PRELIMS
And the T1
MODULE 1: BASIC HYDRAULICS ENGINEERING
Hydraulics is a technology and applied science using
engineering, chemistry, and other sciences involving
the mechanical properties and use of liquids.
Free surface hydraulics is the branch of hydraulics
dealing with free surface flow, such as occurring in
rivers, canals, lakes, estuaries and seas. Its sub-field
open-channel flow studies the flow in open channels.
Hydraulics is a branch of science which deals with the
laws controlling the behavior of water and other
liquid at rest or in motion.
It is subdivided into:
 Hydrostatics – the study of liquid at rest
 Hydrokinetics – deals with the geometry of
motion of liquids without considering the
forces causing the motion
 Hydrodynamics – deals with the forces
exerted by or upon liquid in motion including
relations between velocities and
acceleration involved in such fluid motion.
Hydraulics is a concept in dynamics in which we deal
with an object or particle and we study the particle’s
motion when a certain force will be applied.
Just like in hydraulics we need to study the motion of
fluid when they are at rest, in motion, and then the
fluid is in motion and there is an applied external
force.
In hydraulics we will be dealing with a liquid
substance. It is a combination of dynamics and fluid
mechanics
Fluid - These are substances capable of flowing which
easily move and change their relative position
without a separation of the mass.
The properties of flow are dependent on the fluid
surface. The fluid could be different with each type of
fluid.
Flow Properties
1. A pathline is a line made
by a single particle as it
moves during a particular
period of time.
Pathline- a continuous line and we determine the
location of certain particles from different times.
 For example, at P1, is at time 0. After time 1
it exceeds to the new location. This means
that the particle moves on a pathline. In a
line we observe a particular time.
is the observed line.
2. A streamline is a line which
gives the velocity direction
of the fluid at each point
along the line at a given instant.
Streamline gives the direction of the velocity at certain
points. We calculate velocity in terms of the x and y
axis.
3. A stream tube is the tube space
formed by the streamlines.
Streamtube- combination of particles
that moved to a certain container through a pipe or
canal. The upper part of the stream line is longer
compared to the bottom. The bottom extends to a
shorter span unlike the upper part. But these two
particles reach the approximate endpoint at the same
time. This means the upper and lower part have
different velocity.
Pressure, p
 Considered as force distributed over an area.
 It exists whenever fluids either at rest or in
motion
Velocity, v
 It is a vector quantity
 A rate of the change in displacement with
respect to time
Discharge, Q
 It is the volume of fluid passing a cross-
section per unit time.
 It has a dimension of cubic meter per second
(m3/s) or liter per second (L/s) for SI unit and
cubic feet per second (ft3/s) in English unit.
 It can be expressed as:
Q = AV
where:
 V = Mean velocity (m/s, ft/s)
 A = Area of Section (m2, ft2)
Problem No.1
A pipe has a diameter of 0.5 meters. Water is flowing
at a rate of 0.75 m/s. Determine the flow rate in the
pipe.
Solution:
The equation for the flow rate or discharge is:
Q=AxV
= (p/4) (d2) (0.75)
= (p/4) [(0.5)2] (0.75) → (m2) (m/s)
Q = 0.15 m3/s
Problem No.2 3. Laminar vs. Turbulent
A fluid has a flow rate of 0.98 ft3/s. The radius of the Flow Laminar flow occurs in low velocity which
pipe is 2.5 inches. Determine the velocity in ft/s. resulting the particles to flow without crossing the
Solution: path of the other particle. Turbulent flow occurs
when the path of the particles overlap on the other
Q=AxV particle.
0.98 = (p) [(2.5/12)2] (V) → inch to foot
0.98 = (0.136] (V)
V = 7.18 ft/s

TYPE OF FLUID FLOW

 LEFT: The flow of particles was scattering in
1. Steady vs. Unsteady Flow
every direction.
Steady flow occurs when the velocity, pressure,  RIGHT: the flow of particles was a relatively
density and volume do not change with time at a pin straight line.
certain point. Unsteady flow occurs when the velocity,
4. Compressible vs. Incompressible Flow
pressure, density and volume vary with time.
Compressible flow is a flow when the density changes
over time while in incompressible flow the density
does not change with respect to time.

 LEFT: In the figure below, there is a container

filled with water. The volume, pressure, density,
and velocity is constant at a certain point. The
 LEFT: the density does not change even
replacement of water in the container is
though there is a change of pressure (P1 and
continuous and the level is also constant. This
P2).
means that the discharge in the faucet is equal.
Therefore, the velocity, pressure and density is  RIGHT: There’s a sudden change of flow of
constant. density. Sudden change of density over time.
The pressure applied from P1 to P2, in
 RIGHT: Since there is no more supply of water,
compressible flow affects the flow of density.
the level is dropping by and at the same time the
Therefore, the density also changes.
velocity becomes variable. Therefore, the
velocity, pressure, density, and volume that is
being discharged is relatively different from the
time zero or the beginning.
2. Uniform vs. Non-uniform Flow
Uniform flow is a flow when the mean velocity is the
same at every section in a reach. Non-uniform flow
exists when the mean velocity varies at every section
in a reach

 LEFT: In the falls, the flow of water is uniform,

which is flowing on the straight path.
 RIGHT: Unlike on the left, there is an obstruction,
rock that makes the flow of water become not
uniform. Therefore, the flow of fluid spreads in
different directions. This shows that the means
of velocity at every section have different
values/velocity.
MODULE 2: FLUID STATICS
 The fluids are at rest.
Pressure
Pressure or unit Pressure, is defined as the Normal
Force per unit of Area exerted by a solid, liquid or gas
over a surface.
Normal Force is a force that is perpendicular to the
contact surface.
Pressure = differential force/differential area
Left Figure: The force exerted has different values.
Right Figure: In actual, the force exerted were
minimal.
It can be assumed that the pressure lies on the cener
of contact surface. Therefore, the pressure will be now
equal to force over area.
Pascals Law
In 17th century the French Mathematician Blaise
Pascal states that “the intensity of the pressure acting
at a point in a fluid at rest (or moving in constant
velocity) is the same in all directions.”
The water contains a molecule. The molecule
represents a right triangle, wherein it has
different force, then therefore the pressure is
equal in all the same direction.
Absolute and Gage Pressure
Absolute Pressure- is the intensity of pressure that is
measured above the absolute zero pressure (lowest
possible pressure) and can never be negative in
value.
Atmospheric Pressure- is the prevailing pressure in
the air surrounding which decreases with increasing
altitude.
Standard Atmospheric Pressure- is the absolute
pressure that is measured at sea level and at a
temperature of 15°C (59°F) equivalent t101.325 kPa
or 14.7 psi or 760 mm Hg or 29.9 in. Hg or 2116 lb/ft2
or 1 atmosphere (atm).
Gage Pressure- or relative pressure, is the pressure
that is measured above or below the atmospheric
pressure.
Static Pressure Variation in Incompressible Fluid
Application on Pascal Law
Static pressure variation is the application of Pascals law
and gage pressure
We will be determining the pressure on
surface that is below or in the presence
of fluids
Let say a material is submerge in a
fluid: Inclined
p2-p1= yh
The difference in pressure between any two points in
a homogeneous fluid at rest is equal to the product of
the unit weight of the fluid and their difference in
elevation (vertical distance between the points)
p2=p1+yh Sample Problem
Any change in pressure applied at any point in a liquid Given a pressure of
at rest is transmitted equally and undiminished to magnitude of 50 kPa, find
every other point in the liquid. the pressure head of water
with a unit weight of 9.81
When the point in number 1 and kN/m3 and the pressure
2 is at the surface and is exposed head of mercury with a
use formula: unit weight of 133 kN/m3

p2 = 𝛾 h + p1

p2 = patm + 𝛾 h

[pgage = pabs – patm ]

p2 = 𝛾 h NOTE: kaya mataas ang difference ng pressure head

between water and mercury ay dahil sa unit weight
the patm = p1 is zero kasi expose ito sa air

p= yh
Sample Problem
The pressure at any point below a free liquid surface
is equal to the product of the unit weight of the fluid
The underground storage
and its vertical distance from the free liquid surface.
tank used in a service station
contains gasoline filled to the
Horizontal
level A. Determine the gage
pressure at each of the five
identified points. Note that
point B is located in the stem, and point C is just below
𝑘𝑔
it in the tank. Take 𝜌𝑔 = 730 3
𝑚

Recall:
The pressures along the same horizontal plane in a
Any change in pressure applied at any point in a liquid
homogeneous fluid at rest are equal.
at rest is transmitted equally and undiminished to
every other point in the liquid.
Pressure Head - is the height of a column of
The pressures along the same horizontal plane in a
homogeneous fluid that will produce a given intensity
homogeneous fluid at rest are equalthe fugure
of pressure (gage).
Measurement of Static Pressure Sample Problems:
Barometer- is a device for The funnel is filled with oil
measuring intensities of pressure and water to the levels
exerted by the atmosphere. It was shown. Determine the depth
invented in the mid-17th century of oil h’ that must be in the
(1643) by Evangelista Torricelli, funnel so that the water
using mercury as a preferred fluid, remains at a depth C, and the
since it has a high density and a very small vapor mercury level made h=0.8 m.
𝑘𝑔
pressure. Take 𝜌𝑜 = 900 3 , 𝜌𝑤 =
𝑚
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
1000 3 , 𝜌𝐻𝑔 = 13,550 .
Shown in the figure: Point c is exposed in atmospheric 𝑚 𝑚3
pressure. Since point B is horizontally aligned at point C, so
pressure at point B is equal to the pressure at point C.
different liquid exists in the problem. And the liquid with
highest density will settle below (ρHg – mercury) if walang
given na density, convert unit weight to density

Manometer- is a device consists of a transparent tube MORE DEATIL Solution:

that is used to determine the gage pressure in a liquid.
[p2 = p1 + 𝛾 h]
Types of Manometer
1. Open Type- a manometer with an atmospheric  Pb will represent p2
surface in one end and capable of measuring  PA will represent p1
gage pressures.  𝛾Oh’ means unit weight of oil times height
Piezometer- is the simplest type of pB = pA + 𝛾Oh’
manometer which consist of a
tube which is open at one end to in water naman:
the atmosphere, while the other
pC = pB + 𝛾W(0.4)
end is inserted into a vessel,
where the pressure of a liquid is to be measured. substitute the value of pb to pc formula

U-tube Manometer- consist of a tube, usually bent in pC = (pA + 𝛾O h’) + 𝛾W(0.4)

the form of a U, containing a liquid of known specific
The level from point A to C, we will relate the pressure there
gravity, the surface of which moves proportionally to
sa may right side ng fluid (kung nasaan pwesto ng
changes of pressure. mercury). The points in the right side of the funnel are point
Open pipe is exposed to
D and the same level sa point C which we will also called as
atmosphere while differential type
pressure at point C since they are align in the same
has no tube na open sa atmosphere.
horizontal axis so their pressure is equal
Open type can measure gauge
pressures while differential types Kapag inequate natin equation ng Pc using left side of
can only gives us difference in pressures in 2 points funnel doon sa equation sa right side ng funnel, yung value
sa Pc is equal lang kasi horizontally aligned lang
2. Differential Type- a manometer without an
atmospheric surface and capable of measuring comparing point C to D: (paangat naman ito)
only differences of pressure.
Differential Manometer- is used [p2 = p1 + 𝜸 h]  [p2 - 𝜸 h = p1]
to determine the difference in p2 is the lowest portion sa kinacalculate natin so ito yung
pressure between two points in pc and since yung P2 dito is yung Pc nilipat yung P2 sa
a closed fluid system. kaliwa

pD =pC – 𝜸Hg [(0.2 + h’ +0.4) – 0.8]

Unit weight of mercury is multiplied by the height of the
sum of left side minus the h on the right side

Substitute the value of pc in equation for PD:

pD =[(pA + 𝜸O h’) + 𝜸W(0.4)] – 𝜸Hg [(0.2 + h’ +0.4) – 0.8]

Pressure at point D is 0 kasi it is a free liquid surface, same

in point A
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
0 = [(0 + ( 900 ) h’) + (1000 )(0.4)] – 13,550 ) [(0.2
𝑚3 𝑚3 𝑚3
+ h’ +0.4)-0.8]

PD is a pre-liquid surface so pressure here is zero

Pansinin na yung density ay hindi na minultiply sa gravity

because macacancel out lang din naman ito

h’ = 0.2458 m = 246 mm

In computing for the pressure, we should look for the

relationship of fluid presence in our sample. Look for a
common point or common liquid surface that we could
relate their difference in pressure. Like in the prob, the
common is the point C, dito dapat magkaroon ng
relationship.

Sample Problems:
Determine the difference in pB - pA between the
centers A and B of the pipes, which are filled with
water. The mercury in the inclined-tube manometer
has the level shown SHg=13.55

In this prob, we do not need to calculate the pressure

between these two points because we are aiming for the
difference on the pressure.

Some of given are panggulo lang like yung 40 degrees

Specific gravity = unit weight of liquid/unit weight of

reference liquid

9810 is the unit weight of the water

Common mistake is that the reference liquid is only water

but any type of fluid can be a reference, common lang
gamitin yung water. Gamitin lang water if walang given na
iba as reference fluid

 0.1 is the elevation 100 mm

 0.25 came from 250 mm
MODULE 3: HYDROSTATIC FORCE ̅A
FT = 𝜸 𝒉
Hydrostatic Force on Plane Surface
for calculating the hydrostatic force for the liquid in a plane
Let’s say we have liquid here; we have object that surface
resting in a fluid. Treat it in inclined position and in Where:
angle theta, we have applied pressure. The force that
being applied is in trapezoidal point. At end point, the  ℎ̅= vertical elevation between the free-liquid
pressure is 0. In cross section, get small differential surface to the center of gravity
area, dA, may applied differential force dito. Rotate  A= area
ais along the surface or in the particle. The distance  h = is the vertical elevation, distance between any
two point we are calculating
in x axis is dF or y
The magnitude of the total force (exerted by a
Let say we have an object resting on a fluid in inclined
homogeneous fluid) acting on the plane surface is the
position. The material is in inclines position. The pressure in
product of the pressure at the plane surface’s centroid and
the figure is in trapezoidal form and as the force we are
its total area.
calculating is below the liquid surface, the pressure also
increases. The force yung nag increase dito At the end  Get another point in the surface and that is the center of
point, the pressure is equals to zero for the liquid surface, our pressure
so we could say that the load is a triangular form or varying  Another point: the hydrostatic
load force will be located at center of
pressure
Where:
 Yc.p. – location of center of
 dF = differential load pressure
 dA = differential area
Center of pressure (c.p.) Summing along x axis:
 𝑦̅ – location of
centroid to axis [𝑀𝐹𝑇 = 𝛴𝑀𝑑𝐹 ]; FT (yc.p)= ∫ y dF
 ℎ̅ - distance from center of gravity to free liquid
surface Recall:
 h – distance between dA and to the web surface (?)
FT = 𝛾 sin 𝜃 (A𝑦̅) dF = 𝛾(𝛾 sin 𝜃) dA
 y – distance between axis to dF
𝒅𝑭
(𝛾 sin 𝜃(A𝑦̅)) (yc.p) = ∫ 𝛾 (𝛾(𝛾 sin 𝜃) dA)
[𝒑 = ] [p2 = p1 + 𝜸𝒉]
𝒅𝑨
(𝛾 sin 𝜃(A𝑦̅)) (yc.p) = 𝛾 sin 𝜃 ∫ y2 dA
p1 will be equal to 0 since it is a free-liquid surface and the
pressure will be equaled to (𝛾ℎ)dA Recall: ∫ y2 dA = Ix A𝑦̅(yc.p) = Ix
𝐼𝑥
dF = pdA yc.p = Recall: = Ix + 𝐼̅𝑥 + Ad2
𝐴𝑦̅

dF = (𝛾ℎ)dA 𝐼𝑥
yc.p = + 𝑦̅ = ey +𝑦̅
𝐴𝑦̅
̅
ℎ
sin 𝜃 =
𝑦̅ The center of pressure and center of gravity coincides if
and only if;
dF = 𝛾(𝛾 sin 𝜃) dA
1) the surface is horizontal;
Angle theta will be equal to opposite which is h divided by
2) both sides of the area are completely submerged in
y (the hypotenuse). And cross multiply this.
liquids of the same unit weight
∫ dF = 𝛾 sin 𝜃 ∫ 𝛾dA
Sa figure, nakainclined so doon sa section, magkaiba yung
Recall: ∫ 𝛾dA = A𝑦̅ location ng center of gravity and center of pressure kasi nga
habang bumababa yung course, mas tumataas yung yung
̅
ℎ
F = 𝛾 sin 𝜃 (A𝑦̅) sin 𝛳= applied force.
𝑦̅

̅
ℎ
But if horizontal lang, center of gravity and center of
𝑦̅ = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ -> substitute this in formula for F pressure coincides.
sin 𝛳

For center of gravity and center of pressure to be coincide,

or to get the same point, dapat yung fluid, both areas
should be completely submerged and dapat yung fluid
natin is a homogeneous.
Summing along y axis (reference yung x axis): lets get the location of the hydrostatic force for each fluid
1
[𝑀𝐹𝑇 = 𝛴𝑀𝑑𝐹 ] FT(xc.p)= ∫ x dF FAB = (6621.75 Pa)(0.75 m)(1.25 m)
2

Recall: 1
(6621.75 Pa)(0.75 m) = Area; (1.25 m) =
2
FT = 𝛾 sin 𝜃 (A𝑦̅) dF = 𝛾(𝛾 sin 𝜃) dA width

(𝛾 sin 𝜃(A𝑦̅)) (xc.p) = ∫ x (𝛾(𝛾 sin 𝜃 )dA) FAB = 3103.9453125 N is equal to the
distance of 2/3 (0.75) from the topmost of
(𝛾 sin 𝜃(A𝑦̅)) (xc.p) = 𝛾 sin 𝜃 ∫ xy dA the surface

Recall: ∫ xy dA = Pxy A𝑦̅(xc.p) = Pxy 1

FBC = (21336.75 + 6621.75)(1.5 m)(1.25
2
𝑃𝑥𝑦 m) = 26211.09375 N
xc.p = Recall: Pxy = ̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑥𝑦 + A𝑥̅ 𝑦̅
𝐴𝑦̅

𝑃𝑥𝑦
xc.p = + 𝑥̅ = ex +𝑥̅
𝐴𝑦̅
Multiplied by 1.25 m since hydrostatics is applied all over the
Recall: if symmetrical on a centroidal axis, ̅̅̅̅
𝑃𝑥𝑦 = 0 element
𝑅 6𝑒
Sample Problems: Pmax min = (1 ± )
𝐿 𝐿

The storage tank contains oil and  Kapag max ang kinocompute, use plus
water acting at the depths shown.  Kapag min ang kinocompute, use
Determine he resultant force that minus
𝑅 6𝑒
both of these liquids exert on the  Pmax min = (1 ± )
𝐿 𝐿
26211.09 6𝑒
side ABC of the tank if the side has  21336.75 (1.25) = (1 ± )
1.5 1.5
a with of b = 1.25m. Also,  e=
5
m
38
determine the location of this resultant, measured
from the top of the oil surface. Take po = 900 kg/m3. FT = 3163.9453125 + 26211.09375 = 29315.0390625 N
5
Solution:  /0.75 = 0.88
38
 FBC =5.38+0.75 (from point b)
Oil, point A to B:
Total distance
[p2 = p1 + 𝛾h] pb = pA + 𝛾0h
[𝛴𝑀𝐴 = FT(yc.p)]
pb = 0 + (900 kg/m3)(9.81 m/s2)(0.75 m)
2
pb = 6621.75 Pa FAB ( ) (0.75) + FBC (0.75 + 0.75
3
5
+ ) = FT (yc.p)
38

257
Point B to C: In the fig, makikita na nagmukha triangle pero yc.p = m = 1.51 m
170
hindi ito linearly equal/align. If linearly align pwedeng Pc Hydrostatic force dapat mas malapit sa mga may mataas
=Pa + (unit weight of water)(h). Pero sa example na to, na pressure.
magkaiba yung fluids. There are 2 fluids.

pc = pb + 𝛾wh

pc = 6621.75 Pa + (9810 N/m3)(1.5 m)

pc = 21336.75 Pa
MIDTERMS Sample Problem:

MODULE 4: BOUYANCY The 135 lb. flat-bottom container in

Archimedes’ Principle – or principle of buoyancy,
states that when a body is placed in a static fluid, it is
buoyed up by a force that is equal to the weight of the
fluid that is displaced by the body, discovered by the
Greek Scientist Archimedes. The point where the
buoyant force acts is called the center of buoyancy
coinciding with the center of gravity of the volume of
fluid displaced.
the Figure is 2.5 ft. wide and 6 ft.
long. Determine the depth the
container will float in the water (a)
when it carries the 150 lb. steel block
and (b) when the block is suspended
directly beneath the container. Use
𝛾steel = 490 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3
Part A:

Shown in the figure is a body From the Free Body Diagram:

of water where an object is
submerged. Force is applied
on the left and right side. In
the bottom part where
buoyant force (Fb) is pushed
upward and in the upper
part is the unit weight.

 Summing up the forces,

Part B:
↑ Fb = 𝜸f Vb
From the Free Body Diagram:
Where: 𝜸f = is the unit weight of fluid
Vb = is the volume of the body

Meanwhile, the applied vertical force (downward

force), Fa,
 Summing up the forces,
↑ Fa = 𝜸f Va Stability
The wooden block (cube) in the
Therefore, Figure have a dimension of
↑ Fb = 𝜸f (Vb − Va ) = 𝜸f Vd 0.2m in each side. A vertical
force F is applied at the center
of one of its sides and pushes
the edge of the block to the
water surface so that is held at
an angle of 20 degrees.
Determine the buoyant force
on the block, and show that the block will be in
stable equilibrium when the force F is removed

Calculate the submerge Volume

MODULE 5: HEADS AND ENERGY
Energy is defined as the ability to do work. The law of
conservation of energy is used to understand the
characteristics of fluid at rest or in motion.
Head is the required energy per unit weight of fluid to
increase at a certain vertical distance.
 There are three possible heads in the pipe. 1.
Velocity head, hv 2. Pressure head, hp 3. Elevation
head, hz.
 To determine the three possible heads, we will
take any two points (Point 1 and Point 2).
 If the pipe is horizontally aligned then there will be
no difference in velocity head, pressure head, and
elevation head.
Potential Energy
Elevation Head
 is the vertical distance from the datum of
reference line to the center of the pipe or conduit.
The datum line could be anywhere located below the
pipe. And it can be above but the values will be
negative. Or sometimes it is located at Point 1.
Pressure Energy
Pressure Head
 the vertical measurement from the center of the
pipe to the maximum height that the water can
reach when a piezometer is attached to a pipe or
conduit.
The pressure head is the difference between point 1
and point 2.
Kinetic Energy
Velocity Head
 the amount of kinetic energy per unit weight of
fluid.
Total Energy
 The total energy in a fluid motion is the sum
of the potential energy and the kinetic
energy.
In physics, E=Velocity + Pressure + Z
In terms of calculating the total energy, when the
datum line is at point 1 it means that the elevation
head, hz, will be canceled.
POWER OF FLUIDS IN MOTION
Power is defined as the rate of doing work. The
dimension of power in Sl units is newton- meter per
second (N-m/s) or joule per second (J/s) or simply
watt (W).
where:
Q= Rate of flow (m=/s, ft3/s) —> (A x V)
y= Unit weight of the fluid flow (N/m3, Ib/ft3)
E = Total head (m,ft) —> heads and energy
BERNOULLI'S ENERGY EQUATION FOR
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS
Bernoulli's theorem proved that any fluid motion
where friction is neglected, the total energy
possessed by a given mass of the fluid is the same at
every point along the path of flow. This theorem is
accordance in the law of conservation of energy
which explains that if there is one loss of energy in any
of the form of energy (kinetic, potential, pressure
energies) there must be a corresponding gain of
energy in the other two forms.
Two Equations to consider:
1. Frictionless Flow
Bernoulli's equation for an incompressible fluid under
frictionless flow can be expressed as:
2. Considering Friction (Consider Point 1 and
Bernoulli's equation for an incompressible fluid
considering friction can be expressed as:
FLOW MEASUREMENTS
Device Coefficient
For every device, there are different coefficient used.
The device coefficient is the ratio of the actual value
and the theoretical value.
Note that the theoretical values can be obtained
using Bernoulli's equation.
Coefficient of Discharge, Cg
 Is the ratio of the actual discharge and the
theoretical discharge
where:
Qa = actual discharge
Qt = theoretical discharge
Coefficient of Velocity, Cv
 Is the ratio of the actual velocity and the
theoretical velocity.
where:
Va= actual velocity
Vt= theoretical velocity
Coefficient of Contraction, Cc
 Is the ratio of the area of jet and the area of
orifice,
Where:
aj = area of jet
ao = area of orifice
Vena Contracta
 is the section on the jet where contraction
ceases.
Venturi Meter
 It is used to measure the discharge through
a pipe.
 Venturi meters are flow measurement
instruments which use a converging section
of pipe to give an increase in the flow
velocity and a corresponding pressure drop
from which the flow rate can be deduced."
(There is an increase in flow velocity which is
the velocity head. There is a corresponding
drop that proves that when a certain energy
is lost, then another energy will take
account. In this time the velocity will gain.)
 "They have been in common use for many
years, especially in the water supply
industry.'
 "Clemens Herschel was an American
hydraulic engineer. His career extended
from about 1860 to 1930, and he is best
known for developing the Venturi meter,
which was the first large-scale, accurate
device for measuring water flow.
 Venturi Principle: the increase in kinetic
energy is equal to the decrease in potential
energy"
ORIFICE
 An opening with a closed perimeter
through which fluid flows.
 It is used primarily to measure or to
control the flow of fluid.
The purpose of this is for the discharge
to be controlled. Just like in the faucet, in which the
opening controls the amount of fluids that is being
discharged.
NOZZLE
 It is used to increase the velocity of
the jet.
 A cylindrical or round spout at the
end of a pipe, hose, or tube used to
control a jet of gas or liquid.
The main purpose of this is to gain velocity. If the area
is lessened it results in bigger velocity.
PITOT TUBE
 A pitot tube, also known as pitot probe, is a
flow measurement device used to measure
fluid flow velocity.
 The pitot tube was invented by the French
engineer Henri Pitot in the early 18th
century and was modified to its modern
form in the mid-19th century by French
scientist Henry Darcy.
 It is widely used to determine the airspeed
of an aircraft, water speed of a boat, and to
measure liquid, air and
gas flow velocities in
certain industrial
applications.
It is the same concept as the ventura meter. But this
one the flow velocity of fluid is being measured. There
are two measuring devices which are: (1) a straight
tube that measures the static pressure, straight (2) a
bend tube that measures the stagnant pressure, it is
on the lower part of the pipe and the height is taller as
well as the flow of velocity.
Sample Problem no. 1
Determine the pressure head if the fluid has a specific
gravity (SG) = 0.65 and it experience pressure at 7
kPa.
Solution:
Sample Problem no. 2
A fluid flowing with a specific gravity of 0.79 and has
a velocity of 0.95 m/s. The pressure inside the pipe is
1.25 kPa. The distance center of the pipe from the
datum line is 8 m. Determine the total energy.
Solution:
MODULE 6: CONTINUITY EQUATION AND
FLUID FLOW IN PIPES
Continuity Equation
This equation is actually derived from the law of mass
conservation.
Recall: What is law of mass conservation?
The law of mass conservation is simply defined as
matter cannot be created nor destroyed but it can
change in form. Based on the definition of law of mass
conservation, the mass of fluid that enters one end of
the streamtube at a given time is equal to the mass to
the other end of the streamtube.
Example:
The number of people going to ride the MRT train is
equal to number of people leaving the train.
The total passenger that rides the MRT is also equal to
the number of people that are saving. Those
passengers will depart from different destinations.
Recall:
Volume flow rate, Q=Av
Mass flow rate, M= pQ
Weight flow rate, W=yQ
Where:
 Q= discharge in m3/sec or ft3/sec
 A= cross-sectional area of flow in m or ft 2 2
 V= mean velocity of flow in m/sec or ft/sec
 p= mass density of fluid in kg/m3 or slugs/ft3
 y= unit weight of fluid in N/m3 or Ib/ft3
Since there is only one fluid flowing through the pipe
and the gravity acting on the points are equal:
Q1 = Q2=Q3
Area and velocity is inversely proportional to each
other.
 Qin = Qout
 Q1 = Q2 = Q3
 Q1 = Q2 + Q3
Sample Problem no. 1:
A water tank is being filled
through section 1 at v, = 5 m/s
and through section 3 at Q, =
0.012 m3/s. If water level "h" is
constant, determine the exit
velocity, V2.
Solution:
According to continuity, the mass that is going in must
be equal to the mass going out. Therefore:
We have 2 inflows, section1 and section 3 and 1 outflow,
section 2.
In section 1 given yung diameter and velocity, sa section 3,
given na yung value ng Q3.
Solution:
According to continuity, the mass is going in must be equal
to the mass going out. Therefore:
Qin = Qout -> Qin = Q1 + Q3; Qout =Q2
Q2 = Q1 + Q3; Q=Av -> A2v2 = A1v1 + Q3
𝜋 𝜋
[( ) (0.06)2 ] 𝑣2 = [( ) (0.04)2 ] (5) + 0.012
4 4
v2 = 6.47 m/s
Sample Problem no. 2: Classification of Flow
If the velocity in a 2-in pipe is 1. Laminar Flow – Re ≤ 2000
1.65 ft/s, what is the velocity 2. Critical Flow – 2000 < Re < 4000
in a 3-in diameter jet issuing 3. Turbulent Flow – Re ≥ 4000
from a nozzle attached to the
pipe. Friction Factor Calculation using Reynold’s Number

 For Laminar flow:

Solution:
𝟔𝟒
Qin=Qout -> A1v1 = A2v2 (convert dia. to ft: divide 12) 𝒇=
𝑹𝒆
𝜋 2 2 𝜋 3 2  For Turbulent flow:
[( ) ( ) ](1.65) = [( ) ( ) ] 𝑣2
4 12 4 12
𝒉𝑳 𝑭 𝟐𝒈
𝒇=
v2 = 0.73 ft/s 𝑳 𝑽𝟐
Head Losses through Pipes
The relationship between the area and velocity is that since Types of Head losses
nag increase yung size ng area from 2 inches to 3 inches, 1. Major Losses (Pipe Friction, Hf)
and ang nangyari sa velocity is that, nag decrease naman  major losses are pipe friction, the fluids pass
ito so, they are inversely proportional from one another. If
by all throughout the pipeline. This means
liliit ang area naman is tataas ang velocity.
that every point of the pipeline has friction
and that is the reason why the contact
between the fluid and pipeline is the major
Fluid Flow in Pipes loss.
Pipe is a closed conduit carrying liquids or gases under 2. Minor Losses (Local Disturbances)
pressure. Common section is Circular (Why circular?  Sudden Enlargement
It has the least surface contact with the flowing fluid  from D1 the pipes were
thus less surface friction will occur.) enlarged in D2. D2 is greater
than D1. The flow of fluid has
Factors affecting the type of flow in pipes. disturbance in which there is turbulence in
1. Critical Velocity - it occurs in the transition of the flow.
laminar to turbulent flow.  Sudden Contraction
2. Type of Fluid Flow  flow of fluid in D1 contracts to
 Laminar Flow - The type of flow of fluid in D2.
which fluid travels in regular points.  Due to Pipe Bend
 the laminar flow is flowing a smooth straight  because it could limit the number
path of bends
 Turbulent Flow - The type of flow of fluid  Due to Obstruction caused by gate/valves
which fluid travels in irregular fluctuations  Due to obstructions caused by gate
and mixing. /valves, the gate valve is usually
 the turbulent flow is flowing in different placed right after the meter which
direction controls the water. We could also limit the
gate valve as a minor loss.

Reynold's number (Re) is the ratio of inertial forces to

viscous forces. It is a dimensionless ratio uséd to
determine the type of flow of fluid in a pipeline. It can
be computed by the formula,
𝑽𝑫 𝑽𝑫𝝆
𝑹𝒆 = +
𝒗 𝝁
Where:
 V = velocity
 D = Diameter of Pipe
 v = Kinematic Viscosity
 𝜌 = Density
 𝜇 = Dynamic Viscosity (Pa-s)
MODULE 7: HEAD LOSSES IN PIPES Major Losses
Darcy-Weisbach Equation - named after Henry Darcy
Head Losses through Pipes and Julius Weisbach, who first proposed its use in the
late 9th century. It was derived by dimensional
analysis, and it applies to fluids having eitiher laminar
or turbulent flow.
 For Laminar flow:
𝟔𝟒
𝒇=
𝑹𝒆
 For Turbulent flow:
Continuation from Continuity Equation in prelim
𝒉𝑳 𝑭 𝟐𝒈
notes 𝒇=
𝑳 𝑽𝟐
Major losses happens all throughout the pipe where:
f - friction factor
while minor losses happens sa isang section lang Re - Reynold’s number
Minor and Major Head Losses in Pipes hL - head loss
d - diameter
L - length of pipe
v - mean velocity
If velocity ang nawawala, use Q = AV
Sample Problem:
The 6-in.-diameter galvanized iron pipe in the Figure
Analysis and Design for Pipe Flow transports water from a reservoir. Determine the
Frictional resistance along the rough walls of a pipe head loss and pressure drop in 200 ft of the pipe if the
contributes to the pressure drop within the pipe. This flow is, Q = 400 gal/min (gpm ), density is 1.927
is important when designing any pipe system, or slugs/ft3, friction factor = 0.0208, and Kinematic
selecting a pump that is required to maintain a Viscosity is 7.39 x 10-6 ft2/s.
specific flow.

Here we will focus on straight pipes that have a In the portion of small blue
circular cross section since this shape provides the and red dash line, nagkaroon
greatest structural strength for resisting pressure, ng contact yung fluid at wall.
Which produces friction
and furthermore a circular cross section will transport
the largest amount of fluid with the smallest frictional Solution:
resistance. Given:

In engineering practice, any frictional or energy loss f=0.0208

due to both fluid friction and wall roughness is often L= 200 ft
referred to major head loss, hL, or just simply major D = 6 inch
loss. Solution
Wall roughness – yung mismong cross section ng ℎ𝑓 =
𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
pipe 2𝑔𝐷

The frictional loss = head loss, hf = hL

First calculate the velocity, convert discharge

Kaya nagkakaroon ng losses due to friction kasi into ft/s
let say sa pipe may nagfloflow na fluid paright, 400 𝑔𝑎𝑙 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 𝑓𝑡2
𝑄 ( )( )( )
yung wall is producing a counteracting force 𝑉= = 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠
3
7.48 𝑔𝑎𝑙
= 4.539 ft/s
𝐴 𝜋( 𝑓𝑡) 2
which is the friction 12

Kaya dinivide sa 12 yung 3 is to convert it to feet

(pi*r^2 formula na ginamit sa denominator)
 𝑓𝐿𝑉 2 200 𝑓𝑡 (4.539𝑓𝑡/𝑠)2 developed low. In addition to this head losses
ℎ𝑓 = 2𝑔𝐷
= (0.0208)( 0.5 𝑓𝑡 ) 𝑓𝑡
2(32.2 2) also occur at pipe connections such as bends,
𝑠

fittings, entrances, and transitions. These are

Conversion: 6in (1ft/12in) = ½ or 0.5 ft
called Minor Losses.
Usually hinihiwalay talaga yung v^2/2g para
Although a minor loss is not necessarily localized
madali maidentify yung velocity
within the connection, we will assume it is and
ℎ𝑓 = 2.662 ft will express this loss in terms of the velocity
head as we did in the case for a major loss. Here
If sa ibang problem na hinahanap yung ℎ𝑓 but we will formulate it as:
walang given na density and velocity. Kapag
nangyari na walang given na density, usually 𝑉2
ℎ𝐿 = 𝐾𝐿
ang given is temperature. May given na table 2𝑔
then doon hahahanapin density value based sa
Here KL is called the resistance or loss
given temperature.
coefficient, which is determined from
Kapag friction factor ang unknown, may table experiment.
rin about dito based sa length or size of pipe.
-K will depend on what type of connection is
present sa pipe

Due to Sudden Contraction - this causes by

sudden decrease in the diameter of pipe.

𝑉𝑐 2
ℎ𝑐 = 𝐾𝑐
2𝑔

Use interpolation if needed.

MODULE 8: MINOR LOSSES Due to Sudden Enlargement - this causes by

Head Losses through Pipes sudden increase in the diameter of pipe.

𝑉𝑒 2
ℎ𝑒 = 𝐾𝑒
2𝑔

Minor and Major Head Losses in Pipes

Total Head Loss = Major Losses + Minor Losses

𝛴HL = hfriction + henlargement + hcontraction + hbend + hgate

𝛴HL = hf + he + hc + hb + hg

Not all of the minor losses will be present in the

pipes

Major Head Loss occurs along the length of a

pipe due to the frictional effects of fully
Due to Pipe Bend - this Take 𝜌w = 998 kg/m3 and kinematic viscosity =
causes by liquid’s 0.8(10-6) m2/s. Use f = 0.0290
inconsistent turbulence in
Present head losses: ho, hf, hb
result of the change in
direction of the flow. Solution:
(Note: Any liquid in pipe
bend will result in change Optional lang pagkuha ng Reynolds, para lang
of velocity distribution.) malaman what type of flow is flowing
2𝑚
𝑉𝐷 ( )(0.065𝑚)
Due to Obstruction (Gates or Valves) - this 𝑅𝑒 = 𝑠
= 0.8(10 5
𝑣𝑤 −6 )𝑚2 /𝑠 = 1.625(10 )
causes by controlling the flow of fluid using
gates or valves. Minor head loss for the elbow is 0.9(V2/ 2g), and
for the fully opened globe valve, is 10(V2/2g).
Thus the total head loss is:

0.9 and 10 came from the table 10-1

𝐿 𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑉2
ℎ𝐿 = 𝑓 + 0.9 ( ) + 10( )
𝐷 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔
2𝑚 2
10 𝑚 ( )
= 0.0290 ( )[ 𝑠 ]+ (0.9 +
0.065 𝑚 2(9.81𝑚
2 ) 𝑠
Major loss Minor loss
2𝑚 2
( )
𝑠
10) [ 9.81𝑚 ]
2( 2 )
𝑠

= 0.91 + 2.22 kaya mas Malaki ang minor loss

kesa sa major kasi sa material na globe valve

ℎ𝐿 = 3.132 𝑚
To Calculate the Pressure, use the energy
equation
𝑝𝐴 𝑉𝐴 2 𝑝𝑐 𝑉𝑐 2
+ + 𝑧𝐴 = + + 𝑧𝑐 + ℎ𝐿
𝛾𝑤 2𝑔 𝛾𝑤 2𝑔

2𝑚 2 2𝑚 2
𝑝𝐴 ( ) ( )
𝑠 𝑠
𝑘𝑔 9.81𝑚 + 9.81𝑚 + 6𝑚 = 0 + 9.81𝑚 +
(998 3 )( 2 ) 2( 2 ) 2( 2 )
𝑚 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
0 + 3.132 𝑚
Kaya 0 ang pressure ng point C kasi naexpose ito
sa atmosphere
Sample Problem 𝑝𝐴 = -28.08(103) Pa = -28.1 kPa
When the globe valve at B in The negative sign means The result indicates
Figure is fully opened, it is a suction in the pipe occurs.
observed that water flows out
through the 65mm diameter
cast iron pipe with an average
velocity of 2 m/s Determine
the pressure in the pipe at A.
MODULE 9: PUMP AND TURBINES
Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)
Also called Hydraulic Gradient and Pressure
Gradient, is the graphical representation of the
potential head (pressure head + elevation head).
It is the line to which liquid rises in successive
piezometer tubes. The line is always at a distance
(r/g + z) above the datum plane.
Characteristics of HGL
• HGL slopes downward in the direction of
flow but it may rise or fall due to change
in pressure.
• HGL is parallel to EGL for uniform pipe
cross section.
• For horizontal pipes with constant cross
section, the drop in pressure gradient
between two points is equivalent to the
head lost between these points.
Energy Grade Line (EGL)
It is always above the hydraulic grade line by an
amount equal to the velocity head. Thus, the
distance of energy gradient above the datum
plane is always (v2/2g +r/g + z). Energy grade line
therefore is the graphical representation of the
total energy of flow.
Characteristics of EGL
• EGL slopes downward in the direction of
flow and will only rise with the presence
of pump.
• The vertical drop of EGL between two
points is the head lost between those
points.
• EGL is parallel to HGL for uniform pipe
cross section.
• EGL is always above the HGL by v2/2g.
• Neglecting head loss, EGL is horizontal.
Energy Equation with Pump
In most cases, pump is used to
raise water from lower elevation
to higher elevation. In a more
technical term, the use of pump
is basically to increase the
energy of flow. The pump
consumes electrical energy (Pinput) and delivers
flow energy (Poutput).
Energy Equation with Turbine
Turbines extract flow energy and converted it
into mechanical energy which in turn converted
into electrical energy.
Sample Problem Sample Problem
A pump takes water from a A pump takes water from a 200-mm suction pipe and
200mm suction pipe and delivers it to a 150-mm
delivers it to a 150mm discharge pipe in which the
discharge pipe in which the velocity is 3.6 m/s. The
pressure is -35 kPa at A in the
velocity is 2.5 m/s. At A in
suction pipe. The 150-mm pipe
the suction pipe, the
discharges horizontally into air
pressure is -40 kPa. At B in at C. To what height h above B
the discharge pipe, which is 2.5 m above A, the can the water be raised if B is
pressure is 410 kPa. What horsepower would 1.8 m above A and 20 hp is
have to be applied by the pump if there were no delivered to the pump?
frictional losses? Assume that the pump operates at 70 percent
efficiency and that the frictional loss in the pipe
Solution between A and C is 3 m.
Calculate the Discharge at the 150mm section Solution
QB = VBAB Discharge at Point B
 QB = VBAB
= (2.5) (/4) (0.15)2
= (3.6) (/4) (0.15)2
QB = 0.0442 m3/s  QB = 0.0636 m3/s
Calculate the Velocity at the 200mm section Velocity at the 200mm section
 VA = QA/AA
VA = QA/AA
= (0.0636) / [(/4) (0.20)2]
= (0.0442) / [(/4) (0.20)2]  VA =2.02 m/s

VA =1.41 m/s Calculate the Output Power of the Pump

 Efficiency = Poutput/Pinput
Calculate Velocity Head
 0.7 = Poutput/20
 Poutput = 14 hp (746 Watts/1hp)
 Poutput = 10,444 Watts

Head Added
 Poutput = QgHA
 10,444 = 0.0636(9,810)HA
 HA = 16.74 m

Calculate the Velocity Heads

MIDTERM QUIZ 1: 9. A garden hose attached with a nozzle is
used to fill a 10-gal bucket. The inner
1. It is the section on the jet where contraction diameter of the hose is 2.0cm, and it reduces
ceases. (VENA CONTRACTA) to 0.8 cm at the nozzle exit. If it takes 50
None of the Above seconds to fill the bucket with water,
Nozzle determine the average velocity of water at the
Orifice nozzle exit.
Pitot Tube 15.1 m/s

2. If a same pressure is applied to a two different 10. It is defined as the rate of doing work
liquid, the one with higher Unit Weight will (POWER)
produce a higher Pressure Head None of the above
False

3. It states that when a body is placed in a static
fluid, it is buoyed up by a force that is equal to the
weight of the fluid that is displaced by the body.
Principle of Bouyancy
4. It is the requires energy per unit weight of fluid
to increase at a certain vertical distance.
Head
5. It is the point where the bouyant force acts
coinciding with the center of gravity of the
volume of fluid displaced.
Center of Pressure
Center of Gravity
None of the above
Stability
6. The uniform 8-ft board is pushed down into
the water so it makes an angle of 30 degrees
with the water surface. The cross section of
the board measures 3 inch by 9 inch and its
specific weight is 30lb/ft.3. Determine the
length "a" that will be submerged needed to
hold its end in this position in terms of inches
66.56
11. Based on the Volume Flow Rate, the
Diameter of the Pipe is inversely proportional to
the mean velocity
True
12. it is the vertical measurement from the
center of the pipe to the maximum height that
the water can reach when piezometer is
attached to a pipe or conduit.
Pressure head
13. A crane is used to lower weights into the sea
(density = 1.025 kg/m3) for an underwater
construction project. Determine the tension in
the rope of the crane due to a rectangular 0.4m
x 0.4m x 3m concrete block (density = 2,300
kg/m3) when it is completely immersed in
water.
6.0 kN

7. The uniform 8-ft board is pushed down into

the water so it makes an angle of 30 degrees
with the water surface. The cross section of
the board measures 3 inch by 9 inch and its
specific weight is 30lb/ft.3. Determine the
Vertical Force F needed to hold its end in this
position.
19.90 lb

8. A garden hose attached with a nozzle is

used to fill a 10-gal bucket. The inner
diameter of the hose is 2.0cm, and it reduces
to 0.8 cm at the nozzle exit. If it takes 50
seconds to fill the bucket with water,
determine the mass flow rates of water
through the hose.
0.757 kg/s
MIDTERM QUIZ 2
1. This causes by liquid's inconsistent
turbulence in result of the change in direction
of the flow.
Head Loss due to Pipe Bend
2. Total Major Head Loss is always greater than
the Total Minor Head Loss
False
3. Head Losses in Pipe System could have a
Major Head Loss with no Minor Head Loss
True
4. The resistance or loss coefficient for all type of
Minor Head Loss is determine by the ratio of
smaller diameter of the pipe to the larger
diameter of the pipe.
8. Water at 60 degrees Fahrenheit have a
density of 62.36 lb/ft.^3 and dynamic viscosity
of 7.536 x 10^-4 lb/ft-s) is flowing steadily in a 2-
inch diameter horizontal pipe made of stainless
steel at a rate of 0.2 ft^3/s. Use f = 0.0200.
Determine the the required pumping power
input for flow over a 200-feet long section of the
pipe.
530 Watts
9. A 6cm diameter horizontal water pipe
expands to a 10cm diameter pipe. The average
velocity and pressure of water before the
expansion section are 7 m/s and 150 kPa,
respectively. Determine the pressure in the
larger diameter pipe. Use Table 2 from our
Lecture for the loss coefficient.
171 kPa

False 10. Water at 60 degrees Fahrenheit have a

density of 62.36 lb/ft.^3 and dynamic viscosity
5. Frictional resistance along the rough walls of a of 7.536 x 10^-4 lb/ft-s) is flowing steadily in a 2-
pipe contributes to the pressure drop within the inch diameter horizontal pipe made of stainless
pipe. steel at a rate of 0.2 ft^3/s. Use f = 0.0200.
True Determine the pressure drop in terms of psi
over a 200-feet long section of the pipe.
6. A 6cm diameter horizontal water pipe expands
to a 10cm diameter pipe. The average velocity 13.56
and pressure of water before the expansion
section are 7 m/s and 150 kPa, respectively.
Determine the head loss in the expansion
section. Use Table 2 from our Lecture for the loss
coefficient.

0.9999 m

7. Water at 60 degrees Fahrenheit have a

density of 62.36 lb/ft.^3 and dynamic
viscosity of 7.536 x 10^-4 lb/ft-s) is flowing
steadily in a 2-inch diameter horizontal pipe
made of stainless steel at a rate of 0.2 ft^3/s.
Use f = 0.0200. Determine the head loss in
terms of inches over a 200-feet long section
of the pipe.
376.05