging
nappe or an adhering nappe.
- The discharge of a clinging nappe is
25% to 30% more than that of a free
nappe.
Discharge Over a Rectangular Weir

2 2
𝑸 = 𝐶𝑑𝐿√2𝑔𝐻 3
3
Where:
H = Height of the water above the crest of the
weir
L = Length of the weir
Cd = Coefficient of Discharge