Shear Strength of Soils

Strength of different
materials

Steel Concrete Soil

Tensile Compressive Shear

strength strength strength

Presence of pore water

Complex
behavior
 Shear failure of soils
Soils generally fail in shear

Embankment

Strip footing
unstable soil
unstable soil

Failure surface stable soil

stable soil Mobilized shear
resistance

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface

(mobilized shear resistance) reaches the shear strength.
Shear failure of soils
Soils generally fail in shear

Retaining
wall
 Shear failure of soils
Soils generally fail in shear

unstable soil Mobilized

Retaining
shear
wall
resistance

Failure
surface

stable soil

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface

(mobilized shear resistance) reaches the shear strength.
Shear failure
mechanism

failure surface

The soil grains slide

over each other along
the failure surface.

No crushing of
individual grains.
Shear failure mechanism



unstable soil


stable soil

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface ()

reaches the shear strength (f).
“Shearing stresses tend to displace a part of soil mass to
the rest of the soil mass.”
Shear strength, may be defined as the

resistance to shearing stresses and a

consequent tendency for shear

deformation
 Friction

The available frictional resistance F when a normal force P is acting is

related to P as follows: (Two solid bodies in contact with no bonding
between them)
F = P . μ = P . tan d
Here, μ = Coefficient of friction d = Angle of interface friction

F =Ca+ P . tan d (Two solid bodies in contact with bonding

between them)
Ca = Adhesion force
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion


 f  c   tan 
l o pe 
en ve
u re
fail
friction angle
cohesion
f
c




f is the maximum shear stress the soil can take without

failure, under normal stress of . 10
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
Shear strength consists of two components:
cohesive and frictional.

f
 f  c   f tan 
f tan 
 frictional
componen
c c t

f


11
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
Shear strength consists of two components:
cohesive and frictional.


 f  c' ' f tan  '

f
’f tan ’ frictional
’ po n ent component

ve com
c’ c’ o h esi
c
’f '
c and  are measures of shear strength.

Higher the values, higher the shear strength.

 Mohr Circle of stress
s’1

s’
s’3 s’3
t
Soil element q
s’1

Resolving forces in s and t directions,

1'   3'
 Sin2
2 ' 

'

' 2
 ' ' 2

 '
  '
 '
  ' 
2

 
1 3
  2
1 3

 '  1 3  1 3 Cos2  2 

2 2
 Mohr Circle of stress
’1

’
’3 ’3

Soil element 
’1

' 2 ' 2
 '  
'
   
' 1' 3'
     
2 1 3 1 3 2
2  2 
    s’
 3' 1' 3'  1'
2
 Mohr Circle of stress
’1

’
’3 ’3

Soil element 
’1

t
(s’,
t)
' 2 ' 2
 '  
'
   
' 1' 3'
     
2 1 3 1 3 2
2  2  q
    s’
 3' 1' 3'  1'
2

PD = Pole w.r.t. plane

Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope


Failure surface  f  c' ' tan  '

Y
Y
X X
’
Soil elements at different locations

Y ~ stable
X ~ failure
Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope
The soil element does not fail if
the Mohr circle is contained
within the envelope

GL


c
Y c
c c+
Initially, Mohr circle is a point

Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope
As loading progresses, Mohr
circle becomes larger…

GL


c
Y c
c

.. and finally failure occurs

when Mohr circle touches the
envelope
 Orientation of Failure Plane
’1 Failure envelope
’
’3 ’3
 (s’, tf)
 (90 –
’1 q)
f’ q
 3' 1' 3'  1' s’
2

PD = Pole w.r.t. plane

Therefore,
q = 45 + f’/2
90 – q + f’ = q
Mohr circles in terms of total & effective stresses

v v ’ u

h h ’
X
= X
+ X u

effective stresses
total stresses

h ’ v ’  h v s or s’
u
 Envelopes in terms of  & ’
Identical specimens
initially subjected to f
different isotropic
stresses (c) and then c c
loaded axially to failure
c c

uf
Initially… Failur
e

c, 
in terms of 
At failure,
3 = c; 1 = c+f
c’, ’
3’ = 3 – uf ; 1’ = 1 - uf in terms of ’
 Failure envelopes in terms of total & effective
stresses
v v ’ u

h h ’
X
= X
+ X u

t Failure envelope in terms Failure envelope in

If X is on of effective stresses terms of total stresses
failure f’
effective stresses
f
total stresses

c’ c
h ’ v ’  h v s or s’
u
 Mohr Coulomb failure criterion with Mohr circle
of stress
’v = s’1 t Failure envelope in terms
of effective stresses

’h = s’3
X
effective stresses
(s’1 -
f’ c’
s’3)/2
X is on failure ’3 ’1 s’
c’ Cotf’ (s’1+
Therefore, s’3)/2


c
' 


Cot
'
'
'
1 3





Sin
'




'

'
1 3


 2  2 
    
 Mohr Coulomb failure criterion with Mohr circle
of stress

c
' 


Cot
'
'
'
1 3




Sin
'




'

'
1 3




 2  2 
    
 '
1   
  3'   1'   3' Sin '2c' Cos '
 1  Sin '   1  Sin '  2c' Cos '
'
1
'
3

 
' ' 1  Sin '  2c' Cos '
1 3
1  Sin ' 1  Sin '


' '
1 3
2
T
 '

45
an

2
c
'
T
 '

45


an
 
2 2
Determination of shear strength parameters of
soils (c, f or c’, f’)

Laboratory tests on Field tests

specimens taken from
representative undisturbed
samples

Most common laboratory tests 1. Vane shear test

to determine the shear strength 2. Torvane
parameters are, 3. Pocket penetrometer
4. Fall cone
1.Direct shear test 5. Pressuremeter
2.Triaxial shear test 6. Static cone penetrometer
7. Standard penetration test
Other laboratory tests include,
Direct simple shear test, torsional
ring shear test, plane strain triaxial
test, laboratory vane shear test,
laboratory fall cone test
Laboratory tests
How to take undisturbed samples
Laboratory tests
Field conditions

A representative
soil sample
z z
svc svc + Ds

shc shc shc shc

svc svc + Ds

Before construction After and during

construction
 svc + Ds
Laboratory tests
Simulating field conditions shc shc
in the laboratory st
l te
i a
0 svc rax svc + Ds
T
Di svc
r
0 0 shc shc ect
s he
ar t
te
st
0 svc t

Representative Step 1 svc

soil sample Step 2
Set the specimen in
taken from the
the apparatus and Apply the
site
apply the initial corresponding field
stress condition stress conditions
Direct shear test
Schematic diagram of the direct shear apparatus
Direct shear test
Direct shear test is most suitable for consolidated drained tests
specially on granular soils (e.g.: sand) or stiff clays

Preparation of a sand specimen

Porous
plates

Components of the shear box Preparation of a sand specimen

Direct shear test
Preparation of a sand specimen
Pressure plate

Leveling the top surface Specimen preparation

of specimen completed
Direct shear test
P Steel ball
Test procedure
Pressure plate
Porous
plates

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Step 1: Apply a vertical load to the specimen and wait for consolidation
Direct shear test
P Steel ball
Test procedure
Pressure plate
Porous
plates

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Step 1: Apply a vertical load to the specimen and wait for consolidation

Step 2: Lower box is subjected to a horizontal displacement at a constant rate

Direct shear test
Dial gauge to
measure vertical
Shear box displacement

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Loading frame to Dial gauge to

apply vertical load measure horizontal
displacement
 Direct shear test
Analysis of test results

Normal force (P)

  Normal stress 
Area of cross section of the sample

Shear resistance developed at the sliding surface (S)

  Shear stress 
Area of cross section of the sample

Note: Cross-sectional area of the sample changes with the horizontal

displacement
Direct shear tests on sands
How to determine strength parameters c and f
Shear stress, t

Normal stress = s3
Normal stress = s2
Normal stress = s1
tf2
tf1
tf3
Shear displacement
Shear stress at failure, tf

Mohr – Coulomb failure envelope

f

Normal stress,
s
Direct shear tests on sands
Some important facts on strength parameters c and f of sand

Direct shear tests are

Sand is cohesionless drained and pore water
hence c = 0 pressures are
dissipated, hence u = 0

Therefore,
f’ = f and c’ = c = 0
Interface tests on direct shear apparatus
In many foundation design problems and retaining wall problems, it
is required to determine the angle of internal friction between soil
and the structural material (concrete, steel or wood)
P

Soil
S

Foundation material


c 
'tan
f a
Where,
ca = adhesion,
d = angle of internal friction
Advantages of direct shear apparatus

 Due to the smaller thickness of the sample, rapid drainage can

be achieved

 Can be used to determine interface strength parameters

Disadvantages of direct shear apparatus

 Failure occurs along a predetermined failure plane

Triaxial Shear Test
Piston (to apply deviatoric stress)

Failure plane
O-ring

impervious
membrane
Soil sample Soil
at failure sample
Porous
Perspex stone
cell
Water

Cell pressure
Back pressure Pore pressure or
pedestal volume change
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Sampling tubes

Sample extruder
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Edges of the sample Setting up the sample

are carefully trimmed in the triaxial cell
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Sample is covered
with a rubber Cell is completely
membrane and sealed filled with water
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Proving ring to
measure the
deviator load

Dial gauge to
measure vertical
displacement

In some tests
Types of Triaxial Tests deviatoric stress
( = q)
Step 1
c Step 2

c c
c c

c c+ q
Under all-around cell pressure c Shearing (loading)

Is the drainage valve open? Is the drainage valve open?

yes no yes no

Consolidated Unconsolidated Drained Undrained

sample sample loading loading
Types of Triaxial Tests
Step 1 Step 2

Under all-around cell pressure c Shearing (loading)

Is the drainage valve open? Is the drainage valve open?

yes no yes no

Consolidated Unconsolidated Drained Undrained

sample sample loading
loading

CD test UU test

CU test
Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)
Total, s = Neutral, u + Effective, s’
Step 1: At the end of consolidation
sVC s’VC = sVC

shC 0 s’hC = shC

Drainage

Step 2: During axial stress increase

sVC + Ds s’V = sVC + Ds = s’1

shC 0 s’h = shC = s’3

Drainage

Step 3: At failure
sVC + Dsf s’Vf = sVC + D sf = s’1f

shC 0 s’hf = shC = s’3f

Drainage
Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)

s1 = sVC + Ds

s3 = shC

Deviator stress (q or Dsd) = s1 – s3

Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)
Volume change of sample during consolidation

Expansion
Volume change of the

Time
sample

Compression
Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)
Stress-strain relationship during shearing

Deviator stress, Dsd

Dense sand
or OC clay
(Dsd)f
Loose sand
(Dsd)f or NC Clay

Axial strain
Expansion
Volume change

Dense sand
of the sample

or OC clay
Axial strain
Compression

Loose sand
or NC clay
CD tests How to determine strength parameters c and f
(Dsd)f
s1 = s3 + (D sd)f
Deviator stress, Dsd

c
Confining stress = s3c
Confining stress = s3b
(Dsd)f Confining stress = s3a s3
b (Dsd)f
a
Axial
strain
f
Shear stress, t

Mohr – Coulomb
failure envelope

s or s’
s3a s3b s3c s1a s1b s1c
(Dsd)fa (Dsd)fb
CD tests Failure envelopes

For sand and NC Clay, cd = 0

fd
Shear stress, t

Mohr – Coulomb
failure envelope

s or s’
s3a s1a
(Dsd)fa

Therefore, one CD test would be sufficient to determine fd

of sand or NC clay
CD tests Failure envelopes

For OC Clay, cd ≠ 0

t OC NC
f

c s or s’
s3 s1 sc
(Dsd)f
Some practical applications of CD analysis for
clays
1. Embankment constructed very slowly, in layers over a soft clay
deposit

Soft clay

t t = in situ drained
shear strength
Some practical applications of CD analysis for
clays
2. Earth dam with steady state seepage

t
Core

t = drained shear
strength of clay core
Some practical applications of CD analysis for
clays
3. Excavation or natural slope in clay

t = In situ drained shear strength

Note: CD test simulates the long term condition in the field.

Thus, cd and fd should be used to evaluate the long
term behavior of soils
 Consolidated- Undrained test (CU Test)
Total, s = Neutral, u + Effective, s’
Step 1: At the end of consolidation
sVC s’VC = sVC

shC 0 s’hC = shC

Drainage

Step 2: During axial stress increase

sVC + Ds s’V = sVC + Ds ± Du = s’1

No
drainage shC ±D s’h = shC ± Du = s’3
u

Step 3: At failure
sVC + Dsf s’Vf = sVC + D sf ± Duf = s’1f

No
drainage shC ±D uf s’hf = shC ± Duf = s’3f

Consolidated- Undrained test (CU Test)
Stress-strain relationship during shearing

Deviator stress, Dsd

Dense sand
or OC clay
(Dsd)f
Loose sand
(Dsd)f or NC Clay

Axial strain
+

Loose
sand /NC
Clay
Du

Axial strain
Dense sand
-

or OC clay
 CU tests How to determine strength parameters c and f
Deviator stress, Dsd (Dsd)f s1 = s3 + (D sd)f
b Confining stress = s3b
Confining stress = s3a
s3
(Dsd)f
Total stresses at failure
a
Axial
Shear stress, t

strain
Mohr – Coulomb fcu
failure envelope in
terms of total stresses

ccu s or s’
s3a s3b s1a s1b
(Dsd)fa
CU tests How to determine strength parameters c and f
s’1 = s3 + (D sd)f - uf

s’3 = s3 - uf
Mohr – Coulomb failure uf
envelope in terms of
effective stresses Effective stresses at failure
Shear stress, t

Mohr – Coulomb f’
failure envelope in
terms of total stresses
fcu

ufb
C’ s’3b ufa
ccu s’1b s or s’
s’3a s3a s3b s’1a s1a s1b
(Dsd)fa
CU tests
Strength parameters c and f obtained from CD tests

Shear strength
Shear strength parameters in terms
parameters in terms of effective stresses
of total stresses are are c’ and f’
ccu and fcu
c’ = cd and f’ = fd
CU tests Failure envelopes
For sand and NC Clay, ccu and c’ = 0
Mohr – Coulomb failure
envelope in terms of
effective stresses

Mohr – Coulomb f’ fcu

Shear stress, t

failure envelope in
terms of total stresses

s or s’
s3a s3a s1a s1a
(Dsd)fa

Therefore, one CU test would be sufficient to determine fcu

and f’(= fd) of sand or NC clay
Some practical applications of CU analysis for
clays
1. Embankment constructed rapidly over a soft clay deposit

Soft clay

t t = in situ undrained
shear strength
Some practical applications of CU analysis for
clays
2. Rapid drawdown behind an earth dam

t
Core

t = Undrained shear
strength of clay core
Some practical applications of CU analysis for
clays
3. Rapid construction of an embankment on a natural slope

t = In situ undrained shear strength

Note: Total stress parameters from CU test (ccu and fcu) can be used for
stability problems where,
Soil have become fully consolidated and are at equilibrium with
the existing stress state; Then for some reason additional
stresses are applied quickly with no drainage occurring
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
Data analysis
Specimen condition
Initial specimen condition during shearing
sC = s3
No s3 + D sd
No
drainage sC = s3 drainage s3

Initial volume of the sample = A0 × H0

Volume of the sample during shearing = A × H

Since the test is conducted under undrained condition,

A × H = A 0 × H0
A0
A ×(H0 – DH) = A0 × H0 A
A ×(1 – DH/H0) = A0
1  z
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Effect of degree of saturation on failure envelope

t S < 100% S > 100%

s3c s3b s1c s3a s1b s1a s or s’

Some practical applications of UU analysis for
clays
1. Embankment constructed rapidly over a soft clay deposit

Soft clay

t t = in situ undrained
shear strength
Some practical applications of UU analysis for
clays
2. Large earth dam constructed rapidly with
no change in water content of soft clay

t
Core

t = Undrained shear
strength of clay core
Some practical applications of UU analysis for
clays
3. Footing placed rapidly on clay deposit

t = In situ undrained shear strength

Note: UU test simulates the short term condition in the field.

Thus, cu can be used to analyze the short term
behavior of soils
Unconfined Compression Test (UC Test)

s1 = sVC + Ds

s3 = 0

Confining pressure is zero in the UC test

Unconfined Compression Test (UC Test)

s1 = sVC + Dsf

Shear stress,
t
s3 = 0

cu

s1
Normal stress, s

Cu = s1/2
Stress Invariants (p and q)
p (or s) = (s1 + s3)/2 q (or t) = (s1 - s3)/2
t

(s1 - s3)/2

f c
s3 s1 s
(s1 + s3)/2
p and q can be used to illustrate the variation of the stress
state of a soil specimen during a laboratory triaxial test
Stress Invariants (p and q)
p (or s) = (s1 + s3)/2 q (or t) = (s1 - s3)/2

tor q
GL e
el op
env
re
 Fa
i l u
c
c

th
pa
ss
re
St
sc
s or p
Mohr Coulomb failure envelope in terms of stress invariants
p (or s) = (s1 + s3)/2 q (or t) = (s1 - s3)/2
t

(s1 - s3)/2

f c
s3 s1 s
(s1 + s3)/2
   

 
 
' ' ' '
c
'
 
Cot
' 1 3
2 
 
Sin
 ' 1 3
2 

    

 '
1  
  3'


 1'   3'
Sin ' c ' Cos '
q  pSin ' c' Cos '
2 2
In-situ shear tests

 Vane shear test (suitable for soft to stiff clays)

 Torvane

 Pocket Penetrometer

 Pressuremeter

 Static Cone Penetrometer test (Push

Cone Penetrometer Test, PCPT)

 Standard Penetration Test, SPT

Vane shear test
This is one of the most versatile and widely used devices used for
investigating undrained shear strength (Cu) and sensitivity of soft clays
Applied
Torque, T Disturbed Rupture
soil surface
Bore hole
(diameter = DB)

h > 3DB)
Vane T
H Vane

PLAN VIEW
Rate of rotation : 60 – 120 per minute

D Test can be conducted at 0.5 m

vertical intervals
Vane shear test T = Ms + Me + Me = Ms + 2Me
Me – Assuming a uniform
distribution of shear strength

Cu

d/2 d/2
Cu h d
2
Me   ( 2 rdr ).C
0
u r

d d
Cu 2
 3

r 2
M e  2  C u  r dr  2  C u  
2

Since the test is very fast, 0  3 0

Unconsolidated Undrained
(UU) can be expected 
2C u d 3
 C u d 3
Me   
3  8  12
Vane shear test T = Ms + Me + Me = Ms + 2Me
Ms – Shaft shear resistance along
the circumference
2
d d h
M s  dhCu  Cu
2 2
Cu d 2 h Cu d 3
T  Cu  2
2 12
 d 2h d 3 
Cu T  Cu   
 2 6 
Since the test is very fast, T
Unconsolidated Undrained Cu 
 d 2h d 3 
(UU) can be expected    
 2 6 
Some important facts on vane shear test
Insertion of vane into soft
clays and silts disrupts the
natural soil structure around
the vane causing reduction
of shear strength
The above reduction
is partially regained
after some time
Cu as determined by
vane shear test may
be a function of the
rate of angular
rotation of the vane
Correction for the strength parameters obtained
from vane shear test

Bjerrum (1974) has shown that as the plasticity of soils

increases, Cu obtained by vane shear tests may give
unsafe results for foundation design. Therefore, he
proposed the following correction.

Cu(design) = lCu(vane shear)

Where, l = correction factor = 1.7 – 0.54 log (PI)

PI = Plasticity Index
In-situ shear tests

 Vane shear test

 Torvane (suitable for very soft to stiff clays)

 Pocket Penetrometer

 Pressuremeter

 Static Cone Penetrometer test (Push

Cone Penetrometer Test, PCPT)

 Standard Penetration Test, SPT

Torvane

Torvane is a modification to the vane

In-situ shear tests

 Vane shear test

 Torvane

 Pocket Penetrometer (suitable for very soft to stiff clays)

 Pressuremeter

 Static Cone Penetrometer test (Push

Cone Penetrometer Test, PCPT)

 Standard Penetration Test, SPT

Pocket Penetrometer
Pushed directly into the soil. The unconfined compression
strength (qu) is measured by a calibrated spring.
Various correlations for shear strength
For NC clays, the undrained shear strength (cu) increases with the
effective overburden pressure, s’0
c
u

0.
11
0.
0037
(
PI)Skempton (1957)

0
'

Plasticity Index as a %
For OC clays, the following relationship is approximately true


c  
c 

   

0
.
8
u
' 
u
'
(
OCR
) Ladd (1977)
0
Over0
idated
consol
Normally
Consolidat
ed

For NC clays, the effective friction angle (f’) is related to PI as follows

Sin '  0.814  0.234 log( IP ) Kenny (1959)

Shear strength of partially saturated soils
In the previous sections, we were discussing the shear strength of
saturated soils. However, in most of the cases, we will encounter
unsaturated soils in tropical countries like Sri Lanka

Air Pore air

Pore water pressure, ua
Water
pressure, u
Water Pore water
pressure, uw
Effective
Solid Solid
stress, s’ Effective
stress, s’

Saturated soils Unsaturated soils

Pore water pressure can be negative in unsaturated soils

Shear strength of partially saturated soils
Bishop (1959) proposed shear strength equation for unsaturated soils as
follows

 f  c' ( n  ua )   (ua  u w ) tan  '

Where,
sn – ua = Net normal stress
ua – uw = Matric suction
c = a parameter depending on the degree of saturation
(c = 1 for fully saturated soils and 0 for dry soils)

Fredlund et al (1978) modified the above relationship as follows

 f  c'( n  ua ) tan  '(ua  uw ) tan  b

Where,
tanfb = Rate of increase of shear strength with matric suction
Shear strength of partially saturated soils

 f  c'( n  ua ) tan  '(ua  uw ) tan  b

Same as saturated soils Apparent cohesion

due to matric suction

Therefore, strength of unsaturated soils is much higher than the strength

of saturated soils due to matric suction

t – u w) 1
(u a
u )2 >
(u a –
w

) >0
u
( a – uw 1
f’
= 0
u
ua –
w

s - ua
How it become possible
build a sand castle

 f  c'( n  ua ) tan  '(ua  u w ) tan  b

Same as saturated soils Apparent cohesion

due to matric suction

sand
t n s a t u r ate d
’ = 0)
f o ru n d (c
v elo p e t ed sa
re en at u ra
a ilu f o r s
F e
u ) >0 v el op f’
– w e n
(u a a i lure
= 0 F
uw
Apparent ua –
cohesion s - ua