Rock Breakage

Session 4
Rock Properties and Characterisation

Jian Zhao

Rock Properties and Characterisation

Session Contents

• Key rock properties 1

governing rock breakage
• Principal rock strength
criteria used in rock 3

breakage 3
• Testing and
characterization of key
rock strengths 1

1
 Governing Rock Properties

Rock Breakage Methods and Breaking Type

Drilling, chiselling, TBM, Indentation

Roadheader, shearer Shearing (after indentation)

Coring, sawing, grinding Scratching (Shearing)

Crushing, surface hammering Compression

Blasting, chisel breaking,

Tension
chemical, hydrofracturing

Fire, laser, microwave Thermo-mechanical

Governing Rock Properties

Rock Breaking and Failure Mechanisms

Indentation Shear failure by radial compression

Shearing Shear failure (and tensile)

Scratching Shear failure (and tensile)

Compression Shear failure by compression

Tension Tensile failure

Thermo-mechanical Tensile failure by expansion

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 Governing Rock Properties

Summary of Key Governing Properties

Strength under compression: expressed by

compressive strength, with shear failure mode.
Strength under tension: expressed by tensile
strength, direct tensile failure mode.
Strength under shearing: expressed by shear
strength, shear failure mode.
Physical properties: thermal expansion, hardness,
wave velocity.

Principal Rock Strength Criteria

Shear Failure of Brittle Materials n


Shear failure in brittle materials is c, φ
typically sliding failure along a fractured
plane through the material.
Shear failures can be generated by direct
shear or by compression. 1

Most shear failure in rock excavation is n

associated with compression, as in

roadheader and shearer.
1


1 6

3
 Principal Rock Strength Criteria

Coulomb Shear Strength Criterion

When shear failure occurs, the shear n

stress () and normal stress (n)
developed on the failure plane satisfy 
the Coulomb’s shear failure criterion. c, φ

 = c + n tanφ
Where c is the constant cohesion, φ is
the internal friction angle, of the
material.

Principal Rock Strength Criteria

Shear Failure under Compression

Rock breakage under compression mostly by shear

failure.
𝛑
Shear failure plane is at ( - ) angle to principal
compression 1.
1 1
Most rock breaking occurs
at surface, and is n n
3 3
under uniaxial  
compression. 1
 

1 1 8

4
 Principal Rock Strength Criteria

1
Mohr-Coulomb Strength Criterion
n
3 3 Resolving principal stresses 1 and 3
 to the shear plane, it gives,

n = ½ (1 + 3) + ½ (1 – 3) cos2
1  = ½ (1 – 3) sin2

Insert into  = c + n tan. (Coulomb)

½ (1–3) sin2θ = c + [½ (1+3) + ½ (1–3) cos2θ] tan

2c + 3 [sin2θ + tan (1–cos2θ)]

1 = –––––––––––––––––––––––––––
sin2θ – tan (1+cos2θ)
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Principal Rock Strength Criteria

Stresses by Mohr’s Circle

1   = c + n tanφ

n (n, )
3 3  = ½ (1 – 3) sin(𝛑–2)

 = ½ (1 – 3) sin2
 
c
3 𝛑-2 2 1
1
n n
½ (1 + 3)
=¼+½
n = ½ (1 + 3) – ½ (1 – 3) cos(𝛑–2)
n = ½ (1 + 3) + ½ (1 – 3) cos2
10

5
 Principal Rock Strength Criteria

Compressive and Tensile Strengths

Replacing  = ¼  + ½  in the equation of 1

At 3=0, 1 is the uniaxial compressive strength




At 1=0, 3 is the tensile strength

c
Not Real
Too High 2
t 0 3 n c 1
11

Principal Rock Strength Criteria

Tensile Failure of Brittle

Materials

Tensile strengths of rock materials are 

low to be about 1/10 of the

compressive strength. It is due to the
opening and propagation of existing
micro-cracks in the rock.
Tensile strength of rock materials can 
be described by the Griffith criterion
based on fracture initiation at
microscopic flaws in a material.
12

6
 Principal Rock Strength Criteria

Griffith Criterion

Under compression, elliptical 1

crack will propagate from the
points of maximum tensile
stress concentration. When 3
under compression, it gives
3
the following criterion for
crack extension:
(1 – 3)2 – 8t (1 + 3) = 0 1
if 1 + 33 > 0

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Principal Rock Strength Criteria

Griffith Tensile Strength

1

At 3 = 0, 1 – 8t = 0 or 1 = 8t
Uniaxial tensile strength at
crack extension is always 1/8 the 8t
uniaxial compressive strength.
Expressing in  and n acting on t 3

the plane containing the major


axis of the crack,
2 = 4t (n + t) 2t

When n = 0,  = c = 2t
t 0 n
14

7
 Principal Rock Strength Criteria

Combined Strength Criteria

Combining Mohr-Coulomb and Griffith criteria give

a more realistic compressive-tensile strength
envelope.
Hoek-Brown

criterion is also
commonly
used in mining
engineering to
Griffith

estimate rock
n
strengths.
15

Principal Rock Strength Criteria

Stress at Crack Tip and Crack Propagation

Based on Griffith theory, fracture starts from initial

cracks tip and propagates. 
Mode I Stress Intensity Factor KI (tensile
stress at crack tip) can be estimated as:

KI = Y𝛔 (𝛑 a)½ a

Y is geometric factor and is 1 for infinite

plate, 𝛔 applied stress, and a crack
length. 
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8
 Principal Rock Strength Criteria

Mode I (Tensile) Fracture Failure Criterion

Tensile fracturing at the existing crack tip when the

Stress Intensity Factor KI exceeds the Fracture
Toughness (KIC), i.e., for Mode I failure,

KI ≧ KIC

KIC is a material property, and

can be determined from
laboratory tests on prepared
rock samples.

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Rock Strength Characterisation

Uniaxial Compression
Testing System

Compression loading
machine of high stiffness to
apply and control axial
compression.
Testing specimen assembly
including load and
displacement devices. © MTS

Data acquisition and control

system.
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9
 Rock Strength Characterisation

Specimen Assembly
Steel platens

(a) Rock specimen, typically long with spherical

seats

cylinder.
(b) Steel platens with spherical
seats on the top and the bottom. Strain gauges

(c) Attached with strain gauges or Rock specimen

LVDTs for measuring axial and

lateral strains. Steel platens
with spherical
seats
(d) Load cell for measuring axial
load. Load cell

19

Rock Strength Characterisation

Axial and Lateral Strain

Measurements

(a) Usually 2 pairs of axial and latera

strain gauges, with strain
sensitivity of 5x10-6, glued to the
middle of specimen surface, on
opposite sides.
(b) Axial and circumferential ©epsilontech.com

extensometers with LVDT, with

accuracy to 0.002-0.005 mm.

20

10
 Rock Strength Characterisation

Servo-Controlled Loading System

Servo-controlled hydraulic testing machines are

available
to control
axially
loading.

Fairhurst and Hudson 1999, ©ISRM

21

Rock Strength Characterisation

Specimen Preparation

(a) Intact, homogenous, and no visible defects.

(b) Right circular cylinders with diameter
preferably of not less than 50 mm and height-to-
diameter ratio of 2 to 3.
(c) Specimen ends shall be flat, smooth, parallel
and perpendicular to axial.
(d) Specimen sides shall be smooth and straight to
within 0.3 mm, and free of abrupt irregularities.

22

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 Rock Strength Characterisation

Testing Procedure

(a) Measure and record specimen dimensions,

density and water contents.
(b) Apply axial load to specimen assembly
continuously at a constant stress rate at 0.5-1.0
MPa/s, or to reach failure in 5-10 minutes.
(c) Record load/stress and displacement/strain
measurements at 1 Hz frequency.
(d) Number of specimens tested should preferably
be at least 5, with practical considerations.
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Rock Strength Characterisation

Triaxial Compression Cell

Assembly

(a) Triaxial cell allows to

apply circumferential
confining pressure to the
specimen.
(b) Cylindrical specimen with
strain gauges and
spherical seat steel Hoek-Franklin triaxial cell
platens and load cell, as in (Hoek and Brown 1981)

uniaxial compression test.

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12
 Rock Strength Characterisation

Stress – Strain Curves and Calculations

Uniaxial compressive strength: Peak axial stress.

Young’s Modulus E (at 50% peak):
Tangent of axial stress- Axial stress UCS c
axial strain curve
at 50% of peak. Axial stress –
axial strain
curve
Poisson’s ratio (at 50% peak): Young’s
Ratio of lateral strain Axial stress –
50% c modulus E

to axial strain, at lateral strain

curve
50% of peak. Strain
at failure
Lateral strain Axial strain

25

Rock Strength Characterization

Brazil Tensile Test Apparatus

Compressive stress

A loading device to apply and

Tensile stress

measure axial load;

The Brazil tests assembly for
the specimen, consists of
upper and lower jaws and
half ball bearing.
Direct tensile is not common
for rock testing.

ISRM 1978 26

13
 Rock Strength Characterization

Specimen Preparation

(a) Specimen shall be a circular disc with a

thickness-to-diameter ratio of 0.2-0.75, and the
diameter shall be approximately 50 mm.
(b) The cylindrical surfaces should be free from
obvious tool marks and any irregularities across
the thickness should not exceed 0.025 mm. End
faces shall be flat to within 0.25 mm and parallel
to within 0.25 degree.

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Rock Strength Characterization

Test Procedure (I)

(a) Specimen shall be wrapped around its

periphery with one layer of the masking tape
and mounted squarely in the test apparatus
such that the curved platens load the specimen
diametrally.
(b) Load on the specimen shall be applied
continuously at a recommended constant rate
of 200 N/s or fail in 1-5 min.

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14
 Rock Strength Characterization

Procedure (II)

(c) Load and displacement should be recorded

during testing. Record the load when primary
fracture is observed, or record peak load.
(d) Ten specimens per
sample should be
tested, or based
on practical
considerations.

geolabs.co.uk

29

Rock Strength Characterization

Brazil Tensile Strength Calculation

P
Tensile strength

σt = (2P)/(πDt) (MPa) t
D

P = load at failure (N)

D = diameter of the specimen (mm)
T = thickness of the specimen (mm)

Equations for different shape are available.

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15
 Rock Strength Characterization

Mode I Fracture Toughness Test and

Determination

Fracture toughness tests and determination can be

performed on rock specimens with pre-cut notches,
including Semi-Circular Bend Specimen, Cracked
Chevron Notched Brazilian Disc, Chevron Bend
Specimen.
Standard test methods can be
found in ISRM Suggested
Methods (www.isrm.org).

31

Rock Strength Characterization

Shear Strength Parameter Estimation

Direct shear (punch) tests are not commonly done.

Shear strength can be estimated from compression
and tension test results and then using the Mohr-
Coulomb and Griffith equations.

By M-C: σc = (2c cos) / (1-sin)

σ1 = [(2c cos) + σ3(1+sin)] / (1-sin)

By Griffith: c = 2t

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16
Rock Properties and Characterisation

Strengths of Some Common Rocks

Rock type σt (MPa) σt (MPa) KIC (MPa m½)
Granite 100 – 300 7 – 25 0.7 – 3.0
Gabbro 100 – 350 7 – 25 0.7 – 3.0
Andesite 100 – 300 5 – 20 0.5 – 2.6
Basalt 100 – 350 10 – 25 0.7 – 3.0
Sandstone 20 – 170 7 – 25 0.5 – 2.5
Mudstone 5– 80 4 – 20 0.2 – 1.5
Limestone 30 – 250 2 – 10 0.3 – 2.0
Gneiss 100 – 300 6 – 25 0.7 – 3.0
Schist 70 – 150 7 – 25 0.5 – 2.6
Slate 50 – 180 6 – 20 0.5 – 2.5
Marble 50 – 250 7 – 20 0.5 – 2.5
Quartzite 150 – 300 7 – 25 0.7 – 3.0
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Rock Properties and Characterisation

Session Summary

• Key rock properties governing rock breakage:

compressive, tensile, shear strength.
• Principal rock strength criteria used in rock
breakage: Mohr-Coulomb, Griffith.
• Testing and characterization key rock strengths:
laboratory UCS and Brazil tests, strength
calculations.

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