ELABORATES THE PRACTICAL APPROACH TO MECHANICAL WORK

THAT ARE PERFORMED INSIDE THE MKB SPINNING MILLS LIMITED

FAISALABAD
Submitted in the partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the award of the degree of
B.Sc Engineering and Technology
(Mechanical)
By
DANISH MANZOOR
24104(4164403)
Registration No: 2016-GCUF-062727
Under the esteemed guidance of
Mr. Engr. M Ameen Sab
Mechanical Engineer Division

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

GC UNIVERSITY FAISALABAD

DEDICATATION
TO
MY LOVELY PARENTS AND HONORABLE TEACHERS
WHO’S LOVE, AFFECTION, AND PRAYERS HAVE
 BEEN A SOURCE OF MOTIVATION
AS WELL AS SUPPORT INTENDED FOR ME,
MY LOVELY PARENTS

DECLARATION

I solemnly declare that this Industrial Training Report is written by me in partial fulfillment for
the degree of

B.SC IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

DANISH MANZOOR
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
 Signature:- ...............

CERTIFICATE

It is certified that this report titled, submitted by __________, Registration

No.________________ for B.Sc degree in Mechanical Engineering & Technology
at Jinnah college of science commerce and technology (Govt. College University,
FSD), is an original work and contains satisfactory material to be eligible for
evaluation by the Examiner for the award of the above stated degree.

Internal Examiner Signature: ____________

Engr. Mohsin Mahmood

External Examiner Signature: ___________

Senior Principal Signature: ___________

LATTER PIC POST

ANKOWLEDGEMENT
Allah Almighty, the omniscient, omnipresent and omnipotent, has created this cosmos with the
definite purpose of rewarding all those who research and explore. His secrets for the benefits of
humanity at large. Hence all prays perforce has to be offered at his, after to express my heartfelt
gratitude for this blessing. All respect is for Holly Prophet Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH)
enlightening our conscious with all his kindness and mercy upon us. He is forever source of
guidance in every field of life.

It is indeed a great pleasure and privilege to present this report on training at SUN RISE
FOODS.

I am extremely grateful to my Head of the Department and training, Human resource officer for
issuing a training letter, which made my training possible at SUN RISE FOODS.

First, I thank the Technical GM, MR. AMIR for considering my potential in doing this training
and providing this wonderful opportunity.

I would like to express my gratitude to Technical DGM MR. ASGHAR for his invaluable
suggestion, motivation, guidance and support throughout the training. His methodology to start
from simple and then deepen through made me to bring out this training report without anxiety.

Thanks to all the SUN RISE FOODS officials, operators and all other members of SUN RISE
FOODS, yet uncounted for their help in completing the training and see the light of success. I am
very thankful to friends, colleague and all other persons who rendered their assistance directly or
indirectly to complete this training successfully.

DANISH MANZOOR
2016-GCUF-062727

ABSTRACT
This report contains brief description of the 4 months Internship program inside SUN RISE
FOODS. This report especially elaborates the practical approach to mechanical work that are
performed inside. It includes all the theoretical knowledge and practical approach that I have
learned during my internship period. This report mainly focuses on the Industrial Training that
are currently being handled by SUN RISE FOODS besides highlighting some of the Mechanical
works that have been successfully completed. It also gives an insight into organization structure
along with its brief introduction. Every effort has been made to include the manufacturing and
repair and maintenance jobs that are in general the major tasks performed. All the activities
performed at SUN RISE FOODS have been documented under different departments for clear
understanding. In short, this report has been perfectly orchestrated to give the header a brief
understanding of the organization along with its field experience.

OBJECTIVES
The main objectives of the Internship are: -
• To become acquainted with the future field of the mechanical engineering student.
• To apply the acquired knowledge and skills in a practical situation.
• To become acquainted with real life problem solving.
• To work independently.
• To learn how to plan things out carefully.
• To develop social and communicative skills.

Table of Contents

Dedicatation……………………………………………….iii
Declaration………………………………………………...iv
Certificate.............................................................................v
Ankowledgement………………………………………….vii
Abstract……………………………………………………viii
Objectives………………………………………………….ix

Chapter 1
Applications of Boiler
1.1 Definition…………………………………………….8
1.2 Applicaation of Boiler………………………………8
1.3 Definition of some useful terms used in Boiler…....9
1.4 Boiler water feltration……………………………...10
1.5 Applications And Uses Of Ro Plant………………20
Chapter 02
 Types Of Boiler

2.1 Classifications or Types of Boiler…………….…….22

2.2 According to Circulation of water…………………24
2.3 According to the pass bases type…………………...27

Chapter 03
Boiler Parts And Applaction

3.1 Main Parts Of Boiler…………………………………..37

3.2 Difference Between Id Fan And Fd Fan……………..39
3.3 Safty Valve……………………………………………..41

Chapter 04
Weldind and its types
4.1 define welding
4.2 types of welding
4.3 welding joints
 CHAPTER 1

BOILER
1.1 Definition
A boiler is an enclosed vessel that provides a means for combustion heat to be transferred to water until
it becomes heated water or steam. The hot water or steam under pressure is then usable for transferring
the heat to a process. Water is a useful and inexpensive medium for transferring heat to a process.

Definition of some useful terms used in Boiler

Boiler shell
The boiler shell consists of a hollow cylindrical body made up of steel plates riveted or welded together.
Furnace
Furnace is that part of the boiler in which the fuel is conveniently burned to produce heat. This heat is
utilized in generating steam in the boiler.

Grate area
The area of the great which the fuel burns is called great area. Grate area is always measured in square
meters.

Heating sarface
The heating surface is the surface of a boiler which is exposed to hot gases on one side and water of the
other.

Water spand steam spaceace

Water space is the volume of the boiler which is occupied by water. The remaining space is called steam
space because it is needed for storage of steam in the boiler until it id s drawn off through the steam
pipe.

Flue gases
Flue gases are hot gases produced due to the combination of fuel in the boiler furnace. Flue gas usually
contains water vapor (H2O), Carbon dioxide (CO2), Carbon monoxide (CO), Nitrogen (N2). Flue gas
includes complete and incomplete products of combustion of fuels.

Boiler shell
The boiler shell consists of a hollow cylindrical body made up of steel plates riveted or welded together.

Furnace
Furnace is that part of the boiler in which the fuel is conveniently burned to produce heat. This heat is
utilized in generating steam in the boiler.

Grate
The grate is a space on which the fuel is burnt. It consist of a combination of several cast-iron bars so
arranged that the fuel may be placed on it. Some space is always provided in between two consecutive
bars so that may flow to the fuel from below the great and ashes may drop into the ash pit provided
beneath the Grate. Grate may be circular or rectangular in shape.

Grate area
The area of the great upon which the fuel burns is called great area. Grate area is always measured in
square meters.

Heating surface
The heating surface is the surface of a boiler which is exposed to hot gases on one side and water of the
other.

Water space and steam space

 Water space is the volume of the boiler which is occupied by water. The remaining space is called steam
space because it is needed for storage of steam in the boiler until it id s drawn off through the steam
pipe.

Flue gases
Flue gases are hot gases produced due to the combination of fuel in the boiler furnace. Flue gas usually
contains water vapor (H2O), Carbon dioxide (CO2), Carbon monoxide (CO), Nitrogen (N2). Flue gas
includes complete and incomplete products of combustion of fuels.

Boiler water feltration

Boiler water feltration for use ro plant .Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water purification process that uses a
partially permeable membrane to remove ions, unwanted molecules and larger particles from drinking
water. The result is that the solute is retained on the pressurized side of the membrane and the pure
solvent is allowed to pass to the other side.

CHAPTER NO 02
TYPES OF BOILER

2.1 Classifications or Types of Boiler

According to the position of water and hot gasses
• Fire Tube Boiler

• Water Tube Boiler

According to Axis of Shell

• Horizontal Boiler

• Vertical Boiler

According to the position of the boiler

• External Fired Boiler

• Internally Fired Boiler

According to the pressure

• Low-Pressure Boiler
 • High-Pressure Boiler

According to the method of circulation

• Natural Circulation Boiler

• Forced Circulation Boiler

According to use of boilers

• Mobile Boiler

• Stationary Boiler

According to drums
• Single drum Boiler

• Multi drum Boiler

According to the nature of drought

• Forced drought Boiler

• Natural drought Boiler

According to furnace
• Single furnace Boiler

• Dual furnace Boiler

According to fuel firing

• Solid fuel-fired Boiler

• Liquid fuel-fired Boiler

• Gaseous fuel-fired Boiler

According to the circulation of gases:
• Fire-tube boiler

• Water-tube boiler
 Fire-tube boilers
In a fire tube boiler, hot gases pass through the tubes and boiler feed water in the

shell side is converted into steam. Fire tube boilers are generally used for

relatively small steam capacities and low to medium steam pressures. As a

guideline, fire tube boilers are competitive for steam rates up to 12,000 kg/hour

and pressures up to 18 kg/cm2. Fire tube boilers are available for operation with

oil, gas or solid fuels. The fire, or hot flue gases from the burner, is channeled through tubes that are
surrounded by the fluid to be heated. The body of the

boiler is the pressure vessel and contains the fluid. In most cases this fluid is

water that will be circulated for heating purposes or converted to steam for

process use. Every set of tubes that the flue gas travels through, before it makes

a turn, is considered a "pass". So a three-pass boiler will have three sets of tubes

with the stack outlet located on the rear of the boiler.

Features
(1) Easy to clean

(2) Compact in size

(3) Easy to replace tubes

(4) Well suited for space heating and industrial process applications.

(5) Not suitable for high pressure applications .

(6) Limitation for high capacity steam generation.

WATER TUBE BOILER

In a water tube boiler, boiler feed water flows through the tubes and enters the
 boiler drum. The circulated water is heated by the combustion gases and

converted into steam at the vapor space in the drum. These boilers are selected

when the steam demand as well as steam pressure requirements are high as in

the case of process cum power boiler / power boilers. Most modern water boiler

tube designs are within the capacity range 4,500 – 120,000 kg/hour of steam, at

very high pressures. Many water tube boilers are of “packaged” construction if oil

and /or gas are to be used as fuel. Solid fuel fired water tube designs are

available but packaged designs are less common.

 Features:

(1) Forced, induced and balanced draft provisions help to improve combustion

efficiency.

(2) Less tolerance for water quality calls for water treatment plant

(3) Higher thermal efficiency levels are possible

(5) Able to handle higher pressures.

2.2 According to Circulation of water

• Free circulation
• Forced circulation
• Free circulation:
In any water heating vessel heat is transmitted from one place to another not by condition but by
convection because water is a bad conductor of heat.Let vessel containing water be heated at its
bottom, as the water in the bottom portion is heated therefore its density becomes reduced in
comparison to the density of water in the upper portion of the vessel, as a result, the less dense
water at the bottom portion of the vessel rise up and comparatively more dense and cold water at
the upper portion of the vessel comes down to take its place and thus a convection current is set
up in the water until temperature off all water becomes the same.

Shell and tube boilers

Shell and tube boilers are also referred to as fire tube or smoke tube boilers. Fire tube boilers;
contain long steel tubes through which the hot gasses from a furnace pass and around which the
water to be converted to steam circulates. Fire tube boilers, typically have a lower initial cost, are
more fuel efficient and easier to operate. Their capacities are up to 25tons/hr and 17.5 kg/ cm2.

Cornish boiler
These are the earliest form of high pressure fire tube boiler. These consist of long horizontal
cylinder with single large flue containing fire. Fuel is added in the grate area where it burn to
produce hot gases. The hot gases transfer the heat to the water.

Water takes heat and after some time it starts boiling to produce steam. Hot gases upon reaching
at the end of the fire tube, divided into two section and each move into the one of two side flue
which take them once again at the front section of the boiler where they are move into the bottom
flue and bottom flue take them toward the chimney.

Chimney throws these gases out of the boiler into the atmosphere. Maximum heat transfer is
taken place at fire tube and shell section then taken place at side flue and at last at bottom
flue.For efficiency, the boiler was commonly encased beneath by a brick-built chamber.

Lancashire boiler:
The Lancashire boiler is similar to the Cornish, but has two large flues containing the fires.
Pressure range of the boiler is about 0.7 MPa to 2 MPa and efficiency is 65 to 70%. Fuel in
these boilers is added into the grate which heats the gases.

Hot gases enter the front section of the boiler and leave the boiler from back and then enter the
bottom flue and start moving to front section of boiler. At front section hot gases leave the
bottom flue and enter in side flue and move again towards the back of the boiler and enter the
main outlet. 85% of heat is transferred when hot gases are in fire tube while 15% is transferred
when they are in bottom and side flue.

Locomotive boiler
A locomotive boiler has three main components:

• Double-walled firebox;

• Horizontal, cylindrical "boiler barrel" containing a large number of small flue-tubes; and

• Smoke box with chimney, for the exhaust gases.

Fuel is burned to produce the hot gases. Fuel is feed through fire hole. Hot gases are diverted to
fire tube with the help of fire brick arch. Steam is collected in the steam drum which is placed at
the top of the shell. The wet steam goes through inlet headers of super heater and after passing
through tubes, it returns to the outlet header of super heater and is taken out for steam engine.
Locomotive-type boilers are also used in traction engines, steam rollers, portable engines etc. On
the basis of construction these can be classified wet back boilers and dry back boilers.

Reversal Chamber
This is the posterior portion of the combustion chamber through which the flue gases travel from
the first pass (furnace) to the second-pass tubes

Wet Back Boilers

In wet back boilers as the name suggests the reversal chamber is completely surrounded by
water. The combustion reversal chamber is surrounded by water and therefore the heat in the flue
gases is optimally utilized. Radiation losses are reduced as none of the parts of the combustion
chamber are open to atmosphere instead they are surrounded by water. That means fewer losses,
and lesser fuel bills. Most efficient modern boilers supplied are wetback type.

Dry Back Boilers

The reversal chamber in dry back boilers is not completely surrounded by water. The posterior
part is exposed to the atmosphere. This leads to the increased radiation losses, as the radiant heat
is lost to the atmosphere instead of going to the water as in wet back boilers. Earlier generation
boilers used to be dry back.

Thus wet back boilers ensure lesser radiation losses and hence save fuel. The layout of the tubes
involves the number of passes the tube will make to pass the heat from the boiler furnace before
being discharged. These can be two- pass and three pass boiler. Depending upon the layout of
tubes boilers can be two pass or three pass boilers.
2.3 According To The Pass Bases Type
Two pass boilers
In two pass the combustion gases travels two times in the boiler. Combustion gases should be
cooled before entering the reversal chamber. Excess temperature causes overheating and
cracking of the tube. The heat transfer rate is maximum at the first pass, this rate decreases with
the increasing passes.

Three pass boilers

A three pass design provides three opportunities for heat transfer. The stack temperature of 3 pass
will be lower than that of 2 pass boiler, of the same design and operating pressure. Efficiency is
more than two pass boiler. Each pass in boiler should be designed with cross sectional area to
achieve optimal flue gas velocity, which in turn maximizes heat transfer while also minimizing
performance robbing sooth build up within the tubes.

Water tube boilers

In water tube boilers, water and steam flow inside the tubes and the hot gases flow over the
outside surface. Modern high capacity boilers are of water tube type. The boiler circulation
system is constructed of tubes, headers, and drums joined in arrangement that provide water flow
to generate steam. Water tubes have high pressures and capacity than shell tube boilers. These
boilers can be of single- or multiple-drum type. These have higher efficiencies than fire tube
boilers. Depending on layout boilers can also be classified as:

Longitudinal drum boiler

The feed water is feed in drum. The drum is placed above the heat source. The cooler water goes
to the inclined tubes and the water is heating eventually in the hot tubes. As the water boils its
density decreases and there is circulation of hot water and steam. Steam is separated from water
in steam drum and taken out. Longitudinal drum boilers range from 2250 kg/h to 3600 kg/h.

Cross drum boiler

The drum in this type is placed in cross to the heat source. The temperature obtained in this type
of arrangement is more uniform. When the steam loads are high the upper tubes can become dry
which cause them to fail. The layout of tubes is made in such a way that large numbers of tubes
are made available. The capacity of cross drum range from 700kh/h to 240000 kg/h
Stirling boiler
A Stirling boiler has near vertical, almost straight water tubes that zig-zag between a number of
steam and water drum. Usually there are three banks of tubes in a four drum layout. The feed
water enters the left upper drum, from where it falls to lower water drum. Water in pipes and two
drums is heated, the steam produced rise in upper drum from where steam is separated and taken
off.

CHAPTER NO 3
BOILER PARTS AND APPLACTION
3.1 Main parts of boiler
Boiler design is made up of three main components.

• Feed water system

• Steam system

• Fuel system

• Boiler feed water system

Boiler water treatment is used to control alkalinity, prevent scaling, correct pH, and to control
conductivity. The boiler water needs to be alkaline and not acidic, so that it does not ruin the
tubes. There can be too much conductivity in the feed water when there are too many dissolved
solids. These correct treatments can be controlled by efficient operator and use of treatment
chemicals. The main objectives to treat and condition boiler water is to exchange heat without
scaling, protect against scaling, and produce high quality steam. The treatment of boiler water
can be put into two parts. These are internal treatment and external treatment. The internal
treatment is for boiler feed water and external treatment is for make-up feed water and the
condensate part of the system. Internal treatment protects against feed water hardness by
preventing precipitating of scale on the boiler tubes. This treatment also protects against
concentrations of dissolved and suspended solids in the feed water without priming or foaming.
These treatment chemicals also help with the alkalinity of the feed water making it more of a
base to help protect against boiler corrosion. The correct alkalinity is protected by adding
phosphates. These phosphates precipitate the solids to the bottom of the boiler drum. At the
bottom of the boiler drum there is a bottom blow to remove these solids. These chemicals also
include anti-scaling agents, oxygen scavengers, and anti-foaming agents. Sludge can also be
treated by two approaches. These are by coagulation and dispersion. When there is a high
amount of sludge content it is better to coagulate the sludge to form large particles in order to
just use the bottom blow to remove them from the feed water. When there is a low amount of
sludge content it is better to use dispersants because it disperses the sludge throughout the feed
water so sludge does not form.

There are two types of feed water systems in boilers:

• Open feed System

• Closed feed system

There are two main sources of feed water:

 • Condensed steam returned from the processes

• Raw water arranged from outside the boilers plant processes

2. Boiler Steam System

Steam System is a kind of main controlling system of boilers process. Steam Systems are
responsible to collect & control all generated steam in the process. Steam systems send steam
generated in the process to the point of use through pipes (piping system). Throughout the
process, steam pressure is controlled and regulated with the help of boilers system parts such as
valves, steam pressure gauges, etc.

3 Boilers Fuel System

Fueling is the heart of boilers process & fuel system consists of all the necessary components and
equipment to feed fuel to generate the required heat. The equipment required in the fuel system
depends on the type of fuel used in the system.

3.2 Difference Between Id Fan And Fd Fan

Before discussing the difference between ID Fan and FD fan, we must understand why we
require draft system. Draft system is required for basically two purpose i.e. for providing the
required quantity of hot air to furnace for smooth combustion of fuel and secondly for removing
the flue gases from system i.e. furnace to atmosphere after filtering dust with the help of
electrostatic precipitators.

ID Fan
ID fan is basically mentioned here for Induced draft fan and ID fan is always located between
dust collector and chimney. ID fan will take the hot flue gases from furnace via dust collector
(dust separation system or Fume Extraction system) and will deliver to chimney. ID fan will
handle the flue gases i.e. hot air.

ID fan will produce the pressure lower than the atmospheric pressure in the system or we may
say that ID fan will produce the negative pressure in the furnace to remove the flue gases from
furnace via electrostatic precipitators and to push the flue gases to chimney.

Do not get confused about the dust collector system. Dust collector system also designated as
fume extraction system or dust separation system. Somewhere we also used to electrostatic
precipitators in place of dust collector system for removing dust particle from flue gases for
maintaining the clean environment.

FD Fan
FD fan, which is mentioned here for forced draft fan, is used basically for providing the required
quantity of hot air to the furnace for smooth and uniform combustion of fuel. FD fan will
produce the positive pressure inside the system i.e. furnace.

3.3 Safty valve

A safety valve is a valve that acts as a fail-safe. An example of safety valve is a pressure relief
valve (PRV), which automatically releases a substance from a boiler, pressure vessel, or other
system, when the pressure or temperature exceeds preset limits. Pilot-operated relief valves are a
specialized type of pressure safety valve. A leak tight, lower cost, single emergency use option
would be a rupture disk. Safety valves were first developed for use on steam boilers during the
Industrial Revolution. Early boilers operating without them were prone to explosion unless
carefully operated. Vacuum safety valves (or combined pressure/vacuum safety valves) are used
to prevent a tank from collapsing while it is being emptied, or when cold rinse water is used after
hot CIP (clean-in-place) or SIP (sterilization-in-place) procedures. When sizing a vacuum safety
valve, the calculation method is not defined in any norm, particularly in the hot CIP / cold water
scenario, but some manufacturers have developed sizing simulations.

Technical terms
In the petroleum refining, petrochemical, chemical manufacturing, natural gas processing, power
generation, food, drinks, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals industries, the term safety valve is
associated with the terms pressure relief valve (PRV), pressure safety valve (PSV) and relief
valve. The generic term is Pressure relief valve (PRV) or pressure safety valve (PSV). PRVs and
PSVs are not the same thing, despite what many people think; the difference is that PSVs have a
manual lever to open the valve in case of emergency.

Relief valve (RV)

An automatic system that is actuated by the static pressure in a liquid filled vessel. It specifically
opens proportionally with increasing pressure[citation needed].

Safety valve (SV)

An automatic system that relieves the static pressure on a gas. It usually opens completely,
accompanied by a popping sound[citation needed].

Safety relief valve (SRV)

An automatic system that relieves by static pressure on both gas and liquid.

Pilot-operated safety relief valve (POSRV)

An automatic system that relieves on remote command from a pilot, to which the static pressure
(from equipment to protect) is connected(clarification needed).

Low pressure safety valve (LPSV)

An automatic system that relieves static pressure on a gas. Used when the difference between the
vessel pressure and the ambient atmospheric pressure is small.

Vacuum safety valve (VPSV pressure)

An automatic system that relieves static pressure on a gas. Used when the pressure difference
between the vessel pressure and the ambient pressure is small, negative and near to atmospheric
pressure.

Low and vacuum pressure safety valve (LVPSV)

An automatic system that relieves static pressure on a gas. Used when the pressure difference is
small, negative or positive and near to atmospheric pressure.

Deadweight lever valves

The first safety valve was invented by Denis Papin for his steam digester, an early pressure
cooker rather than an engine. A weight acting through a lever held down a circular plug valve in
the steam vessel. By using a "steelyard" lever a smaller weight was required, also the pressure
could easily be regulated by sliding the same weight back and forth along the lever arm. Papin
retained the same design for his 1707 steam pump. Early safety valves were regarded as one of
the engineman's controls and required continuous attention, according to the load on the engine.
In a famous early explosion at Greenwich in 1803, one of Trevithick's high-pressure stationary
engines exploded when the boy trained to operate the engine left it to catch eels in the river,
without first releasing the safety valve from its working load. By 1806, Trevithick was fitting
pairs of safety valves, one external valve for the driver's adjustment and one sealed inside the
boiler with a fixed weight. This was un adjustable and released at a higher pressure, intended as a
guarantee of safety

Deadweight lever valves

Direct spring valves

Weighted valves were sensitive to bouncing from the rough riding of early locomotives. One
solution was to use a lightweight spring rather than a weight. This was the invention of Timothy
Hackworth on his Royal George of 1828.[12] Owing to the limited metallurgy of the period,
Hackworth's first spring valves used an accordion-like stack of multiple leaf springs. These
direct-acting spring valves could be adjusted by tightening the nuts retaining the spring. To avoid
tampering, they were often shrouded in tall brass casings which also vented the steam away from
the locomotive crew.

Salter spring balance valves

The Salter coil spring spring balance for weighing, was first made in Britain by around 1770.
This used the newly developed spring steels to make a powerful but compact spring in one piece.
Once again by using the lever mechanism, such a spring balance could be applied to the
considerable force of a boiler safety valve. The spring balance valve also acted as a pressure
gauge. This was useful as previous pressure gauges were unwieldy mercury manometers and the
Bourdon gauge had yet to be invented.

Lockable valves
The risk of firemen tying down the safety valve remained. This was encouraged by them being
fitted with easily adjustable wing nuts, the practice of adjusting the boiler's working pressure via
the safety valve being an accepted behaviour well into the 1850s. It was later common with
Salter valves for them to be fitted in pairs, one adjustable and often calibrated for use as a gauge,
the other sealed inside a locked cover to prevent tampering.

Paired spring balance valves

Paired valves were often adjusted to slightly different pressures too, a small valve as a control
measure and the lockable valve made larger and permanently set to a higher pressure, as a
safeguard. Some designs, such as one by Sinclair for the Eastern Counties Railway in 1859, had
the valve spring with pressure scale behind the dome, facing the cab, and the locked valve ahead
of the dome, out of reach of interference.

Pop valves
All of the preceding safety valve designs opened gradually and had a tendency to leak a "feather"
of steam as they approached "blowing-off", even though this was below the pressure. When they
opened they also did so partially at first and didn't vent steam quickly until the boiler was well
over pressure.

The quick-opening "pop" valve was a solution to this. Their construction was simple: the existing
circular plug valve was changed to an inverted "top hat" shape, with an enlarged upper diameter.
They fitted into a stepped seat of two matching diameters. When closed, the steam pressure acted
only on the crown of the top hat, and was balanced by the spring force. Once the valve opened a
little, steam could pass the lower seat and began to act on the larger brim. This greater area
overwhelmed the spring force and the valve flew completely open with a "pop". Escaping steam
on this larger diameter also held the valve open until pressure had dropped below that at which it
originally opened, providing hysteresis. These valves coincided with a change in firing
behaviour. Rather than demonstrating their virility by always showing a feather at the valve,
firemen now tried to avoid noisy blowing off, especially around stations or under the large roof
of a major station. This was mostly at the behest of stationmasters, but firemen also realised that
any blowing off through a pop valve wasted several pounds of boiler pressure; estimated at 20
psi lost and 16 lbs or more of shovelled coal

Marine and Cockburn high-lift safety valves

Developments in high-pressure water-tube boilers for marine use placed more demands on safety
valves. Valves of greater capacity were required, to vent safely the high steam-generating
capacity of these large boilers. As the force on their valves increased, the issue of the spring's
increasing stiffness as its load increased (like the Naylor valve) became more critical.[29] The
need to reduced valve feathering became even more important with high-pressure boilers, as this
represented both a loss of distilled feed water and also a scouring of the valve seats, leading to
wear. High-lift safety valves are direct-loaded spring types, although the spring does not bear
directly on the valve, but on a guide-rod valve stem. The valve is beneath the base of the stem,
the spring rests on a flange some height above this. The increased space between the valve itself
and the spring seat allows the valve to lift higher, further clear of the seat. This gives a steam
flow through the valve equivalent to a valve one and a half or twice as large (depending on detail
design).The Cockburn Improved High Lift design has similar features to the Ross pop type. The
exhaust steam is partially trapped on its way out and acts on the base of the spring seat,
increasing the lift force on the valve and holding the valve further open.To optimise the flow
through a given diameter of valve, the full-bore design is used. This has a servo action, where
steam through a narrow control passage is allowed through if it passes a small control valve. This
steam is then not exhausted, but is passed to a piston that is used to open the main valve.There
are safety valves known as PSV's and can be connected to pressure gauges (usually with a 1/2"
BSP fitting). These allow a resistance of pressure to be applied to limit the pressure forced on the
gauge tube, resulting in prevention of over pressurisation. the matter that has been injected into
the gauge, if over pressurised, will be diverted through a pipe in the safety valve, and shall be
driven away from the gauge.

Chapter 04
Weldind and its types

4.1 Defination of welding

• A weld is made when separate pieces of material to be joined combine and form

one piece when heated to a temperature high enough to cause softening or

melting. Filler material is typically added to strengthen the joint.

• Welding is a dependable, efficient and economic method for permanently

joining similar metals. In other words, you can weld steel to steel or

aluminum to aluminum, but you cannot weld steel to aluminum using

traditional welding processes.

• Welding is used extensively in all sectors or manufacturing, from earth moving

equipment to the aerospace industry

.
4.2 Types of welding
MIG Welding
MIG welding is one of the easier types of welding for beginners
to learn. MIG welding is actually two different types of welding.
The first uses bare wire and the second flux core.

Bare wire MIG welding can be used to join thin pieces of metal
together. Flux core MIG welding can be used outdoors because
it does not require a flow meter or gas supply. MIG welding is
usually the welding of choice for DIY enthusiasts and hobby
welders who don’t have the money to spend on expensive
equipment.

. Stick Welding
Stick welding, also known as Arc welding, is doing it the old
fashioned way. Stick welding is a bit harder to master than MIG
welding, but you can pick up a stick welding equipment for very
little if you want to have a go at home. Stick welding uses a
stick electrode welding rod.

. TIG Welding
TIG welding is extremely versatile, but it is also one of the more
difficult welding techniques to learn and Lincoln Electric TIG
welders are skilled individuals.

Two hands are needed for TIG welding. One hand feeds the rod
whilst the other holds a TIG torch. This torch creates the heat
and arc, which are used to weld most conventional metals,
including aluminum, steel, nickel alloys, copper alloys, cobalt
and titanium.

.Plasma Arc Welding

Plasma arc welding is a precision technique and is commonly
used in aerospace applications where metal thickness is 0.015 of
an inch. One example of such an application would be on an
engine blade or an air seal. Plasma arc welding is very similar in
technique to TIG welding, but the electrode is recessed and the
ionizing gases inside the arc are used to create heat.

.Electron Beam and Laser Welding

Electron beam and laser welding are extremely precise, high
energy welding techniques.

. Gas Welding
Gas welding is rarely used anymore and has been largely
superseded by TIG welding. Gas welding kits require oxygen
and acetylene and are very portable. They are still sometimes
used to weld bits of car exhaust back together.