INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Structural Formula - shows the exact way in which

atoms are connected to each other.

 In the eighteenth century it was believed that a CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3
“vital force” was needed to make the compounds Molecular formula – gives the total number of atoms of
produced by living cells, which were classified an each element in a compound.
organic compound. C5H12
 German chemist, Friedrich Wohler (1828) prepared Isomer - compounds with the same molecular formula
a compound normally found in the blood and urine but different structural formula or different
by heating a solution of ammonium cyanate an arrangement of atoms.
inorganic compound. CH3
CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 CH3 - C – CH3 CH3 – CH2 – CH – CH3
NH4CNO . NH2 – C – NH2
CH3 CH3
Allotropes - form of the same element but different
This led to the subdivision of chemistry into two parts – bonding arrangement.
inorganic and organic. Allotropic Forms of Carbon
 Organic chemistry was defined as the chemistry of
carbon compounds. 1. Diamond – clear; the hardest substance known
 Carbon is unique in that it forms covalent bond with 2. Graphite – soft, dark black solid; good electrical
other carbon atoms as well as to their elements. conductor.
3. Fullerene - shape similar to soccer balls.
Importance of Organic Chemistry
Hydrocarbon - compounds that contains only carbon
1. It is associated with all living matter in both plants
and hydrogen.
and animals.
2. Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, hormones, A. Saturated hydrocarbon - single bond
enzymes, and many drugs are organic compounds. ALKANE - CNH2N+2
3. Wool, silk, linen, and such contains organic B. Unsaturated hydrocarbon – double/triple bond
compounds. 1. Alkene - CnH2n - double bond
4. Perfumes, dyes, flavoring agents, soaps and 2. Alkyne - CnH2n-2 - triple bond
detergents, plastics gasoline and oils. 3. Aromatic hydrocarbons - contains benzene
Organic compounds VS Inorganic compounds ring with multiple double bonds.
flammable not Hydrocarbon derivative –contains carbon and hydrogen
low melting & boiling high melting & boiling and some other elements such as P, N, Cl, S, I, AND K
point point contains an OH
Alcohol ROH
insoluble in water soluble in water group
oxidation of
soluble in non-polar insoluble in non-polar Aldehyde RCHO primary alcohol
solvents solvents oxidation of
form covalent bond form ionic bond Ketone RCOR secondary alcohol
chemical reactions chemical reactions
dehydration of
occur between occur within ions Ether ROR alcohol
molecules oxidation of
Carboxylic Acid RCOOH aldehyde
contains many atoms contains few atoms
reaction of
per molecule per molecule Ester RCOOR carboxylic acid
non-electrolyte electrolyte and alcohol
derived from
Amine RNH2, R2NH, R3N
ammonia (NH3)
Bonding Ability of Carbon derived from
1. single bond Amide carboxylic acid
and ammonia
2. double bond
3. triple bond.
1. Alkanes (-ane) 5. Ether – ROR
# of - Rs represent the alkyl group; O represent ether
C- NAME Mol Formula Structural formula
atoms
To name an ether name the two alkyl group and
add the word ether.
Methan
1 CH4 CH4 e.g. DIMETHYL ETHER CH3 – O- CH3.
e

2 Ethane C2H6 CH3 – CH3 6. Ketone - RCOR (-one)

e.g. propane - propanone CH3COCH3
3 Propane C3H8 CH3 – CH2 – CH3 simplest ketone
- 2- propanone/acetone/dimehyl ketone
4 Butane C4H10 CH3 – (CH2)2 – CH3

7. Aldehyde- RCHO
5 Pentane C5H12 CH3 –( CH2)3 –CH3 - drop the e of alkane and add al
CH3 – CH2 OH + [O] CH3 CHO + H2O
6 Hexane C6H14 CH3 – (CH2)4 – CH3 Ethanal
e.g. methanal/ formaldehyde HCHO
7 Heptane C7H16 CH3(CH2)5 – CH3
ethanal/ acetaldehyde CH3CHO

8 Octane C8H18 CH3 – (CH2)6 – CH3

Benzaldehyde - is an aromatic aldehyde
9 Nonane C9H20 CH3-(CH2)7-CH3
8. Carboxylic acid - RCOOH
10 Decane C10H22 CH3-(CH2)8-CH3 - drop e of alkane and add oic acid.
CH3 - CH O+ [O ] CH3COOH
Ethanoic acid

Methane - is the simplest alkane e.g. Butane -> Butanoic/Butyric acid CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – COOH
Alkyl – formed by removing one hydrogen form an
alkane and the name ends in -yl
e.g. CH4 methane CH3 - methyl

2. Alkene (-ene)
e.g. PROPANE - PROPENE

Cis isomer - substituents are found on the same side of

the plane Benzoic acid - is an aromatic carboxylic acid
Trans isomer - substituents are found on the opposite
side of the plane
e.g.

3. Alkyne (-yne)
e.g. ETHANE – ETHYNE

4. Alcohol - ROH (-ol)

e.g. ETHANE - ETHANOL CH3-CH2-OH
9. Amine - RNH2, R2NH, R3N
A basic compound due to the presence of amino group
(NH2)

aniline
e.g. Butylamine/aminomethane CH3- CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – NH2

10. Amide – RCONH2

A neutral compound due to the presence of the
carbonyl group and amino group.
e.g. ETHANAMIDE
11. Ester - RCOOR
Prepared by the reaction of carboxylic acid and alcohol
Naming: write first the name of alcohol followed by the
name of the acid, drop the -oic acid and add -ate for
alcohol write only the alkyl group.

Propanoic acid + methanol = methyl propanoate

CH3 – CH2COOH + CH3OH CH3-CH2COOCH3 + H2O
Methyl propanoate
e.g. Ethanamide/acetamid
Benzamide – aromatic amide
Aromatic Hydrocarbon
- hydrocarbon that contains benzene ring. Hydrocarbon Derivative Without Carbonyl Carbon
1. Organic Halides
- are type of the type R-X where R is a hydrocarbon
or aromatic group and X is a halogen.
- used as industrial and household solvent. CCl4 was
a common household solvent until. Chloroform
(CHCl3) was used for inducing anesthesia.
Examples of Aromatic HYDROCARBON 2. Alcohol
- Ethanol, (C2H5OH) and isopropyl alcohol are used
as disinfectants.
- Methanol (CH3OH) is very toxic and ingestion of
small amounts may lead to blindness.
- the most useful and versatile of all organic families
because they can be converted into other group of
compounds.
3. Ether
- have type of compound R-O-R and are
commercially important as nonpolar solvents
4. Amines
- have the type formula R-NH2 and are present in
Summary of Compounds with their formulas and many compounds with biological activity,
functional group EXAMPLES: Hormones (epinephrine), vitamins
Types of organic Functional (niacin), stimulants (nicotine, amphetamine and
Formulas
compounds group cocaine), and in biomolecules (DNA, amino acids
and proteins).
Organic Halide R –X X - (Cl, Br, F, I)

Alkane CnH2n+2 Single bond Hydrocarbons with carbonyl Group (C=O)

1. Aldehyde
Alkene CnH2n Double bond
2. Ketones
Alkyne CnH2n-2 Triple bond Aldehydes and ketones usually have an appealing
taste and a fragrant odor. They are often used as
5.Alcohol R - OH or Ar - OH OH flavoring agent in foods and candies and fragrances
Ether R–O-R -O-
in inhalers and perfumes.
The simplest aldehyde is formaldehyde or formalin
Ketone R-COR’ C = O’ and is used in the preservation of biologic
specimen.
Aldehyde R-CHO C=O
Acetone the simplest ketone is used for dissolving
Ester R-COOR’ C=O fatty substances and is used to remove nail polish.
3. Carboxylic acid
Amine R-NH2 or Ar – NH2 NH2 - wide range of household uses. Examples: Acetic
Amide R-CONH2 C=O acid (CH3COOH) is the acid in vinegar.
- Carboxylic acids with long chains are usually solids
at room temperature. They are called fatty acids
and they maybe saturated or unsaturated.
4. Esters - pleasant fruity odors
 NATURE OF BIOCHEMISTRY
Biochemistry 1.
- study of compounds, chemical reactions, and
molecular interactions that are involved in the
2.
production, maintenance and reproduction of living
organisms.
3.
- serve as central component of all health sciences,
including microbiology, genetics, physiology, nutrition,
medicine, dentistry and nursing.
Along with its ability to prevent and treat health 4.
- problems comes the ability to manipulate and modify
life forms. This raises a lot of moral and ethical
questions and one need to recognize its peril as well as
its promise.
Why do we study biochemistry?
1. To familiarize ourselves with the body composition
the major classes of molecules in it. 5.
2. To familiarize ourselves with the chemical
constituents of the living cells and with the reaction
processes that they undergo.
3. For the understanding and maintenance of health
(preventive medicine) and nutrition such as 1. Acids
optimum dietary intake of certain of certain
chemicals like vitamins, amino acids, fatty acids,
water and minerals. 2. Base
4. For the effective treatment of disease. From a
biochemical standpoint of view, all diseases are
manifestations of abnormalities of molecules, 3. Salts
chemical reactions or chemical processes.
Cell – basic unit structure of living organism
Prokaryotic Cell - no nucleus, e.g. bacteria
Eukaryotic Cell - have a nucleus
Organelle – specialized cellular part that has a specific
function. 4.
Cell Organelle
Nucleus
- Stores DNA; involved in the expression of genetic
information and ribosome assembly.
Mitochondria
- Powerhouse of the cell
Golgi apparatus
- Contains stacks of flattened membrane-enclosed bodies
called cisternae.
- modify and transport proteins and lipids from the
endoplasmic reticulum (ER); production of lysosome.
Endoplasmic reticulum
- an intricate winding membrane,
- process, synthesize, pack, and transport products
(proteins and lipid)
Rough ER - contains ribosome used by the cell to
assemble proteins.
Smooth ER - doesn’t have a ribosome and produces
some of the cells lipid.
Lysosome
- responsible for the intracellular digestion of material;
repair/breakdown worn out or excess cell parts
INORGANIC COMPOUNDS IN THE BODY
- yield hydrogen ion (H+) in aqueous solution
- “proton donor”.
- yield hydroxide ions (OH-) aqueous solution
- “proton acceptor”
- product of the neutralization of acid and base or
substances that will dissolved in water, dissociates
into cations and anions neither of which is H+ or OH-
IMPORTANCE
- act as electrolytes that transmit electrical current
through nerves and tissues
- provide many essential chemical elements in
intra and extracellular fluids such as the lymph,
blood, and interstitial fluids.
Water
- the most important and abundant inorganic
compounds in all living systems. It is the medium in
 which nearly all of the body’s chemical reaction
takes place.
PROPERTIES OF WATER
1. Polarity - uneven sharing of valence electrons:
 a partial negative charge near the oxygen atom
 a partial positive charge near hydrogen atom in a
water molecule.
2. Higher melting point and higher boiling point
- water can exists as liquid over wide range of
temperature.
3. High specific heat
- H water can absorb considerable amount of heat
without changing its temperature
- specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of one gram of a substance by 10C.
4. High heat of vaporization
- requires a large amount of heat to change from
liquid to gas
5. Cohesion
- water tend to link with other molecules to form a
“membrane” on the surface of the liquid. This force by
which the surface molecules are held together is called
surface tension.
Properties of Surface Tension
1. Formation of liquids falling through air.
2. Rise of liquid in capillary tube.
3. Formation of meniscus at the surface of the liquids.
4. Surface tension decrease with increase in
temperature.
5. Soaps, oils, proteins and bile acid reduce surface
tension of water, while sodium chloride and
inorganic salts increase surface tension.
6. Surface tension leads to better adsorption
It acts as lubricant for internal organs to slide over one
another and aid in the passage of materials.
Universal solvent- It is based on the polar covalent
bonds which allow water molecules to interact with
neighboring ions or molecules, so that, substances that
contains covalent bond are “hydrophilic” and are easily
soluble in water.
Methods of Material Transfer
1. Diffusion
- movement of solute particles from a higher
concentration to one of lower concentration.
- important in maintaining the proper balance of
materials in the blood, tissue fluids, and the cell.
2. Osmosis
- movement of solvent molecules from a lower
concentration to one of greater concentration
through a semi-permeable membrane.
- The pressure to prevent osmosis is called osmotic
pressure. Differences in osmotic pressure of
solutions cause difference in the tone of the
solution.
Isotonic solutions
- same solute concentration or solution with a
concentration equal to the inside of the cell,
e.g., 0.9% NaCl (normal saline solution or NSS)
usually administered during dehydration
hemorrhage or post-operative shock
prevention. A 5.5% glucose solution is isotonic
with body fluids.
Hypotonic solution
- solution that have lower concentration than
that inside the cell, e.g. distilled or tap water
are hypotonic compared with blood. If a
hypotonic solution is injected into the red blood
cell (RBC) causing it to swell and finally burst
(hemolysis), liberating its hemoglobin content.
(PLASMOLYSIS)
3. Dialysis
- the separation of colloidal particles from those of
true solution by means of semi-permeable
membrane. Only the solution particles pass
through the membrane. The colloid particle does
not. In this process no energy is needed and
movement is spontaneous. In the body, kidney
membranes allow the passage of soluble waste
materials but not colloidal proteins.

Chemical Reactions Occurring in the Body
1. Hydrolysis
- union of a substance with one or more molecules
of water. Through hydrolysis, large molecules are
broken down smaller and simpler form.
2. Condensation
- a reaction where simple molecules unite with one
another to from complex compound. This is the
basis for the formation of complex substances in
the body such as glycogen, tissue proteins and the
like.
3. Tautomerism
- the intramolecular rearrangement of atoms within
a molecule leading to the formation of a new
substance having properties distinctly different
from the original. Glucose and Galactose,
methylation-demethylation, deamination,
decarboxylation and stereoisomerism.
4. Oxidation
- may be:
Aerobic if it takes place in the presence of free oxidation.
Anaerobic if it takes place in the absence of oxygen.
5. Reduction
- is the reverse of oxidation. It is a simultaneous and
corresponding reaction to oxidation. It may be
brought about either by:
a. Loss of oxygen
b. Gain by hydrogen or electrons.
Electrolytes
- are substances that when dissolved in water
dissociates into charged particles called ions.
Cations - positively charged ions
Anions - negatively charged ions
- minerals that carry electrical charge when they are
dissolved in liquid such as blood.
The blood electrolyte is sodium, potassium, chloride
and bicarbonate ions. They help regulate nerve and
muscle function and maintain the acid-base balance and
water balance.
The main electrolyte in our body are K+, Cl-, and Na+
ions. Other electrolytes are Ca2+, Mg2+, PO43-.
Buffers
- substances that resists a change in pH upon addition
of small amount of acid or bases.
- consist of mixtures of weak acids and their salts or
weal bases and their salts.
- act as shock absorber against sudden changes in pH.
acidosis - reduction in pH
alkalosis - increase in pH
The ability to buffer of hydrogen ions is more important
to the body than the strong bases raises pH more easily
by combining with excess H+ ions and converting it to
water.
THE BUFFER SYSTEM OF BLOOD:
1. Carbonic acid (H2CO3) and Bicarbonate (HCO3)
buffer system
- compensate for either an excess or shortage of H+.
- the most important buffer for plasma and is
present in high concentration. I
- a prime physiologic importance in the
maintenance of acid-base balance of the
extracellular fluid and keeping blood pH within
normal limit and acts cooperatively with other
buffer.
2. Protein buffer system
- helps maintain the acidity in and around the cell.
Hemoglobin makes an excellent buffer by binding
the small amount of acid in the blood, before they
alter the pH of the blood.
3. Phosphate buffer
- acts as anions in intra and extracellular fluid by
raising, the plasma pH through excretion of H3PO, by
kidney.
CARBOHYDRATES
- polyhydroxyldehyde or polyhydroxyketone or
cubstances thar yield these compounds on
hydrolysis.
Green (chlorophyll containing) plants produce
carbohydrates via photosynthesis.
CO2 + H2O + solar energy Carbohydrates +
Glucose Fructose
Functions of Carbohydrates in Humans
1. Carbohydrate oxidation provides energy.
2. Carbohydrate storage in the form glycogen, provide
a short-term energy reserve.
3. Carbohydrates form a part of the structural
framework of DNA and RNA molecules.
4. Carbohydrates linked to lipids are structural
components of the cell membrane.
5. Carbohydrate linked to proteins function in a
variety of cell-cell and cell molecule recognition
process.
Classification of Carbohydrates
1. Monosaccharide
- commonly known as simple sugar.
- usually contains from three to seven carbon
atoms. e.g. Glyceraldehyde, glucose, ribose
2. Disaccharide
- contains two monosaccharide units joined by a
glycosidic bond. On hydrolysis will yield two simple
sugar. e.g. sucrose and lactose.
3. Oligosaccharide
- contains from three to ten monosaccharide units
joined together by glycosidic bond.
e.g. raffinose and stachyrose.
4. Polysaccharide
- carbohydrates that contains many
monosaccharides covalently bonded to each other
by glycosidic bond. e.g. Starch, glycogen and
cellulose.
Chirality: Handedness in Molecule
Most monosaccharide exhibit handedness:
L form - left handed form
D form - right handed
Handedness requires chiral center - an atom
attached to four different groups tetrahedrally
bonded to it.
CO2
Mirror image - reflection of an object in a plane
mirror.
Two kinds of mirror image
1. Superimposable Mirror image
- are images that coincide at all points when the
images are laid upon each other.
e.g. plate with no design, flask
2. Non-superimposable mirror image
- are images where not all points coincide when
the images are laid upon each other.
e.g. Human hands
Chiral Center – is an atom in a molecule that that
has four different groups attached to it.
Chiral Molecule – is a molecule whose mirror
images are not superimposable. Chiral molecules
have handedness.
Achiral Molecule – is a molecule whose mirror
images are superimposable. The do not possess
handedness.
Example of chiral and achiral
Importance of Chirality
In the human body chemistry, it is found that
left handed and right handed forms of a molecule
usually elicit different responses and that our
bodies can normally use only one of the two form
of a chiral compound. Sometimes both forms are
biologically active, each form giving a different
response; sometimes both forms elicit the same
response, but one form response is many times
greater than that of the other; and sometimes one
of the two form is biochemically active.
STEREOISOMERISM
Enantiomer and Diastereomer
Stereoisomer
- same molecular formula and structural formulas
but different in the orientation of atom in space.
Two major structural formulas that generate
stereoisomerism:
1. Presence of chiral center in a molecule
2. Structural rigidity in a molecule.
Stereoisomer can be subdivided into two:
1. Enantiomer
- molecules are non-superimposable mirror
images with each other.
e.g. Left hand right handed form of molecule
with a single chiral center.
2. Diaseteriomer
- molecule are not mirror image with each
other.
e.g. cis and trans isomer
INTERACTION OF ENANTIOMER WITH POLARIZED LIGHT
Ordinary light can be converted to plane of
polarized light by passing it through a polarizer.
Polarizer – an instrument with lenses or filters
containing special types of crystals.
When -plane of polarized light is passed through a
solution containing single enantiomer, the -
depending on the enantiomer. The extent of
rotation depends on the concentration of the
enantiomer as well as its identity.
Polarimeter - instruments used to measure the
degree of rotation of plane polarize light by
enantiomeric compounds.
Dextrorotatory and Levorotatory Compounds:
Optically Active Compound
- compound that rotates the plane of polarized
light
Dextrorotatory Compound
- a chiral compound that rotates the plane of
polarized light in a clockwise direction
Levorotatory compound
- a chiral compound that rotates the plane of
polarized light in a counter clockwise direction.
D and L - forms - refers to the position of the
hydroxyl group (OH-). If the (OH-) group is on the
right side, then it is a D-series. If the (OH-) is on the
left side, then it belongs to the L-series.
 Fischer’s and Haworth’s Projection
Fischer’s Projection - is the open or planar formula
for sugar.
Anomer - are carbohydrates that differ in the
configuration about a single carbon atom, that is at
carbon 1 (called the anomeric carbon atom).
It is of two forms: Alpha and Beta forms
e.g. Alpha D Glucose has the hydroxyl group at C1
at the right hand side, Beta D Glucose has the
hydroxyl group at C1 on the left hand side.

Anomeric form arises as a result of cyclization or

ring formation where C1, then becomes
asymmetric.
Glucose

Haworth’s Projection Formula - the ring formula

for sugars

Alpha - under; Beta – above the hydroxyl group

Monosaccharide:
Classification of monosaccharide depending on
the number of carbon atom present
Epimer - are carbohydrates that differ only on the
examples
configuration about a single carbon atom. The
Triose 3 – carbon Glycraldehyde,
process of interconversion of glucose and fructose sugar Dihydroxyacetone
in the liver is known as epimerization, and is Tetroses 4-carbon sugar Erythrose
catalyzed by an enzyme epimerase. Pentose 5 - carbon Ribose,
sugar Deoxyribose
Hexoses 6 - carbon Glucose,
Example of Epimer
sugar Galactose,
Mannose,
Fructose
Heptoses 7 carbon sugar Mannoheptose

Classification of Monosaccharide
according to Functional Group
1. Aldose -monosaccharide that contains an
aldehyde functional group.
2. Ketose - monosaccharide that contains a
ketone functional group.

Biologically Important Monosaccharide

1. D-Glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone 1. Oxidation
- two trioses that are important in the process of - mono and disaccharide except sucrose are easily
glycolysis - series of reaction whereby glucose is oxidized to form sugar acids
converted into two molecules of pyruvate a. Oxidation of the carbonyl group using weak
2. D-Glucose oxidizing agent such as Tollen’s or Benedicts
- commonly known as dextrose or grape sugar. test to produce aldonic acid
- widely found in fruit juices. b. Oxidation of both the carbony and alcohol
- can be derived from the hydrolysis of starch. group using strong oxidizing agent to
- readily absorbed by the digestive tract and is the produce aldaric acid.
only sugar present in the blood. It is also known as c. Oxidation of the alcohol group using an
blood sugar. enzyme to produce alduronic acid
Normal glucose concentration in the blood: 2. Reduction - the reduction of aldose or ketose
70 - 100mg/dL produce sugar alcohols or alditols
Two hormones that regulate blood sugar level: 3. Glucoside formation
epinephrine and glucagon. 4. Phosphate esters
3. Galactose
- sometimes called brain sugar, because it is a
component of glycoprotein compound present in
the brain and nerve tissue.
- D-galactose also is present in chemical markers
that distinguished various type of blood. In the
human body galactose is synthesized from glucose
in the mammary gland for use in lactose.
4. Fructose
- biochemically important ketohexose. It is known
as levulose or fruit sugar.
- it is the sweetest of all sugars.
5. Ribose
- it is a component of a variety of compound
including the Ribonucleic acid (RNA) and energy rich
compounds such as the ( ATP)

REACTIONS OF MONOSACCHARIDE
Chemical Reactions OF Monosaccharide Phosphate ester - form when a compound
1. Oxidation - mono and disaccharide are easily containing an (OH) group reacts with phosphoric
oxidized to sugar acids. acid (H3PO4).
a. Oxidation of aldehyde group of an aldose using 5. Fermentation - the decomposition of
weak oxidizing agent such as Tollen’s and carbohydrates brought by enzymes, yeast, bacteria
Benedict’s solution to give an aldonic acid. and other microorganism
Oxidation of an aldehyde end of glucose produces
gluconic acid. Glucose ferments in the presence of yeast, to
b. Oxidation using strong oxidizing agent. Strong produce ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide
oxidizing agent can oxidize both the carbonyl group C6H12O6 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2
and the primary alcohol group to produce a Glucose ethyl alcohol carbon dioxide
dicarboxylic acid. Such polyhydroxy dicarboxylic
acids are known as aldaric acid. For glucose the
oxidation product is glucaric acid.
Disaccharide - on hydrolysis will yield two simple sugar
c. Oxidation by an enzyme. Enzyme can oxidize the
C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
alcohol end of an aldose such as glucose without Disaccharide Monosaccharide Monosaccharide
oxidation of the aldehyde group to produce
alduronic acid
2. Reduction to produce sugar alcohols Sucro
The carbonyl group present in a monosaccharide
(aldose or ketose) can be reduced to hydroxyl Lacto
using, hydrogen as the reducing agent. For ketose Malto
and aldoses, the product of reduction is the
corresponding polyhydroxy alcohols called alditols. Amino Sugar - sugars containing an amino group (NH2)
Example: in place of an (-OH)
The reduction of D-glucose gives D-glucitol.
D-glucitol is commonly known as sorbitol.
3. Formation of Glycoside
Glycoside - a carbohydrate in which the (-OH) is
replaced by (-OR) group.
It is the general term for monosaccharide acetal.
An acetal is produced by the reaction of hemiacetal
and alcohol. Hemiacetal is produced by the
reaction of aldehyde and an alcohol.

Aldehyde + alcohol = Hemiacetal

Hemiacetal + alcohol = Acetal
4. Formation of Phosphate Ester

DISACCHARIDE - on hydrolysis will yield 2 simple sugar

C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Disaccharide monosaccharide monosaccharide

of glucose and fructose and it reverses the rotation of

polarized light. It is produced commercially from
1. Sucrose - known as table sugar or cane sugar. It is sugarcane and sugar beets. It is a non-reducing sugar.
also known as invert sugar because it is a 50-50 mixture The linkage is at alpha 1.2 glycosidic bond.
2. Lactose - commonly known as milk sugar. It is a 4. Chitin - is the second most abundant naturally
reducing sugar. It can be fermented by bacteria, occurring polysaccharide. It function is to give
forming lactic acid. The glycosidic linkage is at Beta- 1-4 rigidity to the exoskeleton of crabs, lobsters,
–glycosidic bond shrimp, insects and other arthropods.

3. Maltose - commonly known as malt sugar because it ACIDIC POLYSACCHARDIE – group of

is derived from malt, the juice from sprouted barley and polysaccharide that contains carbonyl groups and/
other cereal grains. The linkage is at alpha - 1-4 sulphuric ester groups. It plays an important role in
glycosidic bond. the structure and function of connective tissue.

4. Cellobiose - product of hydrolysis of cellulose 1. Hyaluronic acid - Simplest acidic polysaccharide

present in connective tissues It most abundant
in embryonic tissues and in specialized
connective tissues such as synovial fluid, the
lubricant of joints in the body and the vitreous
humor of the eye, where it provides a clear
elastic gel that holds the retina in the proper
positions.
2. Heparin - is an acidic polysaccharide used as
blood anticoagulant. It accelerates the
inactivation of thrombin and other blood
clotting agen

Polysaccharide – consists of large molecules of

monosaccharide bonded together by glycosidic bond

1. Starch - energy storage in plants.

There are two starch granules:
Amylase - non-branch polysaccharide present in
start to the extent from 15-20%
Amylopectin - branch polysaccharide present in
starch granules to the extent of 80 -85%.
2. Glycogen - energy reserve carbohydrate for
animals. Present in the body and is stored in the
liver and the muscle where it serves as the reserve
supply of glucose. It is of animal origin.
It is known as animal starch.
3. Cellulose - supporting and structural substance of
plant. It is not affected by enzymes present in
human digestive system and so cannot be digested.
It is the purest source of cotton