Categorical propositions

1. A is A
2. A can’t both be A, and not be A
3. A cannot be partially A
(*) a statement that relates two classes is called a categorical proposition
Components of the standard form:
1. Quantifier
a. All
b. No
c. Some
2. Subject term (S)
3. Copula – to put together
a. Are
b. Are not
4. Predicate term (P)
Four standard forms:
1. All S are P
2. No S are P
3. Some S are P
4. Some S are not P
E.g.
 American idol contestants hope for recognition
 Junk foods do not belong in school cafeterias
 Many of today’s unemployed have given up on finding work
 Not all romances have a happy ending.
To:
 Some romances are not romances that have a happy ending
Proposition Meaning in class notation
All S are P Every member of the S class is a member of the
P class; that is, the S class is included in the P
class
No S are P No member of the S class is a member of the P
class; that is, S class is excluded from the P
class
Some S are P At least one member of the S class is a member
of the P class
Some S are not P At least one member of the S class is not a
member of the P class.

Propostion Letter Name Quantity Quality Distribution

All S are P A Universal Affirmative S
No S are P E Universal Negative S and P
Some S are P I Particular Affirmative None
Some S are not P O Particular Negative P
(*) A term is distributed if the categorical proposition says something about every member of the
class that the term denotes.
(*) Standard-form categorical propositions may be replaced with logically equivalent statements
Conversion: Switch S and P
Given statement Converse Truth value
All S are P All P are S Undetermined
No S are P No P are S Same as given
Some S are P Some P are S Same as given
Some S are not P Some P are not S Undetermined

(*) Conversion works with only E and I propositions

(*) The conversion of an A or O proposition commits the fallacy of illicit conversion
Obversion: Change quality; “negate” P
Given statement Obverse Truth Value
All S are P No S are non-P Same as given
No S are P All S are non-P Same as given
Some S are P Some S are not non-P Same as given
Some S are not P Some S are non-P Same as given

Contraposition: switch and “negate” S and P

Given statement Contrapositive Truth value
All S are P All non-P are non-S Same as given
No S are P No non-P are non-S Undetermined
Some S are P Some non-P are non-S Undetermined
Some S are not P Some non-P are not non-S Same as given

(*) Contraposition works with only A and O proposition

(*) The contrapositive of an E or I proposition commits the fallacy of illicit contraposition
(*) conversion, obversion, and contraposition can be used to evaluate immediate inferences
Contradictory
 One is true, the other must be false and vice versa
Subalternation
 Truth value only flows downwards. If A proposition is true, then I proposition is true. If A is
false, I has logically undetermined truth value. If I is false, A is logically undetermined.
o All cats are mammals (True)  Some cats are mammals (T)
o All cats are dogs (False)  Some cats are dogs (Undetermined)
o Some cats are animals (T)  All cats are animals (U)
 Same applies for E and O propositions
Subcontrary
 Rule: At least one is true; both cannot be false
 If an I proposition is false, corresponding O must be true; if I is true, corresponding O is
undetermined.
o Some cats are dogs (F)  Some cats are not dogs (T)
o Some cats are animals (T)  Some cats are not animals (U)
Contrary
 One is false, therefore the other must be true
 Rule: At least one is false; both cannot be true
 A proposition is given as true, the corresponding E proposition is false; if an A proposition is
given as false, the corresponding E proposition is undetermined. Same applies vice versa
o All cats are animals (T)  No cats are animals (F)
o No cats are animals (F)  All cats are animals (U)
(*) The incorrect use of the contrary, subcontrary, and subalternation relations commit, respectively
the fallacies of illicit contrary, illicit subcontrary, and illicit subalternation.
Traditional (Aristotelian) vs. Modern (Boolean)
E.g.
 All Tom Cruise’s movies are hit
 All unicorns are one-horned animals
(*) Existential import is the implication that one or more things denoted by the subject term actually
exists.
(*) The Boolean view holds that universal categorical propositions have no existential import.
(*) The Aristotelian view holds that universal propositions can have existential import, but it depends
on whether the subject term denotes actually existing things or not.
(*) If you draw a conclusion from a premise that contains a universal proposition about things that do
not exist, they you commit the existential fallacy.
E.g.
 All witches who fly on broomstick are fearless women. Therefore, some witches
who fly on broomsticks are fearless women.
o Commits existential fallacy because witches don’t exist.
o There’s no existential import
 No wizards with magical powers are malevolent beings. Therefore, it is false that
all wizards with magical powers are malevolent beings.
 o Has existential import from a premise that doesn’t
o The “it is false” part is asserting something that “some” wizards are so

Existential import The implication that one or more things denoted

by the subject term actually exist
Truth The existing state of affairs; what is
Truth value The actual truth value of a statement; based on
the truth
Assigned or given truth value The truth assigned or given to a statement

E.g.
 All mammals are animals
 All mammals are fish
 It is false that all mammals are animals
 It is false that all mammals are fish
(*) “It is false that” can mean either that the categorical proposition is assigned or given to be false, or
that the contradiction of the categorical proposition is assigned or given to be true.
(*) Without “it is false that,” assume that the categorical proposition is assigned or given to be true.

E.g.
 All students who failed the exam are students on probation. Therefore, some students who
failed the exam are students on probation
All A are B. therefore, it is false that no A are B
If you validly draw a conclusion from a premise that contains a universal proposition
about things you are not sure exists, then you have made a conditionally valid
argument.
(*) Validity vs. Soundness (THEY’RE DIFFERENT!!)
(*) All inappropriate remarks are faux pas. Therefore, some faux pas are not appropriate remarks.
All non-A are F. Therefore, some F are not A
Given: All non-A are F. (T)
Prove: Some F are not A. (T)
All non-A are F. (T) given
Some non-A are F. (T) subalt.
Some F are non-A. (T) conv.
Some F are not A. (T) obv.
Q.E.D (quod erat demonstrandum: that which was to be demonstrated)

(*) All exogenous morphines are addictive substances.

Therefore, it is false that all addictive substances are endogenous morphines.
Given: All X are S
 Prove: All S are non-X
All X are S given
Some X are not S contra.
No X are S subalt.
No S are X conv.
All S are non-X obv.
Q.E.D

(*) No people who do not advocate free-enterprise economics are fundamentalist Christians.
Therefore, it is false that some fundamentalist Christians are not people who advocate free-
enterprise economics
Given: No non-F are C (T)
Prove: Some C are not F (F)
No non-F are C (T) given
Some non-F are C (F) contra.
Some C are non-F (F) conv.
Some C are not F (F) obv.
Q.E.D

(*) It is false that some Gothic cathedrals are buildings that do not feature pointed arches.
Therefore, some buildings that feature pointed arches are Gothic cathedrals.
Given: Some G are non-A
Prove: Some A are G
Some G are non-A (F) given
Some G are not A (F) obv.
Some G are A (T) subcont.
Some A are G (T) conv.
(*) Some people who recognize paranormal events are not non-scientists.
Therefore, it is false that no scientists are people who recognize paranormal events.
Given: Some S are not non-S. (T)
Prove: No S are P. (F)
Some P are not non-S. (T) given
Some P are S. (T) obv.
Some S are P. (T) conv
 No S are P. (F) contra.
(*) It is false that no unhealthy things to ingest are food additives.
Therefore, some food additives are not healthy things to ungest.
Given: No non-H are F. (F)
Prove: Some F are not H. (T)
No non-H are F. (F) given
Some non-H are F (T) contra.
Some F are non-H (T) conv
Some F are not H (T) obv
(*)
Given: Some ~S are not C (F)
Prove: Some C are not S (T)
Some non-S are not C (F) given
Some non-S are C (T) subcont.
Some non-S are not non-C (T) obv
Some C are not S (T) contrap
(*)
Given: Some F are not A (F)
Prove: All A are non-F (F)
Some F are not A (F) given
No F are A (F) subalt.
No A are F (F) conv
All A are non-F (F) obv
Q.E.D