Curriculum Design (CDN402-DL-SG-E1) WM

Curriculum Design
STUDY GUIDE
CDN402-DL-SG-E1
*CDN402-DL-SG-E1*
Contents
Introduction 1
How to use this Study Guide 4
Learning Outcomes and Assessment Standards 8
Your Study Schedule 10
Study Session 1 14
Study Session 2 31
Study Session 3 52
References 78
STUDY GUIDE / CDN402-DL-SG-E1 / Page (i)

Written by Dr Nadira Manickchund
First edition May 2022
 STADIO (PTY) LTD

75 Silverton Road, Musgrave, Durban, 401
This document contains proprietary information that is protected by copyright. All rights are reserved. No part
of this document may be photocopied, reproduced, electronically stored or transmitted, or translated without
the written permission of STADIO (PTY) LTD.
STUDY GUIDE / CDN402-DL-SG-E1 / Page (ii)

Introduction
Welcome to the module Curriculum Design (CDN 402)!
The aims of this module are to provide the student with a solid foundation in
curriculum knowledge for the Foundation / Intermediate Phase, curriculum
development and curriculum design with the view to critically apply this
knowledge to current South African practice. The underlying purpose is to
motivate the developing teacher to play a formidable role as an agent of
empowerment in the dynamic South African educational landscape.
Prescribed Readings
This module requires you to read the following prescribed texts:
 Carl, A.E. 2017. Teacher Empowerment through Curriculum Development.

5th edn. Lansdowne: Juta and Company Ltd.
 Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2012. Question and Answer
Booklet for the advocacy of the implementation of the National Curriculum
Statement (NCS) Grades R-12. [online]. Available at: www.education.gov.za.
[Accessed on 20 June 2013].
 Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2012. National Protocol for
Assessment Grades R-12. Pretoria: Government Printing Works.
 Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2012. National Policy
pertaining to the Programme and Promotion Requirements of the National
Curriculum Statement Grades R-12. Pretoria: Government Printing Works.
 Department of Basic Education. South Africa. August 2015. Action Plan to
2019: Towards Realisation of Schooling 2030. [online]. Available at:
www.education.gov.za. [Accessed on 23 May 2018].
 SADTU, NAPTOSA, SAOU, PEU, NATU. 2015. Minister of Basic Education's
walking away from ANA Mediation cause turmoil in education. Joint Media
Statement. 25 November 2015.
 Republic of South Africa. Department of Higher Education and Training.
February 2015. Revised Policy on the Minimum Requirements for Teacher
Education Qualifications. Pages 60-61: Appendix A: Collective Roles of
Teachers in a School; p. 64: Appendix C: Basic Competences of a Beginner
Teacher.
 Research: NQF on the Council on Higher Education (CHE) website.
 Research: Department of Basic Education website.
The above prescribed texts are the primary resources in this module. You'll be
told when to read various sections of it as you work through this study guide.
Study Guide  STADIO CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Page 1

You'll also need to read parts of the following documents as part of your studies
for this module:
 Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2011. Curriculum and

Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) Life Skills Grades R-3.
Pretoria: Government Printing Works.
 Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2011. Curriculum and
Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) Life Skills Grades 4-6.
Pretoria: Government Printing Works.
In this study guide, we often refer to the above documents simply as the
Life Skills Grades R-3 and Life Skills Grades 4-6 CAPS documents.
Supplementary Readings / Supplementary Media

Finally, you'll have to read the document mentioned below, which sets out the
referencing techniques we use based on the Harvard system. You'll need to use
these referencing conventions when writing your assignment.
 STADIO (PTY) LTD. 2022. STADIO Referencing Guide. 2nd edn.

Durban: STADIO (PTY) LTD.
Please note that your prescribed textbooks and this study guide will be sent to
you in hardcopy, but you'll have to download the CAPS documents and the
STADIO Referencing Guide from the Learning Management System (LMS), our
online student portal.
Recommended Readings
Your recommended texts for this module are as follows:
 Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2011. Guidelines for

Responding to Learner Diversity in the Classroom through Curriculum and
Assessment Policy Statements. Grades R-12. Pretoria: Government Printing
Works.
 Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2015. The South African
National Curriculum Framework for children from Birth to Four. Pretoria:
Department of Basic Education [online]. Available at: www.education.gov.za.
[Accessed on 23 May 2018].
 SADTU, NAPTOSA, SAOU, PEU, NATU. 2015. The Annual National
Assessment (ANA) adds no value to the South African Learner. Joint Media
Statement. 21 September 2015.
Page 2 CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Study Guide  STADIO

Terms used in this Module
Please take note of the following terms and their definitions or abbreviations, as
you'll encounter them frequently in this module.
Professionalisation
Professionalisation is the process of giving an occupation professional qualities by

increasing training and raising qualifications.
SAQA
SAQA is the South African Qualifications Authority, which is a statutory body

whose main function is to oversee the development and implementation of the
NQF.
NQF
The NQF is the National Qualifications Framework, which creates a single

integrated national framework for learning achievements.
NCS
The NCS is the National Curriculum Statements, which specifies the minimum
standards of knowledge and skills to be achieved in each grade.
CAPS
CAPS is the Curriculum Assessment Policy Statements. It is a single,

comprehensive policy document introduced by the Department of Education for
all subjects.
ANA
Annual National Assessments
Assessment of this Module

Everything you need to know about the formal assessment of this module can be
found in the document Curriculum Design: Assessment Guide. This assessment
booklet can be found on the LMS on the module page.

How to use this Study Guide
We compiled this study guide to help you work through the prescribed study
material for this module in a logical and manageable way. The study guide also
gives you extra theory and explanations where necessary, and offers many
opportunities for self-reflection and self-assessment.
We suggest that you flip through and skim the entire guide to get an overview of
the module's structure and content.
Your Study Schedule

Your study schedule, which appears further on in this study guide, is a summary
of your module content, and clearly indicates the following:
 study sessions;
 lessons;
 prescribed readings and media;
 learning outcomes per lesson; and
 suggested lesson timeframes.
Study Sessions and Lessons in this Module

You'll find three study sessions in your study schedule, as shown below.
Study Session 1
The first study session contains the following two lessons:
 Lesson 1: The Issue of Empowerment; and

 Lesson 2: Curriculum Studies as a Field of Study.
Study Session 2
The second study session contains the following two lessons:
 Lesson 3: The Process of Curriculum Development; and

 Lesson 4: Effective Curriculum Design.
Study Session 3
The third study session is the longest, and contains the following three lessons:
 Lesson 5: The Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement;

 Lesson 6: Curriculum Dissemination, Implementation and Evaluation; and
 Lesson 7: The Responsibility of the Empowered Teacher.

Learning Outcomes and Assessment Standards for
this Module
We list learning outcomes and assessment standards for the module as a whole
just before your study schedule. We also list learning outcomes for each study
session at the beginning of that study session. The learning outcomes tell you
exactly what you need to be able to do at the end of the module or study
session, while the assessment standards tell you how you can check that you've
achieved the learning outcomes.
Self-assessment during this Module

Since you are studying via distance learning, it's important that you take charge
and monitor your own progress. To help you do this, we have incorporated
various modes of self-assessment into the module, which you can use to gauge
your knowledge and understanding of the material. Specifically, we include the
following types of self-assessment in this study guide:
 self-reflections;
 writing activities;
 online activities;
 research activities;
 practical activities;
 application activities;
 self-assessment tests; and
 competence checklists.
We explain each type of self-assessment below.
Self-reflections
Self-reflections are activities that ask you to think about important topics or
questions. They do not require you to do anything other than think carefully
about something. Self-reflections are your opportunities to work through new
concepts, identify areas in your life or work that need change, and solve
problems.
Writing Activities
Writing activities require you to write down answers to questions. Space is

provided after each activity so that you can write your answers in this study
guide. These activities are your opportunities to demonstrate your subject
knowledge and apply theory in practice. They are invaluable practice, as they
help you to clearly assess your ability to answer similar questions in an exam or
other formal assessment.
Depending on the nature of the writing activity, we sometimes provide answers

below the activity, which you can use to assess the accuracy of your own
answers. We also sometimes provide model answers to open-ended questions,
usually to show how such questions should be answered. A model answer is

therefore not the only correct answer to a question, but rather is an example of
the sort of answer that would be acceptable to an examiner.
Online activities
Online activities usually ask you to go online to read an article or post, or watch
a video. Note that when you are told to engage with online materials, you should
consider the content of those materials to form part of the module content.
Research activities
Research activities usually ask you to go online to learn more about a topic in
order to answer questions, and to broaden your understanding of concepts that
have been touched on in your prescribed material but were not fully explained.
You should consider the content that you interact with during a research activity
to form part of the module content.
Practical activities
Practical activities usually require of you to physically do something. These

practical activities give you a chance to apply your theoretical knowledge to
various situations in the real world. We encourage you to use practical activities
as a way to evaluate yourself and find the weak spots in your understanding of
the module content.
Application activities
Application activities are a hybrid of writing and practical activities. They ask you
to physically apply your theoretical knowledge and then assess the outcomes, or
to carry out an experiment and then record your findings. We encourage you to
use application activities as a way to evaluate your understanding of the
relationship between the theoretical content you're being taught and the way
you'll need to apply it to solve real-world problems.
Self-assessment tests
You'll find self-assessment questions and answers at the end of every study
session in this module. The self-assessment tests are similar to writing activities,
but they come at the end of a study session. You therefore have to answer
questions based on all the content in that study session, and often in a more
integrated fashion. There is no space in the study guide to write down your
answers – you should do this in a notebook of your own. We encourage you to
write down your answers and not just think them through, as you need to
practise articulating your thoughts, reasoning (or working out), and expressing
your understanding effectively in words.
When you've written out your answers to all the questions, and not before, you
should compare your answers with the model answers provided. This will give
you a good indication of how well you've understood the content of that study
session and how well you can apply the theory.

Competence checklists
We have also included a competence checklist at the end of each study session
that you can use to confirm that you can perform the listed learning outcomes.
Each competence checklist has a list of the learning outcomes for that session,
with a checkbox next to each for you to tick. Essentially, the learning outcomes
are a summary of your goals for working through a given module, and you want
to know that you can confidently tick each box before undertaking the final
exam.
Good Luck with your Studies!

Remember that this is a distance-learning module. You need to apply self-
discipline since you don't have a lecturer standing next to you while you study,
and you've no classmates to check yourself against. Nobody will check to see if
you've completed any of the self-assessments in this study guide – as you know,
they do not form part of your formal assessment for this module. That said, we
once again encourage you to work through all the self-assessments, as they form
an important part of this module and your learning experience.
The study skills you'll develop by undertaking a distance-learning module include

self-direction and responsibility. Embrace the challenge, as self-direction and
responsibility are important life skills that will help you to succeed in all areas of
your life.

Learning Outcomes and Assessment
Standards
LEARNING OUTCOMES ASSESSMENT STANDARDS
Upon successful completion of this We know that you have met the learning
module, you must be able to do the outcomes when you can do the following:
following:
AS 1: Identify the core elements of
LO 1: Describe the issue of teacher empowerment and relate
empowerment of teachers. to personal experience.
LO 2: Demonstrate an understanding of AS 2: Analyse the principles of various

the historical milestones that curriculum documents and
influenced the development of evaluate their implementation in
the South African curriculum. practice.
LO 3: Interpret the principles of a AS 3: Contrast the objectives and

number of curriculum outcomes-oriented approaches to
documents. education and assess their
influences on current teaching
LO 4: Discuss the role of the National practice.
Qualifications Framework (NQF).
AS 4: Explain the effects of the National
LO 5: Define concepts related to the Qualifications Framework (NQF)
nature of the curriculum. on teaching and learning in South
Africa.
LO 6: Outline the process and broad
principles of curriculum AS 5: Define key concepts and apply
development. them appropriately in current
teaching practices.
LO 7: Critically evaluate various
approaches to curriculum AS 6: Describe and evaluate a variety of
development. approaches to curriculum
development.
LO 8: Discuss the principles of the
National Curriculum Statement AS 7: Determine the core principles for
(NCS) as referred to in the effective curriculum development
Curriculum Assessment Policy in South Africa.
Statement (CAPS) Document.
AS 8: Construct the primary steps
LO 9: Outline the process of curriculum necessary for effective curriculum
design. design.
LO 10: Assess aims, goals, objectives AS 9: Identify core aims, goals,

and outcomes of curriculum objectives and outcomes of
design. design.
LO 11: Critically assess the selection of AS 10: Explain the criteria for selection of
content, teaching methods and contents, methods and
assessment strategies in the assessment and apply this
curriculum design process. knowledge to current practice.

LEARNING OUTCOMES ASSESSMENT STANDARDS
Upon successful completion of this We know that you have met the learning
module, you must be able to do the outcomes when you can do the following:
following:
AS 11: Critically discuss the implications
LO 12: Interpret the implications of the of the introduction of the
introduction of CAPS for teaching Curriculum Assessment Policy
and learning. Document (CAPS) in terms of
current teaching practice.
LO 13: Understand how the principles of
curriculum design have informed AS 12: Identify aims, principles, topics
the CAPS Life Skills Foundation and outcomes of CAPS with
Phase / Intermediate Phase reference to the CAPS Life Skills
curriculum. Document in the Foundation
Phase / Intermediate Phase.
LO 14: Comprehend the roll-out of CAPS
to date and the nature of Annual AS 13: Critically discuss the roll-out of the
National Assessment (ANA) CAPS curriculum to-date as well
testing. as the Annual National
Assessment (ANA) testing and its
LO 15: Comprehend the importance of implications for the teacher and
assessment, recording and the learner.
reporting in terms of current
policy. AS 14: Identify the criteria for successful
recording and reporting of learner
LO 16: Describe the programme and performance.
progression requirements for the
Foundation Phase / Intermediate AS 15: Discusses the necessary
Phase including programme and promotion
acknowledgement of concessions requirements for Foundation
for learners with barriers to Phase / Intermediate Phase
learning. learners with inclusion of
concessions for learners with
LO 17: Critically review the Action Plan barriers to learning.
for Education to 2019.
AS 16: Critically evaluate the role-out of
LO 18: Outline the steps in successful the Action Plan for education to
dissemination, implementation 2019.
and evaluation of the curriculum.
AS 17: Identify facilitating factors which
LO 19: Assess self in terms of advance curriculum dissemination,
competences expected of a implementation and evaluation in
beginner teacher. South Africa.
LO 20: Discuss the roles and functions of AS 18: Critically appraise own
the teacher in terms of the development of competences of a
empowerment process. beginner teacher according to
policy.
AS 19: Reflect on the role of the teacher

as an agent of empowerment.
AS 20: Create a blueprint for the

development of teacher
empowerment in current
South African practice.

Your Study Schedule
Page 10
STUDY SESSION 1
LESSON PRESCRIBED READINGS LEARNING OUTCOMES TIMEFRAME
LESSON 1: The Issue of  Carl, A.E. 2017. Teacher empowerment  Describe the issue of empowerment of 2 weeks
Empowerment through curriculum development. 5th edn. teachers.
Lansdowne: Juta and Company Ltd:  Comprehend the implications of
 Chapter 1: The Issue of Empowerment of democratisation of schools on
the Teacher as Curriculum Agent: Some empowerment.
Perspectives (pages 1 to 20).  Recognise the facilitating role that
leadership plays in the issue of
empowerment.
LESSON 2: Curriculum  Carl, A.E. 2017. Teacher empowerment  Reflect on the historical milestones that 2 weeks
Studies as a Field of Study through curriculum development. 5th edn. influenced the South African
Lansdowne: Juta and Company Ltd: curriculum.
 Chapter 2: Curriculum Studies as a Field  Discuss the principles of the White
of Study (pages 21 to 46). Paper of 1995.
 Discuss the role of SAQA and the NQF
CDN402-DL-SG-E1
 Research: NQF on the Council on Higher in curriculum development.
Education (CHE) website.  Compare the content and outcome-
oriented approaches to the curriculum.
 Define a number of concepts used in
the curriculum development process.
Study Guide  STADIO

STUDY SESSION 2
LESSON 3: The Process of  Carl, A.E. 2017. Teacher empowerment  Describe the process of curriculum 2 weeks
Curriculum Development through curriculum development. 5th edn. development.
Lansdowne: Juta and Company Ltd:  Critically evaluate Carl's model of
 Chapter 3: The Process of Curriculum curriculum development (1986) and

Development (pages 47 to 74). Walters' four approaches to curriculum
development.
 Department of Basic Education. South  Discuss a variety of orientations to
Africa. 2011. Curriculum Assessment Policy curriculum development as used by
Statement (CAPS): Foundation Phase. educational specialists.
Life Skills Grades R-3. Pretoria:  Identify a number of broad principles in
Government Printing Works relation to curriculum development.
 pages 4 and5.  Discuss the principles of the NCS as
referred to in the CAPS document.
 Department of Basic Education. South
Africa. 2011. Curriculum Assessment Policy
Statement (CAPS): Intermediate Phase.
Life Skills Grades 4-6. Pretoria: Government
Printing Works:
 pages 4and 5.
LESSON 4: Effective  Carl, A.E. 2017. Teacher empowerment  Outline the process of curriculum 2 weeks
Curriculum Design through curriculum development. 5th edn. design.
Lansdowne: Juta and Company Ltd:  Discuss Carl's model of curriculum
 Chapter 4: Effective Curriculum Design design (2002).
CDN402-DL-SG-E1
for Dynamic Curriculum Development  Explain the components of curriculum
(pages 75 to 134). design as summarised by Carl.
 Analyse aims, goals, objectives and
 Research: Department of Basic Education outcomes of the curriculum design
website. process.
 Critically assess the selection of
content, teaching methods and
methods of assessment.
Page 11
STUDY SESSION 3
Page 12
LESSON 5: The Curriculum  Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2012.  Identify the basic features of the 2 weeks
Assessment Policy [online]. Available at: www.education.gov.za. CAPS curriculum.
Statement [Accessed on 20 June 2013].  Interpret the implications for
teaching and learning.
 Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2011.  Understand how the principles of
Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS): curriculum design inform the
Foundation Phase. Life Skills Grades R-3. Pretoria: CAPS Life Skills Foundation Phase
Government Printing Works: / Intermediate Phase Curriculum.
 pages 3 to 5.  Discuss the role of ANA testing.
 Clarify the importance of
 Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2011. assessment and methods of
Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS): recording and reporting.
Intermediate Phase. Life Skills Grades 4-6. Pretoria:  Identify the programme and
Government Printing Works: progression requirements for
 pages 3 to 5. Foundation Phase / Intermediate
Phase learners including
 Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2012. concessions for learners with
CDN402-DL-SG-E1
National Protocol for Assessment Grades R-12. barriers to learning.
Pretoria: Government Printing Works.  Critically analyse the goals of the
Action Plan to 2019.
 Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2012.
National Policy pertaining to the Programme and
Promotion Requirements of the National Curriculum
Statement Grades R-12. Pretoria: Government
Printing Works.
 Department of Basic Education. South Africa.

August 2015. Action Plan to 2019: Towards
Realisation of Schooling 2030. [online]. Available at:
www.education.gov.za.
[Accessed on 23 May 2018].
 SADTU, NAPTOSA, SAOU, PEU, NATU. 2015.

Minister of Basic Education's walking away from ANA
Mediation cause turmoil in education. Joint Media

STUDY SESSION 3 (continued)
LESSON 6: Curriculum  Carl, A.E. 2017. Teacher empowerment  Outline the steps in successful curriculum 2 weeks
Dissemination, through curriculum development. 5th edn. dissemination.
Implementation and Lansdowne: Juta and Company Ltd:  Discuss factors necessary for meaningful
Evaluation  Chapter 5: Curriculum Dissemination as implementation of the curriculum.
a Critical Phase within Dynamic  Recognise important aspects of the

Curriculum Development evaluation process with regard to the
(pages 135 to 155). curriculum.
 Chapter 6: Successful Curriculum
Implementation (pages 156 to 161).
 Chapter 7: Comprehensive Curriculum
Evaluation within Dynamic Curriculum
Development (pages 162 to 192).
LESSON 7: The  Carl, A.E. 2017. Teacher empowerment  Discuss the relationship between teacher 2 weeks
Responsibility of the through curriculum development. 5th edn. involvement and empowerment.
Empowered Teacher Lansdowne: Juta and Company Ltd:  Describe the competences of a beginner
 Chapter 9: The Responsibility of the teacher and self-reflect.
Empowered Teacher with regard to  Identify the roles of the teacher and
Curriculum Development discuss their relevance to teacher
(pages 214 to 245). empowerment.
 Department of Higher Education and

Training. Revised Policy on the Minimum
Requirements for Teacher Education
CDN402-DL-SG-E1
Qualifications:
 Basic Competences of a Beginner
Teacher (pages 60 and 61).
 Collective Roles of Teachers in a School
(page 64).
Page 13
Study Session 1
Welcome to the first of your two study sessions for this module. Let's start by
looking at the learning outcomes for this particular study session.
Learning Outcomes
After you've completed Study Session 1, you should be able to do the following:
 describe the issue of empowerment of teachers;

 comprehend the implications of democratisation of schools on
empowerment;
 recognise the facilitating role that leadership plays in the issue of
empowerment;
 reflect on the historical milestones that influenced the South African
curriculum;
 discuss the principles of the White Paper of 1995;
 compare the content and outcome-oriented approaches to the curriculum;
 discuss the role of SAQA and the NQF in curriculum development; and
 define a number of concepts used in the curriculum development process.
We now move on to give you an overview of the two lessons in this study
session.
Overview of Study Session 1

In Lesson 1, The Issue of Empowerment, we will explore the issue of
empowerment. We will then explore the implications of democratisation of
schools on empowerment. Finally, we will explore the role of leadership in the
process of empowerment.
In Lesson 2, Curriculum Studies as a Field of Study, we will explore the historical

milestones that influenced the South African curriculum. We will then explore the
principles of the White Paper. Next, we will then explore the roles of SAQA and
the NQF in curriculum development. We will then explore content and outcomes-
based approaches to the curriculum. Finally, we will define concepts used in
curriculum development.
It's time now to start Lesson 1.

Lesson 1: The Issue of Empowerment
 Prescribed reading
Your prescribed reading for Lesson 1 is as follows:
 Pages 1 to 20 in Chapter 1: The Issue of Empowerment of the Teacher as

Curriculum Agent: Some Perspectives in Carl, A.E. 2017. Teacher
Empowerment through Curriculum Development. 5th edn. Lansdowne:
Juta and Company Ltd.
Introduction
As an introduction to this lesson, do Self-reflection 1.
Self-reflection 1
To be empowered means to develop strength and confidence in what you do.
1. How important is it to you that you become an empowered teacher? Give a

reason for your answer.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

Self-reflection 1
(continued)
2. What would you need to help you feel that you are an empowered teacher?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
3. How would you benefit from being an empowered teacher?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
Now that you have an idea of what teacher empowerment may be about, let's
introduce the first lesson. Teacher empowerment is an important construct in
education, as it contributes to an effective teaching environment. In order to
become an empowered teacher, teachers need to understand their role as a
teacher; have a view of curriculum matters; and possess knowledge and skills
that make them confident in practising their profession. Confidence and being a
figure of authority are contributing factors to becoming an empowered teacher.
(Carl, 2017:2) Empowerment is therefore a complex issue, which we will now try
to unpack.
We start this lesson by describing the issue of empowerment of teachers. We

then discuss the implications of democratisation of schools on empowerment.
Finally, we discuss the role that leadership plays in the issue of empowerment.

 You may now read pages 1 to 20 of your prescribed text.
The Issue of Empowerment

In this section of the lesson we discuss possible definitions of empowerment and
how empowerment can manifest itself. To do this, we discuss the following
points:
 Defining Empowerment; and

 Manifestations of Empowerment.
Defining Empowerment
We look at possible definitions of empowerment to decide whether empowerment

is seen as an external or internal influence on a teacher.
As the term 'empowerment' has its origin in the corporate world; it implies that
empowerment is almost always governed by authority (Terry n.d., as cited in
Carl, 2017:3). Teacher empowerment includes activities that enhances their
professional status, such as involvement in decision-making, policy development
and curriculum interpretation (Browder, 1994 as cited in Carl). Empowerment
also allows teachers to participate in public affairs rather than working by
themselves, which can have a negative effect on productivity (Vavrus, 1989 as
cited in Carl). Isolation of teachers limits professional growth. Therefore,
environments that foster professional and caring relationships; support
mechanisms; and the sharing of professional strengths should be created in the
school environment (Kruse & Louis, 1998 as cited in Carl). There are many
benefits to empowering teachers.
 Firstly, empowered teachers are part of a change and a risk-taking process

in which they can actively participate and make a difference (Carl).
 Secondly, teachers' self-image improves as they become esteemed in the
eyes of their colleagues; more skilled in their teaching; and understand the
value of teamwork. The authority that an empowered teacher experiences,
leads to an improved working environment as well as increased teacher self-
efficacy (Carl).
 Thirdly, empowered teachers impact on student learning. As teachers
become empowered, their perspective on their work changes. This shift in
perspective can help learners to change the way they view and experience
their studies (Stone, 1995 as cited in Carl). Increased productivity; teacher
morale; and knowledge of subject matter are factors that positively impact
learner motivation and achievement (Keiser & Shen, 2000 as cited in Carl).
All these definitions seem to imply that teacher empowerment is an external

influence. However, teachers are not passive receivers and cannot be
empowered by others: their empowerment is governed by their ability to make
decisions (Cornett, 1991 as cited in Carl). Hence, teacher empowerment can be
seen as an internal process of growth and development.
We now move on to discuss the manifestations of empowerment, because we

need to understand the various ways in which we can recognise and identify
empowerment.

Manifestations of Empowerment
In this section, we will discuss the three ways in which empowerment manifests
itself, namely through professionalisation; liberal humanism; and critical theory.
 Firstly, professional development is a factor of teacher empowerment.

Opportunities for professional development can equip teachers to have more
authority; status; and individual growth, and become a good team worker.
These are the factors that lead to professionalisation (Gore, 1989 as cited in
Carl, 2017:9). An example of empowerment manifesting itself through
professionalisation is when teachers hold leadership positions in schools, and
as a result show a higher level of empowerment (Avidov-Ungar,
Friedman & Olshtain, 2014, as cited in Carl).
 Secondly, liberal humanism relates to freedom. When teachers exercise a
right to design curricula, it encourages individualism and emancipation
(Gore, 1989 as cited in Carl).
 Thirdly, empowered teachers have vision, which can effect positive change in
society. Critical theory serves to address and rectify social situations such as
oppression; injustice; and inequality, which may affect certain groups.
Empowerment is manifested when teachers reflect on their work; become
agents of change; and decide to what extent they want to either follow or
fight bureaucracy (Colyn, 1991 as cited in Carl).
We now move on to discuss the implications of democratisation of schools on

empowerment. If empowerment implies that teachers become agents of change,
it would seem that the process of empowerment is connected to the process of
democratisation.
The Implications of Democratisation of Schools on

Empowerment
In this section we discuss the democratic climate that contributes to
empowerment.
The culture and organisation of the school determine the effectiveness of the
school.
 The culture of the school influences teachers' commitment, values and

loyalty to the school (Carl, 2017:12).
 Organisational structures that allow for discussion and consultation with the
staff create a sense of ownership to the school in teachers, who then become
more effective (McElrath, 1988 as cited in Carl).

Factors that contribute to empowerment are enhanced when teachers feel that
their expertise is valued. These factors include their motivation; collegiality;
collaboration; leadership; and the teachers' level of knowledge (Pyle et al., 2010,
as cited in Carl). However, principals must give teachers sufficient time, scope
and support to define their own professional developmental requirements
(Lagana, 1989 as cited in Carl). We can therefore identify the factors that
contribute to a democratic process of empowerment for teachers as:
 empowered educational leaders;

 commitment to becoming empowered;
 valuing empowerment as an opportunity for development;
 understanding the process of empowerment; and
 realising the particular roles the teachers play (Carl).
Complete Writing Activity 1 below.
 Writing Activity 1 
1. Give a definition of empowerment.
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2. Give THREE (3) ways in which empowerment can manifest itself, and give
an example of each.
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(continued)
3. Name THREE (3) contributing factors of a democratic climate that can

lead to empowerment.
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Model answers: (1) Empowerment is a process of development and growth that allows a person to make
independent decisions and act autonomously towards making a difference / contribution to his or her
environment. Skills, knowledge and attitudes within a democratic climate is a prerequisite to becoming
empowered. Empowered people are regarded as professionals that can effect change (Carl 2017:9).
(2) Professionalisation – through professional development; Liberal humanism – through curriculum
development; and Critical theory – effecting a change in society.
(3) Organisational structures in the school that allow for consultation and discussion. When teachers feel that
their expertise is valued. Empowered educational leaders. A commitment to becoming empowered.
Understanding the process of empowerment. Realising the roles they play in the process of empowerment.
(ANY THREE)
In the previous section we spoke about the fact that empowered educational
leaders is one of the conditions that support democratisation of schools on
empowerment. We will now discuss the importance of the role of leadership in
the empowerment process, as it is clear that empowerment and leadership are
connected.
The Role of Leadership in the Process of Empowerment

In this section we discuss the role of leadership in the process of empowerment.
We will first discuss the types of leadership styles, and then discuss the
importance of shared decision-making.
Types of Leadership Styles
Principals should be prepared to play a role in the empowerment of teachers.

This process includes developing a particular leadership style. There are different
types of leadership that impact on empowerment by affecting teacher growth
and development. Sharp (2009, as cited in Carl, 2017:17) speaks of
instructional; transformational; moral; participative; contingency and managerial
leadership styles. If leadership is to achieve teacher empowerment, traditional
methods of leadership styles need to be constantly evaluated and redefined. A
transformational leadership style, for example, requires that the principal adopt a
leadership role as facilitator and empowerer, rather than leadership role as

expert (Peters & Waterman, 1982 as cited in Carl). Transformational leaders are
able to determine a different world and assist others to have this vision
(Houston, 1993 as cited in Carl). Lamperes (2004, as cited in Carl) explained the
transformational leadership style when he introduced strategies for teacher
empowerment, namely:
 sharing information and decision-making;

 developing and practising reaching agreement on decision-making and
budgeting;
 creating a common vision and shared beliefs;
 allowing teachers to direct their professional growth;
 understanding student needs while empowering them and their parents; and
 developing symbols of empowerment.
Sergiovanni (1990, as cited in Carl, 2017:16) mentions a leadership process that

is a combination of value and value-added.
 In the 'value' stage, physical and social needs of both the leader and follower
are negotiated, with the goal of improvement for the institution.
 The 'value-added' stage is characterised by the leader slowly receding into
the role of facilitator as potential empowerment comes to the fore from the
group. A shared value system then comes into existence as leader and
follower are bonded. Finally, confidence and freedom arise in the teachers as
they become leaders, with the principal as facilitator.
Shared Decision-making
Involving teachers in decision-making alleviates meaningless work; a lack of

responsibility; and an absence of trust that may be maintained if a top-down
approach of leadership is practised (Byham & Cox, 1992 as cited in
Carl, 2017:15). If principals are concerned about democratising schools, they
should implement the practise of shared decision-making.
Levine (1987, as cited in Carl) states that democratising schools through shared
decision-making involves respecting and treating individuals with dignity; paying
attention to the growth and development of the staff; and presenting
opportunities for consultation in decision-making. Principals need to be accessible
to staff; have good communication skills; and enable growth and development
for the staff and themselves in order to contribute to a democratic society
(McCoy & Shreve, 1983 as cited in Carl). A shared decision-making climate will
create a feeling of ownership in teachers. They should not feel threatened by the
principal, but rather take the opportunity to sharing power in order to help
develop the school as a team (Carl).

We have seen an example of how transformational leadership is exercised

(Lamperes, 2004, as cited in Carl, 2017:13).
In your prescribed textbook, you will read two examples of participatory

leadership (Grafft, 1193 as cited in Carl 2017:14; and Claspell & Killion, 1991,
as cited in Carl, 2017:14).
If you were an empowered principal, which leadership style would you choose
to lead your teachers towards empowerment?
Give FIVE (5) examples of the changes you would bring to your school.
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Answers: Transformational leadership – share information; share decision-making; practise consensus decision-
making; develop consensus on budget; create a common vision; develop shared beliefs; allow teachers to
direct their professional growth; empower students and parents; understand students' needs; develop symbols
of empowerment.
Participatory leadership – build teacher confidence; promote social interaction; maintain and promote good
personnel relationships; maintain communication; practise conflict resolution; set clear objectives; maintain
healthy working relationships; being patient and realistic; begin small; building knowledge in order to take
informed decisions.
(Any five of above or similar answers.)
It's now time to end our discussion of The Issue of Empowerment and move on
to discuss Curriculum Studies as a Field of Study. We do this in Lesson 2. Only
move on to Lesson 2 if you are confident that you understand the content in the
present lesson. If anything is unclear to you, remember that you can email us or
make a phone appointment with a tutor to discuss the matter. All the information
that you need is in the Welcome Letter, and also on the LMS.

Lesson 2: Curriculum Studies as a Field of
Study
 Prescribed readings
Your prescribed readings for Lesson 2 are as follows:
 Pages 21 to 46 in Chapter 2: Curriculum Studies as a Field of Study.

Carl, A.E. 2017. Teacher Empowerment through Curriculum Development.
 Research: NQF on the Council on Higher Education (CHE) website.
Note that you'll be told when in the lesson to read each of the above
texts.
Introduction
Teacher empowerment includes a study of the field of curriculum studies in order
to develop a knowledgeable understanding of the curriculum processes that will
allow teachers to reflect on, understand and improve practice (Carl, 2017: 21).
In this lesson, to explore the field of curriculum studies, we will reflect on the
historical milestones that influenced the South African curriculum. Next, we will
discuss the principles of the White Paper. We will then discuss the roles of the
South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) and the National Qualifications
Framework (NQF) in curriculum development. We will also compare content and
outcomes-orientated approaches to the curriculum. Finally, we will define some
important concepts used in the curriculum development process.
 You may now read pages 21 to 46 of your prescribed textbook.
The Historical Milestones that influenced the South

African Curriculum
Curriculum development in South Africa has a long history, and through the
years, the curriculum has undergone many changes. Some of these milestones,
according to Carl (2017: 22), are as follows:
 1981: The Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) investigation into

education;
 1991: 'n Kurrikulummodel vir Onderwys in Suid-Afrika by the Committee of
Education Department Heads (CEDH);
 1992: The provincial report of the National Education Policy Investigation
(NEPI) in 1992;
 1994: The 'Policy Framework for Education and Training' by the African
National Congress (ANC);

 1998: 'Curriculum 2005', replaced in 2000 by the 'Revised National
Curriculum Statement for Grades R-9' (RNCS) in 2000 (The word 'revised'
was later dropped from the title.);
 2006: The extension of the NCS to the Further Education and Training (FET)
band for Grades 10 to 12; and
 2012: The 'Curriculum Assessment Policy Statements' (CAPS).
As you can see, the South African curriculum and the approach to curriculum
development have undergone many changes. Much of the rhetoric about
curriculum development indicated that it had been fraught with challenges that
had. and still have, a detrimental effect on the education system. Some of these
challenges include uninformed teachers in respect of understanding the
curriculum's theory and practice; the impact of bureaucracy; a shortage of
curriculum specialists; lack of teacher involvement in curriculum development;
and scepticism from teachers (Carl, 2017:22). South Africa required a dynamic
curriculum development that was relevant to preparing learners for the world of
work and, further, to compete in the global economic society (Van Rensburg,
1992 as cited in Carl).
The rise of democracy in the 1900s in South Africa brought about a change from
the top-down approach to curriculum development and implementation to a
democratisation of education.
We will now discuss one of the important democratic education documents

developed in 1995, namely the White Paper.
Principles of the White Paper

One of the driving principles of early democracy in South Africa was that of
equity. The White Paper on Education and Training in a Democratic South Africa:
First Steps to Develop a New System was drawn up in 1995 to mirror the process
of transformation, with its focus on equality, that was taking place in the
country. The White Paper was therefore based on an integrated approach to
education and training. This means that it contributes to the development of
human resources; bridges the divide between theory and practice; and
recognises that learning and the gaining of experience do not take place only in
formal education.
Some of the principles underlying the White Paper are as follows

(Carl, 2017: 23-24):
 Transformation must occur by addressing the inequalities of the past.

 Equality must be promoted by the education and training sector of the state.
 Access to education and training must be available to all children and adults.
 Parents and guardians must be included in the education of their children
and be consulted on the form and management of their education.
 Establishing and capacity-building of representative management bodies
must be included.
 Equality, democracy and freedom must be included to ensure lifelong
learning.
 Diversity (religious, cultural and language) must be respected.
 The arts (music, dance, theatre, fine arts) should be more available.
 The new curriculum must promote independent and critical thinking.

 Curriculum choices must be available to reflect the needs of the economy
and further career development.
 Mathematics, Science and Technology teaching initiatives are imperative to
supplement shortages in these areas.
 Education and Training must include environment awareness; be sustainable,
efficient and productive.
Now do Self-reflection 2 below.
Self-reflection 2
Write a short paragraph in which you reflect on the type of curriculum you
would develop for your school. Justify your choices by stating how your
ideologies reflect the principles of the White Paper (1995).
Now that we understand the principles underlying the White Paper, let's look at
two other initiatives that were launched to put these principles into action and
transform education. These initiatives are SAQA and the NQF.
The Roles of SAQA and the NQF in Curriculum

Development
The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) was established in 1995 in
order to certify all qualifications available in South Africa. Its task was policy-
making, and setting out structures and processes for criteria on standards and
qualifications that institutions could use if they provided education and training
initiatives. SAQA is also responsible for:
 registering qualifications on the NQF; and

 quality management, which they achieve by constantly assessing providers
and learners in the education and training sector.
The National Qualifications Framework (NQF) was developed and implemented by

the National Qualifications Authority. The NQF consists of all the education and
training qualifications that a learner can obtain in South Africa. It includes
qualifications that can be acquired from the General Education and Training
Certificate (GETC); the Further Education and Training certificate (FETC); and the
Higher Education and Training Certificate (HETC). The NQF adheres to the
principles of equality and integration in order to provide access to education and
training for all. Carl (2017:25) states the following aims of the NQF:
 Provide access to qualifications through a variety of routes, thus allowing

more people to enter into education and training.
 Provide education and training that is relevant and addresses needs.
 Simplify the qualifications structure and ensure quality.
 This structure must adapt to new developments in the world of work, labour
and education and training.
 Performance can be assessed against clearly defined standards.

Now that we are aware of the important structures that have been put in place to
ensure access to, equality in and integration into South Africa's democratic
education and training structure, let's not forget that the previous approaches to
teaching and learning also needed to be developed. We will now discuss the
differences between the previous content-based approaches to the curriculum to
the new outcome-based approaches, and the implications these approaches have
had on the role of teachers.
Content and Outcomes-orientated Approaches to the

Curriculum
In this section we discuss the role of the teacher in the new dispensation of
curriculum development, and describe several approaches to curriculum
development.
The role of the teacher
The role of the teacher has changed from being a conveyor of information to
being a curriculum developer. The teacher's task has become one of preparing
the learner for the world of work, in other words, linking the classroom to the
practical reality of the outside world. With this approach, the outcomes of the
teaching and learning process were prioritised. Furthermore, several traditional
content-related concepts of the traditional curriculum were changed.
 Learning areas replaced subjects.

 Learner involvement and co-operative learning replaced passive learning
methods.
 Continuous assessment was implemented.
Teachers needed to show resourcefulness in developing methods and strategies

to incorporate the new ideologies and practices in large classes, sometimes with
limited or no resources. Finally, teachers had to incorporate ways of involving
parents, as they were to be fully informed at all times of curriculum
developments and dissemination (Carl, 2017:25).
Approaches to curriculum development
The notion of a curriculum is a broad concept that includes planned activities to

be done during and after school, within the framework of a particular system and
with the aim of guiding the child towards adulthood (Carl, 2017:35). There are
many ways in which to view curriculum development. Schubert (1986, as cited in
Carl) describes a curriculum as content; a programme of planned activities and
specific learning results reflecting the community; a set of achievable tasks and
concepts that aim towards social reconstruction. Oliva (1988) and Marsh (2010,
as cited in Carl) state that a curriculum is what is taught in school in other
words, content (subjects, materials, study programmes, objectives) planned by
staff. Oliva further acknowledges definitions used by theoreticians to define
curriculum: stating that curriculum comprises of what is intended (objectives);
what it should do (purpose); the context within which it is developed
(contextual); and the instructional learning strategy (strategy).

Carl (2017:38) further elaborates on the importance of understanding the
various definitions of curriculum so that teachers do not overlook the wide range
of curriculum influences. For example, Rowntree (1978, as cited in Carl), sees
the curriculum as technology because of the design, evaluation, implementation
and evaluation inherent in its process. Curriculum also encompasses a wider
spectrum of different levels that transcend the school, such as the philosophies
of the wider community; government legislation; school planning; syllabus
development; school and subject curriculum; and types of instructional learning
(Carl). McKernan (2008, as cited in Carl) says that the curriculum is narrow in
the sense that it is taught in lessons, and broad in what is learned and
experienced. All these definitions point to the complexity of curriculum
development.
We now move to the final section in this lesson, where we define concepts used
in the curriculum development process.
Concepts used in Curriculum Development

The following are some of the most common terms used in curriculum
development (Carl, 2017):
 Curriculation: an action for the planning of objectives; goals; content;

teaching experiences; teaching methods and teaching media; the
instructional-learning situation; and implementation of the curriculum.
 Curriculum framework: a written document that sets out policy for the
objectives, content and guidelines of a curriculum.
 Broad curriculum: a collection of subjects for a specific target group, for
example, the broad curriculum for Foundation Phase; or the curriculum for a
vocational teaching certificate.
 Learning programme: a set of teaching and learning activities aimed at
achieving outcomes, consisting of scope; assessment activities; pace; and
ordering of activities for the year.
 The hidden curriculum: a type of curriculum where certain practices and
goals, such as regular and expected school experiences, are not defined in
the curriculum document.
 The intended curriculum: the official curriculum that is included in the
syllabus.
 The enacted curriculum: how the learners actually experience the curriculum.
 The null curriculum: Important aspects of the formal curriculum that schools
do not teach.
And that's the end of the content for Study Session 1! Well done for making it
this far. Read the summary below and then complete the self-assessment
questions that follow. Remember that you can always contact a tutor if you need
help with understanding any of the material covered in the preceding lesson.

Summary of Study Session 1
In Lesson 1, The Issue of Empowerment, we first discussed the issue of
empowerment. We then discussed the implications of democratisation of schools
on empowerment. We then discussed the role of leadership in the process of
empowerment.
In Lesson 2, Curriculum Studies as a Field of Study, we first discussed the

historical milestones that influenced the South African curriculum. We then
discussed the principles of the White Paper (1995). We then discussed the roles
of SAQA and the NQF in curriculum development. We then discussed the content
and outcomes-based approaches to curriculum development. Finally, we
discussed concepts used in curriculum development.
Now work through the self-assessment questions that follow to test your
understanding of the content of Lessons 1 and 2.
Self-assessment Questions and Answers for

Study Session 1
Test your knowledge of Study Session 1 by completing the self-assessment
questions below. When you answer the questions, don't look at the suggested
answers that we give. Look at them only after you've written your answers, and
then compare your answers with ours.
Questions
1. What is a definition of teacher empowerment?
2. What are some of the benefits of teacher empowerment?
3. How does empowerment manifest itself through professionalisation?
4. How can a school's democratic organisational structure allow for

empowerment?
5. What were some of the challenges experienced during the historical

milestones in South African curriculum development?
6. What was the principle behind curriculum choices in the White Paper (1995)?
7. Which body is tasked with certifying all qualifications in South Africa?
8. How did the role of the teacher change in outcomes-orientates curriculum

practices?
9. How does Carl (2017) describe approaches to curriculum development?
10. What is the hidden curriculum?

Answers
1. A set of professional development activities.
2. Enhanced self-image; become an agent of change; understand teamwork.
3. By holding leadership positions.
4. By allowing for discussion; consultation; feeling a sense of ownership; the

culture of the school enhances teacher's commitment, values and loyalty.
5. Uninformed teachers; bureaucracy; shortage of curriculum specialists;

scepticism; lack of teacher involvement in curriculum development.
6. Curriculum choices must be available to reflect the needs of the economy

and further individual career development.
7. SAQA
8. Prepare learners for the world of work; conceptual changes such as learning
areas, co-operative learning and continuous assessment; resourcefulness;
and parent involvement.
9. Planned activities for during and after school, within the framework of a
system aimed at guiding the child towards adulthood.
10. Certain practices and goals are not defined in the curriculum document, they
are, however, expected to occur naturally.
Competence Checklist
Now that you've worked through Study Session 1, please check that you can
perform the tasks below.
 I can describe the issue of empowerment of teachers.

 I can comprehend the implications of democratisation of schools on
empowerment.
 I can recognise the facilitating role that leadership plays in the issue of
empowerment.
 I can reflect on the historical milestones that influenced the South African
curriculum.
 I can discuss the principles of the White Paper of 1995.
 I can compare the content and outcome-oriented approaches to the
curriculum.
 I can discuss the role of SAQA and the NQF in curriculum development.
 I can define a number of concepts used in the curriculum development
process.

Study Session 2
Welcome to the second study session for this module. Let's start by looking at
the learning outcomes for this particular study session.
Learning Outcomes
 describe the process of curriculum development;

 critically evaluate Carl's model of curriculum development (1986) and
Walters' four approaches to curriculum development;
 discuss a variety of orientations to curriculum development as used by
educational specialists;
 identify a number of broad principles in relation to curriculum development;
 discuss the principles of the NCS as referred to in the CAPS document;
 outline the process of curriculum design;
 discuss Carl's model of curriculum design (2002);
 explain the components of curriculum design as summarised by Carl;
 analyse aims, goals, objectives and outcomes of the curriculum design
process; and
 critically assess the selection of content, teaching methods and methods of
assessment.
We now move on to give you an overview of the two lessons in this study
session.

In Lesson 3, The Process of Curriculum Development, we will explore the process
of curriculum development. We will also evaluate Carl's model of curriculum
development (Carl, 1986) and Walters' approach to curriculum development
(Walters, 1985). We will also discuss educational specialists' orientations to
curriculum development and identify the broad principles of curriculum
development. Lastly, we will examine the principles of the NCS as referred to in
the CAPS document.
In Lesson 4, Effective Curriculum Design, we will explore the process of

curriculum design. We will also look at Carl's model of curriculum design. Next,
we will discuss the components of curriculum design as summarised by Carl.
Then, we will investigate the aims, goals, objectives and outcomes of the
curriculum design process. Lastly, we will examine the selection of content,
teaching methods and methods of assessment.
It's now time to start with Lesson 3.

Lesson 3: The Process of Curriculum
Development
 Prescribed readings
 Pages 47 to 74 in Chapter 3: The Process of Curriculum Development of

Teacher empowerment through curriculum development by Arend E. Carl.
 Pages 4 and 5 of the Life Skills Grades R-3 CAPS document.
 Pages 4 and 5 of the Life Skills Grades 4-6 CAPS document.
texts.
Introduction
Curriculum development is a dynamic and intricate process that can be
interpreted in many ways. It can be designed at one level and implemented at
another level. Many educationists have different views of how curriculum is
developed, and we will now pay attention to those views. In this lesson we will
explore the process of curriculum development. We will also evaluate the
approaches of Carl (1986) and Walter (1985) to curriculum development. We will
then discuss educational specialists' orientations to curriculum development and
identify the broad principles of curriculum development. Lastly, we will examine
the principles of the NCS as referred to in the CAPS document.
Let's begin our deliberation of the process of curriculum development by

discussing the views of two curriculum developers.
The Process of Curriculum Development

Mostert (1986, as cited in Carl 2017:47) classifies six steps involved in
developing a curriculum. These steps are:
 an initiation step when an investigation is launched;

 a planning step during which goals, criteria and curriculum design are
determined;
 a developmental step during which learning and teaching content; didactic
guidelines; and evaluative strategies are selected and produced;
 a testing step, which incorporates the evaluation of experts and the
preparedness of teachers;
 an implementation step during which teachers are orientated and learning
content is planned and disseminated; and
 a summative evaluative step when the programme is finally evaluated.

Carl conceptualises curriculum development as a process consisting of four
phases.
 The first phase is the curriculum design phase, which is characterised by

decision-making and planning on the new or existing curriculum.
 The second phase is the curriculum dissemination phase, when information
of the intended curriculum is published to prepare all involved.
 The third phase is curriculum implementation, when the curriculum is put
into practice.
 The fourth and final phase is curriculum evaluation, when the success of the
curriculum is evaluated.
Now that we have an idea of how curriculum can be developed, let's look at other
approaches to curriculum development – in particular, the approach of Walters
(1985, as cited in Carl, 2017:50).
Walters' Approach to Curriculum Development

Walters (1985, as cited in Carl, 2017:50) describes four approaches to
curriculum development. These are the academic approach; the experiential
approach; the technological approach; and the pragmatic approach.
The academic approach
The academic approach refers to a studied and intellectual approach to

curriculum development, during which unilateral decisions are made. This makes
it a universal and objective approach. This means that the teacher and others do
not have to be involved in the decision-making. The process involves recognising
goals and objectives; selection of content; classifying the content chosen;
designing; and evaluation (Tyler, 1949, as cited in Carl, 2017:50). The
identification of goals is the most important step in this approach. When
identifying goals, learners' physical, psychosocial, intellectual and moral needs
are taken into consideration as the outcomes of the curriculum. Great
theoreticians such as Piaget and Maslow's developmental theories are taken into
account when these goals for learners are being developed. Another important
factor that influences these goals is the characteristics of society. Goals of the
curriculum are determined according to the demands of society, such as the
needs of community; employment conflict; pollution; morals and values.
The experiential approach
The experiential approach is based on the philosophy of John Dewey, who

prioritised the social activities of children and said that education should be a
continuation of the experiences of children (Walters, 1985, as cited in
Carl, 2017:52). Walters thus describes the experiential approach to curriculum
development as subjective, personal, and heuristic. This approach involves
teachers and learners in the formation of personalised instructional programmes.
Individual feelings; values; experiences; and active involvement are included as
curriculum content. This approach therefore has a child-centred nature while
educating the whole person. However, the objectives of this type of curriculum
development only give direction and do not necessarily specify the eventual

aims. It has been used with great success for primary school curricula where the
subjects are well-known.
The technological approach
The technological approach is a highly analytical approach to curriculum

development. It applies science and production activities from industry to the
instructional nature of education. As with the academic approach, learning
outcomes are specified. Decision-making is based on:
 principles of system analysis;

 empirical methods; and
 effectiveness of management (Carl, 2017:52).
This approach is based on the knowledge that a learner needs to prepare for life.
Learning must comprise of a change in behaviour. The process begins with a
needs assessment. The identified needs are then converted into objectives.
Learning tasks and activities are formulated and objectives are placed in a
sequence in which they need to be achieved. The objectives are then analysed to
determine what is needed for the outcomes to be realised, and the evaluation
procedures are then put into place. Programmes that make use of the
technological approach to curriculum development are computer-supported
instructional programmes; vocational and technical subjects; and competency-
based teacher education programmes (Carl).
The pragmatic approach
The pragmatic approach is a process that combines all three processes discussed
so far, namely the academic, experiential and technological approaches to
curriculum development. According to Frame (2003, as cited in Carl, 2017:56),
there are three paradigms in this approach.
 Firstly, the technical paradigm is a dominant approach derived from the

ordered and interacting systems that comprises reality. This makes it
possible to control the environment and determine outcomes.
 Secondly, the practical paradigm states that knowledge is socially
constructed, and involves human agency and judgement in the production of
knowledge.
 Lastly, the critical paradigm states that since knowledge is socially
constructed, the curriculum must be analysed in the broader context of
social, economic and political influences.

Now complete Writing Activity 3 below.
Compare Walters' and Carl's approaches to curriculum development.
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Model answer: Include Carl's four phases of curriculum development – design, dissemination, implementation,
evaluation. Discuss Walters' three approaches – academic, technological, and pragmatic.
Now that we have critically evaluated two models of curriculum development,

let's also be mindful of the fact that particular developers of curriculum may have
a certain orientation that will influence how they view the curriculum. Let's now
discuss a variety of educational specialists' orientations to curriculum
development.
Orientations to Curriculum Development

Most orientations to curriculum development follow a dominant framework
comprising of a transmission orientation, a transaction orientation or a
transformation orientation (Carl, 2017:58).
 In transmission, the curriculum is imposed on the learner. Content is more

important than learner participation.
 In transaction, there is a greater interaction between the teacher and the
learner.
 Finally, in transformation, the learner and the curriculum integrate. Her, both
the teacher and learner are involved and a social and humanistic element is
involved in the process.
There are various education specialists that use these orientations in their own
interpretations. A discussion of some of these specialists' orientations follows in
the next paragraphs.
Eisner and Vallance (1974, as cited in Carl, 2017:58) describes a particular

approach to curriculum development as a conceptual framework. They place
importance on the learning process and the development of cognitive skills. They
also view curriculum development as a technological approach in which planning
is done to achieve the set goals. Further, it must take into account positive
learning experiences; opportunities for self-discovery; and relevant content. The
needs of the community and social changes must feature in the curriculum, and
in doing so, lead to social reconstruction. Finally, learners must acquire
knowledge through traditional subject content and research.
McNeil (1977, as cited in Carl, 2017:59) refers to conceptions of curriculum as an

approach differentiating between the technological; academic; humanistic; and
social reconstructivism approaches. McNeil states the following:
 The technological approach is a fixed and rigid structure that decides in

advance what the instruction will be.
 The academic approach is about acquiring knowledge through strong
cognitive development.
 The humanistic approach moves away from the subject matter to the
individual development of the learner. Social reconstructivism involves
community change, and the curriculum should involve problem solving to the
extent that it can result in effecting social change through the learners.
Eraut (1990, as cited in Carl, 2017:61) mentions various approaches that mirror
most of what has already been said on this subject. He speaks of a political

approach that describes the objectives; content; goals; and evaluation of the
official curriculum.
 The bureaucratic approach places emphasis on regulations, administrative

matters, and official documents that can harm creativity and decision-
making.
 The marketing approach involves dissemination of information and marketing
of the curriculum, while the scientific approach identifies and analyses
learning tasks.
 The knowledge-structure approach comprises sequencing and structuring of
the content, and the engineering approach favours a design approach where
there is a prototype and the objectives are clearly defined.
 The artistic approach includes learners' interests, experience and
participation, while the practical approach comprises a short document that
is convenient, practical and uses time efficiently.
 The problem-solving approach follows a logical working procedure that
consists of formulating the problem; brainstorming ideas; creating and
selecting prototypes; and refinement of the design.
Now that we have an idea of the many ways in which curriculum development
can be orientated, let's turn our attention to identifying some broad principles in
relation to curriculum development.
Principles of Curriculum Development

In this section we discuss the importance of setting broad and specific principles
for curriculum development. Carl (2017:70) states that broad principles, which
are also principles of curriculum development from the NQF, are viewed as
having a purpose; a clear rationale; and are based on comprehensive curriculum
theory. Leadership is an important component of curriculum development and all
those involved must have an acceptable level of curriculum ability. Evaluation
must also feature strongly from the beginning to the end of the process. During
planning, utilisation of time; adequate learning; relevance of subject content;
and individualisation must be taken into account. There are also other, more
specific principles to take cognisance of. For example, co-ordination of curriculum
development works most effectively from a centralised location such as an
education department (Hill 1977, as cited in Carl). Secondly, curriculum
development must have continually reviewed so as to avoid it being a once-off
exercise. Thirdly, equal standards must be set by adherence to minimum
standards (Jordaan 1989 as cited in Carl). Finally, skilled persons, such as
subject specialists; practical education specialists; and specialists in research and
curriculum studies, are required in curriculum committees to improve, evaluate,
and renew curriculum development.
Accountable principles also need to be established in curriculum development.

Oliva (1988, as cited in Carl, 2017:72) discusses value judgements that can help
to determine principles. For example, the curriculum planner must be aware that
change is constant and that new and old developments have a place in
curriculum development. Next, curriculum developers also have to change people
who impact curriculum development. Groups of people (for example, teachers,
leaders and parents) influence one another and can assist one another to accept
change. Quality decision-making influences the value of the curriculum
development process. Further, accountable principles must ensure continuous

improvement of the curriculum, and that curriculum development is implemented
in a continuous, comprehensive and systematic manner. Finally, existing
curricular must be taken into consideration, as it can provide a valuable starting
point to curriculum development. For curriculum development to be accountable,
it is imperative that those involved have a clear idea of the principles involved.
Now that you have an idea of the broad, specific and accountable principles of
curriculum development, let's link this discussion to the South African context
and the National Curriculum Statement (NCS).
 Read the principles of the NCS as set out on pages 4 to 5 of the CAPS
documents for Foundation Phase Life Skills Grades R-3, AND Intermediate
Phase Life Skills Grades 4-6.
Principles of the NCS as referred to in the CAPS

Document
According to DBE (2011), the NCS is based on the principles of social
transformation by redressing the educational imbalances of the past and
providing equal educational opportunities for all parts of the population. It
encourages active and critical learning approaches and setting standards for the
knowledge and skills that are to be achieved at each level, progressing from
simple to high achievable standards. It reflects the principles of the Constitution
by prioritising human rights; inclusivity and diversity; environmental justice; and
social justice. Issues of diversity include poverty; inequality; race; gender;
language; age; and disability, amongst other factors that the curriculum is highly
sensitive to. The curriculum further values heritage as one of the principles for
the development of a curriculum that is credible and efficient, and that can
adequately compare with those of other countries.

Now do Research Activity 1 below.
 Research Activity 1 
Read the Foreword by the Minister in the Department of Basic Education CAPS
(2011) document, Life Skills Grades R-3.
Answer the following questions:
1. The curriculum in South Africa has undergone many changes. Is this

practice in accordance with any of the curriculum development principles
as discussed above?
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2. What was the reason behind the many reviews of the curriculum?
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3. Name the different curricula that were developed from 1997 in

South Africa.
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4. Which aspects of the old curriculum does CAPS replace?
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Model answers: (1) Yes, the curriculum needs to be constantly reviewed. (2) Implementation challenges.
(3) 1997 – OBE; 2002 (RNCS); 2012 (NCS). (4) Subject statements, Learning Programmes, and Subject
Assessment Guidelines.
It's now time to end our discussion of The Process of Curriculum Development
and move on to discuss Effective Curriculum Design. We do this in Lesson 4.
Only move on to Lesson 4 if you are confident that you understand the content
presented in this lesson. Don't forget that you can easily contact a tutor for
personal help if needed.

Lesson 4: Effective Curriculum Design
 Prescribed Readings
 Pages 75 to 134 in Chapter 4: The Process of Curriculum Development of

 Research: Department of Basic Education website.
Note that you'll be told when to read each of the above texts in the
lesson.
Introduction
Curriculum design is a multidisciplinary approach incorporating curriculum
development criteria and procedure; child and subject knowledge; objectives;
and didactic knowledge and skills. It involves experts in curriculum, subjects,
education and practice. Curriculum design occurs at the planning phase when
decisions are made on accountable criteria. Curriculum design can take place at
a macro, meso and micro level, however, this too has many variations
(Carl, 2017:77). In this chapter we will start by outlining the process of
curriculum design. Next, we will discuss Carl's model of curriculum design. We
will then explain the components of curriculum design as summarised by Carl.
We will then analyse the aims; goals; objectives and outcomes of the curriculum
design process. Finally, we will critically assess the selection of content; teaching
methods; and methods of assessment.
The Process of Curriculum Design

In this section we will discuss the relationship between the developmental level
of the child and curriculum design; the criteria for curriculum design; and models
of curriculum design.
Curriculum design and the developmental level of the child
Curriculum designers must always consider the developmental needs of the child.
Such needs are in the form of intellectual and all-round development that allow
the child to develop to his or her full potential. When these factors are taken into
account, they guide curriculum developers in their choice of objectives, outcomes
and leaning content. According to Carl (1986, as cited in Carl, 2017:79), the
quality and design of a curriculum can be improved if the design:
 includes subject matter, methods and skills inclusive of communication skills;

 makes allowance for the needs, abilities and skills of learners;
 creates learning experiences to develop new skills; and
 resonates with the values of society.

Criteria for curriculum design
The criteria used for the design of the curriculum will affect its final form and
content. to learn more about this aspect of curriculum design, we consult the
expertise of Walters, Kruger, Gorton and Doll to shed light on the criteria should
be used for curriculum design.
Walters (1978, as cited in Carl, 2017:80) stresses the importance of the use of
literature, even though there may be some accompanying problems, for
example:
 writers who do not mention the source of their criteria;

 criteria based on personal opinions; and
 using one criterion for various components of the design.
Kruger states that curriculum designers should use accountable criteria. This is
achieved when the components of the design are relevant and there are
significant connections between all the components of the curriculum. The
curriculum must promote individualism; and individuals' socialisation and the
way in which they adapt to the community. The curriculum must:
 incorporate the general education of the child, in the present and the future;
 contain meaningful, experiential learning; and
 integration of learning content, subjects and situations (Kruger).
Gorton (1976, as cited in Carl, 2017:81) contributes relevant accountable criteria

for curriculum development by stating that objectives need to be clearly defined
in order to give direction to the curriculum. The curriculum must:
 be comprehensive and take the needs of all learners into account;

 promote its objectives; and
 include the cognitive, affective and psychomotor aspects of a child's learning.
The curriculum must also:
 reflect the needs of the community;

 be relevant to the developmental needs of the child; and
 have subject correlation (Gorton).
Doll (1978, as cited in Carl) also distinguishes the role of the community and
developmental needs of the child as important criteria for curriculum
development. Purposeful planning; method; relevance and didactic demands
must be taken into account. The criteria set should lead to teacher empowerment
and involvement (Doll).
Most of the criteria mentioned above follow a similar pattern. Carl (2017:83)
tables a structure for the most commonly used criteria in curriculum
development. There is an orientation towards norms (such as a Christian
philosophy); a full human experience (inclusive of intellectual, spiritual and
physical development); viability (academic, professional and socio-cultural
experiences); socialisation (interpersonal, group and community involvement);
individualisation (development of individual self-image); classification and
integration (classification of relevant learning content); and time orientation
(learning is intended for future outcomes).

Models for Curriculum Design
For the design to be effective, relevant models need to be consulted. Curriculum

developers' methods of development have resulted in several models of
curriculum design. These models should provide a flexible conceptual framework
as a planning guide and not be too prescriptive (Carl, 2017: 83). Models can
sometime result in highlighting only some issues and not give the whole picture,
as stated by Marsh (2009, as cited in Carl). Models can also be prescriptive
(concerned only with the outcome and not the process), or descriptive
(concerned with the content only) (Prideaux, 2003, as cited in Carl).
A good example of a model for curriculum design is Taba's model (Oliva, 1988,
as cited in Carl). This model describes five steps of curriculum design. They are:
 designing the instructional units (such as identifying needs, objective,

choosing the learning content and evaluation);
 testing the units;
 reviewing and consolidating the design;
 determining rationale and consistency of the units; and
 establishing and disseminating the curriculum (Oliva).
Carl states that there is a great international influence in South African

curriculum models. For example, Walters' model (1978, as cited in Carl) shows
flexibility; connection between the components; and various levels of evaluation.
On the other hand, Kruger's model (1980, as cited in Carl) includes a vertical and
horizontal development of knowledge, like a spiral effect.
Let's move on to discuss Carl's model.
Carl's Model of Curriculum Design

Carl (2017:86) has adapted his model of curriculum design from the model
developed by the Department of Didactics at the University of Stellenbosch.
Carl's model shows an integration and collaboration of all components and is not
based on a fixed progression. The model consists of the following:
 interaction between the needs or situation analysis;

 the intended goals and outcomes;
 the core content and learning content;
 the teaching and learning outcomes and objectives; the methodology and
teaching media;
 the organisation of planning, teaching and learning; and
 implementation.
All these components impact on the assessment of the learners, curriculum,

techniques and strategies as ongoing evaluation (Carl). The model is designed
for general use and not just for use on a particular curriculum.

1. What do you understand by curriculum design?
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2. What three areas are important for incorporation into curriculum design?
____________________________________________________________
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3. What is the value of Carl's model of curriculum design?
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Model answers: (1) Curriculum design is a multidisciplinary approach incorporating curriculum development
criteria and procedure; child and subject knowledge; objectives and didactic knowledge and skills. It involves
experts in curriculum, subjects, education and practice. Curriculum design occurs at the planning phase when
decisions are made on accountable criteria. (2) The developmental level of the child; accountable criteria; an
effective model for planning. (3) It is not specific in nature; it involves an interaction of all components; it is a
general model and not prescriptive; it allows for ongoing evaluation.
Now that we are aware of the process of curriculum design and have discussed
some models of curriculum design, let's focus on the components that make up
the design.
Components of Curriculum Design

It is important to unpack the different components of curriculum design. The
components are: situation analysis; goals; aims; objectives; outcomes; content;
teaching methods; and evaluation.

Situation Analysis
A situation analysis includes the whole context, in other words, the needs of the
country, learner, teacher and environment that may influence curriculum
development. Carl (2017:89) states that a situation analysis is a needs
assessment at every level, from national to regional to school and classroom. A
situational analysis includes the learners, content, physical environment, teacher,
community, and leadership. He set this out in five points.
The learner information required will be general population information;

development and learning information (such as age, achievements, intellectual,
creative and psychological needs); home, family and environmental conditions;
logistics such as grades, numbers and preferred languages; and general aspects
such as motivation, leadership, skills and independence.
 Learning content must link with the goals and objectives, resources, and
appropriateness to interpret the syllabus.
 The school environment must be analysed for certain aspects such as the
school curriculum; language medium; composition of teachers; and the
surrounding community, while the classroom environment must take into
account space; lighting; ventilation; and resources.
 Teachers' views on education and learners; the extent of teachers'
curriculum knowledge; their qualifications; leadership style; and experience
should be part of the situational analysis.
 Matters regarding the broader community such as physical and psychological
needs, values and literacy are taken into account.
 Teachers need to understand and be aware of leadership which will impact
on their empowerment. A situational analysis can be done through surveys
and interviews and various other research methods.
Goals and Aims
The identification of goals and aims offers clear direction and utilises time
efficiently. It is important to define goals and aims; know their value; understand
the hierarchy of goals and aims; identify the links between goals and educational
levels; and be introduced to the different types of aims.
Goals and aims have a dedicated place in curriculum design models.

Marsh (2010, as cited in Carl, 2017:92) says that goals and aims clarify what
learners need to achieve and allow them to focus on concepts. Goals and aims
can also help with decision-making and can give direction to the design of the
learning process and implementation.
The value of goals and aims lies in the fact that they give direction to the design
and evaluation of the programme. This can lead to constant evaluation of the
instructional methods; define roles more succinctly; and help learners evaluate
their progress (Carl). Further, specific and instructional aims from the classroom
can broaden into bigger educational and community goals, similar to a hierarchy
(Walters, 1978, as cited in Carl).
We can identify three categories of goals in a hierarchical structure, namely the

micro-level (aims within a specific subject or module); the meso-level (aims
within a school curriculum); and the macro-level (aims linked to the national
level or a broad curriculum purpose (Carl).

It is important to be able to distinguish between goals, aims and objectives.
 A general goal can be seen as a statement describing the end-product of an

instructional activity.
 A particular aim is specific and embedded in the subject or theme.
 An objective is a precise description of the behaviour expected at the end of
a learning episode (Carl).
There are also different types of aims. Aims can be categorised into product and
process goals. Product goals focus on the final product such as the aims (facts,
principles, techniques, procedures, and concepts) needed for the knowledge and
skills of a particular subject. Process goals, however, refer to the thought
processes and strategies that are engaged in during the process of learning, for
example, learning algorithms in Mathematics or collecting data in Geography
(Carl).
Objectives
Objectives describe the required performance, outcomes and level of

achievement and are, in fact, a refinement of aims. Objectives give direction;
determines guidelines; and offer ideas about what needs to be evaluated. There
are two types of objectives.
 A learning objective clearly indicates what a learner should be able to do at

the end of a learning episode.
 An instructional objective guides a teacher to choose what he or she will do
during the lesson to achieve the aim of the lesson (Carl, 2017:99).
Outcomes
Outcomes are a construct of the Outcomes-based Education (OBE) curriculum

and requires an explanation here. In the simplest definition, outcomes refer to
what a learner can demonstrate what they have learnt after a learning episode.
Killen (1996, as cited in Carl, 2017:100) lists the following important
components of an outcomes-based teaching and learning approach:
 Teachers need to create a positive learning climate.

 Learners need to be informed during and after the learning process.
 Teachers must use a variety of teaching methods.
 There must be sufficient time for learning knowledge and developing skills.
 There must be opportunity for reflection.
A model for the outcomes should include:
 evaluation of prior knowledge in the learners;

 teaching methods;
 learning activities;
 formative and summative assessments;
 enrichment outcomes for learners who require more challenges; and
 additional support for learners requiring assistance to meet the challenges.
(Killen, as cited in Carl).

Selection of Content
One of the most important functions of developing curriculum is selecting and

classifying content. This process must correspond with the objectives. Content is
what is included in a subject and that needs to be conveyed to the learners
(Carl, 2017:102). The content for a broad curriculum will include the subjects or
field of study. The content for a school phase curriculum will include the selection
of subjects for a particular phase, while a school curriculum is comprised of
examination subjects, non-examination subjects and co-curricular activities.
The content selected must be relevant to the areas being dealt with. For
example, choosing content at a national level will differ from choosing content for
teaching a lesson. Understanding how curriculum developers and teachers
choose content differently will give a better understanding of the content of
curricula (Carl). Content needs to be carefully selected so as to add value to a
learner in his or her later life as an adult. As with curriculum development,
criteria are an important aspect of selecting content. Selection of content should
follow criteria such as the following:
 Content must make the aims a reality.

 It must be relevant, stimulating, motivating and offer self-discovery
opportunities.
 It must be achievable, have depth and complexity of study.
 Content must develop the cognitive, attitudes, values and psychomotor skills
of learners (Carl).
Teaching Methods
Teaching methods are most often determined by the subject teacher. Here, we
discuss criteria for choosing teaching methods; classification of teaching
methods, and the importance of questioning. Learning experiences, learning
opportunities and teaching methods are inextricably linked, so a teacher cannot
just present content. The teaching and learning situation must show the
connections between the aims, content, instruction, teaching methods and
learning activities (Steyn 1982 as cited in Carl 2017: 106).
What guidelines or criteria do teachers need to follow in identifying suitable

teaching methods? Wheeler (1976 as cited in Carl) mentions broad criteria,
according to which suitable teaching methods should:
 incorporate active learning and include repetition;

 include objectives, values and motives;
 provide for immediate assessment and feedback;
 provide a variety of activities that may include observation, diversity and
individuality; and
 include multipurpose learning, which means that other learning can also take
place while concentrating on a particular outcome.
Where learning is to take place through activities, the teaching style must match
the different learning styles of the learners (Marsh 2010 as cited in Carl). Gow
and Casey (183, as cited in Carl) state that the choice of teaching methods will
be governed by the requirements of the learning programme, and the availability
of resources. Although there may exist different learning opportunities, it is
important that they all lead to one goal, as suggested by Tyler (1977, as cited in

Carl), who also warns against the suppression of creativity. Further to some of
the above-mentioned criteria, Steyn (1982, as cited in Carl) made the
suggestions that teaching methods are influenced by the size of the class and the
personality and knowledge, amongst other traits, of the teacher.
Teaching methods can be classified in various ways. De Corte (1981, as cited in

Carl, 2017:108) discusses three methods of teaching, namely:
 the recital (the teacher presents the learning content);

 the discussion (continuous interaction between the teacher and learner); and
 the self-activity (the teacher accompanies the learner as he or she carries
out the activity).
Steyn (1982, as cited in Carl) distinguishes one mixed form, the experiential
learning form (such as dramatization, role-play and advanced learning
programmes) that culminates from four basic forms, namely:
 the lecture;
 discussion;
 group work; and
 self-activity.
The lecture form involves one-way communication, as in a lecture, speech, or

demonstration. The discussion form involves two-way communication, as in a
free-group discussion, forum or class discussion (Carl). The group-work form is
when learners communicate amongst themselves about the learning content, as
in a round-table group or buzz groups. The self-activity form is when the learner
is engaged in an individual activity such as activity cards, project work or
self-study (Carl).
Questioning plays an important role in teaching methods. It creates a good

connection between teacher and learners, as learners become involved in the
lesson and participate in the lesson. Questions monitor learners' grasp of
knowledge; they reinforce newly acquired knowledge; they encourage discussion
and develops higher order thinking (Carl, 2017:110). It is important to focus on
questioning strategies. Bloom's taxonomy classifies questions into lower- and
higher-level thinking. The teacher also needs to be able to respond in a similar
manner to the learner's questions. One way of responding is to use the terminal
response, where the teacher accepts the answer with no further interaction.
Another option is the continual response, where the teacher accepts the learner's
response and follows up with continued interaction (Carl).
Assessment
Assessment allows us to evaluate the teaching process and the level of

understanding that the learner has acquired as a result of the teaching and
learning process. We need assessment to:
 determine if outcomes have been achieved;

 motivate learners;
 decide if learners are ready to proceed;
 record and report to parents; and
 determine where teaching and learning must improve (Killen, 2007, as cited
in Carl, 2017:118).

Assessment can be learner or curriculum-orientated. Carl discusses different
types of assessment.
 Summative assessment takes place at the end of a learning process and

summarises the learner's achievements.
 Formative assessment is an ongoing evaluative process that can be formal or
informal, and provides continuous reports on progress.
 Norm-orientated assessment is when learners are assessed against a norm
or standard and compared against the average achievement of the class.
With this type of assessment, test marks and how the learner's performance
compares with that of other learners become more important than what the
learner has or has not learnt (Killen, 2007, as cited in Carl).
 Criterion-oriented assessment takes place when learners are assessed
against pre-determined criteria and not the class average. It demands a high
level of mastery of the subject and is a reflection of the learner's abilities.
Killen says that this type of assessment can be problematic when trying to
define the criteria and competence levels of performance.
 Standards-referenced assessment is a reliable type of assessment, during
which learners are assessed against a set of standards. The learners are
assessed according to the level at which they have achieved the outcomes.
This motivates them to learn better (Carl).
 Illuminative assessment is the assessment of a programme when curriculum
is renewed according to the contextual change dynamic at the time.
 Pre-assessment is an assessment of the learner's prior knowledge, before
actual teaching commences, in order to ascertain potential.
 Continuous assessment is the process of continually assessing learners
throughout the learning programme, using multiple strategies such as
portfolios, reports assignments, and assessment does not depend on a final
exam.
 Authentic assessment goes beyond the standardised test to assess more
than what the learner has learnt. This assessment reports on a deep
understanding of more than just the subject matter, but also includes an
application of skills and knowledge in real-life situations. The above-
mentioned assessment techniques can be used individually or a variety of
methods.
Recording and reporting
Recording and reporting form part of assessment. While recording helps to keep
a record of learners' progress, reporting is a method to share that knowledge
with others, for example, parents, staff, and potential employers. Recording can
be done via portfolios; records of tests; samples of a learner's work; and daily
narrative records. Reporting can be done via written reports; interviews; phone
calls; and newsletters.
A portfolio is a collection of a learner's work, and can include pictures; drawings;

assignments; notes; and audio or visual recordings that demonstrate the
learner's development. Rubrics are also used as an assessment strategy. Rubrics
set standards for assessment so that the learners know what they are being
assessed on, and promotes transparency. Assessment should, however, always
be based on principles. Carl (2017:129) suggests that assessment should always
be valid, continuous, objective and reliable. Assessment must be continuous and
lead to meaningful learning experiences. Curriculum developers should always be
guided by criteria or principles for assessment.

And that is the end of Lesson 4! Contact your tutor if anything was unclear. Once
you are happy that you understand the content of this lesson, read the summary
of Study Session 2 that follows, and then work through the self-assessment
questions that follow.

In Lesson 3, The Process of Curriculum Development, we first discussed the
process of curriculum development. We then discussed the approach of Walters
(1985) to curriculum development. We then discussed orientations to curriculum
development. Next, we discussed principles of curriculum development. Finally,
we discussed principles of the NCS as referred to in the CAPS document.
In Lesson 4, Effective Curriculum Design, we first discussed the process of

curriculum design. We then discussed Carl's model of curriculum design. Next,
we discussed the components of curriculum design as summarised by
Carl (2017). We then discussed the aims, goals, objectives and outcomes of the
curriculum design process. Finally, we discussed the selection of content,
teaching methods and methods of assessment.
understanding of the content of Lessons 3 and 4.
Self-assessment Questions and Answers for Study

Session 2
answers that we give. Look at them only after you've written your answers, and
Questions
1. Discuss the four approaches to curriculum development set out by Walters

(1985).
2. What does Eraut (1990) say about a bureaucratic orientation to curriculum

development?
3. Name THREE types of principles inherent to curriculum development. Give

examples of each.
4. On which principles is the NCS based?
5. What criteria should be followed when designing curriculum?
6. What is a situation analysis when designing curriculum?
7. What is the value of goals and aims in curriculum design?

8. What criteria should be followed when selecting content for curriculum
design?
9. How does the use of questioning enhance teaching methods?
10. Discuss the disadvantages of norm-orientated and criterion-orientated

assessment.
Answers
1. Academic approach is a studied and intellectual approach. Experiential

approach is the formation of personalised instructional programmes.
Technological approach is analytical applying science and production to
education. Pragmatic approach is a combination of the academic, experiential
and technological approaches.
2. A bureaucratic orientation to curriculum development is when emphasis is

placed regulations, administrative matters, and official documents and can
harm creativity and decision-making.
3. Broad principles – the purpose, rational, leadership, theory, evaluation and

planning. Specific principles – centralised location, continuous review, equal
standards and skilled personnel. Accountable principles – change agents,
quality decision-making, continuous improvement.
4. Social transformation, redress of the past, equality, active and critical

learning, human rights, inclusivity and diversity.
5. Norms (such as a Christian philosophy); a full human experience (inclusive of

intellectual, spiritual and physical development); viability (academic,
professional and socio-cultural experiences); socialisation (interpersonal,
group and community involvement); individualisation (development of
individual self-image); classification and integration (classification of relevant
learning content); and time orientation (learning is intended for future
outcomes).
6. A situation analysis includes the whole context, in other words, the needs of
the country, learner, teacher and environment that may influence curriculum
development.
7. The value of goals and aims lies in the fact that they give direction to the
design and evaluation of the programme. This can lead to constant
evaluation of the instructional methods; define roles more succinctly; and
help learners evaluate their progress.
8. Selection of content should follow criteria such as the content must make the
aims a reality; it must be relevant, stimulating, motivating and offer self-
discovery opportunities. It must be achievable, have depth and complexity of
study. Content must also develop the cognitive, attitudes, values and
psychomotor skills of learners.

9. The create a good connection between teacher and learners as learners
become integrated and involved in the lesson; questions monitor learners
grasp of knowledge; it reinforces newly acquired knowledge; encourages
discussion and develops higher order thinking.
10. Norm-orientated: Test marks and how the learner has performed in relation
to others, become more important than what the learner has or has not
learnt. Criterion-orientated: This type of assessment can be problematic
when trying to define the criteria and competence levels of performance.
 I can describe the process of curriculum development.

 I can critically evaluate Carl's model of curriculum development (1986) and
Walters' four approaches to curriculum development.
 I can discuss a variety of orientations to curriculum development as used by
educational specialists.
 I can identify a number of broad principles in relation to curriculum
development.
 I can discuss the principles of the NCS as referred to in the CAPS document.
 I can outline the process of curriculum design.
 I can discuss Carl's model of curriculum design (2002).
 I can explain the components of curriculum design as summarised by Carl.
 I can analyse aims, goals, objectives and outcomes of the curriculum design
process.
 I can critically assess the selection of content, teaching methods and
methods of assessment.

Study Session 3
Welcome to the third study session for this module. Let's start by looking at the
learning outcomes for this particular study session.
Learning Outcomes
 identify the basic features of the CAPS curriculum;

 interpret the implications for teaching and learning;
 understand how the principles of curriculum design inform the CAPS Life
Skills
Foundation Phase / Intermediate Phase Curriculum;
 discuss the role of ANA testing;
 clarify the importance of assessment and methods of recording and
reporting;
 identify the programme and progression requirements for Foundation Phase /
Intermediate Phase learners including concessions for learners with barriers
to learning;
 critically analyse the goals of the Action Plan to 2019;
 outline the steps in successful curriculum dissemination;
 discuss factors necessary for meaningful implementation of the curriculum;
 recognise important aspects of the evaluation process with regard to the
curriculum;
 discuss the relationship between teacher involvement and empowerment;
 describe the competences of a beginner teacher and self-reflect; and
 identify the roles of the teacher and discuss their relevance to teacher
empowerment.
We now move on to give you an overview of the three lessons in this study
session.

In Lesson 5, The Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement, we will explore the
basic features of the National Curriculum Statement. We will also look at the
implications of the curriculum for teaching and learning. We will also look at the
principles of curriculum design as found in the CAPS Life Skills Foundation and
Intermediate Phases. We will also look at the roll-out of the NCS. Further, we will
investigate the role of the ANA testing and clarify the importance of assessment
and methods of recording and reporting. We will then look at the programme and
progression requirements for Foundation and Intermediate phase learners
including concessions for learners with barriers. Lastly, we will examine the goals
of the Action Plan to 2019 (DBE, 2015).
In Lesson 6, Curriculum Dissemination, Implementation and Evaluation, we will

explore the steps to successful curriculum dissemination. We will also investigate
the factors necessary for meaningful implementation of the curriculum. Lastly,

we will examine the important aspects of the evaluation process with regard to
the curriculum.
In Lesson 7, The Responsibility of the Empowered Teacher, we will explore the

relationship between teacher involvement and empowerment. We will also look
at the competences of a beginner teacher and self-reflect. Lastly, we will
examine the roles of the teacher and discuss their relevance to teacher
empowerment.
It's now time to start Lesson 5.

Lesson 5: The Curriculum Assessment Policy
Statement
 Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2012. Question and Answer

 Pages 3 to 5 of the Life Skills Grades R-3 CAPS document.
 Pages 3 to 5 of the Life Skills Grades 4-6 CAPS document.
 Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2012. National Protocol for

 Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2012. National Policy

 Department of Basic Education. South Africa. August 2015. Action Plan to

2019: Towards Realisation of Schooling 2030. [online]. Available at:
 SADTU, NAPTOSA, SAOU, PEU, NATU. 2015. Minister of Basic Education's

walking away from ANA Mediation cause turmoil in education. Joint Media
Note that you'll be told when in the lesson.to read each of the above
texts.
Introduction
In our discussion thus far, we have come to realise the importance of continually
assessing and reviewing curriculum in order to adapt to the context of change in
a country. The National Curriculum Statement (NCS) Grades R-12 is an example
of curriculum review in South Africa. In this chapter we will identify and discuss
the basic features of the NCS curriculum. Next, we shall interpret the
implications for teaching and learning. We will then understand how the
principles of curriculum design inform the CAPS Life Skills Foundation Phase and
Life Skills Intermediate Phase curriculum. Next, we will discuss the role of the
Annual National Assessments (ANA) testing. After that, we will clarify the
importance of assessment and methods of recording and reporting. Next, we will
identify the programme and progression requirements for the Foundation Phase
and Intermediate Phase learners including concessions for learners with barriers
to learning. Finally, we will critically analyse the goals of the Action Plan to 2019.

Please read the following prescribed readings:
 Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2012. Question and Answer

The Basic Features of the NCS Curriculum

In response to the many implementation challenges that teachers were
experiencing with the NCS, a review of the curriculum resulted in three important
documents. They were the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statements (CAPS)
for each school subject; the National Policy pertaining to the Programme and
Promotion requirements describing the required number of subjects per grade
and the promotion requirements; and the National Protocol for Assessment
standardising the recording and reporting procedures (DBE 2012:7). The
curriculum positions itself on the principles of social transformation, critical
thinking and high knowledge and skills, quality, efficiency, credibility and
progression, and human rights, the value of indigenous knowledge and a
comparable curriculum to the rest of the world.
The curriculum aims to equip learners with relevant teamwork, problem-solving,

critical decision-making, effective communication, science and technology,
environmental awareness knowledge and skills. Some of the basic features of the
NCS curriculum is the development of curriculum and assessment policy
statements (CAPS) per subject and grade. There are four subjects in the
Foundation Phase, namely Home Language, First Additional Language,
Mathematics and Life Skills. The Intermediate Phase has six subjects, namely
Home Language, First Additional Language, Mathematics, Natural Sciences,
Social Sciences and Life Skills. Assessment is school-based for the Foundation
Phase. In the Intermediate Phase, school-based assessment carries 75% of
school-based assessment and 25% of assessment from the year-end
examination. CAPS also put forth curriculum stability by formalising content and
assessment material in accessible language and format to be used by teachers
and learners.
The Implications for Teaching and Learning

The curriculum review highlighted the enormity of the teacher's task in planning,
preparation, and record-keeping. It was therefore clear that these aspects
needed change. Teachers now keep one file that includes evidence of their
teaching and assessment. It includes a record of all formal assessment tasks in
order to justify the learner's ratings at the end of the year, and the file must be
accessible for accountability purposes (DBE, 2012).
The inclusion of inclusive teaching practices and alternate assessments has

implications for teachers. Many of the teacher training programmes will have to
include this aspect into their study courses. Current teachers will require training
and professional development programmes to help them manage incorporating
inclusive practices into their classroom.

 Now read the following:
 Pages 3 to 5 of the Life Skills Grades R-3 CAPS document.

 Pages 3 to 5 of the Life Skills Grades 4-6 CAPS document.
Principles of Curriculum Design in CAPS Life Skills

Foundation and Intermediate Phases
After reading the CAPS documents, you will begin to realise how the principles
and criteria of curriculum design are reflected in them. Clearly defined aims are
inherent in the curriculum. For example, the curriculum states that knowledge in
local contexts are to be promoted, making the curriculum viable through socio-
cultural and academic experiences. Secondly, by providing access to higher
education and transitioning learners from education institutions to the workplace,
the time orientation of curriculum design is acknowledged, and it indicates that
learning is planned for future outcomes.
The principles stated in the curriculum document are well-defined.
 The curriculum acknowledges that social transformation and the

acknowledgment of human rights, diversity, and poverty are concerns that
need to be dealt to ensure the country's future development. This
acknowledgement reflects the situational analysis and socialisation aspect of
the curriculum design process.
 The content of the curriculum is said to incorporate active and critical
learning, possess high knowledge and skills, and include indigenous
knowledge systems. This indicates that the curriculum design is leading
towards the development of individualisation and self-image; orientating
towards norms; developing the full human experience (intellectual, physical
and spiritual) of the learner; is viable with the inclusion of academic and
socio-cultural experiences; and promotes socialisation with interpersonal,
group and community involvement.
 The curriculum is working towards credibility, quality and efficiency,
providing an education system that is comparable to that of other countries.
This principle makes the curriculum viable and identifies outcomes to be
achieved.
 The content of the curriculum progresses from the simple to the complex,
thereby incorporating a continuous assessment model that makes learning
meaningful for the learner.
 Now read SADTU, NAPTOSA, SAOU, PEU, NATU. 2015. Minister of Basic
Education's walking away from ANA Mediation cause turmoil in education.
Joint Media Statement. 25 November 2015.
The Role of ANA-testing

The Annual National Assessments (ANA) was a systemic evaluation programme
of national standardised testing that prioritised core competencies and standards
from Grades 1 to 9. The purpose of ANA was to provide the nation with
information on progress; offer practical tools and assistance to parents and
educators in terms of progress; and shift the focus of assessment to learning

outcomes (DBE, 2015). The ANA was implemented in Grades 1 to 6 in 2011; in
Grade 9 in 2012; and in Grades 7 and 8 in 2014. The release of yearly ANA test
results caused extensive debate, which made it clear that the system had to be
reviewed. Teacher unions embarked on a battle with the DBE to put the ANA
under review. After the review, the recommendation that emerged stated that
the ANA should concentrate on the end-grades of the curriculum phases, namely
Grades 3, 6 and 9. Tests needed to be secure so that teachers and parents would
not use the test information to drill the essential content areas, thereby allowing
a clouding of the reality of assessment results. The final recommendation was
that the design of the ANA needed to be balanced to show how well the learners
have performed, and also how far behind they were in achieving the outcomes.
Now read the following:
 Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2012. National Protocol for

The Importance of Assessment and Methods of

Recording and Reporting
Assessment is an important component of the curriculum design process to
provide an indication of learner achievement and thus, the success of the
curriculum. The aim of the assessment process is to collect, analyse and
interpret information on a learner's progress to help teachers, parents and other
relevant stakeholders make decisions regarding the learner's progression.
Assessment must be fair and ensure that adequate evidence of achievement is
collected, using a variety of assessment tools. Learners need to know what
knowledge and skills are being assessed, and feedback must be provided to
improve the learning process. Assessment must be appropriate to the age and
developmental level of the learners in the grade and must cover the prescribed
content. There are two types of assessment to be managed in the classroom.
 Firstly, the informal assessment occurs daily through the teacher observing
and providing feedback. It can work towards closing the gaps of knowledge
and skills for the learner and builds towards formal assessment.
 Secondly, formal assessment is a systematic manner of evaluating progress
in their subjects and grade. Learners must be made aware of the assessment
criteria before assessment. Feedback must be provided after the assessment
through whole-class or individual discussion. Formal assessments include
tests, examinations and practical demonstrations or projects, oral
presentations and performances. Teachers are required to record formal
assessments, but they do not have to record informal assessments. The
formal results must be submitted to the School Management Team annually
in order to draw up school assessment plans for the following year.

The curriculum states that all learners, irrespective of disabilities, should be
incorporated into the system and leave school with a recognised level of
competence. Inclusive practices must be applied consistently across all grades of
the learner's schooling career. The practices must be appropriate in terms of the
learner's needs, and should not disadvantage the learner. In this regard, the
curriculum states three different types of alternative assessment.
 The first type is alternate assessment based on an alternative attainment of

concepts, content and skills is for learners with a substantial cognitive
disability. Learners will be assessed on the normal grade-level content at a
reduced rate of complexity. This method can be used for learners with an
intellectual disability in normal and special schools.
 The second type of assessment is alternate assessment based on a modified
or adapted attainment of concepts, content and skills. This type of
assessment is suitable for learners with disabilities such as deafness, and
learners on skills programmes who can manage the general assessment
criteria. The learners will, however, need more time to reach the required
levels of mastery of the grade level.
 The third type of assessment is alternate assessment based on the grade-
level attainment of concepts, content and skills. This type of alternate
assessment is suitable for learners who can manage the grade-level content,
but who require different testing formats that provide them with equal
opportunities to succeed. This type of alternate assessment can be used for
learners with dyslexia, hearing or sight loss, or physical or communication
disabilities.
Recording and reporting are also important assessment functions. The teacher
records evidence of the learner's progress within the grade and the learner's
readiness to proceed to the next grade, according to the criteria stipulated in the
CAPS documents. Records verify progress, monitors learning and helps to plan
ahead. Reporting, however, is the method of communicating learners'
performance to the relevant stakeholders such as the learner, parent, other
schools and tertiary institutions and employers. Reporting of learners' results is
communicated through report cards, parents' meetings, phone calls or
newsletters, and should be communicated in the Language of Learning and
Teaching (LOLT). The purposes of reporting are to provide regular and
developmental feedback to the learner; inform parents / guardians on learner's
progress; and inform schools, district and regional offices on existing levels of
learners' performance.
 Now read Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2012. National Policy
The Programme and Progression Requirements for

Foundation and Intermediate Phase Learners and
Concessions for Learners with Barriers
The programme requirements for learners in the Foundation Phase are slightly
different from those for Grade R and Grades 1 to 3. Grade R learners must offer
three subjects, namely an approved Home Language, Mathematics and Life
Skills. Learners in Grades 1 to 3 must offer an approved Home Language, an

approved First Additional Language, Mathematics and Life Skills. In both cases,
Life Skills include the study of Beginning Knowledge, Creative Arts, Physical
Education and Personal and Social Well-being. Deaf learners may offer South
African Sign Language as their second required language. The programme
requirements for Grades 4 to 6, known as the Intermediate Phase, are a bit more
complex. Learners in those grades must offer six subjects, including an approved
Home Language and an approved First Additional Language. One of the
languages must be chosen according to the Language of Learning and Teaching.
The next four subjects are Mathematics, Natural Sciences and Technology, Life
Skills and Social Sciences. Additionally, an approved non-official Second
Additional Language may be chosen for non-promotion purposes.
Progression between grades in the Foundation Phase is accepted as a normal

practice unless the learner shows a lack of competence in coping with the next
year's work, in which case the learners should receive the required support
services. Progression in Grade R requires that a learner achieves between
50-59% in Home language and 40-49% in Mathematics. Progression between
Grades 1 to 3 requires that the learner achieves 50-59% in Home Language;
40-49% in First Additional Language; and 40-49% in Mathematics. There are
additional considerations to progression in the Foundation Phase.
 A learner may be promoted if he or she has spent four years in the

Foundation Phase, excluding the Grade R year.
 Additional support must be provided for the learner if retained in the first
phase and is more likely to be retained again for four years in the second
phase.
 Progression of learners in the Intermediate Phase requirements are 50-59%
in Home language; 40-49% in First Additional Language, Mathematics and in
any remaining two of the rest of the subjects. A learner may only be retained
once in the Intermediate Phase. In both the phases, deaf learners may
achieve 30-39% in one of the two required languages.
There are some concessions that are made for learners with barriers. For
example, a deaf learner or a learner with communication and language problems
such as dyslexia and aphasia may offer two languages, but only need to a pass
on First Additional Language level at 40-49%; and the other language at
30-39%. The rest of the promotion requirements for the particular phase will
remain the same.
 Now read Department of Basic Education. South Africa. August 2015. Action
Plan to 2019: Towards Realisation of Schooling 2030. [online]. Available at:

The Goals of the Action Plan to 2019
The Action Plan to 2019 (DBE, 2014) cites twenty-seven goals in the education
sector to be realised by the year 2030. Of these goals, thirteen are performance
and participation outcomes; while fourteen explain how improvements are to be
realised. Of the twenty-seven goals, five are considered priority goals. The
priority goals deal with the Grade R year, teacher development, learning
materials, school management and district office support.
 Goals 1 to 6 deal with the number of learners who reach specific standards.
The first three goals realise that the level of mastery of Mathematics and
language were under-achieved and therefore aim to increase this level for
Grade 3 (Goal 1); Grade 6 (Goal 2); and Grade 9 (Goal 3).
 The next three goals deal with improvement in the exit outcomes for Grade
12 in Mathematics and Physical Science.
 Goals 7 to 9 deal with the increase in performance in Grades 6 and 9 in
Languages and Mathematics.
 Goal 10 endeavours to keep learners in school until 15 years of age.
 Goal 11 is to increase access of children to the Early Childhood Development
sector.
 Goal 12 is to improve grade promotion of learners between Grades 1 to 9.
 Goal 13 is to improve access for learners into the FET phase.
 Goals 14 to 27 deal with how the above goals are to be achieved. These
goals include the improvement of working conditions for teachers; the
learning experience for learners; improvement of parent and community
involvement; and logistical considerations such as schooling and funding
facilities, infrastructure and environment, and improvement of inclusivity into
schools.
It's now time to end our discussion of The Curriculum Assessment Policy
Statement and move on to discuss Curriculum Dissemination, Implementation
and Evaluation. We do this in Lesson 6. Only move on to Lesson 6 if you are
confident that you understand the content presented in this lesson. Don't forget
that you can easily contact a tutor for personal help if needed.

Lesson 6: Curriculum Dissemination,
Implementation and Evaluation
 Pages 135 to 155 in Chapter 5: Curriculum Dissemination as a Critical Phase

within Dynamic Curriculum Development of Teacher empowerment through
curriculum development by Arend E. Carl.
 Pages 156 to 161 in Chapter 6: Successful Curriculum Implementation of

 Pages 162 to 192 in Chapter 7: Comprehensive Curriculum Evaluation within

Dynamic Curriculum Development of Teacher empowerment through
texts.
Introduction
In this chapter, we analyse the next steps to curriculum design to ensure the
success of the curriculum. It involves the rolling-out, the implementation and the
evaluation of the curriculum. Firstly, we shall discuss the distribution of the
curriculum information and the preparation of the relevant people who are critical
in the dissemination of the curriculum. Secondly, we shall discuss putting the
curriculum into practice and the critical roles that teachers play in the
implementation of the curriculum. Finally, we shall discuss the evaluation of the
curriculum to determine the success and effectiveness of the curriculum.
 Now you can read pages 135 to 155 in Chapter 5: Curriculum Dissemination
as a Critical Phase within Dynamic Curriculum Development of Teacher
empowerment through curriculum development by Arend E. Carl.
The Steps to Successful Curriculum Dissemination

The following steps include the core aspects of disseminating curriculum. They
are the involvement of the interested parties; the social structure; the aims,
strategies and procedures of dissemination; the models of curriculum
dissemination; and the logistics and Communication within curriculum
dissemination.

The involvement of those interested in the curriculum dissemination
For curriculum to be welcomed, there has to be a certain level of preparedness

and willingness for change. Rogers (1962, as cited in Carl, 2017:136) classifies
the attitudes of future users of the curriculum into enthusiasts (energetic people
who accept challenges and willing to participate); supporters (informed about
curriculum matters and can be persuaded to support the curriculum);
acquiescers (non-initiators who will, however, follow in an unassuming manner);
laggards (sceptical to change); and antagonists (resistant to change). It is
important to get people involved in the dissemination of the curriculum. This may
mean that they will have to be prepared in order to secure their involvement.
Hall (1979, as cited in Carl) speaks of levels of involvement.
 The first division is the self, which occupies itself with lack of concern about
the novelty, would perhaps like to know more about it, and is concerned
about how it will personally affect the self.
 The second division is the task of managing the material.
 The third level is the impact of how it will affect learners; collaboration with
others; and refocusing on what can be done better.
There is a progression from the self to the impact stage, which shows a growing
sense of involvement (Carl). A climate of renewal is necessary to cultivate the
required enthusiasm and ownership for the implementation of the new
curriculum (Park, 1980, as cited in Carl). Finally, resistance to change must be
eliminated in order for implementation to progress smoothly.
Curriculum Dissemination as a Social Structure
Curriculum dissemination as a social structure depends on the social system of

an organisation; inter- and intrapersonal aspects within the organisation; and
certain facilitating and inhibiting factors.
 Firstly, disseminating curriculum through a social system depends on the

attitudes, tasks and responsibilities of the individuals within the organisation.
By the social system of an organisation, we are referring to the structures
that make up the organisation, such as the authority, staff, the individual's
acceptance of new knowledge and change, personal roles and the character
qualities of individuals (Hattingh, 1989, as cited in Carl, 2017:141).
Curriculum dissemination also depends on communication, decision-making,
adaptation to chance, planning and problem-solving (Carl).
 Secondly, curriculum dissemination as a social structure depends on inter-
and intrapersonal aspects such as psychological factors. Curriculum
initiatives must work towards building up self-esteem and self-image;
strengthening key values; understanding individual's experience, fear and
needs; and guarding against authoritarian personalities that may lead to a
negative impact for the curriculum dissemination (Carl).
 Thirdly, there may be facilitating and inhibiting factors within the social
structure that may affect curriculum dissemination negatively or positively.
Facilitating factors are pleasant factors that promote a positive climate for
dissemination, good planning and communication, high expertise and good
leadership. Inhibiting factors are factors within the education system such as
financial and political pressures, educational control, and vulnerability of
community needs and poor salaries that may have a negative effect on
curriculum dissemination (Carl).

The Aims, Strategies and Procedures of Curriculum Dissemination
Hattingh (1989, as cited in Carl, 2017:143) explains the aims that are important
for curriculum dissemination. These are that the institution must accept the new
initiative; teachers must adapt to the new initiative; be acceptable for further
development and renewal in themselves; and accept indirectly the changes that
will transpire, such as examinations and changes in subject curricular. One of the
strategies necessary for curriculum dissemination is the conscious effort of
education leaders to prepare teachers for the change. They can do this
individually while concentrating on personalities, security and adaptation, or
group-centred where social, psychological and cultural factors take precedence
(Carl). Strategies may also take different forms such as a power strategy or an
influencing strategy. A power strategy is imposed from the macro-level, giving
teachers little autonomy in decision-making thus resulting in their passive
responses to change. An influencing strategy makes the curriculum more
acceptable to all through indirect coercion and manipulation, placing emphasis on
the benefits of the change to the individual. Carl describes the different phases in
a strategy for curriculum dissemination as starting with identifying the target
group; creating an awareness of the said curriculum through its aims,
methodology and implications; apply, evaluate, communicate, and distribution of
the required material; acceptance or rejection, ongoing in-service training and
adaptation of the material to local needs. Finally, the procedures necessary for
curriculum dissemination are publishing and distribution of material, conducting
training courses, presenting papers and visit by inspectors (Carl).
Models of Curriculum Dissemination
Models highlight the complexity, give insight and guidelines, identify weaknesses,
and improve curriculum dissemination quality of decision-making. Havelock
(1982 as cited in Carl 2017:146) describes the Research, Development and
Diffusion Model as a top-down, time consuming approach to curriculum
dissemination where provision is made for research and development, planning,
co-ordination of work forces and acceptance of costs. It is assumed in this model
that the consumer will accept change. Havelock also mentions a Problem-Solving
Model, a bottom-up approach emanating from the classroom. It involves
identifying and formalising a need into a problem statement, searching for ideas,
formulating a change, and acceptance of the change. Thirdly, Havelock mentions
a Social Interaction Model where social relationships influence change and
acceptance. Acceptance depends on the individual's position in the social network
and the ability of that individual to influence others. Further, Schon's Model
describes three dissemination models. Firstly, the centre-periphery model is
where information is distributed from the centre point to the consumer and the
success of this model depends on the level and competence of authority, the
quantity of levels of dissemination and the input necessary to encourage
acceptance (Hattingh, 1989, as cited in Carl, 2017:149). Secondly, the
proliferation from centre model is where information is disseminated from
primary and secondary sources depending on suitable and effective training of
trainers. Thirdly, the periphery-centre model is when information is disseminated
from the consumer who has identified a need, to the authority who will propose
solutions.

Logistical Aspects and Communication within Curriculum
Dissemination
Change can bring about many physical or logistical aspects that need to be
considered in curriculum dissemination. For example, smooth administration
depends on a good administrative structure with good communication. Human
factors, such as interpersonal characteristics, self-image, human needs, amongst
others, should be considered for effective curriculum development. Further,
physical aspects such as distribution of material, geographical and cost factors,
in-service training, timing should be taken into consideration. One must also not
forget the importance of communication for effective dissemination of
curriculum. Due to the many bodies involved in dissemination, for instance,
National departments, Education Department authorities, school level leaders
and teachers, and peripheral bodies such as teacher and principal associations,
publishers and writers, different ways of communicating are necessary. Some of
these communication techniques, as discussed by Carl (2017:152) are
information techniques to inform or motivate an audience through mailing,
books, personal contact or lectures and workshops. Next, a target group can be
consulted for problem identification and problem-solving; and pre-service and in-
service training can occur to induce co-operation. Finally, legal techniques can be
used through laws and regulations.
1. Identify FIVE (5) aspects which for you are the core aspects of curriculum
dissemination.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. What type of future consumer do you see yourself? Why?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

Model answers: (1) Consumer involvement, the social structure, aims, strategies, procedures, models of
curriculum dissemination, logistical aspects, communication (any 5). (2) Choose from enthusiasts, supporters,
acquiescers, laggards or antagonists and give a reason for your choice.
Now that we know the steps necessary for successful curriculum dissemination,
let's turn to discussing the factors necessary for meaningful implementation of
the curriculum.
 Now read pages 156 to 161 in Chapter 6: Successful Curriculum

Implementation of Teacher empowerment through curriculum development
by Carl.
Successful Curriculum Implementation

After dissemination comes the implementation of the curriculum. Implementation
of the curriculum involves the curriculum of the school, the subject and lesson
and is dependent on the involvement of leaders and teachers. Here, we shall
discuss the influential factors for successful implementation; the levels of
implementation; and implementation strategies.
Determinative factors for successful implementation
Pratt (1980, as cited in Carl, 2017:158) discusses four aspects necessary for
successful implementation.
 The first factor is continuous and mutual contact with and between
consumers.
 The second factor is communication to explain terminology and roles and
answer questions must be clear.
 The third factor is a support service that must be in place to offer
encouragement and curriculum support to teachers.
 The fourth factor is compensation that can be offered. The compensation can
be in the form of money, praise or acknowledgement. This results in intrinsic
rewards for the teacher to grow professionally, accept responsibility, and feel
part of the development of the curriculum rather than only accepting the
curriculum.
Jordaan (1989, as cited in Carl) also identifies some key factors in curriculum
implementation such as creating an encouraging climate for active involvement
and opportunities; in-service training; and other supportive factors as finance,
materials and time.
Levels of implementation
Jordaan (1989, as cited in Carl, 2017:159) identifies two levels of

implementation.
 Macro-implementation is the implementation of the broad curriculum that

comprises the policy and curriculum initiatives determined at the national
level.
 Micro-implementation is when decision-making and practical applications are
made at a local level, leading to institutionalisation of the curriculum.

Implementation strategies
Certain strategies can either promote or impede the success of curriculum

implementation. Ornstein and Hunkins (2009, as cited in Carl, 2017:160) speak
of three implementation models that teachers can contemplate when faced with
curriculum implementation.
 The overcoming-resistance-to-change model is used to motivate staff for the

impending change by addressing their concerns.
 The organisational-development model sees implementation as an ongoing
developmental activity by the continuous process of designing, implementing
and evaluating the system.
 The concerns-based adoption model favours the ownership of change, linking
the process to their own professional and personal contexts. Strategies for
curriculum implementation should be in place before implementation takes
place, as it will promote the eventual success of the implementation phase.
Now that we realise the importance of curriculum implementation, let's discuss

the important aspects of the evaluation process with regard to the curriculum.
 Now read pages 162 to 192 in Chapter 7: Comprehensive Curriculum

Evaluation within Dynamic Curriculum Development of Teacher
The Evaluation Process of the Curriculum

The role of the evaluation of the curriculum is to determine to what extent the
objectives of the curriculum have been achieved, and thereby impact on further
development of the curriculum. In the section that follows, we will offer a
description of curriculum evaluation; discuss models for curriculum evaluation;
discuss forms of curriculum evaluation and finally, discuss evaluation of
curriculum with a checklist.
A description of Curriculum Evaluation
Curriculum evaluation is complex and multi-dimensional. It involves the process

of determining the value of the outcomes of the broad, subject and lesson
curriculum on an on-going basis. Curriculum evaluation relates not only to
outcomes but also to the preceding events and thought processes that occur, in
other words, the evaluation of all curriculation actions (White, 1971 as cited in
Carl, 2017:164). Some of these actions are measuring effectiveness (in other
words, the measuring of learners reaching the foreseen outcomes) and
acceptability of the curriculum to the learners and teachers. The quality of the
curriculum is also evaluated according to its rationale, which states the broad
objectives; anticipated long-term effects; and connections between the elements
of the curriculum. The immediate outcome of a curriculum should not be
regarded as a goal but rather as a means towards long-term effect. Resources
such as study material, instructional aids and equipment can also be evaluated.
Certain antecedents are also taken into consideration when evaluating other
aspects of the curriculum, for example, the effect of different curriculum agents
and their roles on curriculum evaluation. In this regard, the South African

educational system is a good example of the many role-players who have an
impact on curriculum evaluation. These role-players include the overall planners
who prescribe the core syllabi; the instructional leaders who influence the
creation of material and the teachers' interpretation of the curriculum material;
the planners of details such as the textbook writers; external examiners and
subject heads; and the teachers as curriculum agents who all influence the
objectives of the curriculum.
It is therefore plain to see that curriculum evaluation can fall into many
categories. Rogers (1983, as cited in Carl) describes these categories as
evaluation of the content of programmes; the medium of instruction; the
structure of the programme; the instructional strategies; the classroom
management; and the roles of the teachers.
Models for Curriculum Evaluation
As we have seen so far, models provide guidelines for processes. However,

specific evaluation models are designed to fit a particular paradigm and context.
In this regard, we shall discuss three models for curriculum evaluation, namely
Blanckenberg, Oliva and Carl.
Blanckenberg (1982, as cited in Carl, 2017:169) discusses a macro-level model

for the evaluation of the broad curriculum.
 First, there is the contextual analysis that determines the curriculum's

limitations and possibilities.
 The second phase is the design phase, which makes provision for the
evaluation of the learner and the programme.
 The third phase is the operationalisation phase when teachers make
changes, and in doing so, provide a provisional development of the
curriculum.
 The fourth stage is the formative evaluation stage, when teachers receive
feedback during lessons.
 The fifth stage is the final evaluation, when examinations provide teachers
with additional feedback, thereby resulting in further curriculum
development. This process feeds back to the original designers.
The second evaluation model is an interactive and cyclical model. Oliva (1988, as
cited in Carl) discusses determining needs, confirming the strength of aims and
objectives, evaluating the context, the input, the process and the product. Oliva
says that fixed standards such as utility, feasibility, correctness, respectability,
accuracy and reliability will enhance the use of any model.
Carl proposes a continuous model where evaluation occurs during and after each
phase of designing, dissemination, implementation and evaluation.
Forms of Curriculum Evaluation
There are three basic forms of curriculum evaluation.
 The first form is comparative evaluation, which includes comparing curricular

with each other; comparing the curriculum outcomes with the goals; and
comparing people's expectations of the curriculum.

 The second form is the linking evaluation, which identifies links between the
curriculum and the anticipated results, and identifying the sources of specific
phenomena from the curriculum.
 The third form is fundamental evaluation, which involves the evaluation of
theoretical standards and empirical data such as social and economic values.
We shall now discuss the comparative, implementation, consensus, diagnostic,

effect and fundamental forms of evaluation.
 Comparative evaluation compares maintaining norms and standards,

identifying shortcomings, and determining achievable standards between
different curricular. Curriculum trends from other countries may sometimes
give rise to an evaluation and renewal of the current curriculum in one
country. Comparative evaluation can take place through moderation of
external examination papers or through evaluating learners from the same
country studying different curricular, as is the case in South Africa.
 Implementation evaluation determines to what extent the expectations of
the curriculum are realised. This type of evaluation compares the outcomes
of the curriculum with the set goals; the curriculum events such as content
and learning experiences with the anticipated events; and the different
components of the curriculum with the rationale. Fullan and Pomfret (1977,
as cited in Carl, 2017:175) says that implementation evaluation is generally
aimed at the learning content and materials; resources and organisational
matters; instructional actions of the teachers; teachers' knowledge and
understanding of the curriculum; and teachers' value judgements of the
curriculum.
 Consensus evaluation compares the expectations of different individuals to
the same curriculum. By comparing and exposing the differences of the
individuals, their anticipations and rationale become the norm. Next, the
diagnostic evaluation occurs when problems in society are identified as
shortcomings in the curriculum, for example, a shortage of technologically
trained personnel.
 Diagnostic evaluation seeks answers for why a certain shortage exists.
 Pay-off evaluation evaluates the success of teachers' teaching against the
backdrop of learners' learning. In other words, pay-off evaluation assesses
the value of a curriculum element against the expected outcomes of the
curriculum.
 Finally, the fundamental evaluation determines the value of the curriculum
elements against the main criteria. Primary criteria such as values, needs
and circumstances are identified and interpreted into rationales and
expectations of the curriculum.
The above discussed forms of evaluation guides curriculum development and

improves the quality of curriculum evaluation (Carl).
The Evaluation of Curriculum with the Aid of a Checklist
A checklist is an evaluation tool to indicate whether all aspects have been

acknowledged in the design of the curriculum. Rowntree (1978, as cited in
Carl, 2017:181) looks at the suitability of goals, methods and outcomes, results
received; the time, personnel, additional support material, complexity of
material; and compatibility of the curriculum in his checklist in order to define
the success of a curriculum. Pratt (1980, as cited in Carl) offers a comprehensive
checklist that includes aspects relating to the aim, rationale, performance

criteria, context, instruction, and so on, to further increase the value of the
curriculum.
Cawood (1984, as cited in Carl) includes evaluative questions under six main
components in his checklist to evaluate the curriculum design. These components
are curriculum theory; contextual evaluation; the goals and objectives; the
content; learning activities and teaching methods; and learner evaluation.
Finally, Carl proposes a checklist with a rating scale spanning from lacking to
excellent with evaluative questions under the main headings of curriculum
development, design, dissemination and evaluation.
1. Identify THREE strategies that can be utilised when implementing

curriculum.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. What is a curriculum checklist for evaluation?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
3. Discuss the phases in Blanckenberg's (1982) model of curriculum

evaluation.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
Model answers: (1) the overcoming-resistance-to-change model is used to motivate staff to the impending
change by addressing their concerns. Secondly, the organisational-development model sees implementation as
an ongoing developmental activity by the continuous process of designing, implementing and evaluating the

system. Thirdly, the concerns-based adoption model favours the ownership of change linking the process to
their own professional and personal contexts. (2) A checklist is an evaluation tool to indicate whether all
aspects have been acknowledged in the design of the curriculum. (3) A contextual analysis determines the
limitations and possibilities of the curriculum; secondly, the design phase makes provision for the evaluation of
the learner and the programme; and thirdly, is the operationalisation phase when teachers make changes thus
providing a provisional development of the curriculum. The fourth stage is the formative evaluation stage when
teachers receive feedback during lessons; and fifthly is the final evaluation when examinations provide teachers
with additional feedback.
It's now time to end our discussion of Curriculum Dissemination, Implementation

and Evaluation and move on to discuss The Responsibility of the Empowered
Teacher. We do this in Lesson 7. Only move on to Lesson 7 if you are confident
that you understand the content presented in this lesson. Don't forget that you
can easily contact a tutor for personal help if needed.

Lesson 7: The Responsibility of the
Empowered Teacher
 Pages 214 to 245 in Chapter 9: The Responsibility of the Empowered Teacher

with regard to Curriculum Development of Teacher empowerment through
 Department of Higher Education and Training. South Africa. 2015. Revised

Policy on the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications:
Basic Competences of a Beginner Teacher (p. 64) and Collective Roles of
Teachers in a School (pages 60–61).
texts.
Introduction
Teacher involvement in curriculum development and teacher empowerment are
inextricably linked. A teacher's role is an important factor in curriculum
development, yet higher authorities deal with a large part of curriculum
development, and teachers are seen as only the implementers and evaluators in
the curriculum development process. Involving teachers in the curriculum
development process is a means of teacher empowerment. In this chapter we
will discuss the relationship between teacher involvement in curriculum
development and empowerment. Next, we shall describe the competences of a
beginner teacher and self-reflect. Finally, we shall identify the roles of the
teacher and discuss their relevance to teacher empowerment.
 Now read pages 214 to 245 in Chapter 9: The Responsibility of the

Empowered Teacher with regard to Curriculum Development of Teacher
The Relationship between Teacher Involvement and

Empowerment
In exploring the relationship between teacher involvement and empowerment,
we will firstly discuss certain perspectives on teacher involvement in curriculum
development. Next, we will look at the teachers' curriculum functions and finally,
we will discuss the role of training and other factors in the process of
empowerment.

Perspectives on teacher Involvement in Curriculum Development
In defining teacher participation in curriculum development, Carl (2017:216)

identifies that the traditional top-down approach of curriculum development has
a detrimental effect on teachers owning the curriculum. If teachers are seen as
partners in curriculum development, then their voices need to be heard.
Teachers need to be involved in curriculum design, implementation and
evaluation at many levels of the development process. Seeing that teachers are
the eventual implementers of the curriculum, several rationales advocate for the
involvement of teachers in curriculum development. Some of the reasons for
teacher involvement in curriculum development are as follows:
 Teachers gather valuable information through implementation and therefore

should be part of the development process (Human, 1986, as cited in Carl).
 Teachers should be prepared for their role in curriculum development from
their pre-service training (Kelly 2009 as cited in Carl).
 Participation in curriculum development will lead to more job satisfaction for
teachers (Bachman & Tannenbaum, 1968, as cited in Carl).
 Teacher involvement leads to more professionalisation for the teacher's
personal benefit, as well as enhancing the institution and the curriculum
(Carl).
If teachers are denied the opportunity for participation in curriculum

development, it can reduce the professional teacher to technician status (Tanner
and Tanner, 1975, as cited in Carl). Lack of support, limited training,
bureaucracy, and a lack of opportunities are also issues that can lead to a dearth
of teacher participation in curriculum development. Lack of teacher involvement
in curriculum development has always been seen as teachers having a negative
attitude towards curriculum change. However, very often curriculum change is
thrust upon teachers; they are not awarded ownership of the change and are
often unclear of what is expected of them (Fullan, 1991 as cited in Carl). For
curriculum change to be accepted and successful, it is important that teachers be
involved in the different levels of curriculum development.
The Teacher's Curriculum Functions
The teacher requires special knowledge and skills to be involved in the several
fields of curriculum development. Let's look at eight points in this regard.
1. As they are actively involved with the community, they should be aware of
the philosophies of the community and whether these views are actualised in
the broad goals of the national education process.
2. They should be aware of the broad education policies and legislations and be
able to put them into practice.
3. Teachers have the responsibility to be aware of school phase planning to
know subject choices, syllabus development, and matriculation
requirements.
4. Teachers should be involved in syllabus development through awareness of
the review process required for syllabus proposals for amendments; using
the channels of communication to react to syllabus amendments; being
involved in the activities of the teachers' centres and subject committees;
and be involved in textbook writing opportunities.

5. Teachers' involvement in the process of school curriculum development can
be promoted by the school principal. Doll (1978, as cited in Carl, 2017:228)
says that involvement can be achieved through using their first-hand
knowledge of learners and their needs; they are subject specialists; should
be given sufficient time, administration support and facilities and these
activities can help teachers become agents of change.
6. The teacher can further develop subject curriculum by adding more content
from textbooks, interpreting the curriculum, extending the learning content
and library, including media sources, and planning assessment tools.
7. The teacher's role in classroom and micro-curriculum development enhances
personal professional development.
8. Particular curriculum functions such as planning instructional activities;
experimenting with the curriculum; being involved in classroom research
activities; being curriculum leaders and their general functions such as
possessing curriculum knowledge, knowing the child and subjects; and being
change agents, all point to the fact that teachers have a primary
responsibility in curriculum development and they should be part of the
process of curriculum development (Carl).
Training and other factors in the Process of Empowerment
Opportunities need to be created for teacher participation in curriculum

development. Training is the method used for empowering teachers. While they
receive pre-service training to become teachers, they should also receive training
to become curriculum developers as this may alleviate any future curriculum
problems (Searle, 1972 as cited in Carl, 2017:239). Colleges and Universities
should provide opportunities for curriculum development training in their
curricular. Furthermore, in-service training is important if teachers have not
received a particular training previously. Through workshops and subject
meetings with other teachers, inspectors or subject supervisors, teachers can
develop their competence and skills in curriculum development. Other factors
that can influence empowerment are support from instructional leaders; an
inviting teaching environment that encourages involvement and empowerment;
channels and opportunities for involvement; and teachers' commitment to self-
empowerment (Carl).
Now that we have knowledge of the relationship between teacher involvement

and empowerment through discussion on perspectives of teacher involvement;
curriculum functions of teachers and training and other factors in the process of
empowerment, let's turn our attention to describing the competences of a
beginner teacher and the roles of the teacher.
 Now read Department of Higher Education and Training. 2015. Revised Policy
on the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications: Basic
Competences of a Beginner Teacher (page 64) and Collective Roles of
Teachers in a School (pages 60 and 61).

The Competences of a Beginner Teacher
According to the Department of Higher Education and Training (2015), the
following are considered the basic competences that a beginner teacher is
required to possess.
 They should have a sound subject knowledge and also be able to choose and
sequence content and pace of teaching and learning according to the
learners' needs. They should also know how to teach the subject.
 They should have knowledge of the learner's developmental and individual
needs and teach accordingly.
 They should have highly developed communication, literacy, numeracy and
information technology skills.
 They must know the school curriculum and be able to plan learning
programmes with suitable resources.
 They must have an understanding of diversity and be able to identify and
refer professional services for learning and social problems. Classroom
management skills are important for the teacher to be able to create a
conducive learning environment.
 They have good knowledge of assessment and the necessary skills to
improve teaching and learning.
 They must have good ethics and values and be able to reflect on their
practice in order to continually improve and adapt to change.
The Roles of the Teacher and their Relevance to

Teacher Empowerment
The Department of Higher Education and Training (2015) cites seven roles of the
teacher. These roles have an important impact for teacher empowerment.
 As a subject and phase specialist, the teacher will have a well-grounded

knowledge of the subject, phase and practice specialisation and will develop
different approaches to teaching and learning that impact on learners and
the context. As a learning mediator, the teacher will be able to construct
diverse learning environments; be able to communicate effectively; and
demonstrate comprehensive knowledge of subject content, strategies and
resources relating to the South African context.
 As an interpreter and designer of learning programmes, the teacher is put in
the role of providing relevant learning programmes for a particular context,
including visual and text resources, with relevant sequencing of content and
pacing of lesson suitable for the needs of the learner.
 The teacher's role as leader, administrator and manager allows him or her to
make decisions, manage learning and carry out administrative duties in a
democratic environment conducive to embracing change.
 As a scholar, researcher and life-long learner, the teacher fulfils this role by
engaging in further research study, and professional development to
empower themselves.
 The teacher's role as an assessor allows an understanding of the purpose,
methods and effects of assessment. The teacher must be able to design all
types of assessments according to learner and policy needs; keep diagnostic
records; be able to interpret results; and give feedback for learner and
curriculum improvement.

 The community, citizenship and pastoral roles of the teacher promote ethics,
commitment, respect and responsibility towards others through the process
of upholding the Constitution and democratic values. The teacher must
promote an empowering environment for the learner and foster relationships
with all relevant stakeholders in the education sector, for example, through
HIV/AIDS education.
It's now time for you to work through Self-reflection 3.
Self-reflection 3
1. As a beginner teacher, reflect on what you will need to develop the

appropriate competences during your first year of teaching.
2. As a school teacher, reflect on how you plan to develop your
empowerment in curriculum development.
3. Drawing on the particular roles of the teacher, reflect on how you would
empower colleagues in your school.
And that is the end of Lesson 7! Contact your tutor if anything was unclear. Once
you are happy that you understand the content of this lesson, read the summary
of Study Session 3 that follows, and then work through the self-assessment
questions that come after that.

In Lesson 5, The Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement, we first of all
discussed the basic features of the NCS curriculum. We then discussed the
implications of the curriculum for teaching and learning. We then discussed the
principles of curriculum design as reflected in the CAPS Life Skills Foundation
Phase and Intermediate Phase curricular. Next, we discussed the role of ANA
testing. We then discussed the importance of assessment and methods of
recording and reporting. Next, we discussed the programme and progression
requirements for the Foundation and Intermediate phases including concessions
for learners with barriers to learning. Finally, we discussed the goals of the
Action Plan to 2019.
In Lesson 6, Curriculum Dissemination, Implementation and Evaluation, we first

discussed the steps in successful curriculum dissemination. We then discussed
the factors necessary for meaningful implementation of the curriculum. Finally,
we discussed the important aspects of the evaluation process with regard to the
curriculum.
In Lesson 7, The Responsibility of the Empowered Teacher, we first of all

discussed the relationship between teacher involvement and empowerment. We
then discussed the competences of a beginner teacher. Finally, we discussed the
roles of the teacher and their relevance to teacher empowerment.
understanding of the contents of Lessons 5, 6 and 7.

Self-assessment Questions and Answers for Study
Session 3
answers that we give. Look at them only after you've written your answers and
Questions
1. What are the principles of curriculum design in CAPS Life Skills Foundation
and Intermediate Phase documents?
2. What alternative assessment systems are in place for learners with barriers
in CAPS?
3. Discuss Havelock's (1982) Problem-solving model of curriculum

dissemination.
4. What factors are necessary for successful implementation of curriculum?
5. Define curriculum evaluation.
6. What issues lead to lack of participation of teachers in curriculum

development?
7. What opportunities can be created for teacher empowerment in curriculum

development?
Answers
1. Social transformation; human rights; active and critical learning; high

knowledge and skills; inclusion of indigenous knowledge systems; credibility;
quality; and a comparable education system to other countries.
2. Alternative attainment of concepts. Alternative assessment based on

modified attainment of concepts. Alternate assessment based on grade-level
attainment of concepts, content and skills.
3. Bottom-up approach emanating from the classroom. It identifies and

formalises a need into a problem statement, then a search for ideas,
formulate and accept the change.
4. Contact with consumers; communicate terminology; roles and answer

questions; support services and offer encouragement; compensation in the
form of money, praise or acknowledgement.
5. It is a determining of the value of the outcomes of the broad, subject and

lesson curriculum on an on-going basis.
6. Lack of support, limited training, bureaucracy, lack of opportunities.

7. Pre-service and In-service training; subject meetings; workshops; support
from instructional leaders; an inviting teaching environment; opportunities
for involvement; teacher's commitment to self-empowerment.
 I can identify the basic features of the CAPS curriculum.

 I can interpret the implications for teaching and learning.
 I understand how the principles of curriculum design inform the CAPS Life
Skills Foundation Phase / Intermediate Phase Curriculum.
 I comprehend the role-out of the CAPS curriculum.
 I can discuss the role of ANA testing.
 I can clarify the importance of assessment and methods of recording and
reporting.
 I can identify the programme and progression requirements for Foundation
Phase / Intermediate Phase learners including concessions for learners with
barriers to learning.
 I can critically analyse the goals of the Action Plan to 2019.
 I can outline the steps in successful curriculum dissemination.
 I can discuss factors necessary for meaningful implementation of the
curriculum.
 I can recognise important aspects of the evaluation process with regard to
the curriculum.
 I can discuss the relationship between teacher involvement and
empowerment.
 I can describe the competences of a beginner teacher and self-reflect.
 I can identify the roles of the teacher and discuss their relevance to teacher
empowerment.

References
Carl, A.E. 2017. Teacher Empowerment through Curriculum Development.
Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2011. Curriculum and Assessment

Policy Statement (CAPS) Grades 4-6: Life Skills. Pretoria: Government Printing
Works.
Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2011. Curriculum and Assessment

Policy Statement (CAPS) Grades R-3: Life Skills. Pretoria: Government Printing
Works.
Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2011. Guidelines for Responding to

Learner Diversity in the Classroom through Curriculum and Assessment Policy
Statements. Grades R-12. Pretoria: Government Printing Works.
Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2012. National Policy pertaining to

the Programme and Promotion Requirements of the National Curriculum
Statement Grades R-12. Pretoria: Government Printing Works.
Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2012. National Protocol for

Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2012. Question and Answer Booklet
for the advocacy of the implementation of the National Curriculum Statement
(NCS) Grades R-12. [online]. Available at: www.education.gov.za.
Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2015. The South African National
Curriculum Framework for Children from Birth to Four. [online]. Available at:
Department of Basic Education. South Africa. August 2015. Action Plan to 2019:
Towards Realisation of Schooling 2030. [online]. Available at:
Republic of South Africa. Department of Higher Education and Training. February

2015. Revised Policy on the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education
Qualifications. Pages 60-61: Collective Roles of Teachers in a School;
page 64: Basic Competences of a Beginner Teacher.
SADTU, NAPTOSA, SAOU, PEU, NATU. 2015. Minister of Basic Education's walking
away from ANA Mediation cause turmoil in education. Joint Media Statement.
25 November 2015.
SADTU, NAPTOSA, SAOU, PEU, NATU. 2015. The Annual National Assessment
(ANA) adds no value to the South African Learner. Joint Media Statement.
21 September 2015.

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Curriculum Design

How to use this Study Guide 4

Learning Outcomes and Assessment Standards 8

Your Study Schedule 10

STUDY GUIDE / CDN402-DL-SG-E1 / Page (i)

 STADIO (PTY) LTD

STUDY GUIDE / CDN402-DL-SG-E1 / Page (ii)

 Carl, A.E. 2017. Teacher Empowerment through Curriculum Development.

Study Guide  STADIO CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Page 1

 Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2011. Curriculum and

Supplementary Readings / Supplementary Media

 STADIO (PTY) LTD. 2022. STADIO Referencing Guide. 2nd edn.

 Department of Basic Education. South Africa. 2011. Guidelines for

Page 2 CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Study Guide  STADIO

Professionalisation is the process of giving an occupation professional qualities by

SAQA is the South African Qualifications Authority, which is a statutory body

The NQF is the National Qualifications Framework, which creates a single

CAPS is the Curriculum Assessment Policy Statements. It is a single,

Annual National Assessments

Assessment of this Module

Study Guide  STADIO CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Page 3

Your Study Schedule

Study Sessions and Lessons in this Module

The first study session contains the following two lessons:

 Lesson 1: The Issue of Empowerment; and

The second study session contains the following two lessons:

 Lesson 3: The Process of Curriculum Development; and

 Lesson 5: The Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement;

Page 4 CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Study Guide  STADIO

Self-assessment during this Module

We explain each type of self-assessment below.

Writing activities require you to write down answers to questions. Space is

Depending on the nature of the writing activity, we sometimes provide answers

Study Guide  STADIO CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Page 5

Practical activities usually require of you to physically do something. These

Page 6 CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Study Guide  STADIO

Good Luck with your Studies!

The study skills you'll develop by undertaking a distance-learning module include

Study Guide  STADIO CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Page 7

LEARNING OUTCOMES ASSESSMENT STANDARDS

LO 2: Demonstrate an understanding of AS 2: Analyse the principles of various

LO 3: Interpret the principles of a AS 3: Contrast the objectives and

LO 10: Assess aims, goals, objectives AS 9: Identify core aims, goals,

Page 8 CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Study Guide  STADIO

AS 19: Reflect on the role of the teacher

AS 20: Create a blueprint for the

Study Guide  STADIO CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Page 9

Study Guide  STADIO

Study Guide  STADIO

 Department of Basic Education. South Africa.

 SADTU, NAPTOSA, SAOU, PEU, NATU. 2015.

Study Guide  STADIO

Study Guide  STADIO

 Department of Higher Education and

 describe the issue of empowerment of teachers;

Overview of Study Session 1

In Lesson 2, Curriculum Studies as a Field of Study, we will explore the historical

It's time now to start Lesson 1.

Page 14 CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Study Guide  STADIO

 Pages 1 to 20 in Chapter 1: The Issue of Empowerment of the Teacher as

To be empowered means to develop strength and confidence in what you do.

1. How important is it to you that you become an empowered teacher? Give a

Study Guide  STADIO CDN402-DL-SG-E1 Page 15