4-Thủy nhiệt hạt nhân -01

Thủy nhiệt Hạt nhân
(Nuclear Thermal-Hydraulics)
NE4304: Thủy nhiệt Hạt nhân -0-

Chapter 4.
Phân tích truyền nhiệt
trong thanh nhiên liệu

Nội dung
 Introduction
 Heat Conduction in Fuel Elements
 Thermal Properties of UO2
 Temp. Dist. in Plate Fuel Elements
 Temp. Dist. in Cylindrical Fuel Pins
 Temp. Dist. in Restructured Fuel Elements
 Thermal Resistance b.w. Fuel and Coolant

Phân tích truyền nhiệt trong thanh NL
 Introduction
 An accurate description of the temp. distributions in the fuel elements
& the reactor structures is essential to the prediction of the lifetime
behavior of these components.
 "Incentives for Accurate Modeling of the Temp. Behavior Under Transient
as well as Steady-State Operating Conditions" :
 The “Temp. gradients”, which control the thermal stress levels in the
materials, together with the “mechanical loads” contribute to determination
of the potential for plastic deformation at high temperatures or cracking at
low temperatures.
 The “temp. level at coolant-solid surfaces” controls the chemical reactions

& diffusion processes, thus profoundly affecting the corrosion process.
 Furthermore, the “impact of the fuel & coolant temperatures on the neutron
reaction rates” provides an incentive for accurate modeling of the temp.
behavior under transient as well as steady-state operating conditions.
 Introduction
 "The Focus in This Chapter"
 the steady-state temp. field in the fuel elements.
 Many of the principles applied are also useful for describing the temp. field in
the structural components.

 Introduction
 "Exact Prediction of the Fuel Material Temp." :
 “The temp. in the fuel material” depends on
① the heat-generation rate
② the fuel material properties
③ the coolant & cladding temp. conditions
 “The rate of heat generation in a fuel pin” depends on:

① the neutron slowing rates near the fuel pin
② the neutron reaction rates within the fuel.
 “The neutron reaction rate”, in return, depends on:

① the fuel material (both the initial composition & burnup level)
② the moderator material (if present) & their temps.

 Introduction
 "Exact Prediction of the Fuel Material Temp."
Hence “an exact prediction of the fuel material temp.” requires
simultaneous determination of the neutronic & temp. fields, although
for certain conditions it is possible to decouple the two fields.
 Assumption
 It is assumed that the heat-generation is fixed as we proceed
to obtain the fuel temp. field.

 Introduction
 Fuel Materials & Thermal Properties
 “Uranium dioxide (UO2) has been used exclusively as fuel material in
light-water power reactors” ever since it was used in the
Shippingport PWR in 1955
 Uranium metal & its alloys have been used in research reactors.
 Early liquid-metal-cooled reactors relied on plutonium as a fuel &

more recently on a mixture of UO2 & PuO2.
 The mid-1980s saw a resurgence in the interest in the metal as fuel in

U.S.-designed fast reactors. The properties of these materials are
highlighted in this chapter.

 Introduction
 “UO2 use in LWRs” has been marked with satisfactory chemical &
irradiation tolerance. This tolerance has overshadowed the
disadvantages of low thermal conductivity & uranium atom density
relative to other materials, e.g., the nitrides & carbides or even the
metal itself.
 The carbides & nitrides, if proved not to swell excessively under

irradiation, may be used in future reactors.
 "Thermal Properties of Fuel & Cladding Materials" :

 Tables 8-1 & 8-2 compare the “thermal properties of the various
fuel & cladding materials”, respectively.
 Introduction

 Introduction
NE4304: Thủy nhiệt Hạt nhân - 10 -

 Heat Conduction in Nuclear Fuel Elements
 General Equation of Heat Conduction
 The “energy transport equation” describes the temp. distribution in a
solid (which is assumed to be an incompressible material with
negligible thermal expansion as far as the effects on temp.
distribution are concerned).
 If the energy transport equation is written with explicit dependence

on the variables 𝒓𝒓 and 𝒕𝒕, it becomes :
(8-1)
 Note : for incompressible materials 𝒄𝒄𝒑𝒑 = 𝒄𝒄𝒗𝒗

 General Equation of Heat Conduction
 At steady state Eq.(8-1) reduces to :
(8-2)
 Because by definition the “conduction heat flux” is given by
Eq.(8-2) can be written as :
(8-3)

 Thermal Conductivity Approximation
 In a medium that is isotropic with regard to heat conduction, k is a
scalar quantity that depends on the material, temp., & pressure of the
medium
 In a nonisotropic medium, thermal behavior is different in different

directions. Highly oriented crystalline-like materials can be
significantly anisotropic.
 For example, thermally deposited pyrolytic graphite can have a

thermal conductivity ratio as high as 200:1 in directions parallel &
normal to basal planes.

 “For anisotropic & nonhomogeneous materials”, k is a tensor, which
in Cartesian coordinates can be written as :
(8-4)
 “For anisotropic homogeneous solids” the tensor is symmetric, i.e.,

𝒌𝒌𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 = 𝒌𝒌𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋
 In most practical cases k can be taken as a scalar quantity.

We restrict ourselves to this particular case of a scalar k for the
remainder of this text.
 “Variation of k” : "Change of k with P & T":
 As mentioned before, thermal conductivity is different for different media
& generally depends on the temp. & pressure.
 The “numerical value of k” varies from practically zero for gases under
extremely low pressures to about 4000 W/m0k or 7000 BTU/ft-hr-ºF for a
natural copper crystal at very low temps.
 The change of k with pressure depends on the physical state of the

medium. Whereas in gases there is a strong pressure effect on k, in
solids this effect is negligible.
 Therefore the conductivity of solids is mainly a function of temp., k=k(T),

& can be determined experimentally.

 “Variation of k” : "Change of k with P & T":
 “For most metals” the empirical formula
(8-5)
gives a good fit to the data in a relatively large temp. range.
 The values of ko & 𝜷𝜷𝟎𝟎 are constants for the particular metal. It is evident
that ko corresponds to the reference temp.(To).
 The value of 𝜷𝜷𝟎𝟎 can be positive or negative. In general, 𝜷𝜷𝟎𝟎 is negative for
pure homogeneous metals, whereas for metallic alloys 𝜷𝜷𝟎𝟎 becomes
positive.

 "k for Nuclear Fuels":
 In the case of nuclear fuels, the situation is more complicated because
k also becomes a function of the irradiation as a result of change in the
chemical & physical composition (porosity changes due to temp. &
fission products).
 Even when k is assumed to be a scalar, it may be difficult to solve

Eq.(8-2) analytically because of its nonlinearity.
 The simplest way to overcome the difficulties is to transform Eq.(8-2)

to a linear one, which can be done by “four techniques”

① Assume k is constant :
 In the case of small changes of k within a given temp. range,

assume k is constant. In this case Eq.(8-2) becomes:
(8-6)

② Define a mean 𝒌𝒌̄
 If the change in k over the temp. range is large, define a mean 𝒌𝒌̄
as follows:
(8-7)
& use Eq.(8-6) with 𝒌𝒌̄ replacing k

③ Use an empirical formula for k :
 If an empirical formula for k exists, it may be used to obtain a

single variable differential equation, which in many cases can
be transformed to a relatively simple linear differential equation.
 For example, Eq.(8-5) can be used to write :
∇𝒌𝒌
∇𝑻𝑻 = (8-8)
𝜷𝜷0 𝒌𝒌0
③ Use an empirical formula for k :
(8-9)
(Recall):
(8-10)
which is “a linear d. eq. in k2”.

④ Linearization of the heat conduction Eq. by Kirchoff's transformation:
 Finally, the heat conduction equation can be linearized by

“Kirchoff's transformation”, as briefly described here : In many
cases it is useful to know the integral:
where “T2-T1 is the temp. range of interest”
 “Kirchoff's method” consists of finding such integrals by

solving a modified heat conduction equation.

 Define: (8-11)
 The new variable θ can be used to give :
(8-12)
 The new variable θ can be used to give :

(8-13)
(8-14)
 Then at steady state Eq.(8-2) becomes :
which is a linear D. Eq. that can generally be solved more easily than Eq.(8-2).
 Note:
 In practice, the nuclear industrial computer programs have allowed
common use of temp.-dependent conductivity in the numerical
solutions.
 Therefore the above approaches are useful only if one is
interested in analytic solutions of multidimensional problems.
 Thermal Conductivity
 Many factors affect the UO2 thermal conductivity
 The “major factors” are temp., porosity, oxygen to metal atom ratio,
PuO2 content, pellet cracking, & burnup.

(1) Temperature Effects
 It has been experimentally observed that k(T) decreases with
increasing temp. until T=1750 ºC & then starts to increase (Fig.8-1).

 The “polynomials
representing k(T)
proposed by the
reactor vendors”
are given in Table
8-3.

 All these formulas give the value of the integral as 93.5 W/cm
 For an ionic solid, thermal conductivity can be derived by assuming that

the solid is an ideal gas whose particles are the quantized elastic wave
vibrations in a crystal (referred to as phonons). It can be shown that the
behavior of the UO2 conductivity with temp. can be predicted by such a
model

(2) Porosity (Density) Effects
 The “oxide fuel” is generally fabricated by sintering pressed powdered
UO2 or mixed oxide at high temp1
 By controlling the sintering conditions, material of any desired density,
usually around 90% of the max. possible or theoretical density of the solid,
can be produced.
 Generally, the “conductivity of a solid” decreases with increasing
presence of voids (pores) within its structure. Hence low porosity is
desirable to maximize the conductivity.
 However, fission gases produced during operation within the fuel result in
internal pressures that may swell, & hence deform, the fuel. Thus a
certain degree of porosity is desirable to accommodate the fission gases &
limit the swelling potential. It is particularly true for fast reactors where
the specific power level is higher, & hence the rate at which gases are
produced per unit fuel volume is higher, than in thermal reactors.
● "Effect of Porosity On ∫ 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 for Mixed Oxides" :
 Let us define the “porosity (P)” as :
(8-17)
where “𝝆𝝆𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 ” is the “theorectical density of the poreless solid”.

● "Effect of Porosity On ∫ 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 for Mixed Oxides" :
 The “effect of porosity on ∫ 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 for mixed oxides” is shown in Fig.8-2

● "Equation for Negligible Pore Conductance" :
 By considering the linear porosity to be P1/3 & the cross-sectional
porosity to be P2/3, Kampf & Karsten [13] derived an “equation for
negligible pore conductance” :
(8-18)
 "Loeb Equation" : Earlier, the analysis of Loeb [15] was used by Francl
& Kingery [7] to derive the equation referred to as the "Loeb equation”
for this condition of negligible pore conductance :
(8-19)
Equation (8-19) was found to underestimate the porosity effect.
● "Equation for Negligible Pore Conductance" :
 "Modified Loeb Equation" : “A modified Loeb equation” is often used to
fit the UO2 conductivity measurements as :
(8-20)
where 𝜶𝜶𝟏𝟏 is between 2 & 5 [20]

● "Biancharia Formula for the Porosity Effect" :
 Biancharia [2] derived the following formula for the porosity effect,
which accounts for the shape of the pores :
(8-21)
where 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓 for spherical pores.

For axisymmetric shapes (e.g., ellipsoids), 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 is larger.
 This formula is often used in LMFBR applications.

● "Temp. & Porosity Effects On Conductivity Used in the MATPRO Fuel
Analysis Package for Unirradiated Fuels" :
 The following fit for the temp. & porosity effects on conductivity is used
in the MATPRO fuel analysis package for unirradiated fuels [22] :
 “For 0 ≤ T ≤ 1650ºC”:
(8-22a)
 “For 1650 ≤ T ≤ 2940ºC”:
(8-22b)

● "Temp. & Porosity Effects On Conductivity Used in the MATPRO Fuel
Analysis Package for Unirradiated Fuels" :
where k is in W/cm-ºC, T is in ºC, & 𝜼𝜼 = Porosity correction factor given
by :
(8-22c)
(8-22d)

(3) Oxygen-to-Metal Atomic Ratio
 The oxygen-to-metal ratio of the uranium & plutonium oxides can vary
from the theoretical (or stoichiometric) value of 2.
 This variation affects almost all the physical properties of the fuel.
The departure from the initial stoichiometric condition occurs during
burnup of fuel.
 In general, the effect of both the hyper- & hypostoichiometric is to reduce

the thermal conductivity, as shown in Fig.8-3.

(3) Oxygen-to-Metal Atomic Ratio
Fig. 8-3 “Thermal conductivity of UO0.8Pu0.2O2±x as a function of

O/(U+Pu) ratio.” (From Schmidt and Richter [24].)

(4) Plutonium Content
 “Thermal conductivity of the mixed
oxide fuel” decreases as the plutonium
oxide content increases, as can be seen
in Fig.8-4.
Fig. 8-4 “Thermal conductivity of (U,Pu)O2

solid solutions as a function of PuO2
content.” (From Gibby [8].)

(5) Effects of Pellet Cracking
 Fuel pellet cracking & fragment relocation into the pellet-cladding gap
during operation alters the fuel thermal conductivity & the gap
conductance.
 A series of tests at the Idaho National Engineering Lab. have led to “an
empirical formula for the decrease in the UO2 thermal conductivity due to
cracking.”
 For a fresh, helium-filled LWR fuel rod with cracked & broken fuel pellets,
this relation is [16]
(8-23a)
(8-23b)
where k is in kW/m-oK ; 𝜹𝜹𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉 =calculated hot gap width (mm) for the uncracked fuel ;
𝜹𝜹𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 =cold gap width(mm); 𝝆𝝆𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 = theoretical density of UO2.
Fig. 8-5 “Representative

comparison between MATPRO
fuel thermal conductivity and
calculated effective fuel thermal
conductivity, with estimated
uncertainty, for 2.2% initial gap
helium-filled rods at a power of
39.26 kW/m. (From MacDonald
and Smith [16].)

 "Semiempirical Relation Between the Effective Conductivity & the
Theoretical One by MacDonald & Weisman" :
(8-24)
where
A, B, & C = constant ; Dfo = hot pellet diameter in meters;
kgas = thermal conductivity of the gas in the gap ;
𝜹𝜹𝒉𝒉𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 = hot gap in meters.
The constants recommended are as follows :
A = 6.35 x 10-5m
B = 0.077
C = 0.015

(6) Burnup
 The irradiation of fuel induces several changes in the porosity, composition,
& stoichiometry of the fuel. These changes, however, are generally small in
LWRs, where the burnup is only on the order of 3% of the initial uranium
atoms.
 In “fast reactors”, this effect would be larger, as the expected burnup is on
the order of 10% of the initial uranium & plutonium atoms. 1
 Introduction of fission products into the fuel with burnup leads to a slight
decrease in the conductivity. Fuel material cracking under thermal cycling
also reduces the fuel effective conductivity.
 Finally, the oxide material operating at temps. higher than a certain temp.,
about 1400ºC, undergoes a sintering process that leads to an increase in the
fuel density. This increase in density, which occurs in the central region of
the fuel, affects the conductivity & the fuel temp. distribution, which is
discussed in detail later.
 Fission Gas Release
 It is important for the design of the fuel pin to calculate the gas
released to the fuel pin plenum.
 Some of the fission gases are released from the UO2 pellet at low
temp.
 Accompanying the change in the structure of the fuel at high

temperatures is a significant release of fission gases to the fuel
boundaries.
The accumulated gases within the cladding lead to pressurization of
the cladding.

 Fission Gas Release
 With engineering analysis, a simple scheme is often used in which a
certain fraction (f) of the gas is assumed to be released depending on
the fuel temp..
f = 0.05 T < 1400ºC
f = 0.10 1500 > T > 1400ºC
f = 0.20 1600 > T > 1500ºC
f = 0.40 1700 > T > 1600ºC (8-25)
f = 0.60 1800 > T > 1700ºC
f = 0.80 2000 > T > 1800ºC
f = 0.98 T > 2000ºC
 More complicated approaches to fission gas release have been

proposed based on various physical mechanisms of gas migraton.
Most designers, however, still prefer the simple empirically based
models.
 Melting Point
 The “melting point of UO2” is in
the vicinity of 2840ºC (5144ºF).
 The melting process for the
oxide starts at a solidus temp.
but is completed at a higher
temp. called the "liquidus point".
 The “melting range” is affected

by the oxygen-to-metal ratio
(Fig. 8-6) & by the Pu content.
 Thus “in LWR designs” the Fig. 8-6 “Partial phase diagram for
uranium from UO1.5 to UO2.23 should
conservatively low value of coincide for UO2.0.”(From Latta and
2600ºC (4700ºF) is often used. Fryxell [14].)
 Melting Point
 Olsen & Miller [21] fitted the “melting point for MATPRO” as :
𝟐𝟐
𝝃𝝃
T(solidus) = 3113 - 5.414𝝃𝝃 + 7.468 x 10-3 oK (8-26)
where 𝝃𝝃 = “mole percent of PuO2 in the oxide”.
Fig. 8-7 “Melting points of mixed uranium plutonium oxides.”

 Specific Heat
 The specific heat of
the fuel plays a
significant role in
determining the
sequence of events
in many transients.
It varies greatly
over the
temperature range
of the fuel (Fig.8-8)
Fig. 8-8 “Temperature dependence of the specific heat

capacity of UO2 and (U,Pu)O2”(From Olsen and Miller [21].)
 Example: "Effect of cracking on fuel conductivity"
 (Problem):
Evaluate the “effective conductivity of the fuel after cracking at
1000ºC” for the geometry and operating conditions given below
1. Geometry and materials: BWR fuel rod with UO2 solid fuel pellet and zircaloy clad.
Cold fuel rod dimensions (at 27ºC) are:
a. Clad outside diameter = 12.52 mm
b. Clad thickness = 0.86 mm
c. Diametral gap width = 230 𝝁𝝁m
2. Assumptions :
a. Initial fuel density = 0.88 𝝆𝝆𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻
b. UO2 conductivity is predicted by the Westinghouse correlation in Table 8-3.
c. Porosity correction factor for the conductivity is given by Eq.(8-21) assuming
spherical pores. [ 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 =1.5 in Eq.(8-21)].
d. Fuel conductivity of the cracked fuel is given by Eq.(8-23a).
3. Operating condition:
a. Fuel temperature = 1000ºC
b. Clad temperature = 295ºC
 (Solution):
 Consider first the “conductivity of the uncracked fuel pellet.” From
Eq.(8-16b) (Table 8-3), the “UO2 conductivity at 1000ºC” is :
(8-16b)

 (Solution):
 Applying the “porosity correction factor of Eq.(8-21)”:
where 𝜶𝜶 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓 for spherical pores.

 (Solution):
𝝆𝝆
 Because = 0.88 and 0.95 for the 88% and 95% theoretical density
𝝆𝝆𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻
fuels, respectively, we get:
𝝆𝝆 𝝆𝝆
𝒌𝒌0.88 1 + 0.5 1 −
𝝆𝝆𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 𝝆𝝆𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻
= × 𝝆𝝆
𝒌𝒌0.95 𝝆𝝆
1 + 0.5 1 − 𝝆𝝆𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻
𝝆𝝆𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 𝒌𝒌=0.88 𝒌𝒌=0.95
0.88 1 + 0.5 1 − 0.95

= = 0.896
1 + 0.5 1 − 0.88 0.95

 (Solution):
 Therefore the "conductivity of the 88% theoretical density
uncracked fuel pellet" is:
 Consider the "cracked fuel effective conductivity".

From Eqs.(8-23a) and (8-23b):
For the "cold gap", 𝜹𝜹𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = 0.23 mm as given.

 (Solution):
 To evaluate 𝜹𝜹𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉 , we must evaluate the change in the radius of the
fuel and the cladding. If the “fuel pellet radius” is 𝑹𝑹𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 and the
“cladding inner radius” is 𝑹𝑹𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 :
where 𝜶𝜶 = "linear thermal expansion coefficient."

 However, Clad O.D.=12.52 mm; Clad Thickness=0.86 mm
“Diametral Gap Width = 230𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁”]

 (Solution):
 From Table 8-1
 From Table 8-2
 Now we can determine the parameter X from Eq.(8-23b):

 (Solution):
 Hence the "cracked fuel conductivity for the 88% theoretical
density fuel" is given by Eq.(8-23a) as :
 Thus the effect of cracking is to reduce the “fuel effective

thermal conductivity” in this fuel from 2.60 to 2.16 W/mºC.

Câu hỏi & Giải đáp

Atoms for Peace and
for the Next Generation
Safe, Reliable, Peaceful,
and Sustainable Use of
Nuclear Power

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NE4304: Thủy nhiệt Hạt nhân -0-

NE4304: Thủy nhiệt Hạt nhân -1-

NE4304: Thủy nhiệt Hạt nhân -2-

 The “temp. level at coolant-solid surfaces” controls the chemical reactions

NE4304: Thủy nhiệt Hạt nhân -4-

 “The rate of heat generation in a fuel pin” depends on:

 “The neutron reaction rate”, in return, depends on:

NE4304: Thủy nhiệt Hạt nhân -5-

NE4304: Thủy nhiệt Hạt nhân -6-

 Early liquid-metal-cooled reactors relied on plutonium as a fuel &

 The mid-1980s saw a resurgence in the interest in the metal as fuel in

NE4304: Thủy nhiệt Hạt nhân -7-

 The carbides & nitrides, if proved not to swell excessively under

 "Thermal Properties of Fuel & Cladding Materials" :

NE4304: Thủy nhiệt Hạt nhân -9-

NE4304: Thủy nhiệt Hạt nhân - 10 -

 If the energy transport equation is written with explicit dependence

 Note : for incompressible materials 𝒄𝒄𝒑𝒑 = 𝒄𝒄𝒗𝒗

NE4304: Thủy nhiệt Hạt nhân - 11 -

 Because by definition the “conduction heat flux” is given by

Eq.(8-2) can be written as :

NE4304: Thủy nhiệt Hạt nhân - 12 -

 In a nonisotropic medium, thermal behavior is different in different

 For example, thermally deposited pyrolytic graphite can have a

NE4304: Thủy nhiệt Hạt nhân - 13 -

 “For anisotropic homogeneous solids” the tensor is symmetric, i.e.,

 In most practical cases k can be taken as a scalar quantity.

 The change of k with pressure depends on the physical state of the

 Therefore the conductivity of solids is mainly a function of temp., k=k(T),

NE4304: Thủy nhiệt Hạt nhân - 15 -

gives a good fit to the data in a relatively large temp. range.

NE4304: Thủy nhiệt Hạt nhân - 16 -

 Even when k is assumed to be a scalar, it may be difficult to solve

 The simplest way to overcome the difficulties is to transform Eq.(8-2)

NE4304: Thủy nhiệt Hạt nhân - 17 -

 In the case of small changes of k within a given temp. range,

NE4304: Thủy nhiệt Hạt nhân - 18 -

& use Eq.(8-6) with 𝒌𝒌̄ replacing k

NE4304: Thủy nhiệt Hạt nhân - 19 -

 If an empirical formula for k exists, it may be used to obtain a

 For example, Eq.(8-5) can be used to write :

which is “a linear d. eq. in k2”.

NE4304: Thủy nhiệt Hạt nhân - 21 -

 Finally, the heat conduction equation can be linearized by

where “T2-T1 is the temp. range of interest”

 “Kirchoff's method” consists of finding such integrals by

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 The new variable θ can be used to give :

 The new variable θ can be used to give :

 Then at steady state Eq.(8-2) becomes :

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 For an ionic solid, thermal conductivity can be derived by assuming that

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where “𝝆𝝆𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 ” is the “theorectical density of the poreless solid”.

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where 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓 for spherical pores.

 This formula is often used in LMFBR applications.

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