Chapter 1

1.
INTRODUCTION TO
REINFORCED CONCRETE
REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES I
MULUKEN BOGALE
1
1. Introduction
Concrete
❑ Concrete is a versatile and widely used building
material that plays a crucial role in the construction
industry.
❑ It is the most commonly used man-made material in the
world due to its durability, strength, and cost-
effectiveness.
❑ The history of concrete dates back thousands of years to
ancient civilizations such as the Romans and Egyptians,
who used it in their architectural marvels.
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1. Introduction
3
1. Introduction
4
1.2. PLAIN AND REINFORCED CONCRETE
1.2.1. PLAIN CONCRETE
❑ Concrete may be defined as any solid mass made by the
use of a cementing medium; the ingredients generally
comprise sand, gravel, cement and water. Advantages:
➢Durability under hostile environments
(including resistance to water),
➢Ease with which it can be cast into a variety of shapes
and sizes,
➢Its relative economy and easy availability.
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ADVANTAGE ❑ Its tensile ‘strength’ is
approximately one-tenth of its
❑The main strength of concrete compressive ‘strength’ .
lies in its compression-bearing
ability, which surpasses that of❑ Hence, the use of plain concrete
traditional materials like brick and as a structural material is limited
stone masonry. to situations where significant
tensile stresses and strains do not
Disadvantage develop.
❑Concrete may be remarkably❑ As in hollow (or solid) block
strong in compression, but it is wall construction, small pedestals
equally remarkably weak in and ‘mass concrete’ applications
tension. (in dams, etc.).
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1.2.2. REINFORCED CONCRETE
❑Reinforced concrete is a composite material in which the concrete is
embedded with reinforcement to compensate for the concrete’s
relatively low tensile strength and ductility.
8
What are the advantages of the steel bar embedded in it?
➢compensate for the concrete’s incapacity for tensile resistance,
effectively taking up all the tension, without separating from the
concrete
➢The bond between steel and the surrounding concrete ensures strain
compatibility,
◦ i.e., the strain at any point in the steel is equal to that in the adjoining
concrete.
➢the reinforcing steel imparts ductility to a material that is otherwise
brittle.
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How do tensile stresses occur?
❑ Tensile stresses occur either directly, as in
❖ Direct tension or flexural tension,
❑ Indirectly, as in shear, which causes tension along diagonal planes.

❖ Temperature and shrinkage effects may also induce tensile stresses.
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1.3. Advantages And Disadvantages Of Concrete
Advantages Disadvantages
❑ Economy. ❑ Low tensile strength.
❑ Suitability of material for❑ Forms and shoring.
Architectural and structural
function. ❑ Relatively low strength per unit
of weight or volume.
❑ Fire resistance.
❑ Time-dependent volume
❑ Rigidity. changes.
❑ Low maintenance.
❑ Availability of materials.
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1.4. THE DESIGN PROCESS
Objectives of Design The design process
The structure should satisfy four The three major phases are the
major criteria: following:
1. Appropriateness. 1. Definition of the client’s needs
and priorities.
2. Economy.
2. Development of project
3. Structural adequacy. concept
4. Maintainability 3. Design of individual systems.
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1.5. DESIGN CODES AND HANDBOOKS
1.5.1. PURPOSE OF CODES
The codes serve at least four distinct functions:
1. Ensure adequate structural safety,
❖ Specifying minimum requirements for design.
2. Render the task of the designer relatively simple;
❖ Sophisticated analyses are made available in the form of a simple
formula or chart.
3. Ensure a measure of consistency among different designers.
4. Have some legal validity,
❖ Protect the structural designer from any liability due to structural
failures that are caused by inadequate supervision.
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1.5. DESIGN CODES AND HANDBOOKS
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1.6. DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES
1.6.1. INTRODUCTION
1. Working stress method of design (WSM)
❑ The earliest codified design philosophy
❑ Based on linear elastic theory,
❑ Now sidelined by the modern limit states design
philosophy.
2. Ultimate load method
❑developed in the 1950s.
❑Based on the (ultimate) strength of reinforced concrete at ultimate
loads.
❑was introduced as an alternative to WSM in the ACI
code in 1956 and the British Code in 1957
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3. Reliability-base method
❑ developed over the years and received from the mid-1960s onwards.
❑ was based on the theory that the various uncertainties in design could be
handled more rationally in the mathematical framework of probability
theory.
❑there was little acceptance of this theory in professional practice, mainly
because the theory appeared to be complicated and intractable
(mathematically and numerically)
4. Limit states method (LSM)
❑ is reliability-based in concept.
❑ involving multiple (partial) safety factors (rather than probability of
failure).
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1.6.2. WORKING STRESS METHOD (WSM)
❑ also known as the elastic method or the allowable stress design
method.
❑This was the traditional method of design not only for reinforced
concrete but also for structural steel and timber design.
❑ This method is based on the concept of limiting the stress levels
within a structure to certain allowable limits in order to ensure its
safety and performance.
❑As the specified permissible (‘allowable’) stresses are kept well
below the material strength.
❑The ratio of the strength of the material to the permissible stress is
often referred to as the factor of safety.
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Advantages
❑ Results in relatively large sections of structural members (compared
to ULM and LSM),
❑ Thereby resulting in better serviceability performance (less
deflections, crack-widths, etc.) under the usual working loads.
❑ its essential simplicity in concept, as well as application.
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Disadvantages
❑ The main assumption of linear elastic behavior.
❑ Kept within the ‘permissible stresses’ are not found to be realistic.
Many factors are responsible for this such as the long-term effects of
creep and shrinkage, the effects of stress concentrations, and other
secondary effects.
❑ Does not provide a realistic measure of the actual factor of safety
underlying a design.
❑ Fails to discriminate between different types of loads that act
simultaneously, but have different degrees of uncertainty.
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1.6.3. ULTIMATE LOAD METHOD (ULM)
❑ the stress condition at the state of impending collapse of the
structure is analyzed, and the non-linear stress-strain curves of
concrete and steel are made use of.
❑ The safety measure in the design is introduced by an appropriate
choice of the load factor, defined as the ratio of the ultimate load
(design load) to the working load.
❑ It is possible for different types of loads to be assigned different
load factors under combined loading conditions.
❑ generally results in more slender sections, and often more
economical designs of beams and columns, particularly when high-
strength reinforcing steel and concrete are used
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1.6.3. ULTIMATE LOAD METHOD (ULM)
Advantages
❑ Generally results in more slender sections, and often more
economical designs of beams and columns compared to WSM.
Disadvantages
❑ The satisfactory ‘strength’ performance at ultimate loads does not
guarantee satisfactory ‘serviceability’ performance at normal service
loads.
❑ The designs sometimes result in excessive deflections and crack
widths under service loads.
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1.6.4. LIMIT STATES METHOD (LSM)
❑ LSM aims for a comprehensive and rational solution to the design
problem, by considering safety at ultimate loads and serviceability at
working loads.
❑ The LSM philosophy uses a multiple safety factor format that
attempts to provide adequate safety at ultimate loads as well as
adequate serviceability at service loads, by considering all possible
‘limit states’.
❑ The selection of the various multiple safety factors is supposed to
have a sound probabilistic basis, involving the separate consideration
of different kinds of failure, types of materials, and types of loads.
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I. Ultimate limit states
❑ Involve a structural collapse of part or all of the structure.
❑Such a limit state should have a very low probability of occurrence,
because it may lead to loss of life and major financial losses. It
includes:
A. Loss of equilibrium
B. Rupture
C. Progressive collapse
D. Formation of Plastic Hinges
E. Mechanism
F. Instability
G. Fatigue
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II. Serviceability limit states
❑ Involve disruption of the functional use of the structure, but not
collapse.
❑ Because there is less danger of loss of life, a higher probability of
occurrence can generally be tolerated than in the case of an ultimate
limit state. It includes:
A. Excessive deflections
B. Excessive crack widths
C. Undesirable vibrations
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III. Special limit states
❑ Involves damage or failure due to abnormal conditions or abnormal
loadings and includes:
A. Damage or collapse in extreme earthquakes
B. Structural effects of fire, explosions, or vehicular collisions
C. Structural effect of corrosion or deterioration
D. Long-term physical or chemical instability
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1.7. MATERIALS
1.7.1. BEHAVIOR OF CONCRETE UNDER COMPRESSION
❑Compressive strength of concrete is taken to refer to the uniaxial
compressive strength as measured by a compression test of a standard
test cylinder.
❑ For convenience, other strength parameters, such as tensile or bond
strength, are expressed relative to the compressive strength.
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1.7. MATERIALS
Factors Affecting Concrete Compressive strength
❑ Water/Cement ratio
❑ Type of cement
❑ Supplementary cementitious materials
❑ Aggregate
❑ Mixing water
❑ Moisture conditions during curing.
❑ Temperature conditions during curing
❑ Age of concrete
❑ Maturity of concrete
❑Rate of loading
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1.7. MATERIALS
Statistical variations in concrete strength
❑ Concrete is a mixture of water, cement, aggregate, and air.
❑ Variations in the properties or proportions of these constituents, as
well as variations in the transporting, placing, and compaction of the
concrete, lead to variations in the strength of the finished concrete.
❑ In addition, discrepancies in the tests will lead to apparent
differences in strength.
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1.7. MATERIALS
𝑆
Statistical variations in concrete strength 615
𝑉= = = 15.6%
𝑋ത 3940
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1.7. MATERIALS
Stress-Strain Curves
❑The curves are somewhat linear in the very initial phase of loading;
❑ the non-linearity begins to gain significance when the stress level
exceeds about one-third to one-half of the maximum.
❑ The maximum stress is reached at a strain approximately equal to
0.002; beyond this point, an increase in strain is accompanied by a
decrease in stress.
❑ For the usual range of concrete strengths, the strain at failure is in
the range of 0.003 to 0.005.
❑ The higher the concrete grade, the steeper is the initial portion of
the stress-strain curve, the sharper the peak of the curve, and the less
the failure strain. For low-strength concrete, the curve has a relatively
flat top, and a high failure strain.
32
1.7. MATERIALS
Stress-Strain Curves
33
1.7. MATERIALS
Modulus of Elasticity
𝜎
❑ The Young’s modulus of elasticity is a constant, → 𝐸 =
𝜀
❑ Various descriptions of Ec are possible, such as initial tangent
modulus (IT), tangent modulus (T), and secant modulus (S).
❑ Among these, the secant modulus at a stress of about one‐third the
cube strength of concrete is generally found acceptable in
representing an average value of Ec under service load conditions
(static loading).
34
1.7. MATERIALS
Modulus of Elasticity
❑
35
1.7. MATERIALS
1.7.2. BEHAVIOR OF CONCRETE UNDER TENSION
❑ Concrete is not normally designed to resist direct tension.
❑ However, tensile stresses do develop in concrete members as a
result of flexure, shrinkage, and temperature changes.
❑ Often cracking in concrete is a result of the tensile strength being
exceeded.
❑ As pure shear causes tension on diagonal planes, knowledge of the
direct tensile strength of concrete is useful for estimating the shear
strength of beams with unreinforced webs, etc.
36
1.7. MATERIALS
1.7.2. BEHAVIOR OF CONCRETE UNDER TENSION
❑It is difficult to perform a direct tension test on a concrete specimen,
as it requires a purely axial tensile force to be applied, free of any
misalignment and secondary stress in the specimen at the grips of the
testing machine.
❑Hence, indirect tension tests are resorted to, usually the flexure test
or the cylinder splitting test.
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Stress-Strain curve of concrete in tension
❑ Concrete has a low failure strain in uniaxial tension. It is found to
be in the range of 0.0001 to 0.0002.
❑ The stress-strain curve in tension is generally approximated as a
straight line from the origin to the failure point.
❑ Often ignored in design, the tensile stress-strain relation is of little
practical value.
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Splitting tensile strength
❑ The cylinder splitting test is the easiest to perform and gives more
uniform results compared to other tension tests.
2𝑃
𝑓𝑐𝑟 =
𝜋𝑑𝐿
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1.7.4. REINFORCING STEEL
Stress-Strain Curve
❑ The stress-strain curve of reinforcing steel is obtained by
performing a standard tension test.
❑ Typical stress-strain curves for the three grades of steel are depicted
in the figure below.
❑For all grades, there is an initial linear elastic portion with a constant
slope, which gives a modulus of elasticity that is practically the same
for all grades.
❑The Code specifies that the value of to be considered in design is
2 × 105 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2.
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Stress-Strain Curve
41
Stress-Strain Curve (Proof stress)
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1.8. EUROCODE’S RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
LIMIT STATES DESIGN
1.8.1. ACTIONS
❑ To group together all external influences on a structure’s
performance.
❑ It encompasses loading by gravity and wind but includes also
vibration, thermal effects, fire, and seismic loading.
❑ Separate combinations of actions are used to check the structure for
the design situation being considered.
❑ For each of the particular design situations, an appropriate
representative value for each action is used.
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LIMIT STATES DESIGN
Representative values of actions
❑ The main actions to be used in load cases used for design are:
➢Permanent actions G:
e.g. self‐weight of structures and fixed equipment;
➢ Variable actions Q:
e.g. imposed loads on building floors and beams; snow loads
on roofs; wind loading on walls and roofs
➢ Accidental actions A:
e.g. fire, explosions, and impact.
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LIMIT STATES DESIGN
I. Permanent actions G
❑ The characteristic value of a permanent action may be a single
value if variability is known to be low
e.g. The self‐weight of quality‐controlled factory‐produced
members.
❑ If the variability of G cannot be considered as small, and its
magnitude may vary from place to place in the structure, then an
upper value and a lower value may occasionally be used.
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LIMIT STATES DESIGN
II. Variable actions
❑ Up to four types of representative value may be needed for the
variable and accidental actions.
❑ Characteristic value and combinations of the characteristic value
with other variable actions, multiplied by different combination
factors.
❑The ‘ψx’ factors generally reduce the value of a variable action
present in an accidental situation compared with the characteristic
value.
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LIMIT STATES DESIGN
II. Variable actions
A. Combination value of ψ0Qk
➢Ultimate limit states;
➢Irreversible serviceability limit states (e.g. deflections that fracture
brittle fittings or finishes)
B. Frequent value of ψ1Qk
➢Ultimate limit states involving accidental actions;
➢Reversible serviceability limit states, primarily associated with frequent
combinations
C. Quasi‐permanent value of ψ2Qk
➢Ultimate limit states involving accidental actions;
➢Reversible serviceability limit states
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LIMIT STATES DESIGN
1.8.1.4. Load combinations for design
The factor of safety account for:
1. The possibility of unfavorable deviation of the loads from the
characteristic values
2. Inaccuracies in the analyses
3. Unforeseen redistribution of stress
4. Variations in the geometry of the structure and its elements.
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LIMIT STATES DESIGN
I. Ultimate limit state
Equilibrium
49
LIMIT STATES DESIGN
Strength
50
LIMIT STATES DESIGN
51
LIMIT STATES DESIGN
Accidental and seismic design situation
52
LIMIT STATES DESIGN
II. Serviceability limit state
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LIMIT STATES DESIGN
II. Serviceability limit state
54
LIMIT STATES DESIGN
Load combinations for design
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1.8.2. MATERIAL
Partial factors for materials
Partial factors for materials for ultimate limit states
Partial factors for materials for serviceability limit states

The recommended value is 1.0.
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Concrete
The value of the design compressive strength is defined as:
57
Concrete
The value of the design compressive strength is defined as:
58
Concrete
Stress-strain relations for the design of cross‐sections
1. Parabolic‐ Rectangular
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Concrete
2. Bi-Linear stress‐strain relation
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Concrete
3. Rectangular stress‐strain relation
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Reinforcing steel
❑The application rules for design and detailing in this Eurocode are
valid up for specified yield strength, 𝑓𝑦𝑘 = 400 − 600𝑀𝑃𝑎
62
Reinforcing steel
Stress‐Strain relations for the design of cross‐sections
63
THANK YOU!
64

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1.

REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES I

❑ Indirectly, as in shear, which causes tension along diagonal planes.

Partial factors for materials for serviceability limit states

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