The circulatory system, also called cardiovascular system, is a vital organ system that

delivers essential substances to all cells for basic functions to occur. Also commonly known
as the cardiovascular system, is a network composed of the heart as a centralised pump,
bloods vessels that distribute blood throughout the body, and the blood itself, for
transportation of different substances.

The circulatory system is divided into two separate loops: The shorter pulmonary circuit that
exchanges blood between the heart and the lungs for oxygenation; and the longer systemic
circuit that distributes blood throughout all other systems and tissues of the body. Both of
these circuits begin and end in the heart.

The main function of the circulatory (or cardiovascular) system is to deliver oxygen to the
body tissues, whilst simultaneously removing carbon dioxide produced by metabolism.
Oxygen is bound to molecules called haemoglobin that are on the surface of the red blood
cells in the blood.

Beginning in the heart, deoxygenated blood (containing carbon dioxide) is returned from
systemic circulation to the right side of the heart. It is pumped into pulmonary circulation and
is delivered to the lungs, where gas exchange occurs. The carbon dioxide is removed from the
blood and replaced with oxygen. The blood is now oxygenated, and returns to the left side of
the heart.

From there, it is pumped into the systemic circuit, delivers oxygen to the tissues, and returns
again to the right side of the heart. The blood also acts as an excellent transport medium for
nutrients, such as electrolytes, as well as hormones. The blood also transports waste products,
that are filtered from the blood in the liver.

The heart
The heart is a muscular pump that is the central component of the circulatory system. It is
divided into a right and left side by a muscular septum. The muscular component of the heart,
the myocardium, is composed of involuntary cardiac muscle. It is lined by a membrane called
the endocardium internally, as well as an external epicardium. Contraction of the cardiac
muscle cells is stimulated by electrical impulses that are sporadically fired from the regulatory
centres of the heart: the sinoatrial node in the roof of the right atrium, and the atrioventricular
node in the septum between the atria and the ventricles. The sinoatrial node is widely
regarded as the natural pacemaker of the heart.
The heart is continuously going through a series of contractions and relaxations. Systole refers
to when the ventricles of the heart simultaneously contract, diastole is when the ventricles
relax. During systole, blood is forcibly pumped out of the ventricles into the outflow tracts of
their corresponding circulation. The atria are filling with blood at the same time. During
diastole, the ventricles are relaxed, and blood flows from the atria into the corresponding
ventricles.

Pulmonary circulation
Vena cava superior (Superior vena cava)
Deoxygenated blood from systemic circulation returns to the right atrium via
the superior and inferior vena cava. The coronary sinus, returning blood from the coronary
circulation, also opens into the right atrium. The blood in the right atrium flows into the right
ventricle through the right atrioventricular valve (tricuspid valve) during diastole. During
systole, the right ventricle contracts, directing the blood into the conus arteriosus at the base of
the pulmonary trunk. Contraction of the ventricle causes the tricuspid valve to shut, preventing
backflow of blood into the right atrium. Between the conus arteriosus and the pulmonary trunk
is a valve; the pulmonary valve. In diastole, the valve closes to prevent backflow of blood into
the right ventricle.
The pulmonary trunk splits into a right and a left pulmonary artery, serving the right and left
lung respectively. Deoxygenated blood flows into the capillaries of each lung, where it is then
oxygenated. The pulmonary veins collect the newly oxygenated blood from the lung, and return
it to the left atrium, where it will be passed into systemic circulation.

Systemic circulation

Oxygenated blood enters the left atrium from the pulmonary circulation via the pulmonary
veins. During diastole, blood passes from the left atrium to the left ventricle through the left
atrioventricular valve (bicuspid valve). In systole, the left ventricle contracts, forcing blood into
the aorta. The blood passes through the aortic valve into the ascending aorta.

The ascending aorta becomes the arch of the aorta, where three large arteries branch from it: the
brachiocephalic trunk, the left common carotid artery and the left subclavian artery. These
arteries supply oxygenated blood to the head and neck, and to the upper limbs.

The descending aorta is the continuation of the arch of the aorta inferiorly. In the thorax it is
referred to as the descending or thoracic aorta, and gives off numerous branches in the thorax.

The latter passes into the abdominal cavity through the diaphragm through the aortic hiatus at
the level of T12. From there, it is referred to as the abdominal aorta. The abdominal aorta gives
branches to the structures in and surrounding the abdominal cavity, and terminates by
bifurcating into the common iliac arteries, which will supply the pelvic cavity and lower limbs.
Arcus aortae (Aortic arch)
The branches of the aorta passes towards their intended structures, with branching occurring
along their length. The terminal branches enter the tissues, and pass towards the capillary beds
of the tissues in vessels called arterioles. Gas exchange occurs between the blood and the
tissues. The blood is collected from the capillaries by venules, which unite to form the veins of
the systemic circulation. These veins ultimately drain to the right atrium via the superior and
inferior venae cavae.

Coronary circulation

The coronary circulation refers to the blood supply to the heart itself. It is a component of
the systemic circulation. The right and left coronary arteries branch directly from the ascending
 aorta, immediately above the aortic valve. The right coronary artery passes to the right and
gives off two main branches: the right marginal branch along the right border of the heart and
the posterior interventricular (posterior descending) artery, which descends along the
interventricular septum on the base of the heart.

The left coronary artery passes to the left, and gives off the anterior interventricular
(Ieft anterior descending) artery which descends on the anterior aspect of the interventricular
septum to anastamose with the posterior interventricular artery at the apex of the heart. It also
gives off the circumflex artery.

The venous drainage of the heart is achieved by the coronary sinus, which drains the main veins
of the heart:

 the great cardiac vein,

 the middle cardiac vein, and

 the small cardiac vein, which drains directly into the right atrium.

Portal system

The portal system is the system of veins that drain the blood from the intestines and directs it to
the liver to be filtered. The superior and inferior mesenteric veins, draining the jejunum down
as far as the upper rectum, along with the splenic vein draining the spleen, pancreas,
and stomach, unite to form the hepatic portal vein, which empties blood into the liver. Toxins
are filtered out by the liver, and the filtered blood is returned to the inferior vena cava via the
hepatic veins.
Types of blood vessels

Arteries

Arteries carry blood away from the heart. They have thick walls and a narrow lumen, to resist
the high pressure from the blood being forced out of the heart. As the arteries travel toward
the more peripheral tissues, they begin a process of segmentation, decreasing in diameter and
wall thickness with each division. The major arterial outflow tracts of the heart are
the aorta (systemic), and the pulmonary trunk (pulmonary). The coronary arteries are the
arteries that supply oxygenated blood to the tissues of the heart itself.

Arteries are typically divided into three types:

conducting arteries arising directly from the heart and their main branches, whose walls have a
high degree of elasticity;

distributing arteries that transport blood to specific organ systems, with a high muscular
component in their walls;

the small and muscular resistance vessels or arterioles

Pressure in these arteries decrease from its highest level in the conducting arteries to the lowest
in the arterioles

Capillaries: are the closest vessels to the organs. Their walls measure one large endothelial cell
in thickness and provide the only barrier between the blood and the interstitial fluid of the
tissues. They have a narrow lumen which is just thick enough to allow the passage of the largest
blood cells. The permeability of capillaries varies depending on the surrounding tissues and the
type of junctions between the adjacent endothelial cells in the vessels wal
Venules: are formed when two or more capillaries converge. They are lined by flat endothelial
cells and a thin tunica externa. These are called postcapillary venules. The muscular component
appears in venules as their lumen increases, producing muscular venules.

Veins: are formed with the union of muscular venules. In comparison to arteries, veins have a
relatively thin wall and a larger lumen. The structure of the walls is similar to that of arteries,
but a considerably smaller amount of muscle is present in the tunica media of veins. Veins
are capacitance vessels, meaning they have a distensible wall and can expand to accommodate
large volumes of blood.

Most peripheral veins have structures called valves, which are projections of the tunica interna
into the lumen of the vessel. Valves prevent the backflow of blood through the veins, by
passively closing when the direction of flow of the blood reverses. Valves are absent in the
veins of the thorax and abdomen.

The overall hierarchy of blood vessels follows this order: arteries → arterioles → capillaries →
venules → veins.

Blood

The blood is the mobile component of the circulatory system. Blood is bright red when
oxygenated and dark red/purple when deoxygenated. Blood consists of a cellular component
suspended in a liquid called plasma.

Plasma is a clear fluid that accounts for approximately 55% of blood, and is composed of over
90% water. Plasma contains a high concentration of electrolytes, such as sodium, potassium and
calcium. Also dissolved in plasma are plasma proteins. These include clotting factors, mainly
prothrombin, immunoglobulin, polypeptides and other protein molecules, and hormones.

Erythrocytes (red blood cells)

Erythrocytus (Erythrocyte)
Erythrocytes are the most abundant of blood cells, accounting for approximately 99% of all
blood cells. They are biconcave disc shaped cells that lack a nucleus. Erythrocytes have a
globulin protein called haemoglobin on their surface for oxygen to bind to. The proportion of
red blood cells to plasma is called the haematocrit. Measured as a percentage, it is used as a
reference point for the oxygen carrying capacity of a person; when there is a higher percentage
of red blood cells present, more haemoglobin is present to carry oxygen.
Aged erythrocytes are ingested by macrophages in the liver and spleen. The iron released in the
breakdown of the erythrocytes is used to synthesise new erythrocytes, or is stored in the liver
as ferritin.

Leukocytes (white blood cells)

These are divided in 5 groups: monocytes, lymphocytes, neutrophils, basophils and eosinophils.
These groups are distinguishable from each other by cell size, shape of nucleus and cytoplasm
composition. These groups can themselves be grouped into 2
groups: granulocytes and agranulocytes. This classification is based on the presence or lack
of granules in the cytoplasm of the cell. Collectively, white blood cells form part of the immune
response.