MINI PROJECT

REPORT ON
STUDY OF THE WORKING OF A
MULTI CYLINDER PETROL ENGINE
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the award of the degree
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY:
MOHAMMED AFFAN SIDDIQ (17081A0320)
MOHAMMED AZHAR TAHER KHAN (17081A0323)
MOHAMMED MOHID HASAN (17081A0330)
MOHAMMED NAVEED ISHAQ (17081A0334)
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF
MIRZA SHOEB AHMED BAIG
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Department

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SHADAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
AFFILIATED TO JNTU, HYDERABAD
 SHADAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
Established by SHADAN EDUCATIONAL SOCIETY.
Approved by A.I.C.T.E and Affiliated to JNTU, Hyderabad
Website: www.scet.In E-Mail: scet_shadan@yahoo.co.uk

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report entitled "STUDY OF THE WORKING OF A
MULTI CYLINDER PETROL ENGINE" is a Bonafide record of the work successfully
completed and submitted by,

1. MOHAMMED AFFAN SIDDIQ 17081A0320

2. MOHAMMED AZHAR TAHER KHAN 17081A0323
3. MOHAMMED MOHID HASAN 17081A0330
4. MOHAMMED NAVEED ISHAQ 17081A0334

Under the Supervision of Mr. MIRZA SHOEB AHMED BAIG (Assistant Professor),
for the requirement in partial fulfillment of requirements for the award of Bachelor of
Technology Degree in MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, by SHADAN COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY , Peerancheru, Campus during the academic year,
2020-2021.

__________________________ __________________________

INTERNAL GUIDE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

________________________
EXTERNAL EXAMINER
 DECLARATION
We hereby declare that the project work entitled " STUDY OF THE WORKING OF
A MULTICYLINDER PETROL ENGINE” submitted to Department of Mechanical
Engineering of Shadan College of Engineering and Technology, Peerancheru, affiliated
JNTU, Hyderabad in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree
of Bachelor of technology in Mechanical Engineering, the work originally is done by
us. The results embodied this project have not been submitted in any university for a
degree and the results achieved are satisfactory .

MOHAMMED AFFAN SIDDIQ (17081A0320)

MOHAMMED AZHAR TAHER KHAN (17081A0323)

MOHAMMED MOHID HASAN (17081A0330)

MOHAMMED NAVEED ISHAQ (17081A0334)

 ACKNOWLEGEMENTS

The successful completion of this project involves many people and we are extremely
grateful to lecturers in Mechanical Engineering Department for their excellent guidance
right from selection of project and for encouragement throughout the completion of
project.

We express our heartfelt gratitude and respectful regards to Dr. MD ATEEQ UR

RAHMAN Principal of Shadan College of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad.

We derive great pleasure in expressing our sincere gratitude to Dr. NASEEB KHAN
Head of Mechanical Department for his timely suggestions which helped us to complete
this work successfully.

We express our sincere thanks to our guide Mr. MIRZA SHOEB AHMED BAIG
(Assistant Professor) the main source for helping in selecting our project. He also
suggested the suitable directions for our project. His guidance showed the path towards
being a successful completion of the project.

We would also like to thank Mr. SALMAN QADRI (Assistant Professor) for providing
the required assistance at the appropriate time. His arrangement of skilled technicians and
mechanics also played a major role in the smooth functioning of this work.
 ABSTRACT

The aim of this project is to study the working and performance of a Four Stroke Petrol
engine. Petrol Engine works on the principle of Otto cycle which was introduced by
Nikolaus Otto who was a German engineer who successfully developed the compressed
charge internal combustion engine and led to the modern internal combustion engine in the
year 1876.
The purpose of Morse Test is to obtain the approximate Indicated Power of a Multi-cylinder
Engine. It consists of running the engine against a dynamometer at a particular speed,
cutting out the firing of each cylinder in turn and noting the fall in BP each time while
maintaining the speed constant. When one cylinder is cut off, power developed is reduced
and speed of engine falls. Accordingly, the load on the dynamometer is adjusted so as to
restore the engine speed. This is done to maintain FP constant, which is considered
independent of the load and proportional to the engine speed. The observed difference in
BP between all cylinders firing and with one cylinder cut off is the IP of the cut off cylinder.
Summation of IP of all the cylinders would then give the total IP of the engine under test.

The present work comprises of the following;

• Completing the engine setup including the display unit with the corresponding sensors and its
connections.

• Analyzing the performance by conducting the Morse Test.

 Contents

Introduction ............................................................................................................. 2
History ...................................................................................................................... 2
Definition .................................................................................................................. 2
Internal combustion engines .................................................................................. 2
Classification of Internal Combustion Engines ..................................................... 3
Terminology used in IC engine.............................................................................. 5
Internal Combustion Engine Parts and their Functions ......................................... 7
Advantages of Internal Combustion Engines ...................................................... 12
Disadvantages of Internal Combustion Engines .................................................. 12
Spark Ignition Engine ........................................................................................... 12
Working Principle ................................................................................................ 12
Otto Cycle............................................................................................................. 13
Summary of Otto Cycle ....................................................................................... 15
Strokes in a 4- Stroke Petrol Engine .................................................................... 17
Valve Timing Diagram ........................................................................................ 18
Valve Timing Diagram for 4-Stroke Engine ........................................................ 18
Fuels Used ............................................................................................................ 20
Tuning..................................................................................................................... 20
Increasing Power and Efficiency ......................................................................... 21
Comparison of SI and CI Engine......................................................................... 23
Applications of 4-Stroke Petrol Engine ............................................................... 24
Engine Specifications ............................................................................................ 25
Morse Test .............................................................................................................. 27
Theory and Description ........................................................................................ 28
Apparatus ............................................................................................................. 30
Procedure.............................................................................................................. 33
 Basic Formulas used to Calculate ........................................................................ 34
Result.................................................................................................................... 36
Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 36
References .............................................................................................................. 38
 List of Tables

S. No Name of the table Page Number

1 Summary of Otto Cycle 15

2 Comparison of SI and CI Engine 23

3 Engine Specifications 26

4 Morse Test 34
 List of Figures

S. No Name of Figure Page Number

1 External Combustion Engine 02

2 Internal Combustion Engine 03
3 Terminology used in IC Engine 05
4 Cylinder 07
5 Piston 08
6 Piston Rings 08
7 Piston Pin (i) 09
8 Piston Pin (ii) 09
9 Connecting Rod 09
10 Crankshaft 10
11 Engine Bearing (i) 10
12 Engine Bearing (ii) 10
13 Valves 11
14 Camshaft (i) 11
15 Camshaft (ii) 11
16 P-V & T-S Diagram (i) 13
17 P-V & T-S Diagram (ii) 14
18 Strokes in Petrol Engine 17
19 Theoretical valve timing diagram 18
20 Practical Valve Timing Diagram 19
21 Sectional View of Inline Engine 25
22 Rope Break Dynamometer 31
23 Characteristic Functions of Thermocouple 32
Introduction:
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel (generally, fossil fuel)
occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine the
expansion of the high temperature and pressure gases, which are produced by the combustion, directly
applies force to a movable component of the engine, such as the pistons or turbine blades and by
moving it over a distance, generates useful mechanical energy. The term internal combustion engine
usually refers to an engine in which combustion is intermittent, such as the more familiar four-stroke
and two-stroke piston engines, along with variants, such as the Wankel rotary engine. A second class
of internal combustion engines uses continuous combustion: gas turbines, jet engines and most rocket
engines.

History:
The era of Heat engines started with the innovation of the revolutionary watt steam engines. As the
name suggests, it used pressured steam to drive the piston of the engine. This is an example of an
external combustion engine, an engine that generates energy and then transfers the energy to the
‘working fluid’ to do the work. In the case of the heat engine, the energy is generated through
combustion outside the cylinder and then the energy is transferred to water. The water converts into
steam, which under high pressure drives the engine.

The development of an internal combustion engine was about 50 years later, when it was first developed
and tested in France. It was based on the Carnot cycle, by the French engineer and physicist Carnot,
often regarded as the “father of thermodynamics”. Later the Otto cycle came into consideration, as it
was more efficient than the Carnot cycle. Karl Benz developed the first successful commercial
automobile and engines started to be commercially used. After this there were many advancements in
the engine structure and its mechanism, leading to the machine that we use today.

The most important thing to note about the advancements in Engine is that they were done so as to
increase the efficiency of the engine and also to make it more economical. This understanding was
crucial to my experience in the internship. As pointed out by my mentors, this is one thing that every
engine manufacturer runs after, as this is what makes its engine different from others.

Keeping this in mind as well, we will now move forward to learn the functioning of the various parts of
an engine, and also understand the terminologies.

1
Definition:
An Engine is a machine which transforms the chemical energy of fuel into thermal energy and uses this
thermal energy to produce mechanical work. An engine normally converts thermal energy into
mechanical work &thermal energy into mechanical work and therefore they are called heat engines.

Heat engines can be broadly classified into:

-External combustion engines (E C Engines)

- Internal combustion engines (I C Engines)

i) External combustion engines (E C Engines)

External combustion engines are those in which combustion takes place outside the engine. For
example, In steam engine or steam turbine the heat generated due to combustion of fuel and it is
employed to generate high pressure steam, which is used as working fluid in a reciprocating engine or
turbine.

Fig 1

ii) Internal combustion engines (I C Engines)

In Intermittent internal combustion engine combustion of fuel takes place in the engine cylinder. Power
is generated intermittently only during power stroke and flywheel is used to provide uniform output
torque. Usually, these engines are reciprocating engines. The reciprocating engine mechanism consists
of piston which moves in a cylinder and forms a movable gas tight seal. By means of a connecting rod
and a crank shaft arrangement, the reciprocating motion of piston is converted into a rotary motion of
the crankshaft.

2
 Fig 2

Classification of Internal Combustion Engines:

There are different types of IC engines that can be classified on the following basis:

1. According to thermodynamic cycle,

i) Otto cycle engine or Constant volume heat supplied cycle.
ii) Diesel cycle engine or Constant pressure heat supplied cycle

2. According to the fuel used,

i) Petrol Engine
ii) Diesel Engine
iii)Gas Engine

3
3. According to the cycle of operation,
i) Two stroke cycle engine
ii) Four stroke cycle engine

4. According to the method of ignition,

i) Spark ignition (S.I) engine
ii) Compression ignition (C.I) engine

5. According to the number of cylinders,

i) Single cylinder engine
ii) Multi cylinder engine

6. According to the arrangement of cylinder,

i) Horizontal engine
ii) Vertical engine
iii) V-configuration engine
iv) In-line engine
v) Radial engine, etc.

7. According to the method of cooling the cylinder,

i) Air cooled engine
ii) Water cooled engine

8. According to their applications,

(i) Automotive Engine
(ii) Aero Engine
(iii) Locomotive Engine
(iv) Marine Engine etc

4
Terminology used in IC engine:

Fig 3

1. Top dead center (T.D.C.)

In a reciprocating engine the piston moves to and fro motion in the cylinder. When the piston moves
upper direction in the cylinder, a point at which the piston comes to rest or change its direction known as
top dead center. It is situated at top end of cylinder.

2. Bottom dead center (B.D.C.)

When the piston moves in downward direction, a point at which the piston come to rest or change its
direction known as bottom dead center. It is situated in bottom side of cylinder.

3. Stroke (L)
The maximum distance travel by the piston in single direction is known as stroke. It is the distance
between top dead center and bottom dead center.

4. Bore (b)
The inner diameter of cylinder known as bore of cylinder.

5
5. Maximum or total volume of cylinder (Vtotal)
It is the volume of cylinder when the piston is at bottom dead center. Generally, it is measure in
centimeter cube (c.c.).

6. Minimum or clearance volume of cylinder (Vclearance)

It is the volume of cylinder when the piston is at top dead center.

7. Swept or displace volume (Vswept)

It is the volume which swept by the piston. The difference between total volume and clearance volume
is known as swept volume.

Swept volume = Total volume – Clearance volume

8. Compression ratio
The ratio of maximum volume to minimum volume of cylinder is known as the compression ratio. It is 8
to 12 for spark ignition engine and 12 to 24 for compression ignition engine.

Compression ratio = Total volume / Clearance volume

9. Ignition delay
It is the time interval between the ignition start (spark plug start in S.I. engine and inject fuel in C.I.
engine) and the actual combustion starts.

10. Stroke bore ratio

Stroke bore ratio is the ratio of bore (diameter of cylinder) to length of stroke. It is generally equal to
one for small engine and less than one for large engine.

Stroke bore ratio = inner diameter of cylinder / length of stroke

11. Mean effective pressure

The average pressure acting upon the piston is known as mean effective pressure. It is given by the ratio
of the work done by the engine to the total volume of engine.

Mean effective pressure = Work done by engine / Total volume of cylinder

6
Internal Combustion Engine Parts and their Functions:

Cylinder:
The cylinder of an IC engine constitutes the basic and supporting portion of the engine power unit. Its
major function is to provide space in which the piston can operate to draw in the fuel mixture or air
(depending upon spark ignition or compression ignition), compress it, allow it to expand and thus
generate power. The cylinder is usually made of high-grade cast iron. In some cases, to give greater
strength and wear resistance with less weight, chromium, nickel and molybdenum are added to the cast
iron.

Fig 4

Piston:
The piston of an engine is the first part to begin movement and to transmit power to the crankshaft as a
result of the pressure and energy generated by the combustion of the fuel. The piston is closed at one end
and open on the other end to permit direct attachment of the connecting rod and its free action. The
materials used for pistons are grey cast iron, cast steel and aluminum alloy. However, the modern trend
is to use only aluminum alloy pistons in the tractor.

7
 Fig 5

Piston Rings:
These are made of cast iron on account of their ability to retain bearing qualities and elasticity
indefinitely. The primary function of the piston rings is to retain compression and at the same time
reduce the cylinder wall and piston wall contact area to a minimum, thus reducing friction losses and
excessive wear. The other important functions of piston rings are the control of the lubricating oil,
cylinder lubrication, and transmission of heat away from the piston and from the cylinder walls. Piston
rings are classed as compression rings and oil rings depending on their function and location on the
piston.

Fig 6

Piston Pin:
The connecting rod is connected to the piston through the piston pin. It is made of case hardened alloy
steel with precision finish. There are three different methods to connect the piston to the connecting rod.

8
 Fig 7 Fig 8

Connecting Rod:
This is the connection between the piston and crankshaft. The end connecting the piston is known as
small end and the other end is known as big end. The big end has two halves of a bearing bolted
together. The connecting rod is made of drop forged steel and the section is of the I-beam type.

Fig 9

Crankshaft:
This is connected to the piston through the connecting rod and converts the linear motion of the piston
into the rotational motion of the flywheel. The journals of the crankshaft are supported on main
bearings, housed in the crankcase. Counter-weights and the flywheel bolted to the crankshaft help in the
smooth running of the engine.

9
 Fig 10

Engine Bearings:
The crankshaft and camshaft are supported on anti-friction bearings. These bearings must be capable of
withstanding high speed, heavy load and high temperatures. Normally, cadmium, silver or copper lead is
coated on a steel back to give the above characteristics. For single cylinder vertical/horizontal engines,
the present trend is to use ball bearings in place of main bearings of the thin shell type.

Fig 11 Fig 12

Valves:
To allow the air to enter into the cylinder or the exhaust, gases to escape from the cylinder, valves are
provided, known as inlet and exhaust valves respectively. The valves are mounted on either on the
cylinder head or on the cylinder block.

10
 Fig 13
Camshaft:
The valves are operated by the action of the camshaft, which has separate cams for the inlet, and exhaust
valves. The cam lifts the valve against the pressure of the spring and as soon as it changes position the
spring closes the valve. The cam gets drive through either the gear or sprocket and chain system from
the crankshaft. It rotates at half the speed of the camshaft.

Fig 14 Fig 15

Flywheel:
This is usually made of cast iron and its primary function is to maintain uniform engine speed by
carrying the crankshaft through the intervals when it is not receiving power from a piston The size of the
flywheel varies with the number of cylinders and the type and size of the engine. It also helps in
balancing rotating masses.

11
Advantages of Internal Combustion Engines:

1. Greater mechanical simplicity.

2. Higher power output per unit weight because of absence of auxiliary units like boiler, condenser and
feed pump.

3. Low initial cost.

4. Higher brake thermal efficiency as only a small fraction of heat dissipated to cooling system.

5. These units are compact and require less space.

6. Easy starting from cold conditions.

Disadvantages of Internal Combustion Engines:

1. I C engines cannot use solid fuels which are cheaper. Only liquid or gaseous fuel of given
specification can be efficiently used. These fuels are relatively more expensive.

2. I C engines have reciprocating parts and hence balancing of them is problem and they are also
susceptible to mechanical vibrations.

SPARK IGNITION ENGINE / PETROL ENGINE:

4- STROKE PETROL ENGINE:
A spark-ignition engine (SI engine) is an internal combustion engine, generally a petrol
engine, where the combustion process of the air-fuel mixture is ignited by a spark from a spark plug.
This is in contrast to compression-ignition engines, typically diesel engines, where the heat generated
from compression together with the injection of fuel is enough to initiate the combustion process,
without needing any external spark.

Working Principle:
Spark ignition engines work on Otto Cycle or constant volume cycle. It is known as a constant volume
Cycle because Constant volume heat addition (combustion) and heat rejection process (exhaust) takes
place at constant volume. An Otto cycle consists of two constant volume processes and two reversible
adiabatic processes or isentropic processes.

12
Otto Cycle:
An Otto cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle that describes the functioning of a typical spark
ignition piston engine. It is the thermodynamic cycle most commonly found in automobile engines.

The Otto cycle is a description of what happens to a mass of gas as it is subjected to changes of pressure,
temperature, volume, addition of heat, and removal of heat. The mass of gas that is subjected to those
changes is called the system. The system, in this case, is defined to be the fluid(gas) within the cylinder.
By describing the changes that take place within the system, it will also describe in inverse, the system's
effect on the environment.

How Otto Cycle Works?

Now, with the help of P-V and T-S diagram, we can easily understand all the process of Otto cycle.

Fig 16

13
 Fig 17

1. Process 1-2: Isentropic Compression:

This process involves the motion of piston from TDC to BDC. The air that is sucked into cylinder
during suction stroke undergoes reversible adiabatic (isentropic) compression. Since the air is
compressed, the pressure increases from P1 to P2, the volume decreases from V1 to V2, temperature
rises from T1 to T2, and entropy remains constant.

2. Process 2-3: Constant Volume Heat Addition:

This process is an isochoric process i.e. the heat is added to the air at constant volume. The piston in this
process rest for a moment at TDC and during this time heat is added to the air through external source.
Due to the heat addition, the pressure increases from P2 to P3, pressure, volume remains constant (i.e.
V2=V3), temperature increases from T2 to T3 and entropy increases from S2 to S3.

The amount of heat added is given by:

14
3. Process 3-4: Isentropic Expansion:

In this process, the isentropic (reversible adiabatic) expansion of air takes place. The piston moves from
TDC to BDC. Power is obtained in this process which is used to do some work. Since this process
involves expansion of air, so the pressure decreases from P3 to P4, volume increases from V3 to V4,
temperature falls from T3 to T4 and entropy remains unchanged (i.e. S3=S4).

4. Process 4-1: Constant Volume Heat Rejection:

In this process, the piston rest for a moment at BDC and rejection of heat takes place at constant volume.
The pressure decreases from P4 to P1, Volume remains constant (i.e. V4=V1), temperature falls from T4
to T1.

The amount of heat rejected in this process is given by:

When this cycle is used in four stroke petrol engine then two process increases, one is suction of air fuel
mixture inside the cylinder which takes place at constant atmospheric pressure and other one is exhaust
of gases out of the engine cylinder at constant atmospheric pressure. These two processes are not shown
in ideal Otto cycle that has been mentioned above.

(Table 1) Summary of Otto Cycle in Tabular Form:

Position of
S.no Process Operation Piston Change in parameter

V: Decreases from V1 To V2

T: Increases from T1 to T2

P: Increases from P1 to P2
1-2: Isentropic
1. Compression Compression of air. BDC to TDC S: Entropy remains constant (S1=S2)

V: Remains constant (V2 = V3)

T: Increases from T2 to T3

P: Increases from P2
2-3: Constant Heat is added in the to P3
Volume Heat form of spark and At TDC for a
2. Addition combustion occurs. moment S: Increases from S2 to S3

15
 Position of
S.no Process Operation Piston Change in Parameter

V: Increases from V3 to V4

T: Decreases from T3 to T4
Expansion of air P: Decreases from P3 to P4
3-4: Isentropic takes place due to
3. Expansion heat addition. TDC to BDC S: Entropy remains constant (S3=S4)

V: Volume remains constant (V4 =

V1)

T: Decreases from T4 to T1
4-1: Constant P: Decreases from P4 to P1
Volume Heat Heat is rejected to a At BDC for a
4. Rejection sink. moment S: Decreases from S4 to S1

Thermal Efficiency:

Thermal efficiency is the quotient of the net work from the system, to the heat added to system.

The efficiency of Otto cycle is given by,

16
Strokes in a 4- Stroke Petrol Engine:

Fig 18

1. Intake Stroke:

This stroke of the piston begins at top dead center. The piston descends from the top of the cylinder to the
bottom of the cylinder, increasing the volume of the cylinder. A mixture of fuel and air is forced by
atmospheric (or greater) pressure into the cylinder through the inlet valve.

2. Compression Stroke:

With both inlet and exhaust valves closed, the piston returns to the top of the cylinder compressing the
air or fuel-air mixture into the cylinder head.

3. Power Stroke:

This is the start of the second revolution of the cycle. While the piston is close to Top Dead Centre
(TDC), the compressed air–fuel mixture in a Petrol engine is ignited, by a spark plug in Petrol engines,
or which ignites due to the heat generated by compression in a diesel engine. The resulting pressure
from the combustion of the compressed fuel-air mixture forces the piston back down toward Bottom
Dead Center (BDC).

17
4. Exhaust Stroke:

During the exhaust stroke, the piston once again returns to top dead center while the exhaust valve is
open. This action expels the spent fuel-air mixture through the exhaust valve(s).

Valve Timing Diagram:

A valve timing diagram is a graphical representation of the opening and closing of the intake
and exhaust valve of the engine, The opening and closing of the valves of the engine depends upon the
movement of piston from TDC to BDC, This relation between piston and valves is controlled by setting
a graphical representation between these two, which is known as valve timing diagram.
The valve timing diagram comprises of a 360-degree figure which represents the movement of the
piston from TDC to BDC in all the strokes of the engine cycle, which is measured in degrees and the
opening and closing of the valves is controlled according to these degrees.

Valve Timing Diagram for 4-Stroke Engine:

(PETROL ENGINE)
As we all know in 4-stroke engine the cycle completes in 4-strokes that are suction, compression,
expansion and exhaust the relation between the valves (inlet and outlet) and piston movement from TDC
to BDC is represented by the graph known as valve timing diagram.

Theoretical Valve Timing Diagram:

Fig 19

18
Suction Stroke-
The engine cycle starts with this stroke, Inlet valve opens as the piston which is at TDC starts moving
towards BDC and the air-fuel mixture in case of petrol and fresh air in case of diesel engine starts
entering the cylinder, till the piston moves to BDC.

Compression Stroke-
After the suction stroke the piston again starts moving from BDC to TDC in order to compress the air-
fuel (petrol engine) and fresh air (diesel engine) which in turn raises the pressure inside the cylinder
which is essential for the combustion of the fuel.
The inlet valve closes during this operation to provide seizure of the chamber for the compression of the
fuel.

Expansion Stroke-
After compressing the fuel, the combustion of the fuel takes place which in turn pushes the piston
which is at TDC towards BDC in order to release the pressure developed by the combustion and output
is obtained.
Note – In petrol engine combustion takes place due to the spark produced by the spark plug. In petrol
engine the air and fuel charge enters the cylinder during suction stroke.

Exhaust Stroke-
After expansion stroke the piston which is at BDC starts moving towards TDC followed by the opening
of exhaust valve for the removal of the combustion residual. Exhaust valve closes after the piston
reaches TDC.

Actual or Practical Valve Timing Diagram:

Fig 20

19
▪ In suction stroke of 4-stroke engine the inlet valve opens 10–20-degree advance to TDC for the proper
intake of air-fuel, which also provides cleaning of remaining combustion residuals in the combustion
chamber.
▪ When the piston reaches BDC the compression stroke starts and again the piston starts moving towards
TDC, the inlet valve closes 25-30 degree past the BDC during the compression stroke, which provides
complete seizure of the combustion chamber for the compression of air-fuel.
▪ During the compression stroke as the piston moves towards TDC, the combustion of fuel takes place 20-
35 degree before TDC which provides the proper combustion of fuel and proper propagation of flame.
▪ The expansion strokes start due to the combustion of fuel which in turn releases the pressure inside the
combustion chamber and provide rotation to the crankshaft, the piston moves from TDC to BDC during
expansion stroke which continuous 30-50 degree before BDC.
▪ The exhaust valve opens 30-50 degree before BDC which in turn starts the exhaust stroke and the
exhaust of the combustion residual takes place with movement of the piston from BDC to TDC which
continues till the 10-20 degree after the piston reaches TDC.

As we can see in the entire cycle of engine valves overlaps two times i.e. closing of both valves during
the compression stroke and opening of both valves during the exhaust stroke.

Fuels Used:
Spark-ignition engines are commonly referred to as "Gasoline Engine" in North America and "Petrol
Engine" in Britain and the rest of the world. However, these terms are not preferred, since spark-ignition
engines can (and increasingly are) run on fuels other than petrol, such as auto
gas (LPG), methanol, ethanol, bio-ethanol, compressed natural gas (CNG), hydrogen, and (in drag
racing) nitro methane.

Tuning:
Engine tuning is the adjustment or modification of the internal combustion engine or Engine Control
Unit (ECU) to yield optimal performance and increase the engine's power output, economy, or
durability.
Tune-ups may include the following:

● Adjustment of the carburetor idle speed and the air-fuel mixture,

● Inspection and possible replacement of ignition system components like spark plugs, contact
breaker points, distributor cap and distributor rotor,
● Replacement of the air filter and other filters,
● Inspection of emission controls

20
Increasing Power and Efficiency:
The efficiency of an engine is defined as ratio of the useful work done to the heat provided.

Where, Q1 is the heat absorbed and Q2 is the work done.

Note: The term work done relates to the power delivered at the clutch or at the driveshaft.
This means the friction and other losses are subtracted from the work done by thermodynamic
expansion. Thus, an engine not delivering any work to the outside environment has zero efficiency.
The performance of an engine is usually studied by heat balance-sheet. The main components of the
heat balance are:
• Heat equivalent to the effective (brake) work of the engine,
• Heat rejected to the cooling medium,
• Heat carried away from the engine with the exhaust gases, and
• Unaccounted losses.
The unaccounted losses include the radiation losses from the various parts of the engine and heat lost
due to incomplete combustion. The friction loss is not shown as a separate item to the heat balance-
sheet as the friction loss ultimately reappears as heat in cooling water, exhaust and radiation.
Modern Petrol engines have a maximum thermal efficiency of more than 50%,but road legal cars are
only about 20% to 35% when used to power a car. In other words, even when the engine is operating at
its point of maximum thermal efficiency, of the total heat energy released by the Petrol consumed, about
65-80% of total power is emitted as heat without being turned into useful work, i.e. turning the
crankshaft. Approximately half of this rejected heat is carried away by the exhaust gases, and half passes
through the cylinder walls or cylinder head into the engine cooling system, and is passed to the
atmosphere via the cooling system radiator. Some of the work generated is also lost as friction, noise, air
turbulence, and work used to turn engine equipment and appliances such as water and oil pumps and the
electrical generator, leaving only about 20-35% of the energy released by the fuel consumed available to
move the vehicle.

The difference between the exhaust and intake pressures and temperatures means that some increase in
efficiency can be gained by use of a turbocharger, removing from the exhaust flow some part of the
remaining energy and transferring that to the intake flow to increase the intake pressure.

21
A gas turbine can extract useful work energy from the exhaust stream and that can then be used to
pressurize the intake air. The pressure and temperature of the exhausting gases would be reduced as they
expand through the gas turbine and that work is then applied to the intake gas stream, increasing its
pressure and temperature. The transfer of energy amounts to an efficiency improvement and the
resulting power density of the engine is also improved. The intake air is typically cooled so as to reduce
its volume as the work produced per stroke is a direct function of the amount of mass taken into the
cylinder; denser air will produce more work per cycle. Practically speaking the intake air mass
temperature must also be reduced to prevent premature ignition in a petrol fueled engine; hence,
an intercooler is used to remove some energy as heat and so reduce the intake temperature. Such a
scheme both increases the engine's efficiency and power.

The application of a supercharger driven by the crankshaft does increase the power output (power
density) but does not increase efficiency as it uses some of the net work produced by the engine to
pressurize the intake air and fails to extract otherwise wasted energy associated with the flow of exhaust
at high temperature and a pressure to the ambient.
If there is not enough oxygen for proper combustion, the fuel will not burn completely and will produce
less energy. An excessively rich fuel to air ratio will increase unburnt hydrocarbon pollutants from the
engine. If all of the oxygen is consumed because there is too much fuel, engine's power is reduced.

As combustion temperature tends to increase with leaner fuel air mixtures, unburnt hydrocarbon
pollutants must be balanced against higher levels of pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), which are
created at higher combustion temperatures. This is sometimes mitigated by introducing fuel upstream of
the combustion chamber to cool down the incoming air through evaporative cooling. This can increase
the total charge entering the cylinder (as cooler air will be denser), resulting in more power but also
higher levels of hydrocarbon pollutants and lower levels of nitrogen oxide pollutants. With direct
injection this effect is not as dramatic but it can cool down the combustion chamber enough to reduce
certain pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), while raising others such as partially decomposed
hydrocarbons.

22
(Table 2) Comparison of SI and CI Engine:

Description SI Engine CI Engine

Works on Otto Cycle or constant Works on Diesel Cycle or constant

heat addition cycle. pressure heat addition cycle.
Basic Cycle

Petrol, highly volatile fuel. Self- Diesel, a nonvolatile fuel. Self-

ignition temperature is high. ignition temperature is
Fuel comparatively slow.

A gaseous mixture of fuel – air is Fuel is injected directly into the

Introduction to fuel introduced during the suction combustion chamber at high
stroke. A carburetor and an pressure at the end of the
ignition system are necessary. compression stroke. A fuel pump
and injector are necessary.

Load Control Throttle controls the quantity of fuel The quantity of fuel is regulated. Air
– air mixture introduced. quality is not controlled.

23
 Ignition Requires an ignition system
with spark plug in the
combustion chamber. Primary
voltage Is provided by either
a battery or a magneto.
Self-ignition occurs due to
high temperature f air
because of high compression.
Ignition system and spark
plug are not necessary.

Compression Ratio 6 to 10. Upper limit is fixed 16 to 20. Upper limit is

by anti-knock quality of the limited by by weight increase
fuel. of the engine.

Speed Due to light weight and also Due to heavy weight and also
due to homogeneous due to heterogeneous
combustion, they are high combustion, they are low
speed engines. speed engines.

Thermal Efficiency Because of the lower Because of higher

compression ratio, the compression ratio, the
maximum value of thermal maximum value of thermal
efficiency that can be efficiency that can be
obtained is lower. obtained is higher.

Weight Lighter due to lower peak Heavier due to higher peak

pressures. pressures

Applications of 4-Stroke Petrol Engine:

Another key difference between engine designs is that 2-stroke engines are less expensive to build,
lighter and offer a higher power-to-weight ratio than 4-stroke engines.
For these reasons, 2-stroke engines are ideal in handheld applications like chainsaws, string trimmers
and backpack blowers. Two-stroke dirt bikes are also making a comeback thanks to engine designs that
produce reduced emissions and a more usable power band. Two-stroke engines are also easier to start in
cold temperatures, making them ideal for use in snowmobiles.
Four-stroke engines, on the other hand, produce more torque at lower rpm, generally provided greater
equipment durability than high-revving 2-stroke engines and also provide better fuel efficiency and

24
lower emissions. For these reasons, 4-stroke engines are ideal in applications such as motorcycles,
ATVs/UTVs, marine motors and personal watercraft.

Basic Sectional View of an In-Line 4 Cylinder Engine:

Fig 21

25
 Engine In-Line Four cylinder

Type Four stroke Liquid Cooled

Bore 0.072 m

Stroke 0.061m

Capacity 993 cc

Max Power 60 HP @ 6000 rpm

Max Torque 78.5 Nm @ 4500 rpm

Valve Configuration SOHC

Fuel Supply System MPFI

Compression Ratio 9:4:1

(Table 3) Engine Specifications (Maruti Zen)

26
 MORSE TEST
Thermodynamic tests are quite different from the commercial tests. They are carried out for the purpose
of comparing actual results with the theoretical or ideal performance. For such tests it is necessary to
measure losses in addition to the useful part of the energy, and also to draw up a heat balance account.
Such trials have been the direct cause of, and incentive to, the improvement in heat engines throughout
the period of their development. This interest created a demand for authentic records of engine
performance, which could only be satisfied by exhaustive trials carefully observed and calculated.

The measurements necessary to determine the mechanical and thermal efficiencies of the engine and to
draw up the heat balance account are:
(i) Indicated power (if possible);
(ii) Brake power;
(iii) Morse test for mechanical efficiency in case of multi-cylinder high speed engines;
(iv) Rate of fuel consumption and its calorific value;
(v) Rate of flow of cooling water and its rise of temperature, for calculating the heat carried away by jacket
cooling water;
(vi) Heat carried away by the exhaust gases - this is estimated either directly by exhaust gas calorimeter
or by measuring air consumption and temperature of the exhaust gases, and engine at room temperature.

Here, we will be focusing on just the Morse Test.

The Morse test is available for multi-cylinder high speed engines, and is less open to objection
that it is the simple motoring test. The method of finding indicated power of one cylinder of a multi-
cylinder I.C engine without the use of a high-speed indicator is known as the Morse test. The engine is
first run under the required condition of load, speed, temperature, etc., and the brake power is measured
accurately. Each cylinder is then cut-out in turn; the brake load being rapidly adjusted in each case to bring
the engine speed back to the specified value at the given angle of advance and throttle settling.

The fundamental assumptions are that the friction and pumping power of the cut-out cylinder remains the
same after cutting out as they were when the cylinder is fully operative (developing power). This would
not be a correct assumption if it were not for the fact that it is possible to carry this test in a very short
span of time. It should only take a few seconds to cut out one cylinder and adjust the brake load to keep
the speed constant. Over this short period the assumption may be considered reasonable. After cutting out
one cylinder, the engine should be allowed to run on all cylinders for a short while, before cutting out the
next cylinder.

The purpose of Morse Test is to obtain the approximate Indicated Power of a Multi-cylinder Engine. It
consists of running the engine against a dynamometer at a particular speed, cutting out the firing of each
cylinder in turn and noting the fall in BP each time while maintaining the speed constant. When one
cylinder is cut off, power developed is reduced and speed of engine falls. If one cylinder is cut out (spark

27
plug lead is shorted) so that it develops no power, the engine speed will fall. The brake load should then
be reduced so that the engine speed increases again to the original given speed. The engine is now
developing power in three cylinders, whereas the friction power of all the four cylinders remains the same.

Accordingly, the load on the dynamometer is adjusted so as to restore the engine speed. This is done to
maintain FP constant, which is considered independent of the load and proportional to the engine speed.
The observed difference in BP between all cylinders firing and with one cylinder cut off is the IP of the
cut off cylinder. Summation of IP of all the cylinders would then give the total IP of the engine under test.
Another important point to note is the Morse Test can only be performed on Multi Cylinder Engines either
it be Spark Ignition Engine (Petrol Engine) or Compression Ignition Engine (Diesel Engine).

Objective: Performance test and Morse test on a Four-stroke Four-cylinder Petrol

engine at a constant speed.

Theory and Description:

The petrol engine operating on a Four stroke cycle follows the following sequence; (i) Intake or Suction
Stroke (ii) Compression Stroke (iii) Expansion or Power Stroke (iv) Exhaust Stroke of operation through
constant volume cycle also called as Otto Cycle in which in the intake stroke the air and fuel mixture
enters the combustion chamber also called as the Cylinder in correct proportions through the inlet
manifold and valve which can be operated at constant pressure ideally but at little lower than the
atmospheric pressure. Compression stroke follows isentropically ideally compressing the air which is
also called as the Compression Ratio. After this stroke the fuel is ignited and the heat is added at
constant volume and then the power stroke starts in which the work is done isentropically. After that the
exhaust is eliminated and the heat is liberated at constant volume.
Thus for every two revolutions of the crankshaft, there is only one power stroke.
In absorption test the brake power is absorbed and the brake torque is calculated and the various
parameters are calculated.

In the motoring test the engine is steadily operated at the rated speed of its own power and allowed
to remain under the given speed and the load condition for a sufficient period of time so that the
temperature of the engine components, lubricating oil and cooling water reaches at a steady state. The
ignition is cutoff and by suitable switching device the dynamometer is converted to run as a motor so as
to crank the engine at the same speed at which it was at previously operating at, the power supply is
measured which gives the frictional horse power.

This test is carried out on multi cylinder I.C engine. In this test, first engine is allowed to run at constant
speed and brake power of engine is measured when all cylinders are working and developing indicated
power. (Considering four cylinders)

28
 I1+I2+I3+I4 = (BP)engine+(F1+F2+F3+F4)

Where; I1, I2, I3 and I4 – Indicated power of four cylinders

(BP)engine – Brake power of engine when all cylinders are working

F1, F2, F3, F4 – Frictional power of all four cylinders

Then the first cylinder is cut off by short circuiting spark plug in case S.I. engine (or cutting fuel supply
in case C.I. engine). This causes the speed to drop due to non-firing of first cylinder. It should be noted
that although first cylinder is not producing power still it is reciprocating so its frictional power must be
considered.

This speed is once again maintained to its original value by reducing load on the engine

I2+I3+I4 = (BP)2,3,4 +(F1+F2+F3+F4)

Where, (BP)2,3,4 – Brake power of 2,3 & 4 cylinders only.

By repeating the above procedure for remaining cylinders and calculate I.P. of the engine;

When Cylinder 2 is cut off – I1+I3+I4 = (BP)1,3,4 +( F1+F2+F3+F4)

When Cylinder 3 is cut off – I1+I2+I4 = (BP)1,2,4 +( F1+F2+F3+F4)

When Cylinder 4 is cut off – I1+I2+I3 = (BP)1,2,3 +( F1+F2+F3+F4)

Indicated Power of the cylinder 1 is calculated as,

I1 = (BP)engine – (BP)2,3,4

Similarly, I2, I3 and I4 is calculated as follows,

I2 = (BP)engine – (BP)1,3,4

I3 = (BP)engine – (BP)1,2,4

I4 = (BP)engine – (BP)1,2,3

Total Indicated power of engine = I.P

IP = I1+ I2+I3+I4

29
Frictional power of engine,

Frictional Power (F.P) = Indicated Power (I.P) – Brake Power (BP)

And, Mechanical Efficiency,

Thus, Morse test is used to calculate Indicated Power, Frictional Power and Mechanical efficiency by
assuming Frictional Power of each cylinder remains constant.

Apparatus:

1.) Four Stroke Four Cylinder Petrol Engine Test Rig

Multi cylinder petrol engine with ignition cut off arrangement

The setup consists of four-cylinder, four stroke, petrol engine connected to dynamometer for engine
loading. The setup has stand-alone type independent panel box consisting of air box, fuel tank,
manometer, fuel measuring unit. Engine jacket cooling water inlet, outlet and calorimeter temperature is
displayed on temperature indicator. Flow meters are provided for cooling water and calorimeter flow
measurement. Provision is also made for conducting the Morse Test. Next, the brake power of the
engine is measured with each cylinder rendered inoperative
one by one by shorting the spark plug in case of petrol engine.

2.) Loading Arrangement

Rope Brake Dynamometer

A dynamometer or "dyno" for short is a device for measuring force, torque, or power. For example, the
power produced by an engine, motor or other rotating prime mover can be calculated by simultaneously
measuring torque and rotational speed (RPM).

The rope brake as shown in Figure is another simple device for measuring Brake Power of an engine. It
consists of a number of turns of rope wound around the rotating drum attached to the output shaft. One
side of the rope is connected to a spring balance and the other to a loading device. The power is
absorbed in friction between the rope and the drum. The drum therefore requires cooling.

Rope brake is cheap and easily constructed but not a very accurate method because of changes in the
friction coefficient of the rope with temperature. The Brake Power is given by,

30
 Brake Power (B.P) = π DN (W − S)

Where, D is the brake drum diameter,

W is the weight in Newton and

S is the spring scale reading.

Fig 22

3.) Thermocouples

A thermocouple is an electrical device consisting of two dissimilar electrical conductors forming

an electrical junction. A thermocouple produces a temperature-dependent voltage as a result of
the thermoelectric effect, and this voltage can be interpreted to measure temperature. Thermocouples are
a widely used type of temperature sensor. Separate cooling water line is fitted with temperature
measuring thermocouples to the engine. The temperature of the exhaust gases is also measured with the
help of suitable thermocouple. Thermocouples are typically selected because of their low cost, high
temperature limits, wide temperature ranges, and durable nature. Thermocouples are provided at
appropriate positions and are read by a digital temperature indicator with channel selector to select the
position.

There are many types of Thermocouples but the selection of the combination is driven by cost,
availability, convenience, melting point, chemical properties, stability, and output. Different types are
best suited for different applications. Each calibration has a different temperature range and

31
environment, although the maximum temperature varies with the diameter of the wire used in the
thermocouple. They are usually selected on the basis of the temperature range and sensitivity needed.
Here, for this specific Morse Test we will be using the "J Type Thermocouple".

Type J Thermocouple: Type J (iron–constantan) has a more restricted range (−40 °C to +750 °C)
than type K but higher sensitivity of about 50 µV/°C. The Curie point of the iron (770 °C) causes a
smooth change in the characteristic, which determines the upper temperature limit. Note, the
European/German Type L is a variant of the type J, with a different specification for the EMF output.

Fig 23

(Characteristic functions for thermocouples that reach intermediate temperatures, as covered by nickel-
alloy thermocouple types E, J, K, M, N, T.)

4.) Tachometer

A tachometer (revolution-counter, tach, rev-counter, RPM gauge) is an instrument measuring the

rotation speed of a shaft or disk, as in an engine or other machine. The device usually displays
the revolutions per minute (RPM) on a calibrated analogue dial, but digital displays are increasingly
common. Tachometers or revolution counters on cars, aircraft, and other vehicles show the rate of
rotation of the engine's crankshaft.

The measurement of IC engine speed is done to count the number of revolutions in a given time which is
done by a Tachometer.

32
Different types of Tachometers that is available:

(a) On the basis of method of display: Analog and Digital

(b) On the basis of data acquisition: Contact and non-contact

(c) On the basis of measurement technique: Time based and frequency based

The time measurement device calculates speed by measuring the time interval between the incoming
pulses; whereas, the frequency measurement device calculates speed by measuring the frequency of the
incoming pulses. Time measuring tachometers are ideal for low-speed measurements and frequency
measuring tachometers are ideal for high-speed measurements.

(d) On the basis of working principle: Mechanical tachometers, electrical tachometers and contactless
electrical tachometers

Procedure:

1.) Check lubricating oil level, fuel level, cooling water system and the battery terminals before starting.

2.) Start the engine and allow it to run for about 10 minutes at the rated speed to warm up.

3.) Load the engine at fall load and maintain the speed at rated rpm i.e., 'N' rpm by adjusting the throttle
and dynamometer loading wheel.

4.) The engine to stabilize for a few minutes.

5.) Cut-off ignition to the first cylinder by lifting the respective switch.

6.) Bring the engine again to the rated speed of 'N' rpm by reducing the load on dynamometer. On no
account throttle position should be changed. Note the dynamometer reading.

7.) Restore ignition to first cylinder by closing the switch

8.) Repeat the procedure for cylinder numbers 3, and 4. Note the dynamometer readings for each
cylinder when they are cut-off.

9.) From the data compute Brake Horse Power of the engine and Frictional Power and Indicated Power
of each cylinder.

33
(Table 4) Morse Test on Multi Cylinder Petrol Engine:
S.NO RUNNING CYLINDER LOAD SPEED BP OF IP OF
CYLINDERS CUTOFF RUNNING CUTOFF
NOS. NOS. (KG) (RPM) CYLINDERS CYLINDER

(W) (N) (KW)

1. 1,2,3,4 0 2.63 1670 4.512 -

2. 2,3,4 1 1.82 1560 2.916 1.596

3. 1,3,4 2 1.84 1480 2.797 1.715

4. 1,2,4 3 1.39 1370 1.956 2.556

5. 1,2,3 4 1.28 1260 1.656 2.856

34
Basic Formulas used to Calculate:

Brake Power (B.P):

The brake power of an IC Engine is the power available at the crankshaft. The brake power of an I.C.
engine is, usually, measured by means of a brake mechanism (Prony brake or rope brake).

In case of proxy brake, brake power of the engine,

𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑁 − 𝑚 𝑋 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 1 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝐵. 𝑃 = (𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠)
60

𝑇𝑋2𝜋𝑁 𝑊𝑙𝑋2𝜋𝑁
=
60
= 60
watts

Where,
W = Dead load in Newton,
S = spring balance reading in Newton,
D = Diameter of the brake drum in meters,
d = Diameter of the rope in meters, and
N = Speed of the engine in r.p.m.

Note: The brake power (B.P.) of an engine is always less than the indicated power (I.P.) of an engine,
because some power is lost in overcoming the engine friction (known as frictional power).
Mathematically,

Frictional power, F.P. = I.P. — B.P.

Indicated Power (I.P):

The indicated power of an IC engine is the power actually developed by the engine
cylinder. Mathematically,

100𝐾𝑃𝐿𝐴𝑛
𝐼. 𝑃 = 𝑘𝑊
60
Where,
K = Number of cylinders,
Pm = Actual mean effective pressure in bar (1 bar = 100 KN/m2),
L = Length of stroke in meters,
A = Area of the piston in m2,

35
n = Number of working strokes per minute
Speed of the engine for two stroke cycle engines
Half the speed of the engine for four stroke cycle engines.

Mechanical Efficiency:

It is the ratio of brake power (B.P.) to the indicated power (I.P.).

Mathematically, Mechanical efficiency,

𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝐵.𝑃)

ηmech=
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝐼.𝑃)

Result:

Morse test was conducted on petrol engine and indicated power developed in each cylinder is
determined and mechanical efficiency is also determined.

Total Indicated Power = 8.723 kW

Total Frictional Power = 4.211 kW
Mechanical Efficiency = 51.72%

The main intention of carrying out the Morse test in an IC engine is to provide an easy method of
calculating the frictional losses. It provides a kind of top-down approach in calculating frictional losses
easily and helps calculate mechanical efficiency.

36
Conclusion:
Morse Test is carried out on the engine which is an easy method for calculating the frictional losses,
brake power, indicated power, mechanical efficiency. The total break power of the engine is first
calculated using a dynamometer. This process is repeated with one cylinder cut off at each step. Thus,
the difference between total break power and break power of the remaining cylinders gives the indicated
power of the first cylinder, and so on. In this way, indicated power of all cylinders are calculated and
summed to obtain the indicated power of the engine. The process is repeated with one cylinder cut off at
each step

Once friction power is obtained, the mechanical efficiency of the engine can be calculated.

1. As brake power increases fuel consumption also Increases.

2. Brake specific fuel consumption decreases with Increase in brake power.

3. Exhaust temperature increases as brake power Increases.

37
REFERENCES:

Ganeshan.V “Internal Combustion Engines”,

7 Tata McGraw Hill Publishing, New Delhi, 2007

Mahesh M Rathore “Thermal Engineering”

7 Tata McGraw Hill Publishing, New Delhi, 2010

https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/ottoa.html

https://web.mit.edu/16.unified/www/FALL/thermodynamics/notes/node26.html

http://ijirt.org/master/publishedpaper/IJIRT148164_PAPER.pdf

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