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 COURSE OF LECTURES
ON

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY
AND THE

MECHANICAL ARTS.
BY THOMAS YOUNG, M.D.
FOR. SEC. R.S. MEMBER OF EMMANUEL COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE,
F. L.S.

AND LATE PROFESSOR OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY IN THE

ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN,

IN TWO VOLUMES.

VOLUME IL

LONDON:
PRINTED FOR JOSEPH JOHNSON, ST. PAUL's CHURCH YARU,
BY WILLIAM SAVAGE, BEDFORD BURY.

1807.
4^jSfy
(X

PREFACE.

The part of this volume, consisting of the mathematical elements of

first

natural philosopliy, is in part reprinted from the syllabus of the lectures,

but considerable additions have been made to it,both of elementary
matter and of original investigations. These elements are perfectly in-
dependent of every other work introductory to any branch of the ma-
thematics, and they comprehend the propositions which are required
all

for forming a complete series of demonstrations, leading to every case of

importance that occurs in natural philosophy, with the exception of

some of the more intricate calculations of astronomy. It was therefore
absolutely necessary that they should be expressed in the most concise
manner that was possible yet except a few propositions which have been
;

cursorily introduced in sonic of the scholia, no essential step of a demon-

stration has ever been omitted. The best use, that a student could
make of these elements, would be to read over each theorem or problem

superficially, then to endeavour to form for himself a more particular

demonstration, and to compare this again with that which is here given:
for the exertion of a certain degree of invention is by far tlic surest
mole of fixing any principle of science in the mind.

The catalogue of references has been methodically subdivided, as faras

itwas possible to do it with convenience and accuracy, and the works and
passages belonging to each subdivision have in general been arranged in
chrono'ogical order; except that the different productions of the samo
author have been placed together. The divisions of the catalogue fol-
low very nearly the same order as the text of the lectures, so that there
has been no occasion for any references from one to the other. This ar-
iv PREFACE.

rangement may be the most conveniently understood from the table of

contents prefixed to the catalogue; and the method of classing the
subdivisions and which become more and more particular, has
titles,

been as much as possible such, that if sufficient information cannot be

found under the head to which the subject immediately belongs, there
may always be a chance of obtaining it from some more extensive
work,under the last head, of a more general nature, which may be found,
in the catalogue, by looking back for a change of type, or in the table
of contents, by recurring to a column situated one degree more to the
left. On the other hand, in order to faciUtate, in some measure, the la-
bour of selection, such works, as appeared to possess superior merit and
originality, have been distinguished by asteriscs; and those, on tlic con-
have been thought either erroneous or unimportant, have
trary, that
been marked with an obelise. It must not however be understood, that
all the other works mentioned are considered as deservins: neither com-
mendation nor censure, since with respect to the greater number of
them the evidence must necessarily be imperfect. The extracts occa-
sionally inserted, as well as the original remarks which are sometimes in-
troduced, are not so much
intended for the general reader, as for those
who make any single department their particular study; many of them
being only brief hints, which may serve to direct their attention to a fur-
ther pursuit of the subjects. In the mathematical and astronomical

parts, all references to the transactions of foreign societies in gene- have

ral been omitted partly
; because they would have been too numerous for
insertion, and partly because they may be found at large in the copious
works of Murhard and of Reuss. The references to periodical pub-
lications have been continued, where it was possible, to the beginning
of the year 1805.

For the convenience of those who have access to the libraries of the
Royal Institution, of the Royal Society, of its most liberal and illustri-

ous President, and of the British Museum, such works as are to be

 PREFACE. V

found marked respectively, R. I, R. S, B. B,

in these collections are

and M. B: and where the same book is contained in more than one of
them, it has generally been marked as belonging to that which is most
accessible to the pablic,the preference being given to the library of the

Royal Institution. The articles printed in Italics are intended to form,

if taken separately, a complete catalogue of the books which are
quoted, without repetitions. The capital Roman numerals refer to
volumes, the smaller ones to divisions or sections, and the figures to
pages or years.

The miscellaneous papers are reprinted with some correctionsand

additions, but with no other alterations, of any kind, than might have
been made at the time when they were first })ublished: except the in-
sertion of the last section of the essay on the cohesion of fluids, which
consists of comparative extracts from a later memoir of Laplace, and
of remarks on the method of investigation which he has employed.
The abstract of the papers read before the Royal Society consists of
such potes, as have in general been inserted in their places among
the references; but as they constitute a continued account of the pro-
ceedings of the society for the whole of one season, it has been thought
most eligible to preserve them united in order of time.

Welbeck Street, 30th March, 1807.

 SOLD BY MR. JOHNSON.

1. De corporis humani viribus conservatricibus, dissertatio, auctore Thoma Young, M. D.

8vo. Price 2s.

2. A Reply to the animadversions of the, Edinburgh Reviewers on some papers published

in the Philosophical Transactions. By Thomas Young, M.D. 8vo. Price Is.

 CONTENTS.

MATHEMATICAL ELEMENTS OP NATURAL PHILOSOPHY; P. 1.

Part Pure Mathematics.

I. 9. Of the equilibrium and strength
Section 1. Of quantity and number ;
1. of elastic substances; 46,
Powers of numbers ; 4. Table of re- 83.
ciprocals ;
5. Logarithms of prime Of
10. collision, and of energy ;
numbers ; 6.
51.
2. Of the comparison of variable
11. Of rotatory power 52. ,
quantities; 7-
12. Of preponderance, and the
3. Of space; 8.
maximum of effect 54.
4. Of tlie properties of curves; 22.
;

13. Of the velocity and friction of

Part II. Mechanics. Of the motions of solid
wheelwork ;
53,
bodies.
Part III. Ilydrodpiamici. Of the motiont
Section 1. Of motion; 27.
2. Of accelerating forces 28. of fluids.
;
Section 1. Of hydrostatic equilibrium; 57.
3. Of central forces SO. ;
2. Of floating bodies; 59.
4. Of projectiles 32. ;
3. Of specific gravities 59.
5. Of motion confined to given ;

4. Of pneumatic equilibrium; GO.

surfaces ; 33.
5. Of hydraulics; GO.
6. Of the centre of inertia, and of
6. Of sound Go, 84.
momentum 35. ;
;

7. Of dioptrics and catoptrics 70.

7. Of pressure and equilibrium; ;

8. Of optical instruments; 76-

37.
9. Of physical optics. To p. 80,
8. Of the attraction of gravitat-
Art. 46l.
ing bodies 45. ;

A SYSTEMATIC CATALOGUE OF WORKS RELATIIvrG TO NATURAL PHILOSOPHY

AND THE MECHANICAL ARTS; WITH REFERENCES TO PARTICULAR PAS-
SAGES, AND OCCASIONAL ABSTRACTS AND REMARKS; 8?.
Contents of the catalogue; 89.

MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS ; 521.

Subjects of the paper l. Of the quantity of air discharged
I. Observations on vision ; 523. ;

A.- through an aperture; 531. a. Of the direction and velo-

rr< ^,-.„
Iheories oft .u
the accommodation of< .u
the eye; 523. New
-KT

„„,,„,, .„, c 1 •• f .• I r city of a stream of air ; 532. 3. Ocular evidence of the

explanation; 525. Solution of optical queries; 527. Ex-
nature of sound ; 538. 4. Of the velocity of sound ; 5. Of
planation of plate l ; 530.
sonorous cavities; 537. fi- Of the divergence of sound;
II. Outlinesof experiments and inquiries
538. 7. Of the decay of sound. 8. Of the harmonic soundi
respecting sound and light; 531. of pipes, g. Of the vibrations of different elastic fluids f
vm CONTENTS.

10. Of the analogy between light and sound; 541. ii. Of of an elastic ether; 614. Undulations; ai5. Cofours ;

the coalescence of musical sounds; 544. 12. Of the fre- 616. Constitution of material bodies; Transmission of

quency of vibrations constituting a given note; 545. 13. impulses; 618. Spherical divergence; 6I9. New di-

Of the vibrations of chords ; 546. 14. Of the vibrations of vergence; 620. Partial reflection; 622. Refraction ; Total
rods and plates, is. Of the human voice ; 549. 16. Of reflection; Dispersion; 623. Combination of undulations ;

the temperament of musical intervals; 551. Explanation 624; Striated surfaces; 625. Thin plates; 62S. Thick
of plate 2 . . 7 ; 553. plates; 628. Inflection; General conclusion respecting

An the nature of light Iceland crystal 629. Momentum of

III. essay on cydoidal curves^ with
; ;

light ; Solar phosphori ;

630. Heat ; Experiment pro-
introductory observations; 555. 631.
posed ;
Plate 14; 632.
1, On mathematical symbols; 555. 2. On cycloidal
VIII. An account of some cases of the
curves; 558.

IV. An e.'^say
on music ; 563. production of colours not hitherto described ;

1. Of music in general; 563. 2. Of the origin of the 633.

scale; 566. 3. Practical application of the scales; 568. General law of double lights ;
Colours of fibres ; 633.

4. Of the terms expressive of time ; 571. Colours of mixed plates ; fijs. Internal reflection ; 638.

V. The Bakerian Lecture for 1800. On Dispersion; Dr. WoUaston's experiments ; 637. Blue light
of a candle ; Dispersive powers of the eye ; 638.
the mechanism of the eye ; 573.
IX. The Bakerian lecture for 1803. Ex-
1 . Changes of opinions respecting the crystalline lens ;

S73. a. Division of the subjects to be investigated. 3. periments and calculations relative to physi-
General consideration of the sense of vision ; 574. 4. cal optics ; 639-
Description of an optometer; 575. 5. Dimensions and 1. Experimental demonstration of tht general law of the
powers of the author's eye 57 8. 6. Extent of the changes
; interference of light; 639. 2. Comparison of measure*
required for the accommodation of the eye ; 585. 7. Exa- deduced from various experiments; 640. 3. Application

mination of the state of the cornea ; 586. 8. Examination to the supernumerary rainbows ; 643; 4. Argumentative
of the length of the axis; 589. O- Examination of the inference respecting the nature of light; 645. 5. Remarks
changes of the lens; 592. 10. Anatomical remarks on on the colours of natural bodies ;
646. Experiment on the
the eyes of different animals; 597- Explanation of plate dark rays of Ritler; 647.
8. .
13; 604. X. An essay on the cohesion of fluids ;

VI. A letter
Mr. Nicholson, respecling
to
649.
sound and hght, and in reply to some obser- 1. General principles; 649. 2. Form of the surface of a

vations of Professor Robison ; 607. fluid; 649. 3. Analysis of the simplest forms; 650. 4. Appli-
Heads of the paper on sound and light ; 607. Remarks cation te the elevation of particular fluids ; 651. i. Of ap-
on Smith's harmonics ; 609. On temperament ; 610. parent attractions and repulsions ; 655. 6. Physical foun-

VII. The Bakerian lecture for 1801. On dation of the law of superficial cohesion ; 657. 7. Cohe-
sive attraction of solids and fluids; 658. 8. Additional.
the theory of light and colours; 6l3.
Extracts from Laplace, with remarks; 6«o. Plate 15; 670.
Excellence of Newton's experiments ;
613. Hypothesis

ACCOUNT OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY, FROM NOVEMBER

1801 TO JULY 1802; 67I.

INDEX ;
683.
 ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.

square of the fraction expressing the friction. But if the

p. 2. Art. 20, last line, for- read a:b.
h propelling force be increased in a greater proportion than the
P. 20. Art. ng, 1. 2, for "planes" read
" friction, the extent of the vibration will be increased in the
parallel
ratio of this
planes." excess, and the value of the fraction /will be
P. 23. Col. 2. L. 35, for " to them" read diminished in the same proportion.
being opposite Thus, if the friction
since these lines have the same side A B opposite to them in were doubled, and the
propelling force quadrupled, the
the triangles ABC, A B I, and their equals BC, BI are extent of vibration would be
doubled, and the time would
opposite to the same angle BAG. remain unaltered; but if the propelling force were
only
P. 35, after article tripled, the
2fi5, insert, fraction/ would on the whole be increased \, and
the retardation
26a. B. Theorem.
Supposing the force
i.

P. 54, after art.

359, insert,
retarding a pendulum or balance to be to the
force of gravitation or of 359. B. Theorem. Every compound body
at the ex- elasticity
has at least three axes of
treme point of each vibration as to 1, the / permanent rota-
circumference of a circle to its diameter tion, at right angles to each other.
being When a body revolves round any axis, it is
necessary, in
as c to 1, the time of each vibration will be
order that the revolution be permanent, that the cen-
may
trifugal forces on all sides balance each
increased in tht ratio of 1 to 1 + S^,
c
or
^
+ axismay not be urged
other, so that the
to revolve rouijd the centre of
gravity.
The centrifugal force of each particle
.fi4^ very nearly. being pioportional to
The nnpulse being supposed itsdistance from the axis, its
to _. tendency to turn the axis, in
be momentary, and to be
CAD a given
direction, being represented by the force reduced to
given at
that direction, will be
A, the pendulum, will move to B as if proportional to its distance from a
completing a vibration
of which C is the middle point, AC plane passing through the axis, perpendicular to the
being to AB sup-
as/to 1 in
return the middle
its l)osed direction ; and its effect will also be the
greater as its
:
point will be D, and the
extent of the vibration distance from the equatorial
being BE, the space plane is
greater since the axis
DA, which is
;

equal to C A, will be described in a time as

much longer than may te considered as a lever, and the centre of
gravity as
would have been required its fulcrum. Now if a plane be made to revolve
for
describing C A, as D E or D B on a line
IS shorter than C B, that is, in the ratio of passing through the centre of gravity, it is obvious that there
i-o/,o i very
But the whole time of is a position in which the sums of
nearly. C A is less' than all the products of the
describing
.f the velocity were particles into their distances from this
equable, in the ratio of the diameter of planeand from a plane
perpendicular to it, passing through the same
a circle to its line, will
semicircumference, or of to be equal
f, and is there- on both
i
sides of the plane ; and the plane .

fore to that remainmg in this position, if another plane be

ofasemivibration as/to f, and to that of a sup-
posed to turn round any line out of the first plane until
complete vibration as/to c; we have
consequently for the it
acquire a similar property with it, it
may easily be under-
retardation the time of a vibration stood that the intersection of these
-^ being unity. planes vr.ll be an axis of
permanent rotation, since
any other plane passing through
Scholium. If the
propelling force of a balance or
pen- it same property with
will possess the
dulum, and the friction which retards respect to the parts of
it.'be increased in the the solid on each side of it. If then two
same proportion, the extent of the v planes perpendicu-
ibration will remain un- lar to each other be supposed to revolve round
altered, and the motion this axis,
will be retarded in
proportion to the until they acquire that position in which either of them
VOL. II.
b
 ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIOXS.

divides the solid into parts possessing equal powers to turn or curved, the force will still be directed to the point of
the axis, the other will also divide it in a similar manner, contact E, and the motitn of the wheels will be uniform.

and their intersections with the equatorial plane of the first P. 58. Col. 2. L. 2g,for "CD" read CB.
same P.34.CM.2.L. "
iixis will also be permanent axes of rotation : for the 1 5, for 70^°" read 160-;^.

sums will express the action of the particles in both cases, the P. 64. At the end,
distance from either plane being equally concerned in the Scholium 2. It maybe demonstrated that an impulse

effect of each particle,and the effects of those particles which communicated to a liquid at any point of the margin of a

are in contiguous sections of the solid either way counter- reservoir, of which the bottom is an inclined plane, termi-
of the nated by that margin, will advance every way in a cycloi-
acting each other, and cooperating with the effects

sections diagonally opposite. And in the same manner it dal direction j by reasoning similar to that which is
employ-
ed for the demonstration of the property of the cycloid, as
may be shown that the equatorial plane divides the solid in

such a manner with respect to both these axes as to enable the curve of swiftest descent (261). The form of the wave
the body to maintain a permanent rotation round them. will be that of a curve cutting an infinite number of cy-

cloids at right angles and any number of points in may

35y. C. Theorem. If a bod}', revolving ;
it

be found, by drawing on any points in a parabola as centres,

freely round any axis, be caused for a mo-
a number of circles touching the vertical tangent of the
meat to revolve at the same time round an- on each from the point of contact
parabola, and laying off
other, the joint result of both motions will an arc equal to the distance of that point from the vertex

be a revolution round a third of the parabola. The truth of this may be shown from
axis, in an in- easily

the properties of cycloidal pendulums, (25£>).

termediate position, which will continue to be
P. 76. Col. 2. L. 5, omit " or."
the axis of rotation, provided that tlic "
body P. 79. Col. 2. L.6, for differs . . in" read, scarcely differs
be capable of revolving
permanently round it. from this except in.

If the angle formed by the axes be divided into two parts, P.80. Before art. 461, insert, Section XX. OF physical
of which the sines are inversely proportional to the OPTICS.
velocity
of revolution round the contiguous axes, it is obvious that P. 122. Col. 1, after 1. 20, insert, Such solids of revolutioa
the line thus dividing the angle will remain at con- are generally called spindles, where the curve is convex out-
rest, in

sequence of the equ^al velocities of the two motions, the wards ;

in this case, where it is concave, they might be
angle divided being supposed to be one of those in which called trochi.
the revolutions are in opposite directions: and the P. 139. Col. 2, after 1. 14, insert.
angular
velocity of rotation round the new axis will be to the Pressure of Bodies in Motion.
greater of the former velocities as the sine of the whole Hee on' the pressure of weights in machines. Ph. tr. 1 755.J.

angle to the sine of the greater portion thus determined, P. 144. Col. 1, after 1. 28, insert.
as may be inferred from From the British
considering the motion of Magazine for March, 1801
the poles of either of the The The
primitive revolutions. pinacographic instrument resembles in its construc-

position of the new axis, and the motion of any other tion a musical pen, but is much broader, so as to dravr
point of the body, is
obviously sufficient to determine the parallel lines at one or two strokes over the whole surface
velocitiesand directions of the motions of of any page. use to manufacture an index. It is to
every other part, Its is

since the form of the body is be accompanied by inks of nine different colours, such as
supposed to be unchangeable ;
so that it is
unnecessary to demonstrate that the motion re- are the most easily distinguished from each other at first

sulting from the separate motions of each point is such as sight. In order to construct an index, procure two copies of
belongs to its place with respect to the new axis of rotation ;
the best edition of your work ;
—cover each page with paral-
and the body, beginning once to revolve lel lines, expressive of number, drawing them vertical
its
upon this axis, will
continue its rotation the same manner as if it bad for units, horizontal for tens, and oblique for hundreds, de-
exactly in
arisen from a simpler cause.
noting each figure by the ink of the bottle on which you
P. .'i5. Col. 2, after art. 304, find it marked; then, with the assistance of your wife and
insert,
ScHpLiu.M. In the same manner it
may be shown, that daughters, cut the pages first into lines, and tlien into words ;

if B E D be any circle, or in general distribute all the words into boxes, marked with the
any curve, rolling on little

the wheel A, and C D, and if the same two and then paste them on the pages of a
describing the line initial letters,

curve, rolling within the circle of which B is the centre, and blank book in the precise order of the alphabet. The index
which touches A, describe the line B D, whctlicr straight being thus complettd, — if you print it, a very little habit will

4
 ADDITIONS AND CORnECTIONS. Xt

ensile the cempositors to read ofF the references as correctly P. 364. Col. 1. L. 9 from the bottom, for "or" read the

fifom this method of notation as if they were written out at diameters.

length. If the number of coloars be found too great, the P. 367. Col. 1. L. 29. for / read 1".
difficulty may be easily removed by using only five,
and P. 367. Col. 2. L. 18, for "73j," read 39, or perhaps 48.

the either two instruments P. 337. C0I.2. L. 11. from the bottom, for "
supplying deficiency by providing areometry"
•f different constructions, or by drawing the lines in a read aerometry.
P. 452. Col. 2, after 2, insert.
greater variety of positions.
1.

P. 106. Col. 2, at the end, insert. According to Kirwan's theorem, the mean temperature
The work ofacoalhea\'er on the river Thames of the year, and that of the month of April, is 84° 26. 5 —
is considered as very laborious, but the effect T. s. 2 I. The greatest mean heat of the summer months
produced is not comparatively great. Four may be found very nearly, according to Kirwan's table, by

men are employed in filling baskets in the hold this formula, 86— isv.s. 2Z — i.7v.s.i2 (/+15°), and
of the lighters.andjfour in
" whipping"or elevat- the mean heat of the month of January, which is the
ing them from 1 2 to 20 feet, which is performed coldest month by 80^29. 5 v. s. 22 v. s.
'
* I ^v. s. 18 — —
by ascending three or four steps, and standing (1+7°). The error seldom amounts to more than adegree.
on a which descends while the baskets are P. 455. Col. 1, after 1.20, insert,
stage,
raised ; and the labour of filling and raising Laplace Exp. du syst. du monde, 267. Asserts that

them is nearly equal. The usual work of a day " the attraction of the sun and moon does not produce, ei.
is to raise 42 chaldrons, weighing about 126 000 ther in the sea, or in the atmospfiere, any constant motion

is, 31 500 pounds for each

pounds, that labour- from east to west."

er, to the height of 16 feet, making 504 000 P. 455. Col. 2. after 1. 7 from the bottom, insert.
instead of 3 600 000, or .14 Remarks on the Effects of the Sun's Heat on the Atmo-
pounds, raised 1 foot,
But it is not difficult to do twice or twice and a sphere.
halfasmuch, andioschaldronareoften raised,or .3J It is difficult to demonstrate conclusively that the
very
There have even been instances in which sun's relative motion from east to west has or has not such a
IBS chaldron have been raised, or .65 as Halley attributed to it, to cause an easterly wind
tendency
L. 4 from the bottom, for
" Cazand" read
P. 167. Col. 1. in the neighbourhood of the equator ; it appears however
Cazaud. to be possible to show that no effect of this kind can be pro-
P. igs. Col. 1. L. 2, for
" barculus" read barulcus.
'

duced in any sensible degree.

P. 25S.Col. l.L. 12, for "aerostation," read aerostatation. The immediate effect of the expansion of the air at any
P. 278. Col. 2. L. ]?, for " v", read U. of
place must be to cause a partial elevation of the surface
" 170 "
P. 319. Col. 1. L. 11 from the bottom, for and the atmosphere for the instant that this elevation remains,
:

" l»0", read, ^Land J5. the lateral pressure will be unequal at every part of the
Col. 2. L, 7, after "
height of the column except the basis, and the inequality
case" insert as.

L. 22, for "

specimen" read spectrum. must become greater in ascending, being always proportional
L. 24, after " in," insert a. columns contiguous
to the difference cf the weights of the
P. 330. Col. 1. L. 3. from the bottom, for " 3553", read The
en each side to any given point. elevation may there-
.3553. fore be considered as the beginning of a wave, which will
P. 354. Col. 1. " '^'
1. 20. for read nearly J. be propagated each way with a certain velocity; and this
P. 356. Col. 2. After 1. 3 from the bottom, insert, must at first be less than that of a similar wave in a
velocity
Olseroalions on the Sun's Light, fluid perfectly homogeneous, but will approach to it as it

Heliostate. S'Gravesande's Natural Philosophy. of temperature soon disappearing.

spreads, the inequality
" 56707°
P. 382. Col. 2, last Line, for . .
SneUius," read, If the cause of expansion continues, new waves will con-
,S6070 to 50802 Klostermann. so that the surface will remain
tinually succeed each other,
Si° 18' S. 57037 Lacaille, 1752. horizontal. Hence will arise a pressure ; forcing the lower
air towards the point of expansion, and a cur-
56740 parts of the
or 57070 Fernelius rent will be produced, which will cause a continual circula-

( 55021 SneUius. ) tion. But it is obvious that no parts of the atmosphere can
Xll ADDITIOXS AND CORRECTIONS.

be urged towards the pitce of expansion, until the first wave balance the easterly tendency produced at the opposite part

has reached them, and if the velocity of this wave be great- of the globe, so that the breezes thus excited must be mere-
er in one direction than in another, the effect must be more ly transitory, and in opposite directions.

extensive on that side. Now in the case of the successive P. 463. Col. 2. L. 4 and 5 from the bottom must be
expansion of the air by the sun, all the points af expansion transposed.
move westwards with a velocity of about 1500 feet in a P. 471. Col. 1. L. a after the table, for " above
"
read

second, which is considerably greater than that of a wave about.

"
moving upon the atmosphere, or that of sound propagated P. 481. Col. 2. L. 0. for charged ", read charred.
P. 500. In the columns " and " simple
through it, which is more immediately comparable to that Refractive force"

of the effect in question ; consequently the Wave cannot refractive power", the numbers opposite to " White wax"
precede the point of expansion, so as to produce any .cur- and " Oak" should be opposite to " Olive oil" and " White

rent in the more westerly parts ; the current from east to wax", respectively.
west must, therefore, prevail. But, at the opposite part of P. 560. Col. 1. L. 39, after" purpose", insert, Mr.Giddy
the globe, the refrigeration must produce an effect precisely has observed that an equiangular spiral may impel another

contrary to that of theheat ; the air tending to descend and similar curve without friction: it is indeed easy to see that
flow from the parts which are coolest ; the depression not two such spirals must always touch each other in tlie line

being transmitted to the more westerly parts with sufficient joining their centres.
velocity, to produce a current from east to west by these P 562. Col. l.L.ll,for ";", read, -;.

"
means, the easterly parts only will be affected by a current L. 5 from the bottom, for concentrat-
from west to east, which will probably exactly counter- ing", read generating.]
MATHEMATICAL ELEMENTS
OF

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY
DEDUCED FROM AXIOMATICAL PRINCIPLES.
 MATHEMATICAL ELEMENTS
OF

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

PART I.

PURE MATHEMATICS.

SECTION I. OF QUANTITY AND NUMBER. 5. Definition. A

negative quantity is
1. Definition. The letters of the al- of an opposite nature to a positive one, with
phabet are employed at pleasure for de- respect to addition or subtraction ; the con-
dition of its determination
noting any quantities, as algebraical sym- being such, that
bols or abbreviations. But, in general, the it must be subtracted where a positive quan-
first letters in order are used to denote known tity would
be added, and the reverse.

quantities, and the last to denote unknown Scholium. A negative quantify is denoted by the sign

quantities; and constant quantities are often of subtraction ; thus if a + ''^o— <",'!'——<" and cr: — b,
A debt is a negative kind of property, a loss a negative gain,
distingwished from variable quantities in the
and a gain a negative loss.
same manner.
2. Definition. Quantities are
6. Definition. A unit is a magnitude con-
equal
when they sidered as a whole complete within itself.
are of the same magnitude.
Scholium. The abbreviation al^i implies that a is Scholium. When any quantities are enclosed in a pa-

equal to hi a'>h that a is

greater than h; and a < i that renthesis, or have a line drawn over them, they are con-
« is less than /•. sidered as one quantity with respect to other
symbols;
3. Definition. Addition is the join- thusa— (fc+c) or a—b-{-c implies the excess of a above the
sum of b and c.
ing of magnitudes into one sum.
Scholium. The symbol of addition is an erect cross: Definition. A whole number is a
7.
« + i implies the sum of a and I; and is called a more b. number composed of units by continued ad-
Definition. Subtraction
4. is the tak- dition.
ing as much from one quantity as is
equal Thus one and one compose two, 2+1—3, 34-i::z4,
to another. or 2-f-2=4. Such numbers are also calltd multiples of

unity.
Scholium. Subtraction is denoted by a single line, as
a—b, or a less b, which is the part of a
remaining when a 8. Definition. A simple fraction is a
part equal to b has been taken from it. number which by continual addition coni-
VOL. II.
B
 OF QUANTI.Xr AND NUMBER.

poses a unit, and the number of such frac- 16. Axiom. If from equal quantities
tions contained in a unit, is denoted by the equal quantities be subtracted, the re-

denominator, or number below the line. mainders will be equal.

Thusi+i+i=l. If azzb, a—cizb — c, if a-f-ir:i-f-c, a~c.
9. Definition. A number composed of 17. Axiom. If equal quantities be mul-
such simple fractions by continual addition, tiplied by equal numbers, the products will be
may properly be termed a multiple fraction ; equal.
the number of simple fractions composing
If aZZ.b, aa^-Zb ; if a:^b :
3, 3a:z.b ; and if aZZb,
caZZcb.
it is denoted by the upper figure or nu-
merator.
18. Axiom. If equal quantities be divided

In this sense and by equal numbers, the quotients will be

|, -3, i, are multiple fractions, j— 1,
5=Hi=l+i,ori.. equal.
10. Definition. Sucli quantities as are If 50^10/', azzai ; and if ca~cb, aZZb.
Scholium. Articles 16, 17, 18, might have been dedu-
expressible by the relations denoted by whole
ced from art. 15, but they are all easily admitted as axioms.
numbers, or fractions, are called commen-
19. Theorem. A multiple fraction is
surable quantities.
Scholium. All quantities may, in be con- equal to the quotient of the numerator di-
practice,
sidered as vided by the denominator.
commensurable, since all quantities are expres-
sible by numbers, either accurately, or with an error less
Or,
—a r:a:t,for —
a
= 1
-T-.a (9); and
, ,
(•.—
"
-=:i.—-a ,
1

b b b b b
than any assignable quantity.

11. Definitjon, Multiplication is the (17); but ;•.-—=: 1 (8) ;

and i.-:-.a:=i.a=a, therefore

adding together so equal to many numbers

b.—r=.a (14), s^nAa-.b—— (12).
the multiplicand as there are units in the

multiplier, into one sum, called the product. Scholium. Hence — is a common symbol for a : b.
b
Scholium. Multiplication is expressed by an oblique
cross, by a point, or by simple apposition ; a x ''—a. t—a('. 20. Theorem. A quantity multiplied by
12. Definition. Division is the sub- a simple fraction, is
equal to the same quan-
traction of a number from another as often
tity divided by its denominator.
its it is contained in it; or the finding of that
Or a. —b
1
"ZZa :
b; for a.
—la
b
=1 —
b
(9), and -—ZZa
a
V
:b(lii),

quotient, which, when

multiplied by a given
divisor, produces a given dividend. therefore a.-r-=
b
—b (l*)-

Scholium. Division is denoted by placing the divi-

21. Theorem. A quantity divided by a
dend before the sign -r- or :, and the divisor after it ;
as

a—b^:a : I. simple fraction, is

equal to the same quantity
13. Axiom. When no difl^erence can be multiplied by its denominator.

shown or imagined between two quantities, Or a -= ab,' for if a

~ :
-^=c,a=c.—{l2')=Z——c
b
;

b b^ b

they are equal.

Axiom. same (20), and multiplying by b, ab — —a c :
1
—.
14. Quantities equal to the
Theorem. Aquantity multiplied by a
quantity, are equal ^o each other. 22.

equal to the same quan-

If azzl and c~?', then azzc.
multiple fraction is

15. Axiom.If to equal quantities equal the numerator, and then di-
tity multiplied by
quantities be added, the wholes will be equal. vided by the denominator.
If azzb, then a—lzzc, then adding
a—l+c; if
a+c'Zll+c;
a-fi— c=d, then adding
if
b,
Or a.— — ah:c; ' for a.—-=.aji. —— —=:ai;f at. (aa).
c, a+i:=c+<2. c c c t
 OF QUANTITY AND NyMBER.

23. Theorem, A quantity divided by a expressed by such numbers, are also pro-
mnltiple fraction is
equal to the same quan- portional.
the denominator, and di- If a : lyZlc :
d, a is to b is c to d, or a, : b : : c d.
tity multiplied by
vided by the numerator. 28. Theorem. Of four proportionals, the

—b h
— r: /
a:l — ]—a:b: — —
1 \ ,
1 product of the extremes is equal to that of
Or a: zzac:l-, for a: b.
c c \ c / c the means.
Since a:b~c d, a b. bd::Zc d. bd. (l7), or adzzcb. : : :
a: l.c[l\), ZZac -.1.

29. Theorem. If the product of the ex-

Scholium. A beginner may perhaps render these de-
tremes of four numbers is equal to that of the
monstrations more intelligible by substituting any numbers
at pleasure for the characters. For example, the demon- means, the numbers are proportional.
stration of the first theorem may be written thus. Twelve If adZZjcb, ad : bd^Zcb : bd (is), and a : bzZc : d ;
also ad i

fourths, y, are equal to 12 divided by 4 ; for, by the defi- cdZZcb :

cd, and a : c~t : d.

nition of a multiple fraction, 'Jnia.i, and multiplying 30. Theorem. Four proportionals are
these equals by 4, 4.^:^4.12.^ ;
but by the definition of a
proportional alternately.
simple fraction 4.i3:i, therefore iAi-^^xt, whence 4.u.=
If a :
b::c:d, adZZbc (as), therefore a:c::b:d (29).
12, and by the definition of division, 12:4z:l^. But, in
31. Theorem. Four proportionals are
fact, the proposition is too evident to admit much demon-
strative confirmation. proportional by inversion.
24. Theorem. A positive number or
1( a : b : : c :
d, ad'ZZhc, ad : ac':^bc :
ac, and d : c^Zfc : a.

32. Theorem. Four proportionals are

quantity being multiplied by a positive one,
the product is positive. proportional by composition.
For the repeated addition of a positive quantity must
If a: b:: c: d, a+b : b: : c +d : d ;
fo; since ad^bc,
make the result actually greater. What ad+bd::ibc-{-bd (15), or {a+b). d::z(c+d). b, therefore
is true of numbers,
a+b:b::c-^-d:d (29).
may practically be affirmed of quantities in general (lo).

25. Theorem. A 33. Theorem. Four proportionals are

negative number or
quantity being multiplied by a positive one, proportional by division.
If ab::c:d, a — b:b::c d:d; — for sincead^bc,
the product is negative.
ad—bd:=.bc—bd (16), (a—b). d=:(c— d). i, and a—b:b::
For since adding a negative quantity is equivalent to sub-
c —d : d (29).
tracting a positive one, themore of such quantities that are
added, the greater will the whole diminution be, and the
34. -Theorem. If any number of quan-
sum of the whole, or the product, must be titiesare proportional, the sum of the ante-
negative.

26. Theorem. A negative number or cedents is in the same ratio to the sum of the

quantity being multiplied by a negative one, consequents.

the product is positive.
11 a . b : : c :
d, a: b : :
a+c i+d :
;
for since adZZbc,
ab+adz:ab-\-bc, a.[b+d):^b.(a+c), and a: b a+c:b+d
—
: :

Oi —a.—h=:al: For a l-=.—aT]{ib): that when

is,
(29).
the positive quantity a is
multiplied by the negative h, the Theorem.
product indicates that a must be subtracted as often as there
35. If any number of ante-
are units inb: but when a is cedents and any number of consequents be
negative, its subtraction is
equivalent to the addition of an equal positive number added together, the ratio of the sums will be
;

therefore in this case an less than the greatest of the

equal positive number must be add- single ratios,
ed as often as there are units in I.
when those ratios are unequal.
27. Definition. If the quotients of two a c a4-c a
b d b+d b
{ori[-=-, e>c.
pairs of numbers are equal, the numbers are
,«-f e a +—c a a-\-c
proportional, and the first is to the second, and— -->—
b+a b+d
,

(34)
^

; consequently
,

—>
b
——-.The same
t'-J-ci
it-s the third
to the fourth and ;
any quantities demonstration may be extended to any number of ratios.
 OF QVANTITY AND NUMBER.
36. Definition. A series of numbers The sums of geometrical progressions may be thus com-

formed by the continual addition of the same

puted, if +ai"~':=x, ab-xab^+ab'.
a-t-at-^-ai' . . . . . +
ab'^bx, and subtracting the former equation from the lat-
number to any given number, is called an ab" a —
ter at" — a'^.bx — x, therefore .r:i: -;
— .
Which, when
arithmetical progression. b 1

2, 5,

17,
8,

14,
11,

11,'
14,

8,
17,

5,
20, by adding
2, by adding— 3.
3.
i< 1 and nzzos , or infinite, becomes —
i—b
— .

20,
o, a+b,a+il;a+3t, a+ (n— l). I, in The binomial theorem, for involution, is (a4-i)"=a"-|-

genetal. , , n — 1 „., n — 1 n —2
n.a"~' b+n. . a''~^b-+n. .
a^-^b'-i- . .

Scholium. It may be observed that the sura of each 2 2 3

of the numbers of these equal progressions is In simple cases, its truth may be shown by induction.
pair
22=2+20=a+a+ (n— l).t=2a + (m— l).i; the whole
sum 22X7= (20 + (n— l). V). n, and the sum of each, POWERS OF NUMBERS.
na + ^^.
2
b, a being the first term, i the difference,
1st
and n the number of terms.

37. Definition. A series of numbers O

formed by continual multiplication by a

a geometrical pro-
given number, is called
gression.
As 2, 0, 18, 54 ; multiplying 2 continually by 3.
a, ah, alb, ablb ; multiplying a by b.

38. Definition. If one of the terms of

a geometrical progression is unity, the other

terms are called powers of the common mul-

tiplier.
As 1' 2' •' 8, 16, 32. Each term is de-
1^. ^. h h v
noted by placing obliquely over the common multiplier a
number expressive of its distance from unity, as 8r:2': ne-
gative numbers, implying a contrary situation
to positive

ones, denote that the term precedes instead of follovfing the

unit, jl% i='2"'.

By reversing the series it is obvious that |^(i)', and

2=(i)-'.
It appears that the addition of the indices denoting the
places of any terms will point out a term which is their

product, as 2' X a'xia', or 8 X 4::=32 ;

and that the subtrac-
tion of the index is
equivalent to division by the term.
Hence if a'=:i'— i", a'«must be equal to I'i in order that

i 2 -f i 2
may make J'rra*. So that simple fractional num-
bers serve as indices of the number of times that the quan-

tity must be multiplied together, in order that the product

may be the common multiplier of the series, or the simple

number b.

Scholium. Fractional powers are sometimes denoted

by the mark \/, meaning root; thus ^ono2,'v'a^a'

The second power of a number a, being called its square,
and the third its cube, the fractional powers arc called

square and cube roots.

 OF QUANTITY AXD NUMBER.
TABLE OF RECIPROCALS.
No. Recipr.
 OF QUANTITY AXD NUMBER.
41. Definition. The harmonic mean Definition.
42. The common loga-
of two quantities is the quantity of which the rithm of a number is that power of 10 which
reciprocal is the half sum of their recipro- expresses it.

cals.' For instance, 1.1000—3, since lo'mooo. 1.2— .30103,

for io™"o"nr2. The principal use of logarithms is de-

Thus, the harmonic mean of 3 and 6 is 4 ; for i rived from that property of indices by which their addi-
(l+i)— ^. And the harmonic mean is equal to the pro- tion and subtraction is equivalent to the multiphcation and

duct divided by the half sum. Thus V^— 4. division of the respective numbers.

TABLE OF LOGARITHMS.

Including all Prime Numbers under 1000, nithout the Indices.

 OF THE COMPARISON OF VARIABLE QUANTITIES.

SECT. II. OF THE COMPARISON OF VAKI /, as x:r:/dx, otJUx. This mark has the advantage of dif-

ABLE gUANIITIES,
fering in form from the short s, which is used as a literal

character.
44. Definition. The quantities by which
two variable magnitudes are increased or de- 47. Theorem. When the fluxions of
creased in the same time, are called tlieir in- two quantities are in a constant ratio, their

crements or decrements, or tlieir increments finite increments are in the same ratio.

positive or negative. For if it be denied, let the ratios have a finite difference ;

then if the time in which the increments are produced be

f' Scholium. They are denoted by an accent placed over
the variable quantity ;
thus x' and y' are the simultaneous continually divided, the ratio of the parts may approach
nearer to the ratio of the fluxions than any assignable dif-
increments of x and y.
ference, for that ratio is their limit (46), and this is true,
45. Definition. The ratio which is the
in each part therefore the sums of all
by the supposition, ;

limit of the ratios of the increments of two the increments will be to each other in a ratio nearer to

quantities, as they are taken smaller and that of the fluxfcns than the assigned difference (3 5).

smaller, is called the ratio of the velocities of 48. Theorem. The fluxion of the pro-
their increase or decrease. duct of two quantities equal to the sum of is

Scholium. It vcould be difficult to give any other suf- the products of the fluxion of each into the
ficient definition of velocity than this. If both the quan- other quantity.
tities vary in the same proportion, the ratio of x' and y' will
Or (ry)-^yi+xy. Let the quantities increase from
be constant (16), and may be determined without consi-
X and y to ar-fa' and y-\-y', then their product will
dering them as evanescent ; but if they vary according to
be first xy and afterwards .ri/-|-j/.r'-t-j)/'-(-a;y, of which
must vary, accordingly as the time
different laws, that ratio
the difference is yi^' -^xy' -^rx'y' and the ratio of the in-
of comparison is longer or shorter and since the degree of :

crements of x and xi/ is that of x' to yx'+xy'+x'y' ; or,

variation, at any instant of time, does not depend on the
when the increments vanish, to yx'+xy' since in this case
change produced at a finite interval before or after that in-
x'y' vanishes in comparison with xy'. But x'-(j/.r'-f-jy');;i'
stant, it is
comparison of this variation,
necessary, for the

that the increments should be considered as diminished (yi+iy), and the fluxion is
rightly determined (46) ;

without limit, and their ultimate ratio determined

is indifferent whether these evanescent increments be taken
; and it (orsmce
XXX
^ = ^,
y' V J^v
—,
^v
—-^
X
,

(18);
, ,

but:^=4-
X X
yx' yx ,

(is),
,

yx'-\-xy' yi-^ry
before, or after the given instant, or whether the mean be- and (IS).
tween both results be employed.

46. Definition. 49. Theorem. The fluxion of any power

Any finite quantities
in the ratio of the velocities of increase or of a variable quantity is equal to the fluxion
decrease of two or more magnitudes, are tiie of that quantity multiplied by the index of
fluxions of those magnitudes. the power, and by the quantity raised to the

Scholium. are denoted

same power diminished by unity.
They by placing a point over
Or (x")'=:7ix""'i. Let n—i, then (xx)-=:x.i-)-xi (48)
the variable quantity, thus, x, y. And.^ is always ulti-
y ::=2xi=nx"~'i. l(n—3, x"— (xx).x, and its fluxion is x
(xx)'-i-(xx)i::r2xxi-fxa:i:^3x'i::;iix""'i'. And the same
mately equal to-:-. The variable quantity is called a fluent
y may be proved of any whole number. If 71 is a fraction,

with respect to its fluxion, as x is the fluent of ic, or .rr:./i. as —1

, put yzzx", then x^yf, and xzzpy^''y,y::z
—— - zz

On the continent the term fluxion is not used, but the

— .
j'"'i(38)z:-y. j-^i— 7U[""'i, as before ;
and in the
evanescent increment is called a difference, and denoted by
d or 3, and the variable quantity is conceived to consist of same manner the proof may be extended to all postible
the entire sura or integral of such
differences, and marked cases.
 8 OF SPACE.

50. Theorem. the logarithm of When be to the error of the quantity substituted,
nearly in the
ratio of theevanescent differences, or of the fluxions ; and
a quantity varies equably, the quantity varies
this ratio may be easily determined.
proportionally. Thus, I*— 6x'+4x=6699, call
if
0699, then Zx'i—
3/,

Or, if 1. x—y, =: —
—ax For xZZ.V f^a), and when v y ._._/_ y'
I2xjr-J.4x:=y,and irz- and x'— -
3x' — 12X-)-4> Sx''— 12x4-4
nearly; now assume x:=2o, then j/z:5680, and y'— 1019,
becomesy+7/',3:+a.'=i'^ —V.y'—x.b'', andx'zix.i'—
whence x'zz 1.05, and x corrected is a 1.05; by repeating
aizi. [y — l) ; but y' being constant by the supposition, the operation we may approach still nearer to the true
value 21.
i>' — 1 is constant, and may be called :—,
a
and .r' ^ —a ;
-' whence the common rule for the
Ifx"=J(,r=-
therefore inr —a
xu
, and —iX n —ya .
extraction of roots is derived. In order to find the nearest

Scholium. Numericallogarithms do integer root, the digits must be divided, beginning with
not, strictly speak-
but other quantities the units, into parcels of as many as there are units in the
ing, vary by evanescent increments ;

flow continually, and be always proportionate to lo- index, and the nearest root of the last or highest parcel
may
in either case the proposition is true. In Briggs's being found, and its power subtracted, the remainder
garithms :

must be divided by next inferior power multiplied by

its
logarithms, commonly used, 2i is 10, and a, the modulus, is

the given index, in order to find the next figure, adding

.43429448)9 ; dividing all the system by a, or multiplying
the next to the remainder before the division.
by Q.302585093, we have Napier's original hyperbolical lo-
parcel
There are also in particular cases other more compendious
garithms, where ^ becomes zz
—X j,"

, and a:z:i.
methods.

61. Theorem. The fluxion of any power

of a quantity, of which the exponent], is va-
riable, is equiil to the fluxion of the same SECTION III. OF SPACE.
power considered as constant, together with
the fluxion of the exponent multiplied by 54. Definition. A solid is a portion of
the power and by the hyperbolical logarithm space limited in magnitude on all sides.

Scholium. Space is a mode of existence incapable of

of the quantity. ^

definition, and supposed to be understood by tradition.

If .x'-=:z, i:z.yx''-Ki + (h.l.x). for h. Jzri/. x'i/ ;
1.

— ^ • >
55. Definition. A surface is the limit
(h. 1.
.t), (42); now (h.
1.
») -, (50);and izri. (h.l.^^J'
of a solid.

—X. (y. (h. 1. .r)'-s,. (yr_+(h.

1. x).i/), (48, 50)z= 56. Definition. A line is the hmit of
X a surface.
I
1. x)
j'x'~'i-f(h. xi/.
57. Definition. A point is the limit of
52. Theorem. When a variable quan-
a line.
tity is greatest or least, its fluxion vanishes.
Scholium. The paper
For a quantity is greatest when it ceases to increase, and
of which this figure covers
before it
begins to decrease ;
that is, when it has neither
a part, is an example of a
increment nor decrement ;
and it is least when it has
solid, the shaded portion represents a portion of surface:
ceased to have a decrement and has not yet an increment.
the boundaries of that surface are lines, and the three ter-
53. Problem. To solve a numerical minations or intersections of those lines are points. In

equation by approximation. conformity with this more correct conception, these defi-
The most general and useful mode of solving all nume- nitions are illustrated by representations of the respective
rical equations is by approximation. Substitute for the portions of space of which the limits are considered ;
and
unknown quantity a number, found by trial, which nearly also by the more usual method of denoting a line by a
answers to the conditions; then the error will be a finite narrow surface, and a surface by such a line surround-
difTerence of the whole equation ; which, when small, will ing it.
 OF SPACE.

58. Definition. A line joining two G7. Definition. The point equally dis-
is called their distance. tant from the circumference, is called the
points
59.Definition. When the distance of centre.

any two or more points remains unchanged, G8. Definition, Any straight line

they are said to be at rest; and a space

of drawn from the centre to the circumference,

which all the points are at rest, is a quiescent is called a radius.

space. 69. Definition. The term circle also

Q8BP 60. Definition.

often implies the circumference, and not the
circular surface.
A line which must be wholly at rest with

when two of 70. Definition. A portion of the cir-

respect to any quiescent space
cumference of a circle is called an arc.
its points are at rest in that space, is a straight

line.
71. Definition. A straight line joining

^ ^
the extremities of an arc, is its chord.
'^ ^ ~^ Cl. Definition.
72. Definition,
A line which is neither a straight line, nor
The surface con-
composed of straight lines, is a curve line. tained between an arc and its chord is called
62. Definition. A plane is a surface, a segment of a circle.
in which if any two points be joined by a
73. Definition.
straight line, the whole of the straight line
will be in the surface.
A chord passings
through the centre
63. Definition. is a diameter.
An is the incli-

mark
Scholium.
and
An
angle
nation of two lines to eadi other.
angle is sometimes denoted by this
tion.
gle
74.

is
A
Defini-
trian- ilA^
a surface contained between three lines ;
z., is described by three letters placed near the

lioes, the middle letter at the angular point.

and these lines are understood to be straight,
unless the contrary is
expressed.
64. Definition.
~
When a straight line 75. Definition. ^^g^^^B
When two ^^^^^
standing on another straight
makes the adjacent angles equal, hnes, lying in the same jdane, may be pro-
straight line
duced both ways without meet-
they are called right angles, indefinitely,
65. Definition. A straight line between ing, they are parallel.
Scholium. The parallelism of lines is sometimes de-
two right angles is called a perpendicular to
noted by this mark II .

the line on which it stands.

7G. Postulate. It is
required that the
6G. Definition.
When a plane surface length of a straight line be capable of being
identified, whether by the effect of any ob-
is contained by a
ject on the senses, or merely in imagination,
circumference, such
that all drawn from a
so that it
may remain invariable.
straight lines to it
Scholium. This is
by making
practically performed
certain point in the plane'are
equal, the sur- \isible marks on a material surface; although, strictly
face is a circle.
speaking, no such marks remain at distances absolutely
VOL. II, C -
10 OF SPACE.

invariable, on account of changes of temperature, and of TiiEOKEM. Two triangles, having two
86.
other circumstances.
sides and the angle included, respectively
77. Postulate. That a straight hne of
equal, have also the base and the other angles
indefinite length may he diavvu through
equal.
any two given points. In the triangles ARC, DEF, let

78. Postulate. That a circle may be AC=DF, BC=EF,and z. ACB=

described on any given centre with a radius DFE. Now supposing a triangle
equal to DEF to be constructed
equal to any given straight line. on AC, the side equal to FE must -^ B D k,

79. Axiom. A straight line joining two coincide in position with CB, because z.ACB;=DFE, and
poiiits is the shortest distance between them. also in magnitude, for
they are equal, therefore the point
Scholium. With respect to all straight lines, this B will be an angular point of the supposed triangle ; and

axiom is a demonstrable proposition; but as the demon- since the base of both triangles must be a right line, it must
stration does not extend to curve lines, it becomes neces- be the same line AB (81), and the supposed triangle will

sary to assume it as an axiom. coincide every where with ABC ;

therefore ABC^nDEF,
80. Of any two figures meeting
Axiom. and the angles at A and B are equal to the angles at D
and E.
in the ends of a straight line, that which is
nearer the line has the shorter circumference, 87. Theorem. If two sides of a triangle
are equal, the angles opposite to them are
provided there be no contrary flexure.
81. Axiom. Two straight lines coinciding equal.
In the sides AB and AC produced, take
in two points, coincide in all points.
at pleasure AD~AE, and join BE, CD ;
Scholium. If they did not coincide in all points, the
then since ADnAE, and AC~AB, and
two points of coincidence being at rest, and one of the lines
the angle at A is common to the triangles
being made the axis of motion, the other must revolve
ADC, AEB, those triangles are equal
round it, contrarily to the definition of a straight ling. Al-
(88),and^ACD=ABE, z.ADCr:AEB, ^/
though this is sufficiently obvious, it can scarcely be called
and CD=:BE ; but BD=CE (16], therefore z.BCD=rBE
a formal demonstration.
(gfl), and /cACD— BCD=ABE— CBE (10), or z.ACB=
82. Axiom. All right angles are equal. ABC.
83. Axiom. A straight line, cutting one 88. Tueokem. If two angles of a triangle
of two parallel .lines, may be produced till are equal, the sides oppoivite to them are
it cut the other.
equal.
84. Puoui.em. From
the greater of two Let /.ABCn:ACD; then AC=AB. AD
to cut oft' a part equal to If it be denied, take in the greater AC,
right lines, AB,
CD equal to the less AB then, since ^
tlielcss, CD. ;

ABC:=DCB, AB=:DC, and BC is com- B

\ On the centre A describe a circle with mon, the triangle ABCzzDCB (se), the whole to a part,

A E] B a radius equal to CD (78), and v>iU it whirh is impossible.

C~__~_~D cutoffAE=:CD(;66). 89. Theorem. If two triangles have their

bases equal, and their sides respectively
85. Problem. On a given right hne, AB,
equal, their angles are also respectively
to describe an equilateral triangle.
equal.
^C^' On the centres A and B draw two If a triangle be supposed to
circles,
be constructed on AB, ilie base
with radii equal to AB, and to their intersec-
of ABC, equal to DEF, the ver-
tion C, draw AC and BC; thenAB:i:AC=:BC
tex of the triangle must coincide
(fio), and the triangle ABC is e<iuilateral.
with C, and the whole triangle
 OF SPACE. II

with ABC, For if it be denied, let G be the vertex of the to the triangles BAE, CAR; therefore z.AEBr:AEC (88\
triangle so constructed ; join CG ;
then since AC^AG, and both are right angles (64).
^ACG^AGC (87), and in the same manner /.BGCr: Theorem. The
94. angles which any
bCG; but BGOACG, therefore BGOACG; and
right line maizes on one bide of another, are>
ACG>BCG, therefore much more BGOBCG, to which
it was shown to be equal. And the same may be proved together, equal to two right angles.
in any other position 6f the point G ; therefore the triangle

equal to DEF, supposed to be described on AB, coincides Let AB be perpendicular to CD, and
with ABC. EB oblique to it, then f:BE + EBDr:

90. PROBtEM. To bisect a given angle. CBA4-ABE-|-EBD=CBA+ABD (14).

C B 1)
A In the right lines forming the angle, take
95. Theorem. If tv^o right lines make
^ at pleasure ABi^AC; on BC describe an
with a third, at the same point, but on oppo-
equilateral triangle BCD, and AD will bisect
'

the angle BAC. For ABz:AC, BD=CD, site sides,

angles together equal to two right
and the base AD is common, therefore the angles, they are in the same right line.
triangle ABDrzACD (89), and z.BAD= If it be denied,
let AB, which together f)
CAD. with AC, makes with AD, the angles y^ \\

Dl. Problem. To bisect a given right BAD, DAC equal to two right angles, be
not in the right line CAE. Then BAD
p ^ \^
line, AB.
Describe on it two 4-DAC, being equal to two right angles, is equal to EAD
equilateral triangles,
-f-DAC (91), and BAD=:EAD, the k-ss to the greater,
ABC, ABD, and CD, joining their ver-
which is impossible.
tices, will bisect AB in E. For since
ACzzOB, AD=BD, and CD is common 96. Theorem. If two right lines intersect
to the triangles ACD, BCD, /.ACDz: each other, the opposite angles are equal.
BCD (sa) but CE is common to the
;
From the equals,ABC-(- ABD and ABD A-^^ ^^1>
triangles ACE and BCE, therefore AE=
-l-DBE (94, 8-2), subtract ABD, and the
EB (86).
remainders, ABC, DBE, are equal. In Q
92. Problem. To erect a [x^rpendicular the same manner ABD:::CBE.
to a given right Hne at a given point.
97. Theorem,
If one side of a
triangle be
On each side the point A, take at plea-

sure ABziAC, and on BC make an equi-

produced, the exterior angle will be greater
lateral triangle,BCD. Then AD shall than either of the interior opposite angles.
be perpendicular to BC. For the sides Bisect AB in C, draw DCE ; take CE A E
Bag of BAD and
therefore the angle
both are right angles (6!), and
CAD

AD
are respectively equal.

BADzzCAD (89), and

=:CD, and
ACD=BCE
CAD; but
join BE, then the triangle

{c)a,

ABF>CBE,
86), and z.CBE=
therefore AhF>
/
/'c^

BC
is
perpendicular to
CAD. And in the same manner
D BF
(»5,\ it
may
93. Problem. From a point, A, without
be proved, by producing AB, that ABF is greater than

a right ADB.
line^ BC, to let fall a
perpendicular
on it. 98. Theorem. The greater side of any
On the centre A, through any point
triangle is
ojjposite to the greater angle.
D, beyond BC, describe a circle, which LetAB>AC, then ^ACB>ABC. For C
E \^must obviously cut BC; join AB and taking AD=AC,andjoining CD, ^ACD
C AC, and bisect the angle BAC by the =ADC(87). But aADOCBD
AE AE will
(97), A
D B
line ; be perpendicular to and ACB>ACD, therefore much more
BC. For ^BAE=CAE, AB:::AC, and AE is common Z.ACB>CBD, orABC.
 12 OF SPACE.

99. Theoeem. Of two triangles on the Let AB be perpendicular to CD, then

AB is shorter than AD Produce AB,
sartie base, the sides of the interior contain .

the greater angle. BE=AB, and join DE then the

take ;

ABD=:EBD (86), and AD=:

E triangle
DE. But AB+BE or 2AB is less than
Produce AB to C, then z.ABD>ACD
(07), and /. ACD> AEC, therefore much AD+DE or 2AD (79), therefore AB
'B < AD (is). In a similar manner 2AD
more ABD>AED.
A T) <2AF(80), and AD<AF.
100. Problem. To make a triangle, hav- 104. Theorem. If a right line cutting^

ing its sides equal to three given

right lines, two others, makes the alternate angles equal,
every one of them being less than the sum the two lines are parallel.
of the other two. If .ilABC=ADE; BC
and DE B.
Take AB equal to one of the lines,
are parallel : for

and on the centres A and B if they meet, as in F, they

describe two D
circles with radii equal to the other two will form a triangle BDF, ^
A B lines; draw AC and BC to the intersec-
and ^ADE>ABC (97).
tion C, and ABC will be the triangle required. 105. Theorem. A right linCKutling two
101. Problem. At a given point in a right parallel lines, makes equal angles with them. ,

line, to make an angle equal to a

given angle.
Let AB cut the parallels BC,
^
Bx^^ C
» /" p In the lines forming the given angle DE; then if /.ABC is not equal
to ADE, let it be equal to ADF,
ABC, take any two points, A and C, ^y^ jf
then BC and DFare parallel (104),
join AC, and taking DEziBC, make T) E
S C D E the triangle DEF, having DF=BA andDE, which cuts DF, will also,
FE=AC if produced, cut BC (83), contra-
and (too), then /.FDE=:ABC (sg).
rily to the supposition.
102. Theorem. If two triangles have two
and a side respectively equal, the
106. Theorem. Right lines, parallel to the
angles
same line, are parallel to each other.
whole triangles are equal.
p Let the equal sides be AB and Let AB and CD be parallel to'
j;^

EF GHI cutting them all,

draw A
-2^
CD, intervening between the equal ;

then if on AB a then z.K.GB=KIF (los), and

angles, triangle

equal to CDE
be supposed to be aKHD=:KIF, therefore A KGB
A Cf 15 C I) constructed, the points A and B, =K.HD, and AB|1CD (104).
and the angles at A and B being the same in this triangle
and in ABF, the sides must coincide both in position and Problem. Through a given point to
107.
in length ; therefore ABF=:CDE.
draw a right line parallel to a given right hne.
If the equal sides are AF
and CE, opposite to equal

angles, then ABz:CD, and the whole triangles are equal. From A draw, at pleasure, AB, meet- A D
For if AB is not equal to CD, let it be the greater, and let ingBCin B, and make /.BAD=ABC
.AGzzCD ; then, by what has been demonstrated, the (I0l),then ADllCB (104). ,..
C/ li
triangle AFG=:CED, and z.AGF=CDE=rABF, by the
108. Theorem. The angles of any trian"-le
supposition-; but AGF>ABF (9"), which is
impossible.
taken together, are equal to two
103. Theorem. The shortest of all
right right angles.'X^

lines thatcan be drawn from a given point to Produce AB'to C, and draw BD paral-
leltoAE. Then /.EBDrzAEB
^
(IC5),
a given right line is that which is perpendi-
and /.DBC':=EAB; therefore the exter-
cular to the line, and others arc shorter as nal angle EBC sum
is equal to the of the

they are nearer to it. internal opposite angles, AEB, EAB, and
 OF SPACE. 13

Bdding ABE, the sum of all three is equal to ABE+EBC, For each is equal to the paral-
or to two right angles (94). lelogram formed by joining the

109. Theorem. Right lines joining the extremities of the base of the one,

and of the side opposite to the

extremities of equal and parallel right lines,
base of the other (115).
are also equal and parallel.
1 17. Theorem. Triangles on equal bases,
A AB and CD
j^
Let be equal, and parallel.
and between the same pan.llcls, are equal.
/
^-""^ Then AC will be equal and parallel to
L^:::__J BD. For, joining BC, aABC=BCD Take AB and CD equal to the base 4 B C D
^' " (105), and the triangles ABC, DCB, are EF or GH, and BF and DM.
join
equal (86), and AC=DB; also aACB=:DBC, therefore Tiien F.B and GD are parallelograms
AC||BD (104). between the same parallels (lOQ),

110. Definition. A figure of which the and on equal bases, therefore they

called a paral- are equal (1 16), and their halves, the triangles AEF, CGVL
opposite sides are parallel, is

(114), are also equal (1 8).

lelogram .

111. Definition. A straight line joining 118. Theorem. In anv right angled tri-

the opposite angles of a parallelogram is angle, (he square described on the hypote-
called its
nuse is equal to the sum of the squares de-
diagonal.
Definition. A scribed on the two other sides.
112. parallelogram, of
which the angles are Draw AB parallel to CD the side
right angles, is a rect-
of the square on the hypotenuse, then
angle. '

the parallelogram CB is double any

113. Definition. An equilateral rect- on the same base and be-
triangle
angle is a square. tween the same parallels (114, 117),
1 14. Theorem. The diagonal of a pa- as ACD V but ACD=FCG, their

two equal angles at C being each equal to ACG

rallelogram divides it into
triangles,
increased by a right angle, FC to AC,
and its
opposite sides are equal. and GC to DC Again, GAH is a

^ B For ABC is
equiangular with DCB right line (95), parallel to CF, therefore the triangle FCG
\
^-^ \ (105), and BC is common, therefore they is half of the square CH on the same base, and CH:z:CB,
Q- ^ are equal (102), and AB=CD,and AC=: since they are the doubles of equal triangles. In the same
BD. manner maybe shown that GKr^GB therefore
it ; the
115. Theorem.
Parallelograms on the whole CDIG is equal to the sum of CH and GK.
same base, and between the same 119. Problem. To find a common mea-
parallels,
are equal. sure of any two quantities.
A B
j^ P Since AB=CD, both being Subtract the less continually from the greater, the re-

equal to EF,
mainder from the less, the next remainder from the pre-
AC=BD(i5,or 16),
and the triangle AEC is
equian- ceding one, as often as possible, and proceed till there be
gular (105) and equal (102) to
no further remainder ;
then the last remainder will be the.

BFD j therefore deducting each common measure required. For since it measures the pre-
of them from the figure AEFD, the remainder ED is ceding remainder, it will measure the
preceding quantities
equal
to the remainder AF. in which that remainder was contained, and which, in-
creased at each step by the remainders, makes up the
116. TheoreSi. Parallelograms on equal origi-
nal quantities.
bases, and between the same
parallels, are For example, if the numbers 54 and 21 be
proposed,
equal. J4 — 21 — 21 = 12, 21 — 12=9, 12 — 8=3, 9 — 3 — 3 — 3
14 OF SPACE.

~o, therefore 3 is the common ttjeasure, for it measures 9, , ,.^ ,

—n I ,
AC
— 1 AGC
-—— — n.AC
let the difference be then :r
and 9+3 or 12, and ia+9 or 21, and 2X21 + 12 or it.
,
AD :
n AGD n.AU
Scholium. Hence it is obvious, that there can be no AD
n.AC-AV>
'
. Let m.AD be that multiple of
greater common
measure of the two quantities than the n.AW n.AD '

quantity thus found ; for it should measure tl>e difference

AD which is less than n.AC, but greater than ?i.AC

of the two quantities, and all the successive remainders —AD, then a triangle on the base mAD will be equal
down to the last, therefore it cannot be greater than this to m.AGD, which will be less than n.AGC, the tri-

last. It must alsobe remarked, that in some cases no ac- angle on n.AC ; now multiplying the former equation by

curate common measure can be f*nnd, but the error, or —m

rt AGC 7J.AC— AD
71. , ,„„ ,„ .^„
, r: , and 7i.AGC.7n..\D=m.AGD.
the last remainder, in this process, itiay always be less than m.AGD m.AD
any quantity that can be assigned, since the process may (ji.AC
—^AD); btjt the first factors have been shown to be

be continued without limit. That there are incommensu- respectively greater than the second, therefore their pro-

ducts cannot be equal, and the supposition

quantities, may be thus shown every number Is
is impossible.
rable :

either a prime number, that is, a number not capable of l<21. Theorem; The homologous sides

being composed by multiplication of other numbers, or \t

oFetjuianguIar triangles are proporliioual.
is composed by the multiplication of factors, which are Let the homologous sides AB,BC, p
primes. Let the number a be composed of the prime
of the equiangular triangles ABD,
numbers led, or az^bcd, then aa':^Lcd,tcd'^zlh.cc,dd and
BCE, be placed contiguous to each
each prime factor of aa occurs twice
number must be composed of factors in pairs ; and a square
number multiplied by a number which is not composed of
;
so that every square
other in the same line, then AD

BE,and BDl ICE; produce AD.CE,

till they meet in F, and join AB
1 1

and BF.
ABC Then the tri-
factors in pairs cannot be a square number : for instance,
angles FAE, EAC, are proportional to their bases FE, EC,
2aa or 3aa cannot be a square number, since the factors
and the triangles AFB, BFC, to AB, BC But FAE
(120).
of 2 are only 1.2, and of 3, 1.3, and not in pairs there- :

=:AFB(ll7),andEAC=EBC4-EAB=EBC+EFB=BFC,
fore the square rooot of 2 or 3 cannot be expressed by any
therefore FAE EAC=AFB BFC, and FE EC=AB BC;
: : : :

fractiofi, for the square of its numerator would be twice or

but FEi^DB (114). In the same manner it
may be shown
th-ice the square of its denominator. But the ratio of the
that the other homologous sides are proportional.
hypotenuse of a triangle to its side may be that of »/ 2 or
ScHOLrUM. Hence equiangular triangles are also called
4/3 to 1 ;
so that quantities numerically incommensurable
similar.
may be geometrically determined.
122. Theorem. Equal and equiangular
IGO. Theorem. Triangles and paiallelo-
parallelograms have their sides reciprocally
grams of the same height are proportional to
proportional.
their bases.
If AB=:BC then DB BE=BF : :
j^ q.
Let AB be a
common measure
BG. ForDB:BF=.AB:GF(l2o;=:
f
BC : GF=BE BG :
(120) ; or DB :
D £/
of AC and AD, BErzBF BG.
and let AB=:BE
:

E C
A B E r C 'J) =Efi J°'" GB, 123. Theorem. Equiangular parallelo-
'GE, G¥, then the triangles AGB, BGE, EGF, are equal,
their sides reciprocally pro-
and the AGD is the same multiple of AGB that
grams, having
triangle
AD is of AB ; and AGC-is
the sanre multiple of AGB that portional, are equal.
AC is of AB, or AGD AGB=AD AB, and AGC AGB : : : For they may be placed as in the last proposition, and
rzAC AB ;
; hence, dividing the first equation by the equal the demonstration will be exactly similar.
terms of the second (is), AGD AGCnAD
: :
AC, and Scholium. Hence is derived the common method of

aAGD 2AGC=:AD : :
AC, therefore the parallelograms finding the contents of rectangles ; let a and b be the sides
which are double the triangles, are also proportional. of a rectangle, then 1 : a: il: al, and the rectangle is equal
ScHOLi u M. The demonstration may easily be extended to that of which the sides are 1 and ab, or to ab square units.
•to incommensurable quantities. For if it be denied that Hence the rectangle contained by two lines is
equivalent to
AC AD=:AGC AGD,
: : let AC AD
: be the greater, and the product of their numeral representatives.
 OF SPACE. 15

124. Theorem- Equiangular parallelo- 132. Definition. EB is the versed sine

"ranis are tr each other in the ratio com- of BD or BAD.

of their side's.
pounded of the ratios Scholium, The circle is practically supposed to be di-

p.
Or in the ratio of the rectangles or vided into 360 equal parts, called degrees, each of these
numeral products of their sides. For into 60 minutes, a minute into 60 seconds and the divi-
;

since AB BC=AD DC 20;, and sion be continued without limit

A may thus 6o"=:i', 60'=:
; :
'q (l ;
IS
DC dE=:DB
: :
BE, multiplying the 1°, 90° make a right angle. Some modern calculators
former equation by the ferms of the divide the quadrant into 100 equal parts,and subdivide tliese

AB.DB BC.BE=AD.CE.
latter, :
decimally.

125. Theorem, similar triangles, and 133. Theoreji. The angle subtended at
of similar triangles, are in
figures composed the centre of a circle by a given arc, is double
the ratio of the squares of their homologous the subtended at the circumference.
angle
sides.
Let ABC and ADC be subtended by AC.
/-< Since similar triangles are the
Draw the diameter DBE, then ^ ABE=
F halves of equiangular parallelograms,
Also
ADB-t-BAD(los}=:2ADB (s;).
which are in the ratio compounded
Z. CBEzriCDB, therefore ABE— CBE=
IZ\ of the ratios of their sides (124), the
B D -£ 2ADB— 2CDB, or ABC=2ADC. In a
triangles are in the same ratio, or
similar manner it
may be proved in other
ABC : DEF=AB.BC DE.EF but AB DE=BC EF : ;
: :

positions.
(121), ABC DEF=AB.AB: DE.DE, or ABq
therefore : -.

DEq. And the same may be proved of similar polygons, 134. Theorem. The angle contained by
by composition (32J. the tangent and any chord at the point of
12G. Definition. An indefinite right contact, is equal to the angle contained in
line, meeting a circle and not cutting it, is the segment on the opposite side of the
called a tangent. chord.
127. Theorem. A right line, passing Draw the diaimeter AB, and join BC ;

and perpen- then /, BCA is equal to half the angle

through any point of a circle,
subtended at the centre by the semicircle
difcular to the radius at that point, touches
AB, or to a right angle, and AHC and
the circle. BAG make together another right angle
Since the perpendicular AB is . (93), therefore deducting BAC, ABC=
shorter than any other line AC that CAD. And it
ajipears also from the last
can be drawn from A to BC (los), it
proposition that the angle contained in the lesser segment
is evident that AC is greater than the CA ABC t«o
is
equal to the complement of to right
radius AD, and that C, as well as
CAE.
angles, or to
B C every other point of BC, besides B, is
135. Problem. To draw a tangent to a
without the circle ; therefore BC does not cut the circle,
but touches it.
circle from a given point without it.

128. Definition. BC is called the tan- Join AB, bisect it in C, and on

C draw a with the radius
gent of the arc BD, or the angle BAD. circle,

CB, intersecting the former circle

129. Definition. AC is the secant of
AD
in D, then shall touch the
BD, or BAD. circle. For the angle ADB, in a
180. Definition. DE perpendicular to semicircle, is a right angle (134, 12?), and BD is the radius

A B, is the sine of BD or BAD. of the given circle.

131. Definition. AE is the cosine of Theorem. In equal circles, equal

13f3.

BD or BAD. angles stand on equal arcs.

16 or SPACE.
/
For the chords of equal angles Let AB and BC be the sines ot ...^
j^g
are equal (86), and the segments angles, ACB, BAC, then AC will be ti,.
cut offby them contain equal angles sine of their sum CBD, qr of ABC. Now-

(133) i
and if a segment equal to making BE perpendicular to AC, AC"
AB be supposed to be described on AE+EC, and rad. : cos. BAC : : AB: AE, and rad. t cos.
the chord CD, and on the same side with CED, it must ACB: :BC:CE (139).
coincide with CED, for since, at each point of each arc, CD 141. Theorem. The ratio of the Eva-
subtends the same angle, the points of one arc can never be
nescent tangent, arc, chord, and sine, is that
within those of the other (99) ; the arcs are therefore equal.
of equality.
Scholium. Hence it may easily be shown, that mul-
and proportionate angles are subtended by multiple
'
Let AB be the tangent, and CD
tiple
and proportionate arcs.
the sine of the arc AD. Let AE
betakenat pleasure in the tangent.
137. Theorem.
If two chords of a "
given ,^^,
and EF be always parallel to DG'
,

circle intersect each other, the rectangles the radius of ad, and cm the cen-
contained by the segments of each are equal. treF, draw the circle ah; join
Join AB and CD. Then ^AEB^: AH, then since Z-EADziiAGD
DEC (90}, and /.BAE::=DCE (i33), =:1AFM, the chord AH will coin-
1^
both standing on BD, therefore the cide with the chord AD (133>
triangles AEB, CED, are similar, and 134). And when DA vanishes,
AE:CE::EB:ED (li2l), therefore
DG coinciding with AG, EF will
"
AE.EDrzCE.EB (123). be parallel to AF, and the angle .

138. Theorem The rectangle contained EAH will vanish, therefore AH will coincide with AE and
with IH parallel to the sine CD and by similar
by the segments of a right line intercepted triangles
;

the ratio of AB, AD, and CD, is the same as that of AE,
by a circle and a given point without it, is equal AH, and IH, and ultimately that of equality.
is But the
to the square of the tangent drawn from that arc AD is nearer to the chord AD
than the figure ABD, and
it has no contrary flexure, therefore
point. it is
longer than the
Join AB, AC; then ^lABCrrCAD line AD (79), and shorter than ABD (80>,- until their dif-

(134), and the angle at D common,

is ference vanishes, and it coincides with both.

therefore the triangles ABD, CAD, are Scholium. The same is obviously true of any curve

similar, and BD AD : : : AD CD :
(121), coinciding at a given point with any circle ; and all the

whence BD.DC=:ADq elements agree as well in position as in length.

(123).
\\1. Theorem. The fluxion of the arc

being constant, the fluxion of the sine varies

as the cosine.
IS9. Theorem.In every triangle the
sides are as the sines of their opposite angles,
The fluxion of the arc is equal to that of

the radius being given.

the tangent, since their evanescent incre- B
ments coincide (141). Let AB be the sine,
C Take ABzzCD, and draw BE and
AC the cosine, BDthe increment of the tan-
B CF perpendicular to AD, then they
gent, DE that of the sine: then /.ABC::!
are the sines of the angles A and D,
EBD and the triangles ABC, EBD, are
iD (16),
E F to tlie radius AB or CD (130), and and BD DE as BC to AC but the ultimate
similar, is to ;

by similar triangles, AC CF : : : AB BE ;
(121), or CD : BE.
ratio of the increments is that of the fluxions, therefore the
And the same maybe shown of the other sides and angles.
fluxion of the tangent, or of the arc, is to that of the sine
140. Theorem. The sine of the sum of as the radius to the cosine. The same may easily be in-

any two arcs, is equal to the sum of the sines ferred from the theorem for finding the sine of the sum of

of .the separate arcs, each being reduced in two arcs (i4o).

the ratio of the radius to the cosine of the 143. Theorem. The area of a circle is

other arc. equal to half the rectangle contained by

 OF SPAClf. 17

and a line equal to the circum- biy the meeting of two or more plane angles,
the radius
in different planes.
ference.
Suppose the circle to be described by the revoUition of 151. Definition. Similar solid figures
the elementary triangle to which the fluxion of
the radius :
are such as have all parts of their surfaces si-
the circle is is equal to the contempo-
proportional (l4l), milar and similarly placed : and which have
raneous increment of the rectangle, of which the base is

all their sections, in similar directions, re-

and the height to half the radius :

equal to the circumference,

consequently the whole areas
are equal (47). spectively similar.

144. Theorem. The circumferences of 152. Definition. pyramid is a solid A

of their diameters. contained by a plane basis and other planes
circles are in the ratio
and to be de- meeting in a point.
Supposing the circles to be concentric,
scribed the revolution of different points of the same
153. Definition. A prism is a solid
by
right line, the ratio
of the fluxions, and consequently that contained by planes of which two that are
of the whole circumferences,' will be the ratio of the and and
opposite, are equal, similar, parallel,
radii, or of the diameters (47).
all the rest parallelograms.
Scholium. The diameter of a circle is to its circum-

ference nearly as 7 to 22, and more nearly as 113 :

355, or
154. Definition. A cube is a solid

1 3.14159205359 ; hence
: 57.29578°
the radius is equal to contained by six equal squares.
=3437.74S7'=:2oa«04.8"; and, the radius being unity, 155. Definition. A solid of revolu-
lO=:.017453293, l'=:.000290888, and l"=.OO0OO4848. tion is that described by the revolu-
which is

145. Definition. A straight line is tion of any figure round a fixed axis.

perpendicular to
a plane, when it is perpen- 156. Definition. A sphere is described
in
dicular to every straight line by the revolution of a semicircle on
it dia-
meeting its

that plane. meter as an axis.

Definition.
146. A plane is
perpen- 157. Definition. A cone is a solid
dicular to a plane, when all the straight lines described by the revolution of an indefinite
drawn one of the planes perpendicular to
in
right line passing through a vertex and
the common section, are perpendicular to
moving round a circular basis.
the other. 158. Definition. A cylinder is a solid
147. Definition. The inclination of a described by the revolution of a right angled
the angle contained
straight line to
a plane
parallelogram about one side.
is

and another straight line drawn Theorem. Two

by that line, 159. straight lines cut-
from its intersection with the plane to the in- one plane.
ting each other are in

tersection of a perpendicular let fall from For a plane passing through one of them may be sup-
it as an axis until it meet some point of
of the line upon the plane. posed to revolve on
any point
the other and then the second line will be wholly in the
148. Definition. The inclination of ;

plane (62).
two planes is the inclination of two lines, one
160. Theorem. If two planes cut each,
in each plane, perpendicular to the common
other, their section is a straight line.
section.
For the straight line joining any two points of the section
149. Definition. Parallel planes are must be in each plane (92), and must therefore be the
such as never meet, although indefinitely common section of the planes.

produced. 161. Theorem. A straight hne, making

150. Definition. A solid angle is made right angles with two other lines at the point
VOL. II. D
18 OF SPACE.

of their intersection, is at right angles to the 164. Theorem, Straight lines which are
plane passing through those lines. parallel to the same straight line, not in the
Let AB be perpendicular to CD same plane, are parallel to each other.
and EF intersecting each other
From any point in the third line,
in A : take AC at pleasure and
draw perpendiculars to the two
make
through
ACzrAD=AE=AF
A any line
i

GH, and join

draw
and let a plane pass through these per-
tirst,

y
' pendiculars : then the third line is perpendicular to this
CEi, DF; then the triangles ADH, and second are perpen-
plane (161) ; consequently the first
ACG are equal and equiangular,
dicular toil, and therefore parallel to each other (1(13).
AH=:AGandDH=CG;butsince
he CBE, DBF, are equal, and equiangular, the 165. Theorem. If the legs of two
triangles

angles BCG and BDH are equal, and the triangle BCGz:
angles not in the same plane
are parallel, the
BDH, BG:=BH, and the triangles ABG, ABH, are equal
angles are equal.
and equiangular consequently the angle BAG— BAH, and
:

Let AB CD, and BE II DF, then z. B

both are right angles and the same may be proved of any
: 1 1

other line passing through A therefore AB is perpendicular

ABE=CDF. TakeAB=:BE=CD=:DF: Ki
;

CD and EF (145). then AC||=:BD1|=:EF(109), and AE

to the plane passing through
=:CF (log) therefore ABE and CDF
162. Theorem. Three straight lines ;
^^
are equal and equiangular-
Tvhich meet in one point and are perpendi-
cular to one line, are in one plane.
166. Problem. a line perpen- To draw
Let AB, AC, and AD meet in A, dicular to a plane from a given point above
and be perpendicular to AE, then it.

they are all in one plane. For if ei-

From the point A let fall on any line -^i
ther of them AC is out of the plane
BC in the given plane a perpendicular
which passes through the other two, AD draw DE BC in
; perpendicular to
let a plane pass through AE and AC,
the same plane, and from A draw AE ^^ ^
and let it cut the plane of AB and AD AF then the angle
in
to DE then AE will be
:
perpendicular to
perpendicular
EAF is a right ang e (I61), and EAr=EAC, the greater to the plane BEC ; for if EF be parallel toBC, it will be per-
.the less ; which is impossible. ADE and consequently to
pendicular to the plane (163),
163. Theorem. Two straight lines which AE ; therefore AE, being perpendicular to DE and EF,

are perpendicular to the same plane, are pa- will be perpendicular to the plane passing through them.

rallel to each other ; and two [)arallel lines 167. Problem.

given point in a From a
are always perpendicular to the same planes. plane, to erect
a perpendicular to the plane.
LetAB, CD, be perpendicular to From any point above the plane let fall a perpendicular
the plane BED : draw DE at right
on and draw a line parallel to this from the given point :
it,

angles to BD, and equal to AB, then this line will be the perpendicular required.
the hypotenuses AD, BE, will be

equal, and the triangles ABE, EDA, 168. Theorem. If two parallel planes

having all their sides equal, will be are cut by any third plane, their sections are
equiangular, and the angle ADE will lines.
parallel
be aright angle: consequent y DE is perpendicular to the
For if the lines are not parallel, they must meet, and if

plane BC (ISi and to DC (162>, and AB is in the same

,

they meet, the planes in which they are situated must meet,
plane with DC : and ABD and BDC being right angles,
contrarily to the definition
of parallel planes.
ABIICD.
Again, if AB ||CD, and AB is perpendicular to the plane 169. Definition. A parallelepiped is

BED, the triangles ABE and EDA being equiangular, ADE a solid contained by six planes, three of which
is a right ang e tlerefore CDEis a right angle ^l6l) but
are parallel to the other three.
.
;

CDB is
aii^iiiaJigle (los), therefore CD is perpendicular to
BED. 170. Theorem. The opposite planes of
 OF SPACE. 19

are equal and equian- And in the same manner it may be shown that CD=:EF ;
every parallelepiped
therefore AB=CD.
gular parallelograms.
173. Theorem. Parallelepipeds on equal
The opposite sides of all the figures are parallel, because
bases and of the same height are equal.
with two parallel planes
they are the sections of one plane
Each parallelepiped is equal
the corresponding sides of two opposite planes be-
(168):
to each other, contain
to the erect parallelepiped on
in", for the same reason, parallel
also equal, as being the
the same base. Let one of
equal angles (165), and they
are j

these be so placed that the

opposite sides of parallelograms ; consequently the opposite
the doubles of equal triangles, and are therefore plane of one of the sides AB
figures are
may coincide with the plane BC of the other parallelepiped
equal parallelograms.
CD, and that EBC may be a straight line. Then producing
171. Theorem. If a prism be divided
FB, and making CG parallel to it, the parallelepiped BH
by a plane parallel to itstwo opposite sur- will be equal to CD (172). Now completing the parallel-
be to each other as epiped IK, as the parallelogram CF is to EF, so is KI to
faces, segments will
its
AF (171) and as CF to BG, so is KI to BH, but EF is
the segments of any of the divided surfaces
;

equal to the base of AF, and BG to the base of CD, they are
or lines. therefore equal, and the parallelepipeds AF and BH are

A. Mr O
^ =-r 1
H Let the prism AB equal, and AFz;CD.

G ,Nf\,.Ei\ .Ei,\
-lA be divided by the plane 174. Theorem. Parallelepipeds of the
'

F K L CDE parallel to AFG

D B same height are to each other as their bases.
and BHI. Find FK a common measure of FD and DB For one of them is equal to a parallelepiped of the same
(119), make KL=:FK, and let the planes KMN, LOP be height on an equal base which forms a single parallelogram
parallel to AFG then the prisms AK, ML may b& shown with the base of the other and
;
; this is to the other in the
to be contained by similar and equal figures similarly situ- ratio of the bases (171) ; consequently the first two are in
ated, in the same manner as it is shown of parallelepipeds, the same ratio.
and there is no imaginable difference between these prisms :

175. Theorem. Parallelepipeds are to

; and the prism AD
is the same
they are therefore equal
each other in the joint ratio of their bases and
AK that FDisof FK, and AB the same multiple
multiple of
of AK that FB of FK, or AD AK=FD FK, and AB
is : : .
their heights.
AK=:FB FK, whence AD AB=FD FB, and the prisms
: : : For one of them is to a third parallelepiped of the same
are in the same ratio as the segments of the line FB, or of height with itself, but on the basis of the second, in the
the parallelogram GB (27), ratio of the bases, and the third is to the second in the ratio
of the heights, consequently the first is to the second in the
If the segments are incommensurable, they are still in
joint ratio of the bases and the heights. Thus, a and b being
the same ratio, for it
may be shown that the ratio of the
the bases, c andd the heights, e,J, and g the three parallel-
prisms is neither greater nor less than that of the lines.
epipeds, a -.b-.-.e: g, and c.d:: g -.f; ac :
Id^Ze-.f.
172. Theokem.
Parallelepipeds on the Scholium. Hence is derived tlie common mode of
same base and contained between the same finding the content of a solid, by multiplying the nume-
rical representatives of its length, breadth and height, and
planes, are equal.
thus comparing it with the cubic unit of the measure, -
D The parallelepiped AB
CD standing on 176. Theorem. Similar parallelepi|3eds
is equal to
the same base BC, and are in the triplicate ratio of, their homologous
terminated by the plane sides.
AED. For each is equal For the joint ratio of the bases and heights is the same
jj
to the parallelepiped EF ; as the triplicate ratio of the sides.
since the triangular prism
177. Theorem. A plane pjissing through
and equal GB is similar
the diagonals of two opposite sides of a
IQ the triangular prism HC, and deducting these from pa-
the solid HCI, the remainders AB and EF are equal. rallelepiped, divides it into two equal prisms.
20 OF SPACE.

because the lines in which In any incremen t of the solid,

The diagonals are paraJlel,
are parallel and equal, and every line
and which is cut off by planes determin-
they terminate
C angle of the one prism is equal to the ing the increment of the height, sup-

corresponding line and angle of the other pose a prismatic or cylindroidal solid
the are to be inscribed, of which the base is
prism ; consequently prisms
^^ equal. Thus AB=CD, AE=CF, DE= equal to the upper surface of the segment, and the sides

BF, the angle EAB=DCK, EAH=:GCF, such that a line may always be drawn in them parallel to a

and BAH=DCG. given line passing through the vertex and the basis of the
solid and let anothtr solid be similarly described on the
178. Theorem. Prisms are to each oilier
:

lower surface of the segment as a basis: then it is obvious

in the joint ratio of their bases and their
that the increment is always greater than the inscribed

heights. solid, and less than the circumscribed ; and that when
Triangular prisms are in the same ratio as the paral- the increment is diminished without limit, its two sur-

lelepipeds on bases twice as of which they are the

great, faces are ultimately in the ratio of equality, and the in-

halves; and all prisms may be divided into triangular crement coincides with the cylindroid described on its basis.
drawn
prisms, by planes passing through lines similarly Such solids may be termed in general pyramidoidal.
on and they will be equal together to the
their ends,
181. Theorem. All pyramidoidal solids
half of a parallelepiped on a basis twice as great ;
conse-
are equal to one third of the circumscribing
quently two such prisms are in the same ratio
as the pa-

rallelepipeds. prismatic or cylindroidal solids of the same

179. Theorem. All solids of which the height.
The area of each section of such a figure parallel to the
opposite surfaces are planes, and the sides
basis, is
proportional to the square of its distance from the
such that a straight line may be drawn in plane of the vertex. For each section is either a polygon
them from any point of the circumference similar to the basis, or it may have'polygons inscribed and
of the ends parallel to a given line, are to circumscribed, which are similar to polygons inscribed and

each other in the joint ratio of their bases circumscribed in and round the basis, and which may differ

less from each other in magnitude than any assignable quan-

and their heights.
tity,consequentlyeach section is as the square of any homo-
the
For they are terminated by rectilinear figures,
if
logous line belonging to it, or, by the properties of similar
solids are prisms ; and if they are terminated by curvilinear
triangles, as the square of the distance from the vertex, or
they will always be greater than prismatic figures,
figures,
from the plane of the vertex. If then the area of the base
of which the bases are inscribed polygons, and less than
be a, the whole height b, and the distance of any sec-
figures of which the bases are circumscribed polygons; and
tion from the plane of the vertex x, the area of the section
if the proposition be denied, it will always be possible to

inscribe a prism in one of the solids which shall be greater will be —

bo
.a, and the fluxion of the solid ttx'x, of which
bb
than any solid bearing to the other solid a ratio assignably
less than the ratio determined by the proposition, and to the fluent is i —a
x', and when xzzb, the content is lax,
bb
circumscribe a prism than any solid bearing a ratio
less
which one third of the content of the whole prismatic or
is

assignably greater. Such solids may not improperly be

is one third of the cir-
cylindroidal solid. Hence a pyramid
called cylindroids.
cumscribing prism, and a cone one third of the circum-
180. Theorem. The fluxion of any solid
scribing cylinder.
described by the revolution of an indefinite 182. Theorem. Thefluxion of any solid
line passing through a vertex, and moving is equal to the parallelepiped of which the

round any figure equal to the

in a plane, is
base is equal to the section of the solid, and
of which the
prismatic or cylindroidal solid, the height to the fluxion of its height.
base is the section parallel to the given plane, For every part of a solid may be considered as touching

and the height the fluxion of the height. some pyramidoidal solid, and having the same fluxion :
 OF SPACE. \\

tiid the fluxion expressed by a cylindroid is equal to a pa- mine the place of thg requued image of the
rallelepiped on the same base and of the same height.
point.
183. Theorem. The curve surface of a For A being the eye, and

sphere equal to the rectangle contained by

is B the vanishing point of
r^~ B I A.

its versed sine and the sphere's circumference.

the line CD; AB and CD
The fluxion of the surface being parallel, are in the
is
obviously equal to the rect-
angle contained by the fluxion of the circumference and
same plane, and AD is also

the circumference of the circle of which the radius is the

in that plane (62) ;
and BC is the intersection of this plane

varies therefore as the sine but the fluxion of with that of the picture therefore E, the image of the
sine ;
it ;
;

the cosine or of the versed sine varies as the sine, conse- point D, is
always in the line BC ;
and AB CD : :: BE EC:
;

quently the surface varies as the versed sine. Now where and taking the parallel lines BF, CG, in the same ratio, FG
the tangent becomes parallel to the axis, the fluxion of the will also cut BC in E. When AB is
perpendicular to the

becomes equal plane, B is called the point of sight, and is the vanishing
surface to the rectangle contained by the
sphere's circumference, and the fluxion of the versed sine : point of all lines
perpendicular to the plane of the picture ;

hence the whole surface of any segment and the vanishing point of any other line may be found by
is equal to the
whole rectangle contained by its versed sine and the setting off from B a line equal to the tangent of its inclina-

sphere's circumference ; and the surface of the whole

tion to the perpendicular line, the radius being AB.
is four times the area of a great circle. Scholium. When a line becomes parallel to the plane
sphere
of the picture, the distance of its vanishing point becomes
184. Theorem. The content of a sphere and the image is therefore parallel to the original.
infinite,
is two thirds of that of the
circumscribing cy- In this case, the magnitude of the image may be deter-

linder. mined by means of lines drawn in any other direction

The fluxion of the sphere is to that of the cylinder as the through the extremities of the original line. In the ortho-

square of the sine to the square of the radius ; or if the graphical projection, the images of all parallel lines what-
fluxion of the cylinder be aabi, that of the sphere will be ever become parallel, the distance of the eye, and conse-

(aor — xx]bi, or labxx —hxxi, of which the fluent is ali* quently that of the vanishing point, becoming infinite.

— it'j' ; which, when x-zia, becomes \aH; while the con- 186. Definition. The subcontrary sec-
tent of the cylinder is a?b.- -

tion of a scalene cone is that which is

per-
185. Theorem. When a picture is
pro-
pendicular to the triangular section of the
jected on a plane, by right lines supposed to cone passing through the axis, and perpen-
be drawn from each point to the eye, the
dicular to the base, and which cuts off" IVom
whole image of every right line, produced it a triangle similar to the whole, but in a
without limit, a right line drawn from its
is
contrary position.
intersection with the plane of projection, to
187. Theorem. The subcontrary section
its
vanishing point, or the point where a line of a scalene cone is a circle.
drawn from the eye, parallel to the given A of the
Through any point
line, meets the plane of projection ; and this section, let a plane be drawn

divided by the image of any given

is parallel to the base then its
image ;

section will be a circle, as is

point in the ratio of the portion of the line
easily shown by the properties
intercepted by that point and the picture, to of similar triangles j
and the
the line drawn from the eye to the vanishing common section of the planes

point ; so that if any two parallel lines be will be perpendicular to the

drawn from the ends of the whole image, triangular section of the cone to which they are both per-

pendicular consequently, ABqirCB.BD ;

but since the
and the distances of the eye and of the given ;

triangles CBE, FBD are equiangular and similar, CB BE:

point be laid oft' on them respectively, the ::BF:BD, and CB.BD=BE.BF=ABq ; therefore EAF
line joining the points thus found, will deter- is also a circle.
22 OF THE PROPERTIES OF CURVES.

188. Theorem. The stereograpliic pro- representation, may deduce from this proposition a demon-
stration of the theorem for determining the fluxion of the
jection of any circle of a sphere, seen from
product of two quantities (48) ; for every rectangle may be
a point in its surface, on a plane perpendicular
diagonally divided into two such figures as are here consi-
to the diameter passing through that point, dered, and the sum of their fluxions, according to this pro-

is a circle. position, will be the same with the fluxion of the rectangle"
determined by that theorem.
Let ABC be a great circle
of the sphere passing through 191. Definition. A flexible line being
the point A and the centre of
supposed to be applied to any curve, and to
the circle to be projected, then be gradually unbent, the curve described
by
the angle ACB=BAD=BEF, its
extremity is called the involute of the first
and ABC=CAGzzCHI, and
the triangle AHE is similar to curve, and that curve the evolute of the se-
CV ~K D ABC, and the plane ABC is cond.
perpendicular to the plane
BC and the plane HE, there- 192. Definition. The radius of cur-
fore HE is a subcontrary section of the cone ABC, and is
vature of the involute is that portion of the
consequently a circle.
flexible line which is unbent, when any part
of it is described.

193. 1 heorem. The radius of curvature

SECTION IV. OF THE PROPERTIES OF
CURVES. always touches the evolute, and is
perpendi-
cular to the involute.
189. Definition. Any parallel right If the radius of curvature did not touch the evolute, it

lines intercepted between a curve and a would make an angle with it, and would therefore not be
and unbent ; and if the evolute were a polygon composed of
given right line, are called ordinates,
right lines, each part of the involute would be a portion of
each part of that line intercepted between an
a circle, and its tangent therefore perpendicular to the ra-
ordinate and the curve, is the absciss corres-
dius : but the number of sides is of no consequence, and if

ponding to that ordinate. it became infinite, the curvature would be continued, and

190. Theorem. The fluxion of the area the curve would still at each point be perpendicular to the

radius of curvature.
of any figure is equal to the parallelogram
contained by the ordinate and the fluxion of 194. Theorem. The chord cut off" in the

the absciss. ordinate by the circle of curvature, is directly

Let AB be the absciss, and BC the
as the square of the fluxion of the curve, and
ordinate, through C draw DCE [ | AB,
and take DC::DE=:half the incre- inversely as the second fluxion of the ordi-
ment of AB, then the simultaneous nate, that is, as the fluxion of its fluxion.
increment of the figure ABC will ul-
The constant fluxion of the absciss
coincide with the
timately figure being equal to AB, the fluxion of the or-
FCGEB, since the curve ultimately A
dinate at ,
is BC, at D, DE, consequent-
coincides with its tangent (l4l), but the triangles CDF, ly its increment is CD-I-BE, or CD+AF,
CEG, are equal, therefore the parallelogram DBE is ulti-
twice the sagitta of the arc AD : and the chord is equal to
mately equal to the increment of ABC. And if any other the square of AC divided by CD, and it is therefore always
line than DE represent the fluxion of AB, as DE is to this in the direct ratio of the square of the fluxion of the curve,

line, so is the parallelogram DBE to the parallelogram con- and the inverse ratio of the second fluxion of the ordinate.
tained by BC and this line ; therefore that parallelogram is

the fluxion of ABC 195. When the curve ap-

Theorem.
(46).
Scholium, Those who mode of near to the absciss, the cur-
prefer the geometrical proaches infinitely
 OF THE PROPERTIES OF CUUVES. 23
vature is
simply as the second fluxion of tlie FG4.FA=aFD=2BE, and FG-FA=AG=:2AD; also
ordinate. BG=2BH, and BA=2BI, whence BGq— BAq=:4HIq,
For the fluxion of the curve becomes
equal to that of the therefore BE.AD=HIq, and BE=:—3, but BE : BC : :

absciss, and the perpendicular chord to the diameter.

196. Definition. If the sum of two AD :

AC, and BE^AD.l'^^lUS,
AC AD'
or ^=1^
AC
lines drawn from each
ADq
right point of a curve
to two given
200. Theorem. The chord of the circle
points, is
constant, the curve is
of equal curvature with an
an and the two points are its foci. ellipsis at any
ellipsis,
point, passing through the focus, equal to
is
197. Definition. The right line pass-
twice the harmonic mean of the distances of
ing through the and terminated by the
foci,
the foci from the given
curve, is the greater axis, and the line bisect- point, or to the pro-
duct of the distances divided
ing it at right
angles, the lesser axis.
by one fourth
of the greater axis.
198. Theorem. A right lino passing
Let AB be an eva-
through any point of an ellipsis, and making
nescent arc of the el-
equal angles with the right lines drawn to the
lipsis coinciding with
foci, is a tangent to the the tangent, then the
ellipsis.
1''===^—— — ''
Let AB make equal
radius of curvature bi-

angles with BC and secting always the an-

BD, then it will touch gle CAD or CBD, the

the ellipsis in B. Let

E where the radii
point

E be any other point AEand BE meet will ul-

in AB. Produce timately be the centre of the circle Of equal curvature. Let
DB,
take BF, BG, be AC, AD, then BH, bisecting FBG,
parallel to
BF=;BC,and join
CF, then AB will AE: but EBH=CBF+FBH— CBEr:
be parallel to
bisects the angle CBF, and CAB is a right
angle. Join
EC, ED, EF, GD, then EC=EF, and EC+ CBF-(-^FBG— iCBD = CBF — iCBF -f-iDBG= | (CBF-)-
ED=EF+ED, and is greater than DF (79), or BC+BD, DBG)=:L(ACB-f-ADB). Now in the triangles ABC, ABD,
or GC+GD, therefore E is not in the as AC is so is AB to the sine of ACB, and
to the sine of ABC,
ellipsis, and AB
touches it. as AD is to the sine of ABD, so is AB to the sine of BDA -

but the sines of ABC and ABD are ultimately equal con-
199. Theorem. The right lines drawn
;

sequently ACB and ADB are inversely as AC and AD, or

from any point of the the foci, are
ellipsis to as their reciprocals, and EBH or AEB, which is the half
to each other as the
square of half the lesser sum of ACB and ADB, is as the mean of those reciprocals :

axis to the
square of the perpendicular from letBI be the reciprocal of that mean, or the harmonic
either focus, on the mean of AC and AD, then the angle AIBziAEB ; for the
tangent at that point.
evanescent angles ACB, AIB, or their sines, are recipro-
Let A and B be the
cally as AC, AI, beini; opposite to the same angle BAE
foci, C the point of
and having AB opposite to them for the same reason
contact, and AD the
;

taking BK=2BI,AKB is half of AEB; consequently K is in"

perpendicular to the
the circle of curvature, and BK is its chord.
tangent CD, draw BE
and BF parallel to AD 201. Theorem. The
square of the per-
and CD, produce AD
pendicular falling on the tangent of an ellipsis
each way, and let it
from its focus, is to the square of the distance
meet BF and BC in F and G. Then sincez.ACD=BCE
=DCG, CG=AC;andBG=:AC+BC. And BFq^TBGq of the point of contact from the focus, as a
— FGqZ:BAq_FAq (lis), therefore BGq — third proportional to the axes is to the focal
BAq=:FGq
— FAq; but (FG+FA).(FG-FA)=FGq-rAq; and chord of curvature.
Q* OF THE PROPERTIES OF CURVES.

It has been shown nates, and the correspondfng areas are also in the same
ratio (47).~
thatABq:CDq-:AE:
EF (199), therefore 204. Definition. If the square of the
III ABq AEq : : :
CDq :

absciss is equal to the rectangle contained

AE.EF;butthe chord
by the ordinate and a given quantity, the
of curvature EG is

curve is a parabola, and the given quantity

gAE.E F
, and AE.EF=iEG.CH, therefore ABq AEq : : :

CH its parameter.
Scholium. Thus
CDq : 1 EG.CH : :

2^ : EG. -
ABq=:P.BC. If the

Scholium. It may easily be demonstrated that a per- axes of an ellipsis are

pendicular to the normal of the curve, or to the line perpen- supposed infinite it be-

dicular to its tangent, passing through the point where

it
comes a parabola, for A JB B B
chord of curvature, and
•—'iz ——
meets the axis, bisects the focal
smce , if a becomes infinite, xx vanishes in
that a perpendicular falling from the same point on the

chord, cuts off a constant portion from it, equal to_the third
comparison
^ of flo", and ,
ax a
,
—r~v', and —a is the pa-
a'
proportional to the semiaxes.

Theorem. The rameter of the parabola and the distance from the focus is
square of any
202. or- ;

in a constant ratio to the square of the perpendicular falling

dinate of an ellipsis to the lesser axis,
parallel on the tangent.
is to die rectangle contained by the segments
205. Definition. When the ordinate
of the greater axis, as the square of the lesser
is as any other power of the absciss than the
axis to the square of the greater.
second, the curve is still a parabola of a dif-
On the centre A de- ferent order.
scribe the circle BODE Thus when the ordinate is as the third power of the ab-
through
passing the
sciss the curve is a cubic parabola.
EF
jtHj focus B ;
then :

206. Theorem. any figure be sup-

If
BF: : OF: DF ()38).
posed to roll on another, and any point in
CallHT,a,HB,i.,AB,T,
—
GH,«, then EFr=2a, BF=2J', CF=2BH 2BG=2GH=
its
plane to describe a curve,
that curve will

DFz;EF— ED=2a— 2x, and 2a 2i 2z 2a— 2i', : : : :

be to the right line
21, always jjerpendicular
a:l::z: a—x, a a+l z z + a—x a+z 2tt—x : : : :
and the point of
joining the describing point
: : :

+i+x (32) also a a— I z z—{a—x) a—z la

;
: : : : : :

contact.
_x— (fc-fit),
and by multiplying the terras, aa : aa— lb : :

then the point

IG. Suppose the figures rectilinear polygons ;

(2a— x)*— (i+^^jS or Hlq.HKq : :

(a+»).(a-») :

of contact will always be the centre of motion, and the

GL AFq— GFq, or AGq.
•.

of circles
figure described will consist of portions meeting
203. Theorem. The area of an elhpsis each other in finite angles, so that each portion will be
is to that of its circumscribing circle, as the always perpendicular to the radius, though
no two radii

lesser axis to the greater. meet in the point of contact. And if the number of sides

For since the square of the ordinate is to the rectangle be increased without limit, the polygons will approach in-

contained by the segments of the axis, or to the square of finitelynear to curves, and each portion of the curve de-

the correspondingordinateof the circle (13"), as the square scribed will still be perpendicular to the line passing through

of the lesser axis to that of the greater, the ordinate itself the point of contact.

is to that of the circle in the constant ratio of the lesser 207. Definition. A circle being sup-
straight line, the curve
axis to the greater. For four quantities are proportional,
posed to roll on a
if

their squares are proportional, and the reverse. But the

described by a point in the circumference is
fluxions of the areas are equal to the rectangles contained
called a cycloid.
by these ordinates and the same fluxion of the absciss

(190), they are therefore in the constant ratio of the ordi-

208. Theorem. The evolute of a cycloid
 OF THE PROPERTIES OF CURVES. 25

and the length of its arc For the fluxion of the base becoming ultimately equal to
is an eqiial cycloid,
that of the absciss in the corresponding circle, while the
is double that of the portion of the tangent ordinates are also equal, the curve ultimately coincides
cut off by the vertical tangent. with a portion of that circle.
Let two equal cir-
213. Theorem. The area of each half
cles AB, BC, rolling

on the of the figure of sines is equal to the square

parallel bases

DA and EB, at the of the vertical ordinate.

distance of a diame- For the fluxion of the absciss
ter of the circles, de- being constant, tliat of the sine
scribe with the points .varies as the cosine (142), there-
F and G the equal cy- fore the fluxion of the ordinate of

cloids EF and EG. the figure of sines may always be

Draw the diameter FH H will be the point that
;
then represented by the corresponding
coincided with D, and HA=DA=EB= arc BG, and the ordinate of the conjugate figure. Let AB, CD, be the con-

remainders AF and GC^re equal, therefore ./.ABF:^CBG jugate figures, then EF will represent the fluxion of EG,

(133), and FBG is a right line («a). But FG is perpendi- and, since the arcand sine are ultimately equal, the
fluxion

cular to AF (134), therefore it touches EF (206), and it is of EG at C will be equal to that of the absciss, therefore BC
always perpendicular to (2oa) EG ; therefore EG will coin- will always represent the constant fluxion of the abscisi.
cide with the involute of EF, for they set out together from But the fluxion of the area AEF, is the rectangle under the

E, and are always perpendicular to the same line

FG (193), fluxion of the absciss AE and the ordinate EF ; that is, the

which they could not be they ever separated. Conse- BC and EG, and the fluent
if rectangle under the fluxion of

•quently the curve EF is always equal to FG (192), or 2FB, BC.(AD— EG) is therefore equal to the area, which at C
twice the portion of the tangent cut off by EB. becomes BCq.

209. Theorem. The

fluxion of the cy- 214. Definition. Each ordinate of the
cloidal arc is to that of the basis, as tlie figure of sines being diminished in a given
evolved radius to the dianieler of the g«ne- ratio, the curve becomes the harmonic curve.
Scholium. The ordinates being diminished in a con-
rating circle.
For the increment GI=sBK, and BK stant proportion, their increments and fluxions are dimi-
p :

BL : : BG :
BC, and 2BK. BL :FG BC, : : : nished in the same proportion, the fluxion of the base re-

which is therefore the ratio of the flux- maining constam.

ions. 215. Theorem. The radius of curvature
ScHOiiuM. If the fluxion of the base at the vertex of the harmonic curve is to that
be constant, that of the curve will v^ry as
of the figure of sines, on the same base, as the
the distance of the describing point from
the point of contact. greatest ordinate of the figure of sines to tliat
210. Definition. If the absciss be of the harmonic curve.
For taking any equal evanescent portions of the vertical
«qual to the arc of a given circle, and the
tangents the radii will be inversely as the sagittae, which are
perpendicular ordinate to the corresponding similar portions of the corresponding ordinates, and ate
sine, the curve will be a figure of sines. •therefore to each other in the ratio of those ordinates.
211. Definition. If a second figure of 216. Theorem. The of which
figure,
sines be added,
by taking ordinates equal to the ordinates are the sums of the correspond-
the cosines, the pair be called conju-
may ing ordinates of any two harmonic curves, oa
gate figures of sines. equal bases, but crossing the absciss at dilfer-
212. Theorem. The radius of curvature ent points, is also a harmonic curve.
of the figure of sines at the vertex is
equal to The absciss of the one curve being x, that of the other
the ordinate. will be a-\-x, and the ordinates will be 2i.(sin. x) and c. (sin .

VOL. 11. <

26 OF THE PROPEBTIES OF CURVES.

a+x); now sin. o+J;— (cos. Jt).(sin. a) + (cos. o,).(sln. ar) sum or difference of the segments will be the joint ordinate:
and the joint ordinate will be (i+c.(cos. o)).(sin. x) +c. and if a circle be described through the point of intersec-

(sin. a). (cos. x) ; if therefore d be the angle of which the tion, touching the common chord of the two circles, and
.(sin. a) having its radius equal to the distance of their centres, this
tangent is
;
its sine and cosine will be in the ratio
i+c.(cos.n) circle will always cut off in the revolving line a portion
of c.(sin.o.) to i+c(cos. a), and (cos. (i).(sin. x) + (sin. d). equal to the ordinate. For if AB be made parallel to CD,
(cos. x), will be to the ordinate in the constant ratio of sin. and EB toFG,^ABEziCGF=CHK : but EIB is a right
d to c.(sin. a) ; but (cos. d).(sin. x) + (sin. d).(cos. x) is the angle, as well as HCF, and EI IB : : -. FC : CH : : AE CH,:

sine of rf+x ; consequently the newly formed figure is a since AF is equal to twice the distance of the centres, which
harmonic curve. bisect AH and FH, and therefore to CE, and FC=AE, or
The same maybe shown EI : AE : : ir CH
:
;
but EI : AE : : ID :
AC, therefore IB :

^ two geometrically, by placing CH : : ID

and ii.DBI— CHA=:DKA,and AD
:
AC, and the triangles ACH, DIB,
a parallelogram, con-
are similar,

circles, having their is

diameters equal to the sequently KDzr ABmCG.

greatest ordinates of the If the circle CG be supposed to revolve round C, the in-

separate curves, so as to in- tersection H

show the angular distance of the
will always

tersect each other in an point in which the curve crosses the axis ; and the distance
of the centres will be equal to the greatest ordinate.
angle equal to twice the angular distance of the origin of If

the curves : then a right line revolving round their intersec- therefore the circles are equal, the greatest ordinate wUlalso

tion with an equable velocity will have segments cut off vary as the chord of an arc increasing equably, or as the

by each circle equal to the corresponding ordinate, and the ordinatt of the harmonic curve.
 MATHEMATICAL ELEMENTS
OF

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

PART IL
MECHANICS.
OF THE MOTIONS OF SOLID BODIES.

SECTION I. OF MOTION. 221. Theorem. A moving point never

Axiom. Like causes produce like quits the line of its direction without a new
217.
effects, or, in similar circumstances, similar
disturbing cause.
A right line being the same with respect
consequences ensue.
tO all no reason can be imagined why
sides,
218. Definition. Motion Is the change
the point should incline to one side more
of rectilinear distance between two points. than another. Let AB be the direction of -A.

319. Definition. A space or surface, the motion of A in the plane ABC, ahd let

of which the points remain spontaneously

all CB and DB be equal, and perpendicular to

at equal distances from each other, is said to AB, then the triangles ABC and ABD are equal (8C), and
A is
similarly related to C and D. Then if A depart from
be quiescent, or at rest within itself.
AB, and be found in any point out of it, as E, ED will be
Scholium, The term " spontaneously" is introduced,
greater than EC (l03), and A will
be no longer similarly
in order to exclude from the definition of a
quiescent space related to C and D, contrarily to the general law of induc-
any surface, of which the points are only retained at rest tion (217).
by means of a centripetal force, while they revolve round a
common
222. Definition. The times in which
centre; for with respect to such a revolving space
or surface, the motions of any body will deviate from the a point, moving without disturbance, de-
laws which govern them in other cases. scribes equal parts of the line of its direction,
220. Definition. When
a point is in are called equal times.
motion with respect a quiescent space,
to 223. Theorem. The equality of time*
the right line joining any two of its proxi- being estimated by any one motion, all other
mate places is called its direction ; such a points, moving without disturbance, will de-
point is often simply denominated a moving scribe equal portions of their lines of direc-

point. tions in equal times.

S8 OF ACCELERATING FORCES.

ACE
"

line,
' '

and while
A
-RDV
——
'

A
'

describes
G•
Let

moving
A

AC, let B describe BD;

and B be
.

in the same
Let A, B, and C, be three quiescent

points, and let /

Z, Y, and X, be three
points in another plane which moves ^i____/
in the direction AZ, BY then the ^
"^
Y
^ XB C

then while describes CE=:AC, B will describe DI'"^ ;

BD. For suppose AC=2BD, and let AG=2AB, then point A has a rectilinear motion with respect to the plane

AB and BG have been equally decrca<;ed in one instance, ZYX ;

now while AZ is described by Z, let A have a mo^
its own plane equal to AB then it will have two
and tlic relations remaining the same, they will still be tion in ;

equally decreased (217) ; for the relative motion of A and motions with respect to ZYX, by the joint effect of which
B is<qual to that of B and G, and any absolute motion be- it will arrive at X in thatplane ; and if the motions are

ing no way determinable, there can be no reason why the both equable, it may be shown by the properties of similar
one should be otherwise affected than the other ;
therefore triangles, that it describes the diagonal ZX. Now it is of

CE will be twice DP : and a similar proof miglu be given no consequence to tha relative motion of A and ZXY,
in cases more complicated. which, or whether either, be imagined to be absolutely at
number of points rest therefore, in general , the result of two motions in a
224. Theorem, If any ;

quiescent space, is the diagonal of the parallelogram of

wove in parallel describing equal spaceslines,
which the would be described by the separate motions.
sides
in equal times, they are quiescent with re- And the motion thus produced is precisely the same as if
spect to each other ; and if all the points of derived from a simpler cause.

a plane move in this manner on another Theorem.

227. Any equable motions
plane, either plane will be in rectilinear
mo- the sides of a triangle or po-
represented by
tion with respect to the other. same
lygon, supposed to take place in the
Let A, B, and C, describe, in a moveable point, in directions parallel to those
given time, the equal parallel
sides, and in the order of going round the
lines AD, BE, CF, then ABnDE,
figure, destroy each other, and the point re-
EF=BC, and DF=AC (109),

J;'
and the points are mutually qui- mains at rest.

escent (218, 219). For two sides of the triangle, AB, BC, JB

If a plane be are sides of the parallelogram ABCD,

225. Definition. in rec-
by the motions AB, BC,or AB,
therefore A
tilinear motion with respect to another, and
AD, A would arrive at C, while by the
if, besides this general motion of the plane, motion CA it would be brought back to A J)

any point be supposed to have a particular in the same time and the motions being equable,
;
all it

will always remain in A. In--the same manner the proof

motion in it, it will have two motions with
may be extended to any number of sides and the truth of
respect to the other plane,
one in common ;

the proposition will also appear by considering several suc-

with its plane, and the other peculiar to it- cessive planes as moving on each other, and the point A as
self; and the joint eifect of these motions moving in the last.

with respect to the other plane, is called the

result of the two motions.

£26. Theorem. The result of two mo- SECT. II. OF ACCELERATING FORCES.
tions with respect to a quiescent space is the
228. Definition. Any immediate cause
diagonal of the parallelogram of which the
sides would be described by the separate mo- of a change of motion is called a force.
ScHOLruM. The essential nature of force is unknown to
tions ;
and any motion may be considered
us ; even in cases of apparent impulse, the bodies are not
as the result of any other motions thus com- actually in contact. When a body is once in motion, it

it. Deeds no foreign power to sustain its velocity (223)

posing ; and the
 OF ACCELERATIXG FORCt:S. 29

action of such a cause in the direction of motion can

they are also as the spaces
its forces inversely;
only increase or diminish that velocity. and the final velocities inversely:
directly,
229. Definition. When the increase or the final velocities are also as the spaces
diminution of the velocity of a moving body and the times inversely.
directly,
is uniform, its cause is called a uniform
Since x=— f=v^(—),
, and if a=:i, (=1'=:»/(2t} ;
2 "
force the increments of space which would
:
\ •^

be described in any given time with the ini- and since xzz-,
fv

2
t— —
2t
V
, and «:= —
2X
t
.

tial velocities, being always equally increased 234. Theorem. The forces are as the
or diminished.
spaces directly, and the squares of the times
Scholium. The power of gravitation acting at the

earth's surface, in a direction perpendicular to it, may, inversely, beginning from the state of rest.
2.T
without sensible error, be considered as such a force. For 2i:=a/<, and a^.—.
tt
230. Theorem. The velocity produced
235. Theorem. The fluxions of the
force is
pro-
by any uniformly accelerating
and squares of the velocities are as the fluxions of
portional to the magnitude of
the force,
the spaces, and
the forces, conjointly',
as
the time of its operation, conjointly.
whether the forces be uniform or variable.
For the time and the velocity flow equably (229, 4;).
In the evanescent time the variation of the force va- -

Calling the accelerating force a, the time t, and the velo- t',

nishes in comparison with the whole, and v'zzat' (23o),

city u, at : 1) is a constant quantity ;
or making this quan-
whence izzat; butiziut (23i), therefore aJi=:t)h'', ai=:
tity unity, atzzv. It may be shown by the composition of

niotion that a double action produces a double velocity. vi-=i\{vvy (49).

231. Theohem. The increment of space 236. Theorem. In considering the ef^

described is as the increment of the time, fectsof a retarding force, the body may be

and as the velocity, conjointly. supposed to be at rest in a moveable plane,

This is evident from the definition of velocity (45) ; call- and the motion generated by the force may
ing the space described .r, x'—vt'. If the velocity is varia- be deducted from that of the plane.
ble, the increment must be considered as evanescent. For X beecomes — i', and, ifWm, — xzi\tt, that is, the

232. Theorem, The space described by diminution of the space which would be described varies
It is also obvious, that the de-
means of a uniformly accelerating force, is as the square of the time.

as the square of the time of its action ; it is grees by which an ascending body is retarded, being the
same as those by which it is accelerated in descending, the
also equal to half the space which would be same
velocities will be the same at the heights.
described in the same time with the final
237. Theorem. If two forces act in the
velocity and
the forces vary, the spaces
if
on a moveable body, varying
;
same right line
are as the forces, and the squares of the
inversely as the square of its distance from
times, conjointly. two given points, of which the distance is a,
Since u— at (230), and x'zzvl' (231), x'^zzatl' alsoiz:a«
their magnitudes being expressed by b and e
(4fi), of which the fluents are x^ — (49)=:
— . There-
at the distance d, the square of the velocity
X
fore varies as tt, or as atl, and v being the velocity ac-
generated in the passage of the body from
quired in the time tv instead of liw v?ould be described
any two points of which
t,
tlie distances from
with that velocity in the same time.
the first centre are successive values of x, is-
Scholium. The space described by the fall of a heavy
the difference of the
body in one second is 16.0916 feet. corresponding values of
233. Theorem. The times are as the
square roots of the spaces directly, and of the
30 OF CENTRAt FORCES.

The sum of the forces actfng on the body is —

ax
± —— -->
(a±:x)'
ABq which
CD
, is as the square of the velocity
directly, and

^
and smce vvzzfi,
•'
.
vzz
. M'i
i;, — —-,
rd'r
;
and —=
tit) W inversely as the chord of the circle of curvature of the arc
XX («±.ry 2 X AC.

—-,wt;=::+:(/2M' K 9rd'\
—ccP —— , , ., —
/2f\ . Now the velocity generated during the description of BC
) ; and if c=:o, v—^/ )<«•
a±x \ x a±.xl \^ I is expressed by twice BC, since the force maybe considered
Scholium. In the case of a body projected from the for an instant as constant :
consequently it is to the orbital

moon towards the earth, dr:20,900,ooo feet, arieod, b'zz velocity as twice BC to AB, or as twice AB to ED, or as

32.2 feet, the velocity produced in i" at the earth's surface; AB to half CD ;
and if the time of the action of the force

_ 1 . . . ,
czz—b, nearly; then taking xzz
2ig
a,
•

— at the moon s sur-

were continued during the time that half CD would be
described with the orbital velocity, it would generate a

face, and — a, at the point where the force becomes neu-

velocity equal to that velocity
CD
; but in this time one fourth
94 of only would be described by its action.

tral,we have
a
(
V219
— 70/
X220 and
a
{
^84
— I

roo/
)
240. Theorem. When a body describes
a circle by means of a force directed to its
X94, of which the difference is , or .09646M,
every where equal to
I

a centre, its is
velocity
and its square root about 8070 feet. Hence, if the velocity that which it would acquire in falling by the
of a projectile from the moon exceed 8070 it
may
feet, pass same uniform force through half tlie radius;
the neutral point, and descend to the earth ; where its velo-
and the force is as the square of the velocity
city will become more than 36000 feet in a second.
directly, and as the radius inversely.
For in this case the chord, passing through the centre,
becomes a diameter.
SECTION III. OF CENTRAL FORCES.
241. Theorem. In equal circles the forces
238. Definition. accelerating force An are as the squares of the times inversely.
to a out of the line of direction For the velocities are inversely as the times, and the de-
tending point
flective chords are equal.
of a moving body, deflects it from that line,
242. Theorem. If the times are equal,
and is then usually called a central force.
the velocities are as the radii, and the forces
239. Theorem. The
force, by which a
are also as the radii, and, in general, ihe
body is deflected into
any curve, is directly
forces are as the distances directly, and the
as the square of the
velocity, and inversely
as that chord of the circle of squares of the times inversely ; and the
equal curvature,
which is in the direction of tl>e force; and squares of the times are directly as the dis-
stances, and inversely as the forces.
the velocity in the curve
equal to that is
For the velocities are as the distances directly, and as the
which would be generated by the same force, times inversely and the squares of the velocities are as the
;

during the description of one fourth of the squares of the distances directly, and as the squares of the
chord by its uniform action. times inversely ; consequently the forces are as the radii di-

For the force is as the space described by rectly,andthesquarcs of the times inversely; and the squares
of the times are as the radii directly, and as the forces in-
its action, beginning from a state of rest, or

as the evanescent sagitta through which the versely.

body is drawn from the tangent of the _curve 243. Theorem. If the forces are in-
in a given instant of time : but the portion AB
of the tangent described in a given instant
versely as the squares of the distances, the
is

squares of the times are as the cubes of the

as the velocity, and BC=: —=, or ultimately
disl^ances.
 OF CENTRAL FORCES. 31

For the squares of the tiines are as the distances directly, evanescent portion of time by the ve-

and as the forces inversely (24a) ;

that is, in this case, as the locity at D, FG the arc of a circle on

distances and as the squares of the distances, or as the cubes the centre C, and GE its tangent; and

of the distances. while BF would be described by the

velocity at B, let FH be added to it by
244. Theorem. The right line joining the attractive force ;
draw the arc HI
a revolving body and its centre of attraction, EL HDC, and
and its tangent IK, and

always describes equal areas

in equal times, KL perpendicular to DK, then DG :

and the velocity of the body is inversely as DE : : GI : EK : : EK :

EL, by si-

milar triangles ; therefore, GI is to EL

the perpendicular drawn from the centre to
in the duplicate ratio of DG to DE,
the tangent. or as the square of DG to the square

Let AB be a tangent of DE (124) : therefore EL will be

to any curve in which the space described by the attractive force, while DB
a body is retained by an would be described by the velocity at D ;
for the force
attractive force directed may be considered as uniform during the description of
to C, and let AB repre- the evanescent increments ; and the spaces described by
sent its velocity atA, means of such a force are as the squares of the times : hence
or the space which would be described in an instant of the joint result will be DL, which is
ultimately equal to
time without disturbance, and AD the action of C in the DK, and the whole velocity will be increased in the ratio

same time ; then completing the parallelogram, AE will of DK to DE, or DI to DG, or BH to BF ; consequently,
be the joint result (226) ; again, take EF=AE, and EF since H, I,and K, are ultimately equidistant from C, the
will now represent its spontaneous motion in another equal velocities in AB and AD, being always equally increased

instant of time, and by the action of C it will again describe at equal distances, will therefore always remain equal at
the diagonal of a parallelogram EG ;
but the triangles
equal distances.
ABC, AEC ; AEG, ECF ; EOF, EGG, being between the
Theorem. If a body revolves in
246.
same parallels, are equal (117); and if
they be infinitely
an elliptic orbit, by a force directed to one
diminished, and the action of C become continual, they will
be the evanescent increments of the area described by the of the foci, the force is
inversely as the
revolving radius, while the body moves in the curvilinear
square of the distance.
orbit ; and the whole areas described in equal times will
The force is
directly as the square of the velocity, and
therefore be equal. And since the constant area ABC^
inversely as the deflective chord ; but the velocity is in-

AB.iCH (117, 114), AB=2ABC.— , therefore AB, re- versely as the perpendicular falling on the tangent ; there-

fore the force is

inversely in the joint ratio of the square of
presenting the velocity, is always inversely as CH, or
the perpendicular and of the deflective chord ; now in the
1

ellipsis, the focal chord varies directly as the square of the

u
distance, and inversely as the square rrf the perpcndiculai
245. Theorem.
bodies being at- Two that of the square of'
{201), consequently this joint ratio is

tracted towards a given centre, with equal the distance, and the force is
always inversely as the square
forces, at equal distances, if their velocities of the distance.

be once equal at equal distances, they will 247. Theorem. Tlie velocity of a body
remain always equal at equal distances, what-
revolving in an ellipsis is equal, at its uaean
ever be their directions.
distance, to the velocity of a body revolving
Let one of the bodies descend in the right line AB, at the same distance in a circle; and the
towards C, and let the other describe the curve AD, and
let the velocities at B and D be equal let DE in the tan-
whole times of revolution are equal.
;

gent of AD be the space which would be described in an For the focal chord of curvature at the meaa distance
32 OF PROJECTIL'ES.

becomes equal to twice that distance, or to the diameter of comes perpendicularto it :

but, if the central force increase

thccircle(200); therefore thevelodties-sreequal (239). But in agreater proportion than in the

ellipsis, the point where
since the perpendicular height of the triangular element of the velocity prevails over it will be more remote than in
the area, of which tlie base is the element of the orbit at the ellipsis, and the apsis will move forwards. This be-
the mean distance, is equal to the lesser axis, this element comes more evident by considering the extreme cases :

is to the contemporaneous element in the circle as the supposing the central force to vanish, the lower apsis would
lesser to the greater axis, or as the whole ellipsis to the recede to the point where a perpendicular falls from the

whole circle (203), consequently both areas being uni- centre on the tangent ; but, supposing the force to increase

formly described, the times of revolution are equal. as the cube of the distance decreases, the curve would be

248. Theorbm. If a body describes an an equiangular spiral, and the lower apsis would be infi-

nitely distant.
equiangular spirdl round a given point, the
Scholium. The action of a second force, varying in
force must be inversely as tlie cube of the
the inverse ratio oT the squares of the distances, and directed
and the velocity equal to that with
distance,
to a second centre, tends in some parts of the orbit to de-
which a circle might be described at the duct a portion of the first force which increases with the

same distance. distance of the body, and in other parts to increase the first

For the orbit of a body projected in any direction with a force in a similar manner: but the former effect is consi-

velocity equal to that with which a circle may be described derably greater than the latter, so that on the whole, the

at the same distance, will initially coincide with an elliptic joint force decreases more rapidly than the square of Ihe

orbit as its mean distance ;

and the inclination of the orbit distance increases, and the apsides advance. Thus the
to the revolving radius is constant at the mean distance ; apsides of the planetary orbits have direct motions, in coa-
for were eitherincreasing or diminishing, the two halves
if it
seguence of their mutual perturbations.
of the ellipsis co\M not be equal and similar, since the

angles contained between the tangent and the lines drawn

to the foci (igs) would be different at equal distances on
each side of the lesser axis. It foUows therefore that the SECTION IV. OF PROJECTIIES.
velocity must always be equal to the velocity in a circle,

in order that the equiangular spiral may be described but

;
250. Definition. The force of gravi-
in this curve, the perpendicular on the tangent is
by its

fundamental property always proportional to the radius :

tation, as far as it concerns the motions of
the velocity must therefore be always inversely as the projectiles, is considered as a uniformly acce-
radius; and the velocities of bodies revolving in circles must
lerating force, acting in parallel lines, per-
be inversely as the radii, and the forces inversely as the
pendicular to the horizon.
squares of the radii and the radii conjointly (24o), or in-
versely as the cubes of the radii. 251. Theorem. The velocity of a pro«
249. Theorem. a body revolves When jectile may be resolved into two parts, its

round a centre by means of a force varying horizontal and vertical velocity: the hori-
more or less rapidl}' than in the inverse ratio zontal motion will not be affected by the
of the squares of the distances, the apsides action of gravitation perpendicular to it, and
of the orbit, or the points of greatest and least will therefore continue uniform ; and the ver-

motion will be the same as had no

elongation, will advance or recede respec- tical if it

tively. horizontal motion.

In an elliptic orbit, when the body descends from the For a uniformly accelerating force is supposed to act

equally on a body in motion and

mean at rest, so that the vertical
distance, the velocity continually prevails over the
central force, so as to deflect the orbit more and more motion will not be affected by the horizontal motion ; and

.from the revolving radius, until, at a certain point, it be- the diagonal motion resulting from the combination will
 OF MOTIOV CONFINKD TO GIVEN SURFACES.

terminate in the same vertical line as the simple horizontal force in the direction of the plane is to the
motion; therefore the horizontal motion will remain un- whole force of gravity as the height of the
altered.
plane is to its
length.
252. Theorem. The
greatest height to For AB which
if represent the motion a

which a projectile will rise may be deter- would be produced by gravity in a given

mined by finding the height from which a time, this may be resolved into AC and
CB by means of AC the body ar-
body must fall in order to gain a velocity (226) ;
B D
rives at the line CB in the same time as if
equal to its vertical velocity and the hori- ;
it were at liberty ; but the motion CB is destroyed by the
zontal range may be found by calculating AD AB
resistance of the plane ;
and as AB to AC so is to

the distance described by its horizontal velo- (l2l). But forces are measured by the spaces described in

twice the time of rising to the same time (23o).

city in its
greatest
height. 256. Theorem. When bodies descend
This is evident from the equality of the velocity of on any inclined planes of equal height, their
ascending and descending bodies at equal heights, and from
times of descent are as the lengths of the
the independence of the vertical and horizontal motions of
the projectile. planes, and the final velocities are equal.

253- Theorem. With a given velocity, —a /

I
(233), and here
1
azz—, «=^/(2Ix)=:
X
(2Jr\
the horizontal range is proportional to the
v'2.r; and the times vary as the spaces, but the times
sine of twice the angle of elevation. being greater in the same proportions as the forces are less,

The time of ascent being as the vertical velocity, or the velocities acquired are equal (23o).
the sine of the angle of elevation, the range is as the
257. Theorem. The times of falling
product of the vertical and horizontal velocities, or as the
product of the sine and cosine ; that is, as the sine of twice through all chords dr.awn to the lowest point
the angle (140). of a circle are equal.
254. Theorem. The path of a projectile The accelerating force in any chord

moving without resistance, is a parabola. AB is to that of gravity as AC to AB, or

]>

Since the horizontal velocity is

as AB to AD (l2l), therefore the fortes

uniform, the times of describing being as the distances, the times are
equal for their are as the
AB, AC, or X, are as their lengths, ; squares
and the spaces BD, CE;, describ- spaces directly and the forces inversely
ed by the accelerating force of (233).

gravitation, as the squares of 258. Theorem. When abody is retain-

these times, or as x-, whence ed in any curve by its attachment to a thread,
^"^ay, and ADE is a parabo-
or descends along any perfectly smooth sur-
la, of which a is the parameter
face of continued curvature, its velocity is
(204).
Scholium. In practical cases the resistance of the the same, at the same height, as if it fell

atmosphere renders this

theory of little use, except when freely.
the velocity is
very small. Since the velocity is the same at A,
f.
whether the body has descended an

equal vertical distance from B or C, it

SECT. V. OF MOTION CONFINED TO GIVEN will AD with the same ^
proceed in velo-
SURFACES. city in both cases, provided that no motion be lost in the

change of its direction, and therefore its

velocity will be
"255. Theorem. When
a body descends
the same after passing any number of surfaces as if it had
along an inclined plane, without friction, the fallen perpendicularly from the same height. But where
VOL. II. F
34 OF MOTION CONFINED TO GIVEN SURFACES.

the curvature is continued, no velocity is and this will be the time of descent in the cyclwdal arc.

lost in the change of direction ; for let AB And FCziaDB — 2BC, FC is equal to the versed sine
since

be the thread or its evolved portion, the of the angle CBD, to the radius 2DB but /.CAD increas- ;

body B, if no longer actuated by gravity, ing uniformly, its half, CBD, increases uniformly. And if
C would proceed in the circular arc with uni- the motion begin at any other point, the velocity will be in

form motion (240), consequently no velocity is destroyed a constant ratio to the velocity in similar points of the

by the resistance of the thread, nor by that of the surface whole cycloid. It is also obvious that the arc of ascent

BC, which can only act in the same direction, perpendicular will be equal to the arc of descent, and described in an
to the direction of the moving body. equal time, supposing the motion without friction.

259. Theorem. If a body be suspended 260. Theorem. The times of vibration

by a thread between two cycloidal cheeks, it of different c^'cloidal pendulums are as the
an equal cycloid by the evolu-
will describe square roots of their lengths.
tion of the thread (208) and the time of ; For the times of falling through half their lengths are
descent will be equal, in whatever part of in the ratio of the square roots of these halves, or of the

wholes.
the curve the motion may begin, and will be
to the time of falUng through one half of the 261. Theorem. The cycloid is the curve
of swiftest descent between any two points
length of the thread, as half the circum-
ference of a circle is to its diameter. And not in the same vertical line.
the space described in the cycloid will be al- AB and CD be two parallel
Let ver-
GAE r
ways equal to the versed sine of an arc which tical ordinates at a constant eva-

increases uniformly. nescent distance, in any part of the VD

curve of swiftest descent, and let a
For since the accelerating force, in
third, EF, be interposed, which is

[he direction of the curve, is always mean between them, and

always in length an arithmetical
(O the force of gravity as AB to BC,
which, as it approaches more or less to AB, will vary the
-5- BC BD,
or as to the constant quantity
curvature of the element AB, a EF, b b a, BFD. Call ; ;
—
it varies as BC, or as its double, CE,
c; AE, u; and EC,«; then BFrZv' ("«+«), and since
*hc arc to be described (208). If
CD— EF=EF-AB, FD=v^(dii+cc). But the velocities
therefore any two arcs be supposed to
at B and F are as i/a and i/b, and the elements BF, FD,
be equally divided into an equal num-
being supposed to be described with these velocities, the
ber of evanescent spaces, the force will be every where as
the space to be described ; and it
may be considered for time of describing BD is v'
/
1
Mu+cc \
/
"*" ^ (
——
/iT-J-rcA
7, J
'

each space, as equable, and the increments of the times,

which must be a minimum ; therefore its fluxion vanishes,
and consequently the whole times, will be equal. Suppo-
sing the generating circle to move uniformly, the velocity or
2i(u
; :
—-A .

rr,
aKi

2^/(0 (««+«))
:
— TT— " i
,
°"t ^mce
.

AC.
•

of the describing point C will always be as CD 2v'(a(i'«+"j)

(209), or,
since AD CD : : : CD BD, : and CD=v' (AD.BD), as or u+v is constant, M-f-i~o, or «:^ — b ; therefore,

^AD ; but the velocity of a body falling in DA, or de- -—:z — rr. Let the variable abscis*
scending in FC, varies in the same ratio (232, 230, 258) ; ^{a{tm+cc)) ^{b{vv+cc))
therefore if the velocity at E be equal to that which a body GA be now called x ;
the ordinate AB, y ;
and the arc GB
acquires by falling through GE, the describing point C will z ;
then u and v are increments of x, and BF and FD of z,
always coincide with the place of a heavy body descending
when V becomes zza and b respectively and the
in FCE ; and the velocity of the point of contact D is half
; -.is

of Cat E would therefore describe a space

that
GE in
(209), it

the time of the fall through GE (232), and

same in both cases, and is^ therefore constant, or =— , and
equal to
will describe FG in a time which is to that time as FG to
.-^y Now in the cycloid v'^ 's always xixn
GE, or as half the circumference of a circle to its diameter.
 OP THE CENTRE OF IKF.aTIA, AND OF MOMENTUM. 35

chord of the generating circle, the di- body describes a distance equal to the radius, another body
ameter being I ;
and the arc being would fall through half that radius (240), and the whole tim*
perpendicular to that chord, its flux- of revolution Is therefore to this time as the circumference to

ion, by similar triangles, is to that of the radius, and is therefore equal to the time of four semi-
the absciss as the diameter to •/}/ : vibrations of a cycloidal pendulum of which the length is

therefore the cycloid answers the con- equal to the given height. And since the time varies, in

ditions in every part, and consequently in the whole curve. the same revolving pendulum, only as the square root of the
Scholium. The demonstration implies that the origin cosine of the angle of inclination, it will be nearly constant

of the curve must coincide with the uppermost given point : for all small revolutions.

row only one cycloid can fulfil this condition and pass 265. Theorem.
vibrations of a cy- The
through the other point, and happen that the
it will often
cloidal
pendulum be performed in the will
curve must descend below the second point and rise again.
same time, whether they be without resist-
26'2. Theorem. The time of vibration
ance, or retarded by a uniform force.
of a simple pendulum in a small arc
circular
Let the relative force of
is ultimately the same as that of a cycloi-
gravity, at the distance AB ^
dal pendulum of the same length ; but in in the curve from its low-
est point, be always repre-
larger arcs the times are greater.
For in small cycloidal arcs the radius of curvature is
sented by the ordinate

nearly constant, but, at greater distances from the lowest

AC ;
then CB will be a right line : now the resistance may
point, the circular arc falls without the cycloidal, and is always be represented by the equal ordinates AD, BE, and
less inclined to the horizon. DC will express the remaining force, which becomes neu-

Theorem. tral at F, and then negative therefore the force

263. If a body suspended by
: is
always
the same at equal distances on each side of F, as in the
a thread revolve freely round the vertical
simple pendulum on each side of B, and the vibration will
times of revolution will be the same
line, the be perfectly similar to the vibration of th.e simple pendulum
when the height of the point of suspension in a smaller arc ; but it will extend only to G. In the
above the plane of revolution is the same, return of the body from G, the neutral point will be deter-
mined by the intersection of HI parallel to AB, and as much
whatever be the length of the thread.
below it as DE was above il this vibration will terminate in
:

For by the resolution offerees, the force urging the

body much above H G
a point as as is below it : so that the ex-
towards the vertical line is to that- of gravity as the distance
tent of each vibration will be less than that of the
from that line to the vertical height the other part of the preced-
;
ing one by twice the length of FE, until the whole force
force being counteracted by the effect of the thread ; and
is exhausted, the time remaining unaltered.
when the forces are as the distances, the times are
equal
(242).

264. Theorem. The time of a revolu-

tion of a body suspended by a thread is
equal
SECTION VI. OF THE CENTRE OF INERTIA,
to the time occupied a
by cycloidal pendulum AND OF MOMENTUM.
of which the length equal to the height of
is

the point of suspension above the 266. Definition. A moveable body, is

plane of re-
to be imagined as a point, composed of
<Brution,in vibrating once forwards and once
backwards to the point at which its motion single points or particles equally moveable,

began ; and if the revolutions be small, and which, as they differ in number, constitute
the thread the proportionally different mass or bulk of
nearly vertical, they will be nearly
the body.
isochronous, whatever be their extent.
For, supposing the distance equal to the
height, the cen-
267. Definition. A reciprocal action
tral force will be equal to the force of between two bodies an action whicli
gravity, and while the is affects
 36 Ol- TIIK CENTRE OF IXERTIA, AND OF MOMENTUM.
the single panicles of both equally, increas- mon centre of inertia, determining the cen-

ing or diminishing tlieir distance. tre of inertia of this imaginary body and the
ii68. Definition. Tiie centre of inertia thud, and proceeding in the same manner
of Ivvo boch'es is that point in the right line for any greater number of bodies.

joining them, which divides it reciprocally 273. Theorem, The centre of inertia of
in the ratio of their magnitudes. three or more bodies will be the same by
269. Theorem. The centre of inertia of whatever steps it be determined.
two bodies^ initially at rest in any space, re- Let a, b, and c, denote the
mains at rest, notwithstanding anj' reciprocal masses of the three bodies A, B,

action of the bodies. and C; let D be the centre of

inertia of A and B, and take ED :

C K Suppose the bodie

A / JK~ ~L
— —^ C- ]5 equalj and consisting
EC : ; c : a +b ;
draw AEF, then
F will be the centre of inertia of
each of a single parti-

T) ^ then it is obvious
B and C, and AE to EF as b+c to a. Draw DG and FH
cle,
parallel toBC and BA, then (121) AD AS ; : :DG BFr: :

that both will be equally moved by any reciprocal action,

and the centre of inertia will still bisect their distance (2 1 7) •
DG.— =DG.^i^ (32); and DE EC : : : DG : CFziDG.
Again, let one body A be double the other B, and suppose A
to be divided into two points placed very near each other, as ^=DG.f±i,
DE c
therefore BF: OF: :i:i
be
; c :
b, and F is

C, D. Join BC, BD, take any equal distances

CE, DF, BG,
the centre of inertia of B and C. Again, CB ; OF : : BD :

BH, and they will represent the mutual actions of B on C

b b b i
and D, and of C and D on B, and the motions produced by FH=BD. , but AD=BD.-, and FH DA : ;

b-{-c a
these equal actions complete the parallelogram BGIH,
;
: : a :
b+c : : FE :
EA (l"-2l), and E is the same point as if
and the diagonal Bl will be the joint result of the motions
determined from A and F. And from this demonstration
of B; which, when C and D coincide in A or K, becomes
the proposition may be shown to be true in cases where the
equal to iBG, 2CE, or 2AK ;
but L being the centj-e of in-
number is
greater, following the changes step by step. For
ertia, BLnaAL (268), therefore IL remains equal to 2KL
instance, that in 4 bodies the order 1,2,3, 4, will give the
(15), and L is still the centre of inertia. And in the same
same result as 3, 1, 4, 2 ;
since (1, 2, 3), 4, is shown to be
manner the theorem may be proved when the bodies are in
the same as (3, 1, 2), 4 ;
and (3, 1), 2, 4, the same as (a,
any other proportion.
1), 4, 2, or 3, 1,4,2.
270. Definition. The joint ratio of the
274. Theorem, The velocit)' and direc-
masses and velocities of any two bodie^is the
tion of the motion of the centre of inertia of
ratio of their momenta.
any system of bodies, are the same as those
271. Theorem. Tlieof any momentum
of a single body equal to their sum, to which
body is the true measure of the quantity of
momenta equal to those of the several bodies,
its motion.
and in parallel directions, are communicated
For the same reciprocal action produces in a double body
half the velocity, the common centre of inertia remaining at the same time.
at rest (260) ; and, the cause being the same, the effects Let A be the common centre of

and when the reciprocal inertia of B, C, and D, and E the

itiust be considered as equal :

centre of inertia of C and D. Let

force varies, the velocity of both bodies varies in the same

ratio.
B move in a given time to F; then

joining EF, and drawing AG pa-

272. Definition. The centre of inertia
rallel
to BF, G will now be the
of three or more bodies found by consi-
is
common centre of inertia ; but
dering the first and st cond as a single body, BF AG AB+AE AE B+C+D B therefore the
: : : : : : :
;

equal to their sum, and placed in their com- momentum of the single body B+C+D iu describing AG
 OF FUtSSURE AND EQUILIBRIUM. 37

B in describing BF And in line into the corresponding element, divided by the whole
is equal to that of (270, 28J.
common centre be transferred from area, will be the distance required but the whole area be-
the same manner if the ;

G to H C in CI, and then to K by that of the area of each portion is axx', and the product
by the motion of ing i,a:cx,

D in DL, K will still be the place to which the single body ax\T', the fluxion ax'ir, and the fluent i«,r' ; which, divided

would be removed by equal momenta successively commu- by the area, gives ix for the distance required.
nicated to it. • If the motions of the separate bodies be not 278. Theorem. The
place of the centre
successive but simultaneous, K will nevertheless be their
of inertia of three or more bodies is not af-
common centre of inertia; and if the motions of the single
them.
at the same instant, their-
fected by any reciprocal action among
body be communicated to it
For since, in all reciprocal actions between two bodies,
joint result will still transfer it to K, since AK is the result
momenta are communicated in opposite directions
equal
of the motions AG, GH, (226). HK
Therefore the motion
effect of each pair on a single body
com- (269, 270), the joint
of the single body always coincides with that of the
supposed to be placed in the centre of inertia of the system,
mon centre of inertia of the system.
and that of
willbe to destroy each other, therefore place, its

275. Theorem. The centre of inertia of

the centre of inertia (274), will be the same as if no re-

a system of bodies moving without disturb- ciprocal action existed.

ance is either at rest, or moving equably and 279. Theorem. When bodies of the

rectihnearly. same kind attract or repel each other, the

For the any number of equable and rectilinear
result of
force in the ratio of their bulks.
is compound
motions being also an equable rectilinear motion, as may
For each particle of A, being actuated by each particle
be shown, by combining them in pairs, from the actuated by the whole of
easily of B with a force equal to unity, is

properties of similar triangles,

the motion of the centre of A
B with a force equal to B, and the whole of with a force
inertia will also be equable and rectilinear (274).
equal to A.B.
276. Theorem. If parallel lines be drawn 280. Theorem. If two bodies act on
from each of a system of bodies, and from each other with forces proportional to any
their common
c^ptre
of inertia, to a given
power of their distance, the forces will also
plane, the sum orthe products of all the bo- be proportional to the same power of either
dies into the segments of their respective of their distances from their common centre
lines, will be equal to the product of the sum of inertia ;
hence the reciprocal forces of two
of the bodies into the line drawn through
all
maybe considered as tending to their
bodies
the centre of inertia. common centre of inertia as a fixed point.
Suppose each body to describe its segment in the same For X, the distance of either body from the common cen-
time, then when they arrive at the plane, their centre of tre of inertia, being in a constant ratio to the whole distance
inertia will also be in the plane, and the product of each
- "=;x"
momentum and y, may be called ay, and the force 2/"= ( I :
a",
body into its segment will represent its ;

.
.the product of their sum into the distance described by the which is to x" in the constant ratio of 1 to a".

centre of inertia will be the momentum of .a single body Scholium. It is observed that all known forces are re-

sum, and coinciding always with that centre ;

equal to their ciprocal. This circumstance is
generally expressed by the
but these momenta have been shown to be equal (274). third law of motion, that action and reaction are equah;
The theorem may also be more directly demonstrated. but it often happens that the difTerence of the magnitudes of

277. Theorem. The distance of the cen- the two bodies being very great, the motion of the greater

may be disregarded.
tre of inertia of any triangle from the vertex
is two thirds of the line that bisects the base.
The triangle being supposed to be divided by lines pa-

rallel to the base into evanescent portions, it is obvious that

SECT. VII. OF PRESSURE AND EQIIILIBRIUM.
the centre of gravity must be in the line which bisects them
all ;
and the sum of the products of each portion of the 281. Definition. A pressure is a force
38 dP PRESSURE AND EQUrHBRIUAf.
no would descend, and neutral when it can-
counteracted by another force, so that
it

not quit it.

motion is produced.
of which C is the centre of
282. Definition. Equal and propor- Suppose the bodies A and B,
inertia, to be suspended from D by the threads AD, DB, and
tionate pressures are such as are produced by
to be retained at the distance AB by
the rod AB, and let

forces which would generate equal

and pro- the force of gravity be
C be in the vertical line DC. Let

portionate
momenta in equal times,
represented by DC, then AD will repre- i>

Two sent the action of the thread, and AC the

283. Theorem. contrary pressures
pressure exerted by
A on any obstacle
will balance each other when the momenta,
at C arid in the same manner BC B
(284) ;
which the forces would separately produce will represent the pressure of B in the

in directions, are equal;

and one A and B equal but
BC, supposing the weights
;
contrary direction
masses must be
counterbalance two others when since they are unequal, the ratio of their
pressure will A.AC will repre-
that of the forces, and
it would produce a momentum equal and compounded with
B but
"

sent the actual force of A, and B.BC that of ;

contrary to the joint

momenta which would therefore the pres-
A B=:BC
: : AC, and A.AC=B.BC; ;

be produced by the other forces. will remain in equilibrium.

sures are equal, and the bodies
eva- either weight,
Conceive the forces to act alternately during equal But the centre of inertia ascended towards
if

then the one will at each step de- determines the action of A,
nescent intervals of time, as A, the segment AC, which
effect of the other ; let this action
be therefore the weight
stroy the preceding would be increased, and BC lessened;
and the forces will become a continual pressure, centre would return to the
doubled, of A
would prevail, and the

the total effects still destroying each other.

If this reason-
vertical line. C above D, the rod and
But supposing
the proposition may be as- and the same demonstration
ing be thought unsatisfactory, threads must change places,
sumed axiomatically, or may be deduced from the equality will and since in this case the weights pull
hold good;
of the effects of equal causes. the prevalence of A when the centre of
against each other,
draw further
body remain at rest it still
284. Theorem. If a inertia descends towards its place will

and the equilibrium will be lost.

they must be
re- from the vertical line,
by means of three pressures,
C
the sides of a Now the distance of J) ^
lated in magnitude as triangle "
above or below D is ot
q
to the directions. A
parallel no consequence to the 2 -
Suppose the body
A to be suspended therefore
^
equilibrium ;

the thread AB, on the inclined plane

and rod are
by that distance vanishes, and the thread
,.
when
C AC, to which AD is perpendicular,
BD
.
or lever, those points will
united into one inflexible right line
of gravity, then that
being the direction be an equilibrium which may
coincide, and there will
still ;

the force BD may be destroyed, it must

properly be
termed neutral, since no change of the position
be opposed by an equal force DB, and
if
either to return to their
of the bodies will create a tendency
DB be composed of forces in the directions or to proceed further from them. But the case of
places,
the forces must be as those sides, or as the sides reach of expe-
DA, AB, an inflexible right line is out of the
pe.fectly
and the
of the parallelogram of which DB is
the diagonal
for the inflexibility of
;

riment, since the strength necessary

same is true of any other pressures. becomes and that in an infi-
a mathematical line infinite,

285. Theorem. two gravitating bo-

If of matter. If any other mode of con-
nitely small quantity

dies be suspended at constant distances from nexion by inextensibleand incompressible

lines be imagin-

be an for instance, if AC,

each other and from a given point, they will ed,there will still equilibrium ;

be at rest when their centre of inertia is m BC, DC, be rods ;

and AD,DB, threads;

of
the vertical line passing through the point and C the centre of

suspension
and the equilibrium will be
:
stable
suspension ;
or if AE,
when the centre of inertia would ascend BE, DE, be rods;

in quitting the vertical line, tottering

when and AD, BD, threads.
 OF PRESSURE AVD EQUIMBRIUM. 39

This case is somewhat intricate, and may be thus demon- places by the lines AB, AE, BE. Then A will counter-

strated. Draw BF parallel to CD, and GHI to AE produ- poise a body at E of which the weight is to its own as AG
ced to F, andDE:DL::
thenHE:KE::BE:FE (121), to GE (78), or HF to FE, and B a weight in the propor-

KE HL :: FE IL, therefore HE HL :: BE IL (l?), A HPJ-R IF"

: : : :

tion of IF to FE, and both, a weight:::—^ ^ ——

and BI is parallel to ED. Now A B .: BC AC FK : : r: : FE
AK IH GH, and A.GH=B.HI. But by what has A.(CF— HC) + B.(CF-|-CI) _ B.CI — A .HC _
: : :

FE
~ (A+B).CF
FE + '
been already demonstrated, the pressure of A and B in the FE"
directions AE, BE, are A.GH and B.HB, DH representing but A B :: CB CA :: CI MC, and B.C1=A.HC; there-
: : :

the force of gravity, since the lines are parallel to the forces fore the last term vanishes, and A and B support a weight at

exerted and A.GHi^B.HI : therefore the forces of A and CF

;
E equal to (A-f-B).—,, or equal to E : and the effect is the
B at E being B.HI and B.BH, their result will be parallel

to BI, or in the direction ED, and will therefore be wholly same as if

they were united in C. Therefore either of the

counteracted by the rod DE, without any tendency to turn bodies may be divided into two, and the equilibrium will

it round D. remain, provided their centre of gravity be in the place of

There is another simple and elegant mode of demon- the single body and thus the number of the bodies may
:

which deserves be increased without limit.

strating the property of the lever, to be no-
ticed. Supposing the arms to be a little bent, and the forces The also be more generally and com-
proposition may
to act perpendicularly to them, so that their directions
may pendiously demonstrated from other properties of the centre
meet in a distant point ;
then if their actions be imagined of inertia. Imagine the fulcrum itself to be suspended by
to be concentrated in that point, it will be easy to show a veilical thread, and let the centre of inertia of the system

that in order that the resulting force of bodies be so placed, as to be in the same right line with
may pass through the
point of suspension, and that an equilibrium may be thus
this thread; there will then be a perfect equilibrium: for
the motion of each of the bodies in
produced, the forces must be inversely as the perpendicu- consequence of the
lars falling from that point on their directions that is, as action of gravitation, and of course the motion of their
;

the arms of the lever inversely; and this will be true whe- common centre of inertia, would, if they were wholly at
ther the lever be more or less bent,and consequently even liberty, be in vertical lines; and since the mutual con-
be not bent not however strictly shown in nexion of the bodies suspended, causes
if it at all. It is only a reciprocat
this demonstration, that the effect of the forces action between them, it can have no effect on the
must be motioiv
the same as if (hey were applied in the point where their
of their common centre of inertia:
consequently the thread)
directions meet, and a link appears to be acting in a vertical line directed to that centre, will render
still
wanting in
the chain. its descent impossible, and completely counteract the whole

286. Theorem.
system of any num- A force of gravitation, so that no force will remain to produce
any other motion. Now since the fulcrum suspended by a
ber of gravitating bodies, or a mass
composed thread would remain at rest, it is obvious that it
of such bodies, may be
will remain in equilibrium fixed in any other manner, and the
equilibrium of the
when its centre of inertia is in tiie vertical system will remain undisturbed, as long as the centre of
inertia in the same
passing through the point of suspension.
is vertical line.
line,
Let us first suppose the number Scholium. Hence the place of the centre of inertia of
of bodies to be three ; let A and any body may be practically found
by determining the
g ^ ^^ 5° connected as to remain in intersection of any two positions of the vertical line.
equilibrium on their centre of
287. Definition. Tlie centre of inertia
inertia C ; and let this centre and
^
the third body E be in any way
is also called, on account of these
properties,
connected with the point of suspension D : then since C the centre of gravity.
supports the weight of A and B, it will retain E in
brium whenever the common centre of
equili- 288. Theorem. If a sphere or
cylinder
inertia F is in the
And be placed on another, the
vertical line. the same may be demonstrated if the equihbriuni will
bodies be connected in
any other manner for instance, if be either stable or
:
tottering, accordingly as
alt the bodies be
suspended from D, and retained in their the height of the centre of
gravity above the
40 OF PRESSURE AND EQUILIBRIUM.
than a direction of the rope, and its absolute strength, are as the
point of contact is less or greater
sides of the triangle formed by the
fourth proportional to tlie sum of the radii,
lines of direction, or as the length of
and the radii taken separately. the rope and the perpendicular falling
Let the sphere or cylinder roll from the
from its end on the lever :
therefore,
vertical position into a position infinitely each perpendicular representing the absolute the
force,
near to it on either side: then the point A
length of the rope will in both cases express the relative
of the upper cylinder, which was origi- The
action. forces are represented in the figure by arrow
nally in contact with the lower, may still
heads, and the fulcrums by little circles.

be considered as in the vertical line BA :

291. Theorem. If two threads, or per-

and if CD be the vertical line passing
flexible and inextensible lines, be
through the actual point of contact, BE : fectly
AE ; : BC AD,
: and if the centre of gravity be at D in the wound in contrary directions round two cy-
Uhc AE, the point of support being immediately under it,
linders, moveable on the same axis, there
the equilibrium will remain but the centre of gravity be
: if
willbe an equilibrium when the weights at-
below D, the sphere Will return towards AB ;
if above, it
tached to them are inversely as the radii of
will retire further from it.

For example, if CE be and the lower surface of the cylinders.

infinite,

the moveable body be a plane, the equilibrium will remain For every section of the cylinder perpendicular to the
axis, is a circle, and the threads
stable, while the height of the centre of gravity above the

point of contact is less than the radius of the sphere. If the being tangents to the circles, will
be at thedistancesof the radii from
fixed body have its upper surface horizontal, the equilibrium
of any body will be determined by radius of curvature,
the vertical plane ; therefore, by
its

similar triangles, (he right line

as the equilibrium ofan egg placed on one end is tottering,
but stable when placed on one side. joining the weights will be divided in the ratio of the radii,
and the centre of gravity will be in the vertical plane ;
and
289. Theorem. If any other equivalent the point of the axis immediately over it is a centre of sus-
forces be substituted for weights, acting at the pension ; therefore there will be an equilibrium (285).
same distance from the fulcrum, and with 292. Theorem. When the direction of
the same inclination to the rods or levers, a thread is altered by passing over any per-

the phenomena of equilibrium will be pre- fecth' smooth curve surface, it communicates
cisely the same. Also if either of the forces the whole force acting on it.
be transferred to an equal distance on the For the resistance of the curve is
alvrays in a direction

other side of the point of suspension or ful- perpendicular to that of the thread, and therefore does not
impair its action, as is obvious from the composition of
crum, and act there in a contrary direction, forces.
the equilibrium will remain.
still
293. Definition. A pulley is a cylinder
For the arguments derived from the composition of pres-
sures are equally applicable to all these cases. moving on an axis, in order to change the
direction of a thread without friction.
290. Theorem. If a force be applied
Scholium. The comparison of a pulley to a lever is

obliquely to a lever, its effect in turning the both unnecessary and imperfect.
lever will be diminished, in the ratio of the 294. Theorem. By me^ns of a single
sine of the inclination to the radius. moveable pulley, each portion of the thread
For instance, two levers be connected by a rope, two
being vertical, a weight may be supported
if

forces applied perpendicularly to the levers, at the ends of

the rope, will be in equilibrium when the forces are as the
by two forces, each equivalent to half the
perpendiculars let fall on the respective levers from the op- weight; or by two threads, each passing
posite tads of the rope. For the action of each force in the over a fixed pulley, and connected with ano-
 OF PRES,SURK AND EQUILIBRIUM. 41

ther weight equal to half die first ; or one of

them connected with such a weighty and the
other to a fixed point.
For it is obvious that each thread
'fT supports an equal part of the

weight (2 1 7, ag'l,) and the substi-

tution of equivalent weights, or

of a fixed point, will not impair

the equilibrium.

295. Theorem. IF several moveahle

pullies be connected with a weight, and pa-
lailel portions of the same thread act upon
tliem all, there will be an equilibrimn when
the weight attached to the thread is to the

weight attached to the pullies, as one to the

number of threads at the lower block.
For the force being equably
communicated throughout the

length of the thread, each portion

will co-operate equally in sup-
porting the w^eight, and will sup-

port that portion of it which is to

the whole as 1 to the number of

threads ; consequently a weight
equal to that portion will retain
any part of the thread in equili-
brium, and with it the whole
thread, and the whote weight-
And if the radii of the pullies be
taken in arithmetical progression,
their angular velocity may be
made equal, and they may be fixed

to thi same axis.

Cy6. Theorem. one end of a thread,

If

supporting a moveable pulley, be fixed, and

the other attached to another moveable pul-

iey, and the threads of tliis

pulley be simi-
larly arranged, the weigi)t
will be counterpoised by a

power which is found by

halving it as many times
tis-there are moveable pul-
lies.

The proposition Is ob\ious from

aconsiderationofthefigure.atidthe
law ofthe single moveable
pull^.
-VOL. II.
42 OF PRESSURE AXD EQUILIBRXUHr,

of the as the length of a coil to the For the triangle formed by three
c)'linilerj
lines perpendicular to the sides of
length of the axis. another triangle, is equiangular with

Let AB anil BC be tangents of the it, and if the forces act completely on
small arc AC then if BC, and BA re- it will remain in equilibrium
; any point,
present the force of tension, at A and C, (2S4).
••

the diagonal of the parallelogram BD

will be the joint result ; but BD=2BE, 303. Theorem. Supposing a moveable
and by the properties of similar triangles inclined plane, orarectangular wedge to slide
BE : BC : : EC CF, : BD BC : : : AC ;
without friction on a horizontal plane, it will
CF. If the position of the thread be oblique, we shall find
remain in equilibrium with a weight acting
by the composition of forces, supposing it uncoiled, and its

vertically, when the horizontal force is to

extremities retained in a line parallel to the axis, that its

tension is to a force acting in the direction of the axis, as

the weight as the height to the horizontal
the oblique length of any portion to its height. Now this
length.
tension produces on any small oblique portion of the cir-
The triangle ABC is similar to c
cumference, a pressure equal to that which would be pro- AD
ADB, and to BDC; and if
duced on the corresponding transverse portion by an equal
represent the weight, its perpen-
force acting transversely ;
for the versed sine of the arc is
dicular pressureon the plane will
-%
the same in both cases consequently the pressure on the
;
be AB (284), which will be held
whole circumference is equal to that which would be pro- in equilibrium by a force on the
duced by the same tension acting transversely.
base, which is to it, asBD to AB (302) and this force will
;

300. Theorem. The perpendicular pres- be to the weight, as BD to AD, or as CD to BD.

sure of a weight resting on an inclined plane, 304. Definition. By rolling a thin and
and retained in its situation by u resistance in flexible wedge round a cylinder,
we form a
the direction of the plane, is to the weight, screw.
as the horizontal length of the plane to its
305. A force acting in the
Theorem.
oblique length, and to the resistance, as the direction of the circumference of a screw,
horizontal length to the height.
supposed to move freely round its axis,
will
The truth of the proposition is evident from the propor-
counterbalance a weight pressing vertically
tioiu of the sides of the triangle conesponding to the direc-
on the screw, which is to it as the circum-
tions of the forces.
ference is to the height of one spire.
Scholium. Hence the proportion of the friction to the
For the horizontal length of the wedge becomes
when
weight may be determined by measuring the tangent of the
to the circumference of the circle, its height is the
angle at which the weight begins to slide down the plane. equal
height of the first spire of
the screw, or the distance be-
301. Definition. A wedge is a solid
tween any tvro spires or threads.

Included by two equal triangles joined by Scholium. The cylinder may be either convex or con-

and we making a cylindrical or a tubular screw, together

thi'eerectangles ; shall suppose the cave,
sometimes called a screw and a nut. The nut acts on th«
surfaces to be perfectly smooth.
screw as a single point would do, only dividing the pres-
302. Theorem. Three forces acting di- sure. In general the screw is applied in combination with

rectly on the sides and base of a wedge will a lever.

be in equilibrium when each force ispropor- 306. Theorem. If it be required to find.

y tional to the side on which it acts provided ;

the position of four equal beams capable of

l!hat they be all applied at such parts, that supporting each other in equihbrium, two of
thek directions may meet in one point. them fixed at the extremities of the base of
 OP PRESSURE AND EQUILIBRIUM. ^S
or DE to DF and for
given isosceles triangle, and the other two
:
ft
the same reason the
meeting in its vertex, a circle being circum- of any other
weight
scribed round the triangle, and perpendicu- FG must be to the
part
lars erectedfrom the quadrisections of the horizontal thrust as HI
base, the lower t)eam on each side must be to IG, or as FK to

FD : but the horizontal

directed to the nearest intersection of the
thrust is equal throughout the arch, being propagated froir*

perpendiculars with the circle, and the upper the abutments, since the weight of the blocks, acting in a
one must be in a chord of equal length. vertical direction, can neither increase nor diminish it ;

C and it
may therefore always be represented by the line DF,
The two upper while FE, EK, represent the weight of the arch and of its
beams act against
and
parts ;
it will be equal to the weight of a portion of the
each other in a ho-
length of the radius DF and of the depth of the block AC,
rizontal direction
as obvious from considering the cfTect of the upper block
is

B C;K only, consequently H acting as a wedge.

the horizontal thrust of the lower beams must be equal to
that of the upper beams, produced by their own weight
308. Theorem. A spherical dome of
only, while the thrust of the lower beams is derived not equable thickness, having its
joints in the di-
only from their own weight, but also from that -of the rection of theradii, may remain in equilibrium

height do not exceed 392 thousandths

upper beams, acting at their extremities ; but the horizontal if its
effect of the weight of the upper beam is to its weight as of the radius.
balf AB to BC, since the centre of gravity may be supposed
The action of the weight of the dome resembles that of
to act on a lever of half the length of AB, and the hori-
a wedge, pressing on each horizontal course with a force
Eontal force on a lever of the length BC (290) ; but the ho-
which is to its weight as the radius to the sine of the
riiontal thrust of AD is
equal to that of AC, and is to the
angular distance from the vertex x, and its pressure is
sup-
force acting vertically at A as DE to AE ; and the force
ported by the weight of the course, acting also as a wedge ;
acting vertically at A is the whole weight of AC and half
this weight is first reduced by the inclination of the joint in
the weight of AD, which is three times as much as the
the ratio of the cosine of the angular distance from the

C
DE
— vertex y, to the radius, and effect is increased in the
weight acting vertically at ; consequently ; must be its
Aci
ratio of the lengthof the wedge to its base, or of the radius

equal to —— ; now the triangle ADE is similar to FDG, to the breadth of the course : the effect will therefore be
equal to the weight of a portion equal in breadth to the
and ABC to HFG, since the angle DFH=DCH, and GFH
radius, reduced by the obliquity of the joint in the ratio of
=DFH— DFGzzDFH— (DIG-1DF)=:DCH— (BCH— 1 to the cosine j. While therefore the weight of a circum-
ACD)=DCB4.ACD=ACB, therefore £f=^,and-^ ference of the breadth y is greater than that of the dome
ACj rG 3BC .

increased in the ratio of 1 to x, the course will retain the

_GH
—-T7;——3DG DG
-—-iz:-—^, as IS
required for the equilibrium. incumbent dome in equilibrium ; but when it it in a smaller
proportion, the course will be forced outwards, unless it be
307. Theorem. When an arch is com- restrained by external pressure ;
and the limit will be when
dome
posed of blocks acting on each other without the weight of the equal to that of a cylindrical sur^
is

face of the breadth xy, and of the radius x. Now the

friction, the weight of the arch must increase
spherical surface is equal to a cylindrical surface of the
at each step as the portion of the vertical
breadth 1— j and of the radius 1, therefore xxy~l — y,
tangent cut off by lines drawn from a given (1—i/y) j=i— !/. (i+y)y=Uy+yy+i=hy=->/i—i
point in a direction parallel to that of the
— 2
=.61803.
joints.
The SO9. Theorem. In order that a spherical
thrust in the direction AB, by which the block A
is supported, must be to its weight as AB to BC, or as
dome of the span 2x, may stand without ex-
DE to EF, and to the horizontal thrust, as AB to AC, ternal pressure, the thickness must Ikj in-
44 OF ^PRESSURE AND EQUILIBRIUM.'
that in this case the dome must become gradually thipkef,
crensed, where x greater than 78G thou- is
from the vertex. In practice, considering the friction of
sandths of the radiusj so as to he every where the materials, be amply make
it will s\4fficientto dzizi.i, or

inversely as x— x'. even J, and in this case 9

consequently is least when r:::. 5,

The equilibrium requiring that xxy should be at least the thickness of the lower parts must
begin to be augmented-
equal t& l — .
j/, where the thickness is equable, if the thick- at the distance of 30° from the vertex, at 60° it must be-

ness at any part be to the mean thickness of the supeiin- come 3.28 times as great, and if the dome be continued
cumbeiU pardon as 7 to r, the equilibrium may be pre- much lower, it will be proper to employ a chain to confine

served while qxxy is equal to r.(i

— .

y), or
_
9—
r(l~y)
.
it, since at 80° from the vertex a thickness 50 times as
great
as at 30° would be required for the equiiibritjm.
Now the whole weight being p, the mean thickness r is
310. Theorem. When a weight is
sup-
—^— . c being the circumference of the circle of which ported by a bar resting on two fulcrums, the-
pressure ou each is inversely as its distance
the radius is 1, hence q~ —^— CXXTf
ani the increment ;/• is
from the weight.
expressed by the
increment of the circular circumference r', >or, by the property of the lever, it is to the
wholeweight,.
as the distaiice of the from the other fulcrum to the
weight
multiplied by cxq ;
therefore pzzcqxs; but :=-, andf— whole length of the lever.

."Jll. Theorem. The strain on a uiven

^3±=IL, and i =-i-=(h.l.iy.
^yy y '
since.
(i)=^v
y ^yy p \ .
}y' point of a bar, supported at the ends, from a
.
X V
.
,.' — •TV/'.MM
Til
_^, which divided by -y
.T
is
X
-=V -
„,;
but
'

i
,

xjr+i/y weight phiced on it, is proportional to the

y xyy
rectangle of the segments into whicb the
1/a

=:i,thereforexiz:—jy)andtheexpres§ion
becomes
—^^^^^j
— point divides the bar.
~

A as the fulcrum
— _— ; consequently
^ h.l.p— h.l.- ±0, and p—- ,
or — ;
For, considering
of the lever, the weight B
xyy
' '•
y y y produces \^ Bq C
AB
then V^~ — ^^~- Therefore the thickness must be at C a pressure^::-
AC"
and the
cxxy cxyy
x—x' but we estimate the strain at B is as the length of the lever by whieh it is ap-
inversely as xyy, or as ;
if

AB BC
thickness in a vertical cUrection, it becomes
b
If we plied, or as
— — 7^:; j
it is therefore equal to the strain pro-
cxy
domej we duced by the weight applied at the end of.a, levei of whicb
wish to give a certain degree of stability to the

dr(i — y) —77;—
AB.BC
must make q zz — ^=; —
<ip
,
, . .

a bemg some constant the length is

At/
•

xxy cxxy
d.i 312. Theorem. The strain produced by
multiplier greater
than unity ;
then L— , and h. 1. ;>—
p ^y
-;

the weight of an equable bar at any pointof

dCh.l.-)±aandp=:4 (-) , therefore if d=:i+e, 9= its

length is equal to the strain produced by
half the weight of one segment acting at the
_*£_.( 5 V. And the constant quantities may be so deter-
end of a lever equal to the other segment.
cxyi/\y/
mined as to correspond to the weight at any particular part, The strain
produced-at any point A. j^
^ _ o C
whether the centre of the dome be closed nr open, b being by a weight B on either side is equal li
to the strain of the same weight act-
- will be secure if all the lower parts
I p, and the slability
J
BC.AD
ing at the distance
-
; therefore the strain produced
bFmadeof the thickness 9 •,
forthelower parts can never force DC
up the higher, however they may
be loaded, since their
by the portion AC of the bar, of which the weight may be
pressure will always
be resisted by the collateral parts of the to be collected into its centre of gravity, is as
imagined
making 9 a miniraum, we find that the thick-
AC. — —
course. Py
.
;
and for the same reason the weight of AD
DC 2
ness is least where i^iv'f—--), or, if rfi=i,wheni=
AD AC
produces a strain AD. =5^ ;. therefore, both togethwr
.J78, if d=:i.5, when 1=. 408, if d=2, when 1=0, so
 OF THE ATTUACTIOIC OF GRAVITATING BODIES-. 45

The sections being considered as composed of evanescent

produce a strain of '———, which is equal to the efiect of
rectilinear figures terminated by the same right Unes,
half the weight of AC, actiaig at the distance AD.
meeting in the vertex, their areas are in the duplicate ratio
313. Theorem. In all cases of equili- of their homologous sides, or of their distances from the

brium one general law prevails if motion vertex (125, lai) ;

and the whole areas, and the number of
;

material particles are in the same ratio therefore the in-

were imparted to the weights, their momenta ;

crease of the number exactly compensates for the increase

in the direction of gravity would be equal of the distance, and the forces acting in each line are the
and contrary. same ; therefore the attractions of the whole section's are

an exampfe, the same.

Taking the lever for it fs obvious that the

velochy of the bodies must be as their distances from the 316. Theorem. A gravitating point
fulcrum; and their weights being inversely in the same
their momenta must be equal, and always in direc-
placed within a gravitatiiig spherical surface,
ratio,

tions perpendicular tt> the same line so that if the one

remains at rest.
;

ascend vertically, the other must descend vertically. This

Conceive one half of the surface to be divided into eva-
has been considered by some a* a sufficient foundation for
nescent areolas, and cones or pyramids to stand on thcni
the demonstration of all cases of equilibrium, since it
ap- all, and to be continued through the given point as a ver-

pears to be an absurdity to suppose, that any cause should so tex, till

they reach the surface on the opposite side : then
act as to produce two equal effects, of which the one must the inclination of each of two opposite cones to its base is
be contrary to the other, and to the operation of the com.-
the same, and the magnitude of the section is the same as
mon cause. But it is more satisfactory to haye direct de- the sections were parallel,
if
consequently the two opposite
monstrations in every case, and to deduce the general law and equal attractions destroy each other, and the same is
from all.
true of each particle of the surface, and of the whole sur-

Scholium. This.principle was extendetf still'further by face.

Jbhn Bernoulli, under the name of the law of virtual vela-

cities. Where the forces acting on the different bodies are
317. Theorem. A gravitating point,
different, there always an equilibrium when the sum of
is placed without a giavitating spherical sur-
all the products of the masses into the forces
by which they face, or sphere, is attracted towards its cen-
are actuated, and then into the initial velocities with tre with the same force as if the whole matter
which they would be obliged to move, referred to the di-
of the surface or sphere were collected there.
rection of these forces, becomes equal to nothing.
Call the radius unity, and the distance of the ordinate of
the sphere from the centre, x, then the fluxion of the
curve,

£, will be -
, ,, ;
(i4a), and if the ratio of the circum-
^/^l— J^-fj
ference of a circle to its diameter be that of p to
SECTION VIII. OF THE ATTHACTION OF 1, the cir-
cumference corresponding to a^ will be 'ip.y {\—xx), the
GRAVITATING BODIES. fluxion of the surface 2pi, and the
superficial area itself

2//T, and, when xz^l, lp. The distance of the given point
314. Definition. Graviuiting bodies from the centre being a, the absolute attraction of the
arc those of which the particles attract each 2px'
circular element of the superficies will be
other with forces varying inversely as tlic {a+xy + i — xj;

squares of the distances..

_ V'^'
-, and the effect in the direction of the axis
oa-(-'2a.r4-l

315. Theorem. All parallel sections of being diminished in the ratio of

a+x to v^(aa-f 2ar-f-i),
a given cone or pyramid, supposed to be the fluxion of the attraction in that direction will be
2p.(a-fr)..T /lp ax + 1
gravit.iting surfaces, of a given evanescent and while x in-
(aa-t-2aa'-t-l)|
a-t-2aa'-t-l)| \aa v -).
^ {aa-^-lax+l(

attract a particle of gravitating

tliickness,
mutter placed at the vertex with equal force. creases from — 1 to )
, the fluent increases from —— ~— 2P
to •
46 OF THE EQUILIBRIUM AND STRENGTH OF ELASTIC SUBSTANCES.

30
— , therefore the whole effect is —
4p
, which repreients the
depth, b, the length of this arm, on the supposition that
aa aa the point of indifference is at the assigned distance, will be
attraction of the whole surface at the distance a. lb f hb \ lb
a-\ IIt^H l.ora-1 \l, that of the con-

slant arm being \b. The cohesive and repulsive force*

lb
SECTION IX, OF THE EQUILIBRIUM' AND must therefore be as o+-
hb
since
3(ia -i'to°+-^+T^
STRENGTH OF ELASTIC SUBSTANCES.
that vthich serves as the fulcrum of the lever must bear a
force equal to the sum of the two forces applied at the ends,
318. Definition. A substance perfectly which are proportional to the opposite arms of the lever or
;

elastic is
initially extended and compressed as Z6aa —
laai+td toSBaa+iaoi+M, that is, as {6a — i)«
in equal degrees by equal forces, and pro- to (6n+i>)' : but these forces arc actually as the squares of
the sides of the similar triangles which
portionally by proportional forces. represent them,

Definition. The modulus of

319.
of any substance is a column of
the that is, as
^ \b- ~) to(^
'-1
+-^^ , or as (6a— i)'
elasticity to (Ba+t)', which is the ratio required : there will there-
tiiesame substance, capable of producing a fore be an equilibrium under the circumstauces of the pro-

pressure on its base which is to the weight position.

causing a certain degree of compression, 321. Theorem. The weight of the mo-
as the length of the substance is to the dimi- dulus of the elasticity of a column being »»,

nution of its a weight bending it in any mannery, the dis-

length.
320. Theorem. When a force is
applied
tance of the line of its
application from any
to an column, of a rectangular pris-
elastic point of the axis, a, and the depth of the
matic form, in a direction parallel to the axis, column, b, the radius of curvature will be
the parts nearest to the line of direction of bbm
the force exert a resistance in an opposite

direction; those particles, which are at a Supposing first the force to act
longitudinally, and azi.
the point of indifference will be in the remoter surface
distance beyond the axis, equal to a third ^,
of the column, and the compression or extension of the
proportional to the depth and twelve times nearer surface will be twice as great as if the force had been
the distance of the line of direction of the the strata; and will therefore be to
applied equally to all

force, remain in their natural state ; and the the length of any portion as ifro m ; but as this distance is

parts beyond them act of the

in the direction to the length, so is the depth to the radius of curvature, or

force. ftf : m : : b : —
bm
, which is the radius of curvature when
The forces of repulsion and cohesion are initially propor-
azz^l. But when a varies, the curvature will vary i the
tional to the compression or extension of the strata, and
same ratio for the curvature is proportional to the angle
these to their ilistance from the point of indifference : the ;

of the triangles representing the forces, and the angle of

fojces may therefore be represented by the weight of two
either triangle to its area divided by the square of its length;
triangles,formed by the intersection of two lines in the
but the force exerted by the remoter part of the column is
point of indifference ; and their actions may be considered
OS concentrated in the centres of gravity of the trianf,les,
to/
•'
as 0-1
II
ii
'
to ib,
' '
or as (<Ja
^
—M' ' to 24o?', and is
sea
which are at the distance of two thirds of tlie length of each

from the vertex, and at the distanceof two thirds of the depth
equal to
f
lea — J)', but the square of the side of
from each other. This distance constitutes one arm of a 2*ao
lever,
\i
which is of constant length, while the distance of the line of
the corresponding triangle is
/
I
{b TTT)
bb
t
°' (*"
— *)*-
direction of the force from the centre of gravity of the nearest

triangle constitutes the other

ei the line of direction of the lo.ce
arm ; and calling the distance
from the axis, a, and the
—/
(b laa
•
\«
) , consequently the force, or ths area, divided bj
 OF THE EQUILIBaiUM AND STBENGTH OF ELASTIC SUBSTANCES. 47

difference from the axis becomes the secant of an arc pro-

-77- , and the curvature
varies
this square becomes directly
portional to the distance from the middle of the column.

as a, and as/, and inversely as *' : but since m vanes as b,

323. Theorem. If a beam is
naturally
we must make the expression for the radius of curvature
of the form wliicii a prismatic beam would
a—\l, and which ^when
varies as
HJUL, which becomes if it were slightly bent by a longitudi-
2/
acquire,
12a/
i* directly, and aso and/ inversely. nal force, calling
its
depth, b,\\s length, f, the
If the force be applied obliquely, its effect may be deter- circumference of a circle of wiiich the dia-
mined by finding the point at which it meets the perpendi-
meter c, the weight of the modulus
is
unity,
cular to the axis, and resolving it into two parts : that which
of elasticity, m, the natural deviation from
is in the direction of this perpendicular will be counteracted
the substance, the other will al- the rectilinear form, d, and a force applied at
by'the lateral adhesion of
ways produce the same curvature as if the force
had been the extremities of the axis,/, tiie total devia-
originally in a direction parallel to
the axis : but the place
tion from the rectilinear form will be a =
of the point of indifference will be determined from the
hhccdm
and when the force
point of intersection already mentioned,
becomes perpendicular to the column, the neutral point bbicm—l2eej"
will coincide with the axis. The form being originally a harmonic curve, the curva^
Scholium. If one surface of the column were incomr ture and length of the ordinate added at each point by the
pressible, and all the resistance of its strata were collected action of the force will also be equal to those of a harmonic
in the other, the radius of curvature would evidently be curve, of which the vertical radius of curvature must be
*^'"
,
a being the distance from the incompressible side, ^ and the basis the length of the beam; but tlie
12rt/
which is ultimately 12 times as great as in the natural state vertical ordinate of the harmonic curve is a third propor-

of an clastic substance. tional to its radius of curvature and that of the figure of sines-

322. Theorem. The distance of the

on the same which in this case would be — the ad-
basis, ,
c
point of greatest curvature of
a prismatic

beam, from the line of direction of the force, ditional vertical ordinate must therefore be _
cc
.
—bbm
:., and

is twice tlie versed sine of that arc of the this added to the deviation must become equal to a, and'
d,

circle of greatest curvature, of which the ex- — abbccm —

,

Zd+—-fL,
cc bbm
ee \-lttf
—ee

cc
,
^laf
bbm
--^d—
llaeef
and o
bbcon
^
tremity is parallel to that of the beam.
blcrdm
Supposing the curve, into which the beam is bent, to be
described vnth an equable angular velocity, its fluxion will
bbccm — lieef
be directly as the radius of curvature, or inversely as a, the ScHOLiuw. It appears from this formula, that when
distance of the force from the axis of the beam ; this we the other quantities remain unaltered, a varies in propor-

oiay stiU call a at the point of greatest curvature, and y

tion to d, and if rfr:n, the beam cannot be retained in a

elsewhere, the corresponding arc of the circle of curvature slate of inflection, while the denominator of the fraction
remains a finite quantity : but when bbccm'iZZlieeJ, a be-
being x ; then the fluxion of the curve will be_l ; but this
y comes infinite, whatever may be the magnitude of d, and
fluxion is to y as the radius r to the sine of the angle or arc the force will overpower the beam, or will at least cause it

1, or ^y
^ a': sin.z
,
,

but
fsin.i)s
m',
.

v
...
bemg the versed
, to bend so much as to derange the operation of the forces

sine of the ate z,

y r T

and yy:z:b^iav, t being a

concerned. In this case / — I
\
—/ —
e
i
12
, .8225 —m, which
ee
Zf:yy::za- ,

constant quantity : when yZZa, u^o, and aazzb, therefore is the force capable of holding the beam in equilibrium in

yy^zaa —2a«, and when y—0, aazz'lav, and az:2u. any inconsiderable degree of curvature. Hence the modulus
Scholium. When the force is longitudinal, and the being known for any substance, we may determine at once
curvature inconsiderable, the form coincides with the har- the weight which a given bar nearly straight is
capable of
monic curve, the curvature being proportional to the dis- supporting. For instance, in fir wood, supposing its height
'
tance from the axis and the distance of the point of in-
:
10,000,000 feet, a bar an inch square and ten feet long may
 48 OF THE ECiUILIBniUM AND STREKGTH OF ELASTIC SUBSTANCES.
begin to bend with the weight of a bar -of the same thick- Scholium. Hence it
appears that when the other
1 quantities are constant, the deflection varies in the simple
ness, equal in length to .8225X- -X 10,000,000
laoxiio ratio of «. The radius of curvature at the vertex is

feet, or 571 feet; that is, with.a weight of about 120 pounds; I'hm

neglecting the effect of the weight of the bar

itself. In the
liaf. (sec. arc ^/ — /"T" )>
^™'" which the degree of ex-
same manner the strength of a bar of any other substance
on tension and compression of the substance may be deter-
may be determined, either from direct experiments it3

flexure, or from the sounds that it produces. K /= —m mined.

39,5. Theorem. The form of an elastic

—rz. 822511, and -^v'f.saasnj^.oorv/n, whence, if we bar> fixed at one end, and bearing a weight
1)1' I
at the extremity, becomes ultimately a cubic
know the force required to crush a bar or column, we may
calculate what must be the proportion of its length to its parabola, and tlie depression is ^ of the
depth, in order that it may begin to bend rather than
versed si nfi of an equal arc, in the smallest
be crushed. The height of the modulus of elasticity for circle of curvature.
iron or steel is about 9,000,000 feet, for wood, from The ordinate of the cubic parabola being ax' its fluxion,
4,000,000 to 10,000,000, and for stone probably about is and its second fluxion 4axxi, which varies as x
2ax'.r,

s.OOO.OOO : its weight for a square inch of iron 30,000,000 the absciss. If the curvature had been constant, the second

pounds, of wood from 1,500,000 to 4,000,000, and of stone fluxion would have been bii, the first fluxion bxi, and the

about 5,000,000: and the values of n are in the two first ordinate ^bxx ; but as ii is bix — xii, the first fluxion is

cases from 200 to 250, and in the third about 2500, and bxi — ^'x, and the fluent ^i'— ir', which, when b—x
becomes it', instead of t.
»/n becomes 15 and 50, and- 12.3 and 41.1 respect-
V
3i26. Theorem. The weight of the modu-
ively ;
so that a .column of iron or wood cannot support
lus of the elasticity of a bar is to a weight
without being crushed a longitudinal force sufficient to bend
it, unless its length
be greaterthan 12 times its depth, nor a acting at its extremity only, as four times the
column of stone, unkss its length be greater than 40 times cube of the length to the product of the
its depth.
square of the depth
and the depression.
324. Theorf.m. When
a longitudinal
If the depression be d, the versed sine of an equal arc in
force is applied to the extremities of a straight the smallest circle of curvature will be jd, and the radius of
at the distance a from the
prismatic beam, curvature —
3d
cc
,
e being the length ; but the radius of curva-
axis, the deflection of the middle of the
beam-
bbm
ture is also expressed by , a bemg here equal to e,
will be 1). \1af
fl.(sec.arc(^(^)-^y)-
f^ therefore ——-^.lle^f—Zbbdm, andm=-—-./. If/
If we suppose the length to be increased until
3d bbd
I'lcf

beam might be be the weight of a portion of the beam of which the

), the retained
(—\/ .—,
or friicv'l
12
e Vl2// 4e'
the modulus will be
by the force /in the form of a harmonic curve, of which length is g, the height of —^.g.
a might be an ordinate, and the vertical ordinate would be In an experiment on a bar of iron, men-
SciioLii'M.
as much greater than a as the radius i> greater than the sine b and d each 1, /
tioned by Mr. Banks, e was 18 inches,
of the arc corresponding to its distance from the origin of
and about 150 feet hence the height of the
490 pounds, g :

the curve, or as the secant of the nrc corresponding to its

modulus could not have been less than 3,500,000 feet.
distance from the middle of the curve is
greater than the much
But d was probably less than this, as the depression
radius, and the excess of this secant above the radius will and m must
was only measured at the point of breaking,
the action of the force
express the deflection produced by ;
have been larger in the same proportion.

but this arc is to the quadrant —f

as f to 1;c^
/
I
—^ \
-, 1 , and 327. Theorem. If an equable bar be
2 \V\I I
fixed horizontally at one end, and bent by
is therefore equal to ^/ f — —
/Sf\V '

own at the extrc-

its weight, the depression

r
 ON THE EQUILIBRIUM AND STRENGTH OF ELASTIC SUBSTANCES. 49
Scholium. From an experiment made by Mr. Leslie
mity will be half the versed sine of an
on a bar in the^e circumstances, the lieight of the modulus
curvature at the
equal arc ia the circle of of the elasticity of deal appears to be abuut 0,328,000 feet.
fixed point. Chladni's observations on the sounds of fir wood, afford
The strain on each part is here equal
to the weight of same
very nearly the result.

the portion beyond it, acting at the

end of a lever of half
331. Theorem. Theweight under which
^s length : the curvature will therefore be as the square of
And the second fluxion
a vertical bar not fixed at tiio end, may be-
the distance from the extremity. if

at the vertex be aa.fi, it will be every where (a— .r)*i.r: gin to bendj is to any weight laid on the
aaii 2arJi+x'ix ; the first fluxions of these quantities middle of the same bar, when supported at
are aaxi and aaxi — ax'i+^i, and the fluents ^aV, and the extremities in a horizontal position,
ioV —^<ur'+,!jX* ; or, vrhen x=a, lo'' and ^a' ; therefore

the depression is in this case half of the versed sine.

nearly in the ratio of t'4-J^ of the length to
the depression.
328. height of the mo-
Theorem. The
For the weight laid on the bar being/, the pressure on
dulus of the elasticity of a bar, fixed at one
end, and depressed by its own weight, is half each fulcrum is —/2 , and the length of the lever — «
2
, so that

as much more as the fourth power of the

the weight of the modulus becomes but the force.
length divided by the product of the square iUd
ef the depth and the depression. capable of keeping the column bent is
(
— — j. or
The weight of the bar operates as if it were concentrated
\ e12 /
at the distance of half the length, or as if it were reduced to since e=:a, —
48a
./::r.05i4—/.
d
The effect of the weightof
«ne half, acting at the extremity : we have therefore
the bar in the depression may be separately observed and
—a
.

for the length of a portion equivalent to the weight, and deducted.

332. Definition. The stiffness of bodies

—
te
^ hbm -,
,
whence mz:.-—j, and the hercht
*
3e' .
-77-.
, , , . ,

2Md
Sc*

Ad 12c/ bh(t" is measured by their resistance at an equal

3«9. Theorem. The depression of the linear deviation from their natural position.

middle of a bar supported at both ends, pro- 333. Theorem. The stiffness of a beam;
duced by its own weight, is five sixths of the is
directly as its breadth, and as the cube of
versed sine of half the equal arc in the circle its depth, and inversely as the cube of its>

of least curvature. length.

The curvature varies as aa — xr, and the second fluxion
— xxxx, while that of Since TOZi—./ (326), and m varies as Ih, h being the
is therefore represented by aaxi the
"versed sine is aaii ;
the first fluxions are aaxi and aoxi—
breadth, I'dh varies as when d
ft'i, and the fluents la'x'and ia'x'
— ^!ji', or,
when xzza;
e'/, and/as , that is, ,

ia*, and ,La',

which are in the ratio of 6 to 5. is given, as h, as P, and inversely as e'.

330. Theorem. The height of the mo- 334. Theorem, The direct cohesive or
dulus of the elasticity 0+' a bar, supported at repulsive strength of a body is in the joint
'

both ends, is -^^ of the fourth power of the ratio of its primitive
elasticity, of its tough-
length, divided by the product of the depres- ness, and the magnitude of its section.
sion and the square of the depth. Since the force required to produce a given extension is
.
Forthestrainatthemiddleisequalto theeffectofthevreight as the extension, where the elasticity is equal, the force at
of one fourth of the bar acting on a lever of half the length the instant of breaking is as the extension which the body
, ^

(3 J 2 J ;
J t 1.
and the radius of curvature there
« 1 .

is
^^^
r: —
I'b/n
j and ,
^11 bear without breaking, or as
force of each panicle being equal, the
its toughness.
whole force
And
must be
the

!
as the number of the particles, or as the section.
*"''"'* ''"S'^'
'^~Thbd.' 7^' sutstituung for/
ScHOitUM. Though most natural substances appear
««L. II.
 50 ON THE EQUILIBRIUM AND STRENGTH OF ELASTIC SUBSTANCES.
in their intimate constitution to be perfectly elastic, yet 338. Theorem, The stiffest beam that
it often happens that their toughness with respect to exten-
can be cut out of a given cylinder is that of
sion and compression differs very materially. In general,
bodies are said to have less toughness in resisting extension
which the depth is to the breadth as the
_?han compression. square root of 3 to 1, and the strongest as the
335. Theore.m. The transverse strengtli square root of 2 to ] ; but the most resilient
of a beam directly as the breadth and will be that which has its
is as
depth and breadth
the square of the depth, and inversely as the equal.
Let the diameter or diagonal be o, and the breadth x
length. ;

— xx),the stiffness {aa — xxfx,

The strength U limited by the extension or compression then the depth being ^/ {aa is

wliich the substance will bear without failing ;

the curva- —
and the strength aax i*, which must be maximvims ;
ture at the instant of fracture must therefore be inversely as —
and [aa xxYxx must be a maximum ; so that 3(oa xt)'. —
the depth, and the radius of curvature as the depth, or
(
— 2ir).xx-t-(aa
—
Tr)'(2.ri)— 0, aa rir:3xx; and the—
Hm
— -, as b, consequently bm must be as a/*, and/ as —
hm
, or,
squares of the breadth and depth are as
3x'i,x^^ia, and
1 to 3

the depth v' jo, for the strongest form. It

; also aaizz

since m is as Ih, as —
bhh
a
.
is evident that the bulk, and consequently the resilience;
will be greatest when the depth and breadth are equal.
SciioMUM. If one of the siufaces of a beam wrerc in-
compressible, and the cohesive force of all its strata collect-
33Q. Theorem.
Supposing a tube of
ed in the other, its
strength would be six times as great as evanescent thickness to be expanded into a
in the natural state for the radius of curvature would be
; similar of greater diameter, but of
tube
—— , which could not be less than twice as great as in the equal length, the quantity of matter remain-
oj
ing the same, the strength will be increased
natural state, because the strata would be twice as much
extended, with the same curvature, as when the neutrd in the ratio of the diameter, and the stiffness

point is in the axis ; and/ would then be six times as great. in the ratio of the square of the diameter, but
3.36. Definition. The resilience of a the resilience will remain unaltered.
For the quantity of matter remaining the same, its actioa
beam jnay be considered as proportional to
is in both cases simply as its distance from the fulcrum, or
the lieight from which a given
body must from the axis of motion, and this distance is
simply as tho
fall to break it
diameter, since the section remains similar in all its parts :

337. Theorem. The resilience of pris- the tension at a given angular flexure being also increased

matic beams with the distance, the stiffness will be as the square of the dis-
is
simply as their bulk.
The space through which the force or stiffness tance, and the force in similar parts of the space described
of a beam
acts, in generating or destroying motion, is determined by the being always inversely as the space, the square gf the velo-
curvature that city produced or destroyed will remain unaltered.
it will bear without breaking ; and this cur-
vature Scholium. When a beam of finite thickness is made
inversely as the depth-, consequently, the depres-
is

sion will be as the square of the length hollow, retaining the same quantity of matter, the strength
directly, and as the
is increased in a ratio somewhat greater than that of the
depth inversely : but the force in similar parts of the spaces
diameter, because the tension of the internal fibres at the
to be described is
every where as the strength, ex as the
instant of breaking is increased.
square of the depth directly, and as the length inversely t

. therefore the joint ratio of the spaces and the forces is the 340.Theorem. If a column, subjected
ratio of the products of the length by the depth ; but this to a longitudinal force, be cut out of a plank
ratio is that of the squares of the velocities generated or des-
or slab of equable depth, in order that the
troyed, or of the heights from which a body must fall to
extension and compression of the surfaces
acquire these velocities. And if the breadth vary, the force
Will obviously vary in the same ratio therefore the resili- may be initially every where equal, its out-
;

ence will be in the joint ratio of the length, breadth, and line must be a circular arc.

ilcpth, ^ Neglecting the distance of the neutral point from the sxis.
 OF COLLISION, AND OF ENERGY. 51

the cutvalure must be constant, in order that the tension of in approaching and receding will be equal at equal distances.
the superficial fibrer. may be equal ;
and the breadth must For since the velocity generated in describing each ele-
be as the distance of the line of application of the force ; ment of the distance in returning, is
equal to that which
that is, as the ordinate of a circular arc, or, when the curva- was destroyed while the same element of space was describ-
ture is smkll, must be equal
it to the ordinate of another ed in approaching, the whole velocities at any equal dis-

circular arc, of which the chord is equal to the axis. tances must also be equal.

341. Theoeem. If a column be cut out Scholium. Bodies which communicate motion without
a permanent repulsive force, or in circumstances which
of a planT< of equable breadth, and the out-
more or less prevent its action, are called more or less in-
line limiting its depth be composed of two
elastic.

triangles, joined at their bases, the tension

of
343. Theorem. When two elastic bodies
the surfaces produced by a longitudinal meet each other directly, their velocities after
force, will be every where equal, when the
collision are equal to twice the of
velocity
radius of curvature at the middle becomes
the common centre of inertia, diminished by
equal to half the length of the column ;
and their respective velocities.
in this case the curve will be a cycloid. For the motion of the centre of inertia remains unaltered,
For in the cycloid, the radius of curvature varies as the and the motions of the bodies with respect to each other
distance, in the curve, from its origin, or as the square root and with respect to the centre of inertia being, after colli-
of the ordinate a, and if the depth i be as this distance, a sion, equal and in contrary directions, the
velocity of each,
will vary as lb, and the curvature, which is
proportional to
must be changed by twice the difference of its
velocity and
that of the centre of inertia, and
— , will be always as -, and the tensioa wUl be equable
equal to twice the velocity of the centre of inertia diminish-
will therefore become

throughout. In every cycloirf the radius of curvature at ed by its own velbcity.

the middle point is half of the length. 344. Theorem. equal elastic When two
Scholium. When the curvature at the mTddle differs
bodies meet each other directlyj their motions
from that of the cycloid, the figure of the column becomes of
will be e.xchangedi
more difficult investigation. It
may however be delineated
For twice the velocity of the centre ofinertia is here the.
mechanically, making both the depth of the column and
sum of the velocities ; therefore either deducted from this
its radius of curvature proportional always to ^a. If the
will leave a remainder equal to the other, for the motion of.
breadth of the column vary in the same proportion as the
the body to which it
-
belongs.
depth, they must both be every where as the cube rootof a.
345. Theorem. An elastic
body striking
a larger one at rest, partially reflected,
is
SECT. X. OF COLLISION, AND OF ENERGY.
and a body striking a smaller one, continues-
342. Theorem. When, two elastic bodies to move forwards.
For the velocity
approach each other with a uniform motion,
in the first case is greater than twice
that of the centre of inertia, in the second smaller.
until at a certain point a repulsive force com^

mences, their relative velocities, in their re- 346. Theorem. When the impulse of
turn back from that point, will again be uni- an elastic body is communicated to another
form, and equal to what they were, but in a through a series of bodies differing infinitely
contrary direction, httle from each other in bulk, the momen-
Fcr according to the definition of elastic bodies, their, tum of the last is to that of the first' in the
forces are always the same at the same distances from the of their bulks.
siibduplicate ratio
centres, since they depend on the degree of compression.
And two bodies act reciprocally, so as to
Let the first be 1 — T, the second 1 -f-a-, and the velocity of ;
if
change the di-
the first 1 ; then the velocity of the centre of gravity will
Tcci ion of each other's motions, by any forces which are
same at the same
1—
—— a:
Jtlways the distance,'tbeii relative velocities be -
,. and the velocity of the. second after the. inif.
 52 OF ROTATORT POWER.

pul?e will be 1 — x; and Us momentum (i

— t).()-(-i), sioa, while the sum of the momenta, which also remaint

therefore the momentum is increased in the ratio of unaltered, requires to be rcductd to the same direction.

1 to l+x, or in the subduplicate ratio of 1 to i+2r The reason of this difference is, that the square of a nega-

+XX, which as x is diminished, approaches infinitely tive quantity is the same as that of the same quantity taken
near to the subduplicate ratio of 1
— x, to 1+x, or i positively.
to l+2«+5!.r^ + 2.T^... since all the succeeding terms vanish

in comparison with the preceding and in the same man- :

ner it may be shown that at every succeeding step the mo- SECTION XI. OF RQTATORT POWER.
mentum will be increased in the subduplicate ratio of the

bulk ; therefore the joint ratio of all the changes of momen- 349. Theorem. When a system of bo-
. turn will be the subduplicate ratio of the corresponding dies has a rotatory motion round any centre,
change of bulk. the effect of each body in turning the system
Scholium. The first body have a retrograde
will also
round a given point must be estimated by
motion after the collision, with the velocity x, and the subse-
with velocities gradually smaller, in the product of its momentum into the dis-
quent bodies will recoil

the same proportion as their progressive velocities have been tance of tlie body from that point ; and the
If a second impulse be communicated to the
smaller.
power of each body, with respect
first to the ori-
body, it will impel the second with a velocity infinitely near
ginal centre of rotation, will be expressed by
to that which the first impulse produces, and will itself re-
the product of the mass into the square of
coil with a double velocity.*
the distance.
347- DF.riNiTioN. The product of the A and B, fixed to the ends of two
Suppose the bodies
mass of a body into the square of its velo-
equal levers, to meet each other, and simply to communi-
city may properly be termed its
energy. cate their motion, and let B be twice A, and moving with

Scholium. This product has been called the living or half its velocity, then the motion of A will exactly destroy

ascending force, since the height of vertical ascent is in pro- the motion of B, and this effect is therefore the measure of

portion to it ;
and some have considered it as the true mea- the motion of A : but if the bodies A and B be connected
sure of the quantity of motion ; but .although this opinion with the arms of an inflexible line, and move vvith equal
has been very universally rejected, yet the force thus esti- velocities in the same direction, they will be totally stopped
mated well deserves a distinct denomination. by the application of a fulcrum at the centre of gravity ; for

the propositions respecting equilibrium are as well deduci-

Theorem. In two bodies perfectly
348.
blefrom the computation of motion as from that of force,
elastic, the joint energy, with respect to any and the motion of A is here equivalent to the motion of B,
quiescent space, is unaltered by collision. moving with equal velocity at half the distance but it was :

Let the bodies A and B have a relative motion ; then their beforeshown to be equal to the motion of B with half the
velocities towards the centre of inertia will be reciprocally velocity at its own distance : therefore these two motions of
as their masses ;
and the momenta in opposite directions Bare equivalent with respect to effect in producirj; rotatory
will be A.B and B.A. Now if the centre of inertia have motion ; and the same may be shown in other cases. And
also a motion C
with respect to a quiescent space, in the distance from the centre of rotation being as the velo-
the direction of A, the velocities will be C;-f B and C A — city, the power is as the square of the velocity.

respectively, and the joint energies will be A.(C-f-B)'-t- 350. Definition. The centre of gyra-
B.(C— A)'. But after collision, the velocities B and A
tion a point into which if all the particles
is
relative to the centre of inertia are in a contrary direction^
same of a revolving body were condensed, it would
the motion of that centre remaining the (28g), there-
fore the velocities are C— B and C+A respectively, and the retain the same degree of rotatory power.
A.(C- B)'+B.(C+A)*; but A.(C4-B)'— A.(C—
energies 351. Theorem. The centre of gyration
B)"=:2ABC=:B.(C+A)*— B.(C— A)S and the two sums of two equal points is at the distance of the
•re equal.
Scholium. The energy must be estimated in the re-
square root of half the sum of the squares of
the separate distances from the axis.
spective directions of the velocities before and
after coUi-
 OF ROTATOny POWER. 5.1

The distance of the points from the axis being a and

whole body. But the sura of the reduced momenta is als*
b,

the whole rotatory power will be «*+//, which is equal expressed by the product of the whole mass into the distance

sum of the centre of gravity from the line drawn through the
to the of the particles multiplied by the square of
axis (27fl) which is
equal, acting at the distance of the
centre of percussion, to the whole rotatory power, or the
sum of the products of all the particles by the squares of
352. Theorem. The distance of the cen-
their distances, and the distance of the centre of percussion
tre of gyration of a right line from an axis
from the centre of suspension is found by dividing the
at its extremity, is to its length, as 1 to v^3.
rotatory power by the mass and the distance of the centre
The fluxion of the rotatory power is x''i, consequently of gravity.
the whole rotatory power is
^r', which is equivalent to the In the same mannerj when a body is suspended as a
pen-
effect of .T at the distance of i/lx'. But if the centre of mo- dulum, the tendency of the weight of each particle, to turn
tion does not coincide with the end of the line, the rotatory it round the
axis, is proportional to the distance frorh the
power will be the sum or difference of the two values of .r
vertical line passing through the point of suspension ; and
at the end of the line, as \{a^±b'], and the distance of the the sum of the forces of the particles
all is
expressed by the
centre of gyration becomes •/ (^(o'd:''')), divided by a±l. product of the whole weight into tlie distance of the centre
353. Theorem. The distsince of the ofgravity from the same line; and the rotatory mass to be
centre of gyration of a circle or any circular moved is to be estimated by the joint products of the'parti-
cles into the squares of their distances: and in order that
sector from its centre of rotation and of cur-
the angular velocity of the equivalent pendulum may be
vature is to the radius as 1 to v'Q.
equal, its distance from the vertical line must be to the
The area of any increment of the circle, of which the
square of its distance from the centre, in the same ratio, as
radius is x, will be as x*',and its rotatory power x*!', the flux- the product of the distance of the centre of
gravity into the
Ion x'x and the fluent ^r' but the whole area will be as
;
whole weight,to the rotatory mass ; but the distance of these
fr', and the rotatory power the same as if the whole were at
points from the vertical line is as the distance from the cen-
the distance v' (i^*)-
tre, therefore the distance of the centre of oscillation is ex-
354. Definition. The centre of percus- pressed by the mass divided by the weight and the
rotatory
sion is a point in which an obstacle must be distance of the centre of gravity from the point of suspen-
sion it is
equal to the distance of the centre
placed in order to receive the whole effect of ; consequently
of percussion from the same point.
the motion of a revolving body, without pro-
Scholium. It may also be shown that the distance of
ducing any pressure on the axis. the centre of oscillation from the centre of
gravity varies in-
335. Definition. The centre of oscil- versely as the distance of the centre of suspension from the

lation of a body is a point of which the dis- same point.

tance from the axis of motion is equal to the 357. Theorem. The centre of oscilla-
length of a pendulum vibrating in tlie same tion of two equal points in a
right line pass-
time with the body, ing through the'axis is found by dividing
356. Theorem. The centres of percus- the sum of the squares of iheir distances by
sion and of oscillation coincide always in the sum or diflerence of their distances.
the same point. For the rotatory power is a'+i'', and the weight mul»
The effect of the velocity of
every part of the body, re- tiplied by the distance of the centre of gravity is a±/'.
duced to the direction in which the obstacle opposes it, is S58. Theorem. The centre of oscilla-
expressed by the product of each particle, into its distance tion of a right line suspended at its extre-
from the line drawn through the axis, parallel to that direc-
tion : now the joint effect of all these reduced momenta is
mity is at the distance of two thirds of its
equal to the resistance of the obstacle, since the axis is sup length,
posed to be free from any pressure in consequence of the 7 he fluxion of the rotatoiy power is x'i, the fluent ^',
percussion and the resistance of the obstacle acting at the the distance of the centre of gravity the product ix', and
;
^,
given diitancc is also equivalent to the rotatory power of the the quotient j*.
54 OF PREPONDERANCE, AND THE MAXIMUM OF EFFECT.

Theorem. The centre of oscilla- Suppose the two weights fixed nt opposite ends of a lerer,
559.
and let it be required to determine their respective distances
tion of a triiinj^le, suspended at its vertej^,
from the fulcrum, so that the velocity of the ascending
and vibrating in a direction perpendicular to weight may be the greatest possible ;
let this weight be
its is at the distance of of its height called a, and its distance from the fulcrum unity, the de-
plane, ^^

scending weight being and its distance x. Then, if the

from the vertex. I,

weights were in equilibrium, a wouldbe zzx; and the dif-

Calling, for the sake of simplicity, the base of the triangle
ference o(x and a, or x—a, is the force tending to raise a j
unity, the fluxion of the rotatory power is x'i, the fluent
but the mass to be raised is equivalent to a+arx, for tjie
Jx', the distance
of the centre of gravity |r, the product
mass of the weight 1 acts in the duplicate ratio of its dis-
^«', and the quotient Jr.
tance from the fulcrum (349), and the velocity of a wiH

SECTION Xn. OF PREPONDERANCE, AND

be —X — a ,
—— ... fx
— a)ixi
and its fluxion
.

=0, hence
'

a+xx o+xx (a+xx)'

THE MAXIMUM OF EFFECT. a+xx— 2xx+2axz:o, orrxx — 2ax, and adding aa, xx—
2nr+(7n=a+oa, {x—ay'=Za+aa, x—azZy/{a+aa),x:::
a+ </(«+«<')• if am, xz:i + v'2;
Hence
560. Theorem. In order that a smaller if az: 00

x::^ia. Andsame reasoning is applicable to any other

the
weight may raise a greater to a given height
mechanical power. If the mass of the machine be also
on an inclined plane in the shortest time
considered, let the weight of each of its
parts be reduced to

possible, the length

of the plane must be the place of a (349), and let b be equivalent to their sum,
to its height as twice the greater weight to then the velocity will become. , and x:z.a+.J
the smaller. ^a+i+xx
Let the descending weight be i the ascending a, and the (a+i+oa).
,

length of the plane to its height as x lo l, the weights being 362. Theorem. If the heights of descent
simply connected by a thread and pulley then the portion
;
and ascent, and the descending weight be
of the power employed m maintaining the equilibrium is

given, the operation being supposed to be

—(255), and the remaining portion 1 and the weight
continually repeated, the effect will be great-
;

lobe moved being constantly 0+1, the velocity produced est in a given time when the
aseending^^
a a is to the descending weight as to-
by the acting power 1 will »ary as 1 , and the
weight 1

1.61 8, in the case of equal heights; and ia

square of the time of describing i, as x : f 1 l
(233), or other cases, when it is to the exact counter-

—XX— poise in a ratio which i& always between

, thefluxion of which vanishes when it is a minimum;
1 : 1.5 and 1:2.
therefore — no; and multiplyrngby
" ^ " ' Let the height of descent be i, that of ascent 0, the de-
X [x—a)' XX
1
a(x
— — x=:o, X — 2«:=0, and xzz^a,
o) seending weight 1, and the ascending -
X
;
then the equili-

Theorem.
If a given weight, or
361.

any equivalent force, be employed to raise

brium would require x^ia (313), and 1 — X
i» the force acfc-

another given weight by means of levers,

ing on I V but the mass, reduced, as before, is l-{- — , and
wheels, pullies, or any similar powers, the —a
X
the relative fbrce and the space being given,
greatest effect will be produced, if the acting the-
,
x-f-aa

weight be able to sustain in equilibrium a \

h233) ; and the whole effect in a
weight about twice as great as the weight to (x+aa
be raised, when thi* weight is very large or given time being dtiectly as the weight raised, and inversely
;

about twice and a half as great, when the as the time of ascent, will be as -.
^ I )
•
but wheik
X \ x+aa I

weights are nearly equal. tbia.. is a maximum, its square is a maximum, aod.
 Of THE VELOCITY AXD FRrCTIOX OF WHEEL \rORlt. J.»

I
—— — ; 1 =o>—r; (x— a).-
3XXT-{-2aaxi
0,
on an epicycloida! surface, or by two surfaces
which are involutes of circles,
x'-i^a'x
— —a).{3x::z-ia')zzo,
(*• *''4-a'a-
— 3x' — 2a"i-l-3a.r acting on each
+ 2a'=0, •2T' + (a''-
—3a).x— 20% x=:v'ia' + — 3a)')
-i\{a'
otlier.
A and B be the centres of
—J(a^—3a)=..(v'(aa+l0a+Q) —a+s). Mence, ifar:
Let
the wheels, and CD a portion of
4
an epicycloid, described by the
I, yr: and when a is diminished without limit,
.,
point D of the circle BDE, equal
in diameter to the radius of the
r—-o ;
when it is increased without limit, j-::r:2a ; for in
wheel B, in rolling on the wheel
2
this case ^(aa+ioa+v) approaches infinitely near to A : then if the tooth of the wheel

a+S- This proposition has not always been sufficiently B be terminated by the right line

distinguished from the preceding one. BD, and touch CD in D, the line DE perpendicular to BD,

Scholium. If the force accumulated during the opera- will pass through the point of contact of the circles, E (206) ;
tion of the machine, as that of a stream ol water collected and the force will be communicated in the direction DE,
continually in a reservoir, there would be no limit to the so that the angular motion of each wheel will be the same,

»dv»ntage of a slow motion. as if it acted immediately at the end of the perpendicular

Theorem. If a weight be drawn AF, and the angular motion of A will be to that of B, in
363.
the constant ratio of BD to AF, or BE to AE. It is obvi-
along a horizontal surface by a given force, ous, that BD cannot act in the same manner on CD be-
with a resistance in the direction of the sur- yond the line BA, unless its extremity be made epicycloidal,
face which is
always a certain portion of the and tl'.e corresponding part of the tooth of A a' line. right

the force will act with the greatest Let each tooth now terminate in the curve described by the
pressure,
evolution of a thread from its res-
advantage when the tangent of its inclina-
then the curve will
pective circle :

tion is to the radius as the resistance to the be always perpendicular to the

pressure. thread (l93), which is the tangent

Let AB represent the force, of the circle, and the force will al-
and let BC be to CD as the ways act in the direction of the

pressure to the friction, then circumference of the circles at E

K. CD AD will represent the sura of and G, and the motion will be
the horizontal forces, AC being the efficient portion of the uniform as before.

forc» AB, and CD the diminution of the friction. But the 365. Theorem, The relative velocity of
»ngle D is given, since the proportion of BC to CD is given, the teeth of two wheels, or the velocity with
and BCD is a right angle ; and AB being given, AD will

when
which the surfaces slide on each other, varies
vary as the sine of the angle ABD, which is greatest

ABD is a right angle; and ACB is then similar to BCD; ultimately as the sum of the angular distances
but BC is the tangent of the angle BAC, AC being the ra- of the point of contact from the line
joining
dius. The angle BAC is also the which the weight
same at
the centres.
would begin to slide along the given surface if it were in- Let A and B be the two centres, C
clined to the horizon (soo).
the point of contact, and CD the com-
mon ungent there ; and suppose the
teeth to move to the positions E, F,

and G to be the new point of contact ;

SECTION Xlll. OF THE VELOCITY AND and let BD and BH be perpendicular

FRICTION OF WHEEL WORK. to CD and to AC produced then CE ;

and CF, the elements of the paths

of the points which were at C, will ba
364. Theorem. The angular motion
perpendicular to AC and BC ; and the
of two wheels may be made uniform at the difference of EG and FG, which re-

eame time by means of a right line sliding presejiu the friction, ultimately equa)
 .56 OF THE VEIOCITV AND FUICTIO-!f OF WHEEL WORK.
40 EF, EFG becoming a right line parallel to CD, and number of wheels and pinions, so as to in-
the angle CFG:iDCF=DBC but the angle ECFrrBCH, ;
crease or diminish the
and in the triangle ECF, sin. CFE sin. ECF CE EF : : : :
velocity of the last
sin. CBD sin. BCH CD BH. For the sub- wheels of the series as much as
(139) : : : : : :
possible, the
stance of this demonstration I am indebted to Mr. Ca-
proportion of each pinion to its wheel must
vendish. In the epicycloidal tooth, CD coincides with CB, be nearly that of 1 to 3,59.
and CBD is a right angle, so that the friction is to the mo-
In order to increase the angular
tion CE of the tooth of A, as the sine of velocity in the ratio
BCH, or of ACB,
of 1 to a, with the least possible number y of
to the radius. In the involute, CD is constant, and the fric- wheels,
each having to its pinion the ratio of a to we
tion varies as BH, supposing the motion in CE constant. i,
must make x the number of which the
If the pinion acted within the concave surface of a cylin- hyperbolical
logarithm exceeds the reciprocal by unity. For x'lza
drical wheel, the friction would be as the sine of the differ-
I
ence, instead of the sura, of the angular distances from the
:c=n'; and y.{x+i), the number of teeth, must be st
line of junction.

Scholium. The immediate quantity of the force of minimum: but y.(j;+l)=a'j/-f-y, and orjr
—y{h.l. a)a>
friction does not appear to be materially altered by the re-
lative velocity of the surfaces but its mechSnical effect in
: Z.+i/=.0, a'+ 1 =a'_!li2, or x+ l=Zx(h.\.x] since h.l.a=
yv y
resisting the motion of a machine is so much the greater as
the relative velocity is greater. yii>.\^); therefore 1-f— =h.l.i, and x is found =3.iB»
360. Theokem. If a given number of This is therefore the most
advantageous proportion for pro-
"iceih are to be disposed on an unlimited ducing the greatest velocity with a given number of tcicth.
 jSIATHEMATICAL ELEMENTS
OF

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

PART III.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
OF THE MOTIONS OF FLUIDS.

SECTION J. OF HYDROSTATIC E^WiLlBR^TJM. tide immediately in contact with it, and is communicated
in the direction perpendicular to the tube, therefore if ano-
ther similar row of particles in equilibrium were placed on
367. Definition. A fluid is a collection
the first, this same wouJd
pressure, acting in the direction,
of particles considered as infinitely small not disturb the equilibrium of the particles among them-
spheres, moving freely on each other without selves, however they might be situated with respect to the

friction. first. And conceiving any fluid to be divided into an infi-

Scholium. Some have defined a fluid, as a substance

nite number of tubes, bent or straight, in which the par-

which communicates pressure equally ticles form a continuous series, there can be no force to
in all directions ;

but this appears clearly to be a property derivable from a preserve the equilibrium in each of them, unless the height
of each portion be equal. Yet some may perhaps hesitate
simpler assumption, although, from the deficiency of our
to admit the conclusiveness of this reasoning, without an
analysis, all
attempts to investigate mathematically the af-
fections of fluids, have hitherto been so unsuccessful, that appeal to our experience of the phenomenon as observed in

even this fundamental law can scarcely be strictly demon-

nature : it
may however
be admitted by such as an illustra-

tion of thatphenomenon.
strated.
Scholium. In the equilibrium of fluids, there is some
368. Theorem. The surface of a gra-
analogy to the general law of mechanical equilibrium
vitating fluid at rest, is horizontal.
(313) ; thus, supposing the whole body of the fluid to
Suppose two minute straight move momenta
begin to either way, the initial of the par-
tubes differently inclined to ticles in the surfaces of the unequal portions of a bent tu&e
the horizon, and joined at the
will be equal. For instance, if one surface be ten times as
bottom by a curved portion,
large as the other, its subsidence will raise the other ten
and let them be filled with evanescent spherules then the
:
times as much as it sinks.
relative force of gravity is
inversely as the length, when the
369. Theorem. The surface of a gravi-
height is the same ("255), and the number of particles is di-

rectly as the length :

consequently the absolute pressures tating fluid, revolving round an axis, is
para-
will be equal, and there will be an equilibiium ; and if the bolic.
fluid in cither arm be higher, it will preponderate. The The centrifugal force is simply as' the distance from the

pressure on the tube at any part is only the effect of the pat- axis, and may be represented by tlie ordinate, while the

VOL. II. I
 53 OF HYDROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM.

constant force of gravity represented by

the subnormal,
is the weight of a column of a fluid of which
the ordinate
or the portion of the axis intercepted between the base is equal to the surface, and the
to the the or
and the perpendicular curve, perpendicular
height to the distance of its centre
of gravity
normal being the result of the two forces. But the curvp ,

for the below the level surface 'bf the fluid.

in which the subnormal is constant is a parabola ;

Suppose the surface to be divided into a number of equal

of the curve, the ordi-
triangle composed by the increments
evanescent portions, then the number of particles in each
"nate and the absciss, is similar to that which is formed by
column on the same base being as its length, the
standing^
the normal, the subnormal, and the ordinate, consequently
weight will be and the base conjointly, or as
is Ihe: length
i :: s :
y, yil=si, and s—~ "yii
;
but m the numerical product of the base and length but from the
y':3f::i:y, i) : :

or of inertia, the sum of

2?/y property of the centre of gravity
^—~'
. .

the parabola, since

^"°
«x=yi/ (204}, ai—-2yy,
tlie products of each particle of the surface into its depth,

J——
a into the distance of the
, which IS constant. is equal to the product of the whole
centre of gravity (276), which represents a column of the
370. Theorem. The pressure of a
fluid
same height, and on the same base.

on every of the vessel containing it, A

particle 372. Theorem. hemisphere or semi-
or of any other surface, real or imaginjiry, in its axis
cylinder of uniform densitj', having
contact with it, is equal to the weight of a co- in the surface of a and
fi.xed fluid, remaining
lunin of the fluid of which the base is equal
any one will re-
.

in equilibrium in position,
to that particle, and the height to its
depth when is
main in
equilibrium position its

below the surface of the fluid.

the or diminution of the
Imagine an equable tube to be so
changed by iiijcrease

bent that one of its arms may be ver- quantity of the fluid.
tical, and the other perpendicular to The pressure of the fluid on
the given surface then drawing a
:
the convex surffi.ce.of the solid
horizontal line AB, the fluid in the will have no effect .in turning

portion of the tube AB will remain in it round its axis, consequently

cquinbrium, and will only transmit we have only to consider the

the pressure of BC A, and this will be

to the surface at pressure exerted on its plane
true whatever be the position of the imaginary tube ;
and surface. Thecentre of gravity
since some particles of the fluid may be so arranged as to of this^urface AB or CD being
be no more disturbed in their initial tendency to motion at A or C, the pressure of the

than the fluid in such a tube would be, the equilibrium fluid will be always as the depth AB, CD : but the eflfect of

can never be permanent unless the pressures be such as the weight of the solid will be always as EB, FB, the distance

are here assigned. of the centre of gravity E, G from the vertical line AB but :

Scholium. If therefore any portion of the superior the triangle BDC is always similar to the triangle GFB, con-
part of a fluid be replaced by a part of the vessel, the pres- setjuently CD varies always as FB, and if the forces are
sure against this from below will be the same which before once equal, they will remain always equal in any position

supported the weight of the fluid removed, and, every part of the solid.

remaining in equilibrium, the pressure on the bottom will Scholium. If the surface of the fluid be below the
be the sarhe as if the horizontal section of the vessel were
axis, and there be an equilibrium, for instance when the
every where of equal dimensions. In this manner the surface is at A, there will be an equilibrium, for a similar
smallest given quantity of a fluid may be made to produce reason, when the fluid rises to C in the oblique position of
a pressure capable of sustaining a weight of any magnitude,
he solid.
either by diifiinishing the diameter of the column and in-

creasing its height, or by increasing the surface which sup-

373. Theorem. If fluids are of different

ports the weight. specific gravities,

that is, if equal bulks of
371. Theorem, The pressure on any them have different weights, they will coun-
vertical or oblique, plane surface is
equal to terbalance each other in a bent tube, whea
 OF FT.OATING BODIES. — OF SPECIFIC, CRAVITIES. 60

their heights above the common surface are one twelfth of the cube of the breadth, divid-

ed by the area of the transverse vertical sec-

inversely as their specific gravities.
For if the tube be equable, and its arms similar, the actual tion of the immersed part.
weights above the common surface will be equal ;
and if Let the body be inclin-

otherwise, the efficient weights will be equal, since, in ed in a small degree from
either fluid, the pressures on the common surEa(^ are simply the position of equilibrium
as the heights. ABC, into the position

DEF; then the triangles

GHI and KHL will be

equal, since the area of the

SECTION II. or FLOATING BODIES. section immersed must
remain constant, and GK
and IL will ultimately bi-
374. Theorem. If an}' body floats on
sect each other in H. Now the centre of gravity of thu
a fluid, it
displaces a quantity of the fluid section ILF, is common centre of gravity of its parts
the

equal to itself in weight. IHMF and LHM, making K,M=GI ; but N the centre of
-
For since the body is supposed to remain at rest, and to IHMF
gravity of is in the line HF bisecting it, and the com-
retain the pressure of the fluid below it in equilibrium, it mon centre of gravity may be found by making NO parallel
must exert by its weight a pressure downwards, equal to to HKortoHL,in the same ratio to the distance of the centre
that of the quantity of fluid which would retain the same of gravity of LHM from H that LHM bears to IFL. Now
pressure in equilibrium, or to the quantity displaced. the distance of the centre of gravity of any triangle from the

375. Theorem. When the centre of vertex is two thirds of the line which bisects the base (277) ;

that is in this case |HK, and the area of the LHM

gravity of the floating body is in the same
triangle
is *1fK.KP, therefore NO SHK: :: HK.KP :
LFI, NO=:
vertical hne with the centre of gravity of the
^HKo KP
body remains
•2 — but drawing Oa through O, NO
displaced, the
:
fluid in equili- ; vertically
•

.:•
brium. -

NO :: KP HK :. and ^^^^2^^mS^=^.'}f^. ''

If a uniform fluid, of the same specific gravity as the fluid,
KP IFL 11-L

occupied the place of the portion removed, it would remain If therefore the centre of gravity be in Q, the body will
at rest, in consequence of the contrary actions of the fluid remain in its position in any small inclination; since the
and of gravity. Now the efTect of any forces on the motion result of the pressure of the fluid acts in the direction OQ,
of the centre of gravity of a the same as if the centre of gravity be below Q, it will descend towards
compound body, is

the line €lO, and the body will recover

if they were applied to the same mass placed in the centre its situation; if
^f therefore since the direction of gravitation is
above Q, the body will overset. Hence the point Q is
gravity ; .

.•vertical, the. result of the combined pressures of the fluid sometimes called the centre of pressure, or the mctaccntrc.
which counteract it, would, if united at the centre of gra- The theorem may be easily accommodated to bodies of

vity, be also vertical: and if the actual centre of of other forms.

gravity
the body of equal wdight be placed in this line, there will
be an equilibrium; but if otherwise, the centre of gravity
will descend towards this line, and a part of the immersed
portion will in the mean time be somewhat raised by the
SECTION III. OF SIT.CIFIC GRAVITIE'S.
•
pressure of the fluid.

376. Theorem. If a
floating body have
377. Theorem. If a body is immersed
its section, made by the surface of the fluid, a in a fluid, it loses as much qf its weight as is

|iarallelogram, its
equilibrium will be stable equivalent to an equal bulk of the fluid.
or tottering, For if the body were of the same
specific gravity with
accordingly as the height of its
the fluid, would remain at rest, without any tendency to
it
centre of gravity, above that of the
portion of ascend or to descend,' the pressure of the fluid
counteracting
the fluid displaced, is smaller or greater than its whole
weight: butthat pressure will belhesamewhatever
GO OF PKKUMATIC EQUILIBRIUM. — OF HYDRAULICS.
may be the weight of the body, and will support an equal The height of such a homogeoeous atmosphere must b«
directly as the pressure to be produced, and inversely as the
weight in both cases.
Scholium. Hence the specific gravity of any fluid may density, and since the density varies as the pressure, the
be determined by finding how much weight it deducts from result will be constant. This height is found to be some-

a body of known dimensions immersed in it. And the di- what more than 5 miles in very great elevations it proba-
:

mensions of a be found by weighing it in a fluid bly varies.

solid may
of known specific gravity, and thence its specific gravity 381. Theorem. Ifa fluid be contained
may also be ascertained. be support-
in a tube closed at the top, it will

ed by the pressure of the atmosphere at such

a height, that its weight will be equal to that
SECTION IV. OF PNEUMATIC EQUILIBRIUM. of a column of air on the same base, and of
the height of the atmosphere.
378. Definition. Elastic fluids are such For if an upright tube be partly immersed in a fliiid, a

as have a tendency to expand when at liberty, heavier fluid will be sustained in it at a proportionate height,

provided that the access of the fluid to its upper part be

with a force which is proportional to their
prevented ; and in this case, the pressure of the
atmosphere
density. is as effectually removed from the upper surface of the fluid
Atmospheric air, gases, and vapours, are examples of such in the tube, as if the tube were continued throughout thi
fluids.
height of the atmosphere.

379. Theorem. Supposing the force of

the logarithm of the
gravitation constant,
rarity of
the atmosphere must be in a con-
SECTION V. OF HYDRAULICS*
stant ratio to the height.

Let the length of a column of air increase equably in de-

382. Theorem. The velocity of a small
as the pres-
scending, then the densities at each point being
in any direction from a
sures which counteract the expansive force (378), and the
jet of water issuing
increments of the pressures being as these densities, the reservoir, is nearly equal, in favourable cir-
pressures vary proportionally while the heights vary equa- cumstances, to the velocity acquired by a
therefore the heights are in a constant ratio to the lo-
bly ;
body in falling through the height of the
garithms of the numbers representing the pressures (50) :

surface of the reservoir above the orifice.

and in ascending, the same logarithms, taken negatively,
are the logarithms of the reciprocals of the densities (38), Supposing a very small plate of water immediately with-
So that be corresponding in the orifice, tobe put in motion at each instant by means
or of the rarities. if a, I; h, r;

A of the whole pressure of the fluid; which is equal to the

heights and rarities, a : l.t :: : l.r. Suppose a 7 miles,
weight of a column on the same bascj of the height of the
and /-zlt.thcn 7 -.lA-.-.h: l.r, and l.rlz-^Ar: and
'
7 1.1026
,
reservoir, and supposing the whole pressure to be employed
h in generating the velocity of the thin stratum, neglecting

*=!. 16-26 (l.r),

also since l.r=:(1.4). —h , r=(4)7. Practi-
the motion of the surrounding fluid, this stratum would be

urged by a force as much greater than its own weight as the

cally 7i:i;ioooo (l.r), in fathoms. column is higher than its thickness, through a space which
shorter than the heighl of the column in the same ratio.
380. Theorem. The height of a column is

But the spaces being inversely as the forces, the final velo-
of of equal density with the atmosphere
air,
cities are equal ; and the velocity thus generated would be
at any part, capable of producing a pressure
-equal to that of a body falling through the height of the

equal to the atmospheric pressure at that column. And although a part of the pressure of the co-

is the same at all distances above the lumn is expended in producing motion in its own particlesi
part,
this part is not wholly lost, because tlie velocity of these
earth's surface.
 OF HYDRAULICS. 61

pirticles renders »hem more easily actuated by the pressure

of the succeeding column. Still, however, some deduction
must be made for the lateral motions of the neighbouring

particles, which tend rather to diminish the quantity of the

discharge, than to lessen the actual velocity of the jet: the

particles approaching and even passing through the orifice

obliquely, contract the diameter of the stream nearly in the

ratio of 4 to 5, when the aperture is in a thin plate ; but the

velocity in the contracted part is only one fortieth or one

fiftieth less thart»that which is due to the height.
Scholium. The velocity of the discharge through dif-
ferent kinds of apertures may be found by multiplying the

square root of the height in feet by 'a certain coefficient;

this, for the undiminished velocity, is 8.0229 ;

for an orifice

imitating the form of the contracted stream 7.8 ; for bridges

with pointed piers 7.7 ;

for bridges with square piers O.y ;

for short pipes, from two to four times as long as their dia-

meter, 6.6 ; for orifices in a thin plate, and for weres, about
i. When the orifice is made between two reservoirs, the

discharge is
nearly in the same relation to the ditference
of their heights.

383. Theorem. A jet of water issuing

from aa orifice of a proper form, and directed
upwards, rises nearly to the lieight of the
head of water in the reservoir.
For it has been shown, that the velocity is
nearly equal to
that which is
produced by the fall of a body through the
height, and each of the particles may be considered nearly
its a separate projectile.

384. Theorem. If a jet issue horizon-

tally from any part of the side of a vessel

standing on a horizontal plane, and a circle
be described having the whole height of the
fluid for its diameter, the fluid will reach the
plane at a distance from the vessel, eqnal to
that chord of the circle in which the ini- jet
tially moves.
A The horizontal velocity ot the

jet, being equal to that which is

acquired by a body falling through

the distance AB below the sur-

face, would describe in the time

of falling through AB, a distance

equal to 2AB (233), and in the time of falling through BC,

in which the jet will reach the horizontal plane (25l), a
distance greater in the ratio of those times, or of the square

roots of the spaces (235)- Call AC, 1, then (121) 1 : AD ;:

^2 OF HYDRAULICS.

389. Theorem. When a river flows

consequently 111. u'+i-r: A; k being the actual heighf,
with a uniform niotiorij its
velocity varies as
the square roots of the hydraulic mean depth ^""^
{aib'+d).v'=b^dk, and «'=_!____
and of the sine of the inclination conjointly.
J J c^„„,
ScHoiioM. ,
_,
The
_ .
, . .
,
.

coefficient t IS in this case 8.8, and

For since the relative weight produces no acceleration, it

"''* '^
"early .0211, where the velocity is moderate : but it

must be exactly balanced by the friction : but the friction is is more accurate to make t)=:50^ (— £L_) ; all the mea-
as the square of the velocity, therefore the relative weight \ '+50d/

^"^" ''^'"S ejcpressed in English feet. When the pipe

must be as tlie square of the velocity, and the velocity as
is

''^"'' ^'^ ""^y '^"'' ^'^^ •'«'Sht

employed in*ovcrcoming the
the square root of the relative weight, or of the sine of the
ailditional
inclination. And since the friction produced by the bed resistance,by multiplying the square of the ve-
^°'^''>' ^y ^'^^ ^'"= of «he angle of inflection, and by .0038.
of the river is for any given portion of water, as the extent
of the bed directly and inversely as the quantity of water,
^* "^V "'^o ''^^"cs '''^ velocity of a river from the same

mean depth, the square of f'"''""'*' supposing the pipe to be in train, or so constituted,
that is inversely as the hydraulic
'^'" ''"
the velocity must vary in the direct ratio of the depth in velocity is
independent of its length ; for mating
order to produce a given friction, and the velocity must be A=zc+A/, we have
^""^"^^^'^
constant, whatever may be
as the square root of the mean depth,
+5oa
the magnitude of 2,andif /:::aO ,V=.bo / {kd) ; but(/t)is the
Scholium. It is found by experience that the mean ve- sine of the inclination, and mean
e being the depth, d:=.ie
locity of a river in a second is
nearly nine tenths of a mean and riz y (i ooooAr?) ; or, if we employ .02 1 1 as the value of

proportional between the hydraulic mean depth, and the at-Si;=^/(828oie); whilethcrule deducedfrom observation
fall in two English miles. And if this velocity be ex- is equivalent to «:r:v/[BS53*e.)
pressed in inches and increased by square root, it will
its _, ^^ i , i.
.
...
, ,. ,
1 1 u J I
diminished . SQL Iheorem. hydraulic
j ^
pressure
r The
give tne velocity of the surface, if
by its square
O^ ^ j^t acting directly on a plane surface,
root, the velocity at the bottom. It appears however that
the velocity increases a little more rapidly than the square SO as to lose whole progressive motion, is
its

root of the fall. The discharge of a were may be found by

equal to twice the weight of a column OU
" the velocity due to the
determining sum of its height, and ^i , j .u i- i
•
i .. i
.
, ,
the same base, and or the heieht correspond-
the height corresponding to the velocity with which the
water arrives at it. ing tO the Velocity.
^°' '" '^^ '""" '"'•"''"'^ ^°' ^ ^°'^5' '° f"" *™"5h this
390. Theorem. The
square of the velo-
,„.,,., ,
,
, .
height, each particle of the jet would lose its velocity by
city •'
or a fluid discharged
° o a pipe
throus^h r r va- ^ . ,. , .... u . .u- .-
ti)£ immediate action of gravitation ; but in this time the
•

riesd irectly as the height multiplied by the ^^^^ number of particles lose their velocity by the reaction
diameter, and inversely as the diameter in- of the surface as are contained in a column on the same

creased by a certain constant fraction of the base, and of twice the height therefore the = effects being

equal, the causes must also be equal.

Ipno-tVi

392. Theorem. The resistance of a fluid

The height of the reservoir above the orifice of the pipe , . , 1
• .
1

., , ,. ij . . .u 1 J tv^ "
to a body
"- j moving
a through
o ' is
It, as the square
1
may beconsidered as divided into twopartSjtheoneemployed
in overcoming the friction, the other in producing the ve- Oi the velocity.
Now the whole friction varies directly as the length For the relative motions are nearly the same as in the
locity.
of the pipe, inversely as its
hydraulic mean depth, which is impulse of a jet ;
and the height of the column varies ac

one fourth of its diameter, and directly as the square of the the square of the velocity.

velocity ; or calling the height employed on the friction,/, ScHOiruM. When the impulse is oblique, the resistance
the laws of the decomposition of
/=1. v\ a being a constant quantity. But the height tnay be calculated from
force ; but the results are not accurate enough to be of any

employed in producing the velocity v, is

2L,ibeingthepro- use witliout a comparison with experiments.

fw determining the 393. THEOREM. When the whole of a

per coefficient velocity from the height;
 .(«N
OF HYDRAULICS. "JRNiA-.y 63

column depends on the difference of tbe velocities with

of a fluid acts upon a body,
given quantity which its surfaces are made to advance, and this elevation
its effect is simply as the relative velocity. or depression is therefore to the whole height, as the varia-
For the length of the stream being given, the time of its tion of the fluxion of the length, produced by the operation
as the relative velocity, and the
operation will be inversely of the force, is to the whole fluxion of the length. While
eflect being as the pressure and the time, or as the square
therefore one of the supposed moveable points describes 3
of the velocity directly, and inversely as the velocity, wriU be
given elementary arc, and the column
is elevated or de-
fluid acts in such a manner
simply as the velocity. If the pressed through its versed sine, which expresses half the
that the time does not vary, the proposition may be proved
second fluxion of the height, its limits will approach each
from considering simply the quantity of motion that the other horizontally through a space as much less, as the
fluid loses, which must be the measure of the force with than the whole height, and the
fluxion of the length is less
which it acts on the solid.
much
whole horizontal velocity being as greater than this

394. Theorem. The rotatory power of relative velocity, as the force is greater than its fluxion, or

a limited stream is
greatest when it
impels as the first fluxion of the height is greater than its second

own ve- fluxion, it follows that the whole horizontal velocity will
an obstacle moving with half its
describe a space equal to half the first fluxion of tlic height,
locity. diminished in the ratio of the fluxion of the length to the
For the rotatory power is as the force and the velocity
height ;
but if the force were altered so as to become equal
conjointly j now the length of the stream being limited, its
to that of gravity, or in the ratio of the fluxion of the height
force is simply as the relative velocity, or as a—v, a being would become
to that of the length, the space described
the velocity of the stream, and v that of the obstacle ; but
diminished in the
equal to half the fluxion of the length,
av — «v is a maximum when oi'~2!)(', or 2ii~o.
ratio of the fluxion of the length to the height ; and if the
395. Theorem. When the surface of an
time were increased in the ratio of the elementary arc, or
a narrow
incompressible fluid, contained in the fluxion of the length, to the height the space described

or depressed a would be increased in the duplicate ratio, and would be-

prismatic canal, is elevated
come equal to half the height : since therefore the move-
little at above the general level, if
part any able point describes a space equal to the depth, in the time
suppose a point to move
we in the surface
that half that space would be described by the action of
each way with a velocity equal to that of a gravity, its
velocity equal to that which is acquired by a
is

heavy body fallingtbrough half the depth heavy body in falling through half the depth, and the sur-

the surface of the fluid at the face of the fluid will initially describe a space equal to the
of the fluid,
versed sine of an arc thus described by the moveable point.
part first affected will always be in a right
In this manner the initial change of situation of every
line between the two moveable points. be determined, and the figure
part of the given surface may
The particles constituting any column of the fluid are which it^wiU have acquired at the end of any instant may
actuated by two forces, derived from the hydrostatic pres- be considered as determining the acceleration of the motion
sures of the columns on each side, and these pressures are • for a successive instant, which will always be such as to

supposed to extend to the bottom of the canal, with an in- add to the space described with the velocity acquired at the

tensity regulated only by the height of the columns them- beginning of the instant, a space equal to the mean of the
selves; and this supposition would be either perfectly or versed sines of the equal elementary arcs of the new curve

very nearly true if the particles of the fluid were infinitely on each side of the point. But the sura of these versed.sincs

elastic, or absolutely incomjlressible. The difference of is always half the sum of the second fluxions of the height of
these forces constituting a partial pressure, is the immediate the original surface at equal distancesoneach side, correspond-
cause of the horizontal motion, and the vertical motion is the ing to the placeof the moveable points,.for the extremities of
effect : and this difference is every where to the weight of the new elementary arcs being determined by the bisections
the column, or of any of its portions, as the difference of the of two equal ch.ords, removed to the distance of the arc on
heights to the thickness of the column, or as the fluxion of each side, the sagitta at each end is half of the excess of the

the height to that of the horizontal length of the canal. increment on one side above the increment adjoining to the
Such therefore is the force acting horizontally on any ele- corresponding one on the other side, and the sum of the sa-

DMntary column ; but the elongation or abbreviation of the gittas is therefore halfof thesuraof tbe differences of the in-
 64 6t HrDRAULICS.

crements from the contiguous increments on the same side, all waves the more u the depth approaches more to Jhfa
and the mean of the sagittas is half of the mean of the se- limit. If the surface was originally in the form of the harmo-
cond fluxions: but the second fluxion of the space may nic curve, it may be shown that the force acting at any time

always be expressed by twice its second increment ; the se- on a given point in consequence of the sum of (he results of

cond fluxion of the space is therefore equal to the mean of the forces derived from the effect of a given portion of a
wave
the second fluxions of thesagittas corresponding to the places which has already passed by, will still follow the law of the
of the moveable points, and the space to the mean of tlie same curve but the force will be diminished in the ratio
:

sagittas themselves, since the same mode of reasoning may of the arc corresponding to half the space described by the

be extended step by step throughout the length of the wave while the impulse returns from the bottom, to its sine,
surface. the whole distance of the wave being considered as the cir-

The actions of any two or more forces being always ex- cumference; and the velocity will be diminished in the sub-
pressed by the addition or subtraction of the results pro- duplicate ratio ; but the arc which, when diminished in the
duced by their single operations, it
may easily be under- subduplicate ratio that it bears to the sine, is the greatest,

stood that any two or more impressions may be propagated is that of which the length is
equal to the tangent of its ex-
in a similar manner through the canal, without impeding cess above a right angle, or an arc of about
70°^, its sine Is
each other, the inclination of the surface, which is the ori- .94 and its lengtli a. 8, the subduplicate ratio that of 1 to

ginal cause of the acting force, being the joint effect of the .57, andthe velocity will be so much less than that which is

inclinations produced by the separate impressions, and pro- due to the height : but v^-ith this velocity the wave will de-

would have resulted from scribe a portion equal to

ducing singly the same force as |^ of its breadth, while the effect
the combination of the two separate inclinations ; and the descends and reasccnds to the depth concerned ; and sup-
elevation or depression becoming always the sum or differ- posing the velocity with which the impulse is transmitted
ence of those which belong to the separate impressions. through the fluid to be equal to that which is acquired by
If then we suppose two similar impulses, waves, or scries a body falling through a space equal to \m, and calling the

of waves, to meet each other in directions precisely oppo- depth h, and the breadth of the wave o, while JiJo is- de-

site, they will still pursue their course, but the point, in scribed by V, 2/1 is described by that which is due to im, or
which their similar parts meet must be free from all horizon-
hy bv' ( — i andv being as
tal motion, since tlie motions peculiar to each, destroy each j .57l'^/{~J, .57iv(-)
other :
consequently a solid obstacle fixed in a vertical di- '

( —V° ^Aj ^ m, whence

'° sis'^> «o '5 *v^ and .14A 1
:i:2^fl
rection would produce precisely the same effect on either
series, as is produced by the opposition of a similar scries, hz:.5{a:'m)'.
For water, according to Mr. Canton's ex-

•and would refleci it in a form similar to that of the opposite riments, m is not more than 7 50,000 feet, but we may ven-
series. ture to call it a million ;
then if a, the breadth of the wave,
Scholium. The limited elasticity of liquids actually were 1 foot, h would be 50, and the velocity nearly 23 feet

existing produces some variations in the phenomena of in a second. If a were 1000 feet, h would be 5000 ; and
waves, which have not yet been investigated; but its effect the addition of a greater depth could not increase the velo-

may be in some degree estimated by approximation. For city. Where the depth is given, the correction may be
a finite time is
actually required in order for the propagation made in a similar manner. For h being in this case given,

of any effect to the parts of the fluid situated at any given we must find the arc which is to its sine in the duplicate

depth below the surface, and for the return of the impulse ratio of the velocity due to the height to the diminished ve-
or pressure to the superficial pans : so that the summit of by that arc, while that of the impulse
locity, represented
every wave must have^ravelled through a certain portion of propagated in the medium is expressed by twice the depth-
itstrack before the neighbouring parts of the fluid can have Thus if h were 8 feet, and o a foot, the velocity being u,

partaken in the whole effects which its pressure would pro- the arc must be to its sine as 256 to rv, and v to 5660 a^
duce by means of th« displacement of the lower part of the twice the arc to twice the depth and the arc ^3, or in
fluid. This cause probably cooperates with the cohesion of degrees .blv ;
but this arc is somewhat more than 6°, and
the liquid in rounding off any sharp that the velocity scarcely dimi-
angles which may ori- exceeds its sine so little is

ginally have existed ; it limits the effect that an increase of nished one thousandth by the compressibility of the water.
depth can produce in the velocity of the transmission of The ftiction and tenacity of the water must also tend ia
•waves of a finite magnitude, and diminishes the some degree to lessen the velocity of the waves.
velocity of
 OF SOUND. 6S

SECTION VI. OF SOUND. q, or as ff^ to 1: therefore the time of vibration will be

as 1 to v'
to that of a pendulum of the length y
396. Theorem. When a uniform and ^^1^1\
extended by a given and to that of a pendulum of the length atn a ratio as much
perfectly flexible chord,
is inflected into any form, difiering less as yfy is less than v'a, or as 1 toc.^/". But the
weight,
little from a straight line, and then suflPered
to the
time of the vibration of a pendulum of the length a is

to vibrate, it returns to its primitive state in time in which a body would fall through half a, as c to

tlie time which would be occupied by a 1, consequently a single vibration of the chord will be per-

in falling through a height

which formed in the time of through ? 3, and a double vi-
heavy body falling

twice the
is length of the chord as
to the
bration in the time of falling through 2a.?. Now the ele-
of the chord to the tension ; and the
weight P
intermediate positions of each point may be ment z', moving according to the law of the cycloidal pen-

found by delineating the initial figure, and dulum, describes spaces which are the versed sines of arcs,
inc'reasing equably (259), and the difference of
the sine at
below the
repeating it in an inverted position
any point from the half sum of the sines of two equidiffer-
absciss, then taking, in the absciss, each ent arcs, is in a constant ratio to the versed sine of the dif-

way, a distance proportionate to the time, ference, therefore, by taking the half sum of two equidistant

and the half sum of the corresponding ordi- ordinates, we remaining to be described, after
find the space

a time proportionate to the absciss. If tlie base be divided

nates will indicate the place of the point at
into two equal
parts, and a harmonic curve be described on
the expiration of that time.
different sides of each part, the same demonstration is ap-
We may first suppose the initial figure of the chord to be
plicable to both parts,
as if they were two separate chords :

a harmonic curve ; then the force impelling each particle since the middle point will always be retained at rest by
will be proportional to its distance from the quiescent po- and nothing prevents us from
equal and opposite forces ;

sition, or the base of the curve. For the force acting on this compound vibration with the original one,
combining
any element i' ia to the whole force of tension p, as the ele- we increase or di-
since, by adding together the ordinates,
ments' tothe radius of curvature r (299), therefore the force is minish the fluxions and increments, in proportion to the

inversely as the radius of curvature, or directly as the cur- spaces that are to be described, and the same construction
vature, that is, in this case, as the second fluxion of the of two equidistant ordinates, will determine the motion of
ordinate (195) ; but the second fluxion of the ordinate of each Such a compound figure may be made to pass
part.
the harmonic curve is proportional tothe ordinate itself; through any two points at pleasure, and it may easily be
for the fluxion of the sine is as the cosine, and its fluxion
conceived, that by subdividing the chord still further, and
again as the sine ; the force being therefore always as tlie
multiplying the subordinate curves, we may accommodate
distance from a certain point, as in the cycloidal pendulum, it to numhcr of points, so as to approximate in-
any greater
the vibrations will be isochronous, and the ordinates will be near to any given figure by which means the pro-
finitely ;

proportionally diminished, .so that (he figure will be always is extended to all possible forms.
position
a harmonic curve. Now calling the length of the chord «, Scholium. If the initial figure consist of several equal

and the greatest ordinate y, tlie ordinate of the figure of portions crossing the axis, the chord will continue to vibrate
sines being to the length as the diameter of a circle to its like the same number of separate chords ; and it is some-

c>rcuniference,.or :::
—a
c
, the radius of curvature of the har-
times necessary to consider such subordinate vibrations as

compounded with a general one. It usually happens also

iBonic curve will be — , and the force'acting on the ele-

that the vibration deviates from
which
its

often exceedingly complicated,

plane, and becomes a
and
ccy rotation, is may
ment z' will be but the weight of the chord being
be considered as composed of various vibrations in different
;
aa
planes.
ccyp The chord and
q, ihat of z' is il ,and the force is to the weight as to 397. Theorem. its ten-

VOL. II. K
 66 OF SOUND.

sion remaining the same, the time of vibra- If tlierefore a point move in the original curve with such a

tion is as the length ; and if the tension be velocity as to describe the arc, while its versed sine is d^
scribed by the motion of the chord, it would describe the
changed, the frequency will be as its square length of the modulus while a heavy body would descend
root the time also varies as the square root
:
through half that length, and its velocity will therefore be
of the weight of the chord. equal to that which is acquired by a body falling through
It has been shown, that the time varies in the subdupli- half the length and supposing a point to move each
:
way
cate ratio of the force, that of the tension directly, and with such a velocity, the successive
is, places of the given
of the weight inversely ;
and since the weight varies as the point of the chord will be initially in a straight line be-

length, the equivalent space will vary as the squate of the tween these moving points. The place of the given point
length, and the time of describing will also remain in a straight line
it
simply as the length. between the two moving
Scholium. The properties of vibrating chords have points as long as the motion continues. For the figure of
been demonstrated in a more direct and general manner by the curve being initially changed in a small
degree accord-
means of a branch of the fiuxionary calculus which has been ing to this law, each of the points of the chord will be
called the method of variations, and which
employed is in found in a situation which is determined by it, and its mo-
comparing the changes of the properties of a curve existing tion will be continued in
consequence of the inertia of the
at once in its different parts, with the variations which it chord, and will receive an additional velocity from the ef-

undergoes in successive portions of time from an alteration fect of the new curvature. The space described in the first
of its form. An example'of this mode of calculation has instant being equal to the mean of the versed sines of the
already been given in the investigation of the motions of
arcs included by the two moveable points, the velocity, as
waves (395), and may be applied with equal simplicity to well as the second fluxion of the versed sine,
it
may be repre-
the vibrations of chords, and to the propagation of sound, sented by twice that mean the increment of this
:
velocity
notwithstanding tlie and with which it in the next succeeding position of the curve will be
intricacy prolixity repie-
has been always hitherto treated. It may be shown that sented by the new mean of the versed sines, which is al-
every small change of form is propagated along an extended ways half of the mean of the second fluxions of the ordi-
chord with a velocity equal to that of a nates on each side for the extremities of the new ele-
heavy body falling ;

through a height equal to half the length of a portion of the mentary arcs being determined by the bisections of two
chord, of which the weight is equivalent to a force produc- equal chords removed to the distance of the arc on each
ing the tension, and which may be called the modulus of side, the versed sine of each is half of the excess of the in-
'

the tension and that the change is crement on one side above the increment adjoining to the
; continually reflected
when it arrives at the extremities of the chord ; and from corresponding one on the other side, and the sum of the
this proposition all the properties of
vibrating chords may versed sines is therefore half the sum of the differences of

be immediately deduced. the increments from the contiguous increments on the

For the force, acting on any small portion of the chord, same side, consequently the fluxion, or rather the variation

being to the tension as its length to the radius of curvature, of the velocity, which is represented by twice the mean
and its weight being to the tension as its length is to the versed sine, is equal to the half sum of the second fluxions
modulus of tension, the force is to the weight as the length of the original curve at the parts in which the moveable
of the modulus to the radius. By this force the whole por- points are found, and the second fluxion or variation of the
tion is
initially impelled, since the change of curvature in space, which is as the variation of the velocity, is equal to

its immediate neighbourhood is inconsiderable with respect the mean of the second fluxions of the ordinates ; there-
to the whole and it will describe a space equal to its versed
: fore the space described is always equal to the diminu-
sine, which is to the arc as the arc to the diameter, in the tion of the mean of the ordinates. And the same mode of
time in which a body falling by the force of gravity would reasoning may be extended through the whole curve. If
describe a space as much less, as the modulus of tension is the initial figure be such that two of its contiguous portions,

greater than the radius, that is, a space which is to the arc lying on opposite sides of the absciss, are similar to each
as the arc to twice the modulus ; and if the time be in- other, and placed in an inverted position, it is obvious that
creased in the ratio of the arc to the modulus, the space the point in which they cross the axis must remain at rest,
describedby the falling body will be increased in the du- consequently its place
may be supplied by a fixed point,
plicate ratio, and will become equal to half the modulus : and either portion of the cun-e will continue its motion.
 OF SOUND.

when vibrating separately-) in the same manner as if the

radius of curvature there becomes f32i)
^
: and this
chord were prolonged without end by a repetition of si- 120/
milar portions, of which the alternate ones arc in an in- curvature may be represented by the ordinate of the har-

verted position. monic curve produced until it meets the tangent at the ori-

so that the radius of curvature at the vertex of the har-

398. Theokem. The times, occupied by gin ;

... ll>m
the similar vibrations of elastic rods, are di- monic curve will
,
be greater than
,

m the same ratio

Via/
rectly as the squares of tlieir lengths, and in- as the produced ordinate is longer than the original ordinate,

versely as their depths. that is, as the quadrant of a circle is greater than the tadius,
If the length vary, the force at a given depression will
and will therefore be equal to ; but the radius of
vary inversely as its cube, and the weight will vary as the •248/

length, consequently the relative force will be inversely as

the fourth power of the length ; and where the spaces are
curvature is also — (398), I being the length, and y

given, the times are as the square roots of the forces. The the ordinate,
^ ,
therefore y=,-r-;
i*afn
bbc'm
— , or,
.
smce 2=:2a,
, 19ft'
r—'-
is also directly as the depth, and the force as its blc^m
weight
cube ; the accelerating force is therefore as the square of The weight of the element of the rod j;' is to m as x' to the
the depth, and the time inversely as the depth.
height of thi modulus h, and is therefore n-r-m.andtht
h
SCHOHUM. It may be shown that the accelerating force,
which acts on any point of an elastic rod, is as the difference force urging it is
to/i as the area corresponding to i', is to

of the curvature at the given point from the sum of the

half the area of the curve, that is, as yx* to — yl
c
, or as x' to
curvatures at equal small distances on each side, that is, as
the second fluxion of the curvature, or ultimately, as the —I
, and
. .

is equal to
,

—-; but/=——-=
cfx' , , /J'c'mv
, and
, cfx" .
-i-— is to the
fourth fluxion of the ordinate. In the harmonic curve, the
second fluxion of the curvature, aswell as the second fluxion . , iic'my m , Ibc'hy
weight as ,' j to -r-x , or as ^ to l ; the time
I'll* h 121'
of the ordinate, is
proportional to the ordinate itself; hence
it follows that a rod
of vibration is therefore at much less than that of a pendu-
infinitely long being bent into a series
of harmonic curves, each of its points would reach the basis lum of which the length isy, as — v'l-.-j
bc^ ny\ is
greater
at the same instant ; that a finite rod, loosely fixed at both

manner ; and than unity, and as much less than that of a pendulum of
ends, might vibrate in a similar that a ring is

also capable of similar vibrations, if it be divided into any which the length is 12 A, as —— is greater than unity, and
even number of vibrating portions. The time of such a
the time of a complete vibration is to the time of falling
vibration may be thus determined. The extremities of the
rod, when loosely fixed, may be considered as simply sub- through 64 as 2l^ to Ich,

jected to a transverse force, since the curvature ultimately 399. Definition. sound, of which, A
disappears the sum of these transverse forces being equal
:

the number of vibrations in a second is any

to the whole of the forces which urge the rod towards the
integer power of 2, is denoted in music by
basis, and each of them being expressed by the area of one
half of the curve. Now the curvature of a bar fixed at one the letter c.
end, and depressed alittle by a
weight at the other, increas- Scholium. Hence we may form a table of the number
es uniformly in advancing towards the fixid
point, until the of vibrations of each note in a second.

_____
^^ i 221

8 = 4
C c c c
' '
1 1^ 3i 04 138 iia 1024 3048 32768
68 OF dov^jy.

c c«: (1 eb f tSR g ab ti bb b c

i -^^©.fe^o-sXfis:
,(ytot|d^t^
o^

ScalesofC. 256 288 307 320341 384 409 427 451 480 512.
Equal tem-
perament. [•256 271287 304 323 342 36S 384 406 431 456 483 512.
Progressive X
270 28? 3o3 321 341 360 383 405 427 455 481 512,
temperaments./*^®

400. Theorem. All minute impulses are For computing the velocity, it is convenient to assume Sf

certainlaw for the motion of each particle, and it is

conveyed through a homogeneous eUislic
simplest to suppose it moving according 10 the law of the
medium with a uniform velocity, equal to
cycloidalpendulum. Let AB
that which a
heavy body would acquire by be the minute space described
falling through half the height of the me- by the particle A, in one semi-
dium causing the pressm-e. vibration, while the undulation

moveable point be urged through a small space

If a
by
is transmitted through AC-
the difference of two forces,
varying inversely as its distance
DA, and let DE be a figiue

from two equidistant fixed points, in the same right line,

of sines, of which DA is the
the times of describing that space will be half basis ; then if EF flow
ultimately equal,
whatever be its magnitude. For, uniformly with the-time, that
calling the distance of
each point and the space is, if it increase with the velocity of the undulation, the
a, to be described x, the forces
versed sine FG will be in a constant ratio to (he motion of
TrviU be and and their difTerence _ ,which A A
a—x a+x
,
aa — xx (259) ; the velocity of will be as the fluxion of the

space, or of FG, that as the conjugate ordinate HI

IS to _a as nx to a
a
;
but smce x is evanescent, this
i?,

(142); the fo'ce will be as the fluxion of the velocity, or

ratio becomes that of 2x to a, and the force varies as the as FG ; and the force being as the change of density, or as

space to be described, consequently the times are equal. If its fluxion, the density, or rather the excess above the na.-

therefore all the particles of an elastic medium tural density, will be again as HI, and the fluent of'tfae pro-
contiguous
to any plane, be agitated same time by a motion
at the duct of HI into the fluxion of the base, will giva the whole

varying according to any law, they will communicate a

excess of density in DA, which will therefore be represented

motion to the particles on each side, and this motion will by the figure DAK (190). But when A arrives at B, ihe be-
be propagated in each direction with a uniform ginning of, the undulation reaches C, and the whole fluid
velocity,
and so that each particle shall observe the same law in its which oci;upied A is condensed into BC, so that its meaa
motion. For, as in the collisions of elastic balls (344), density is increased in the ratio of AC to BC, and AB re-

each ball communicates its whole motion to the next, and presents the excess above the natural density; therefore

then remains at rest, so each particle of the medium will let the rectangle DLMA be to DAK, or DKq (203), as BC
communicate its motion to the next in order; the common to AB, or ultimately as AC or DA to AH ; that is, let

centre of inertia of two neighbouring particles supplying

DA.DL DKq : : : DA :
AB, or DL: -DKq then DL will
the place of a fixed point ; and the retrograde motions will AB
also be similarly communicated by the expansive force and HI
represent the natural density, while the ordinates every
pressure of the medium ;
and since the magnitude of the where represent its increase. Let NA be the evanescent

motion, while it is considered as evanescent, -does not affect length of the particle A, then the force actuating it will be
the time of its communication from one particle to the next, as the difference of the densities at its extremities, or as NO,
the velocity will not be affected
by this magnitude, and the which is
equal to NA (l4l) ; therefore the force impelling
whole successive motions will be transferred to the neigh- A, is to the whole elasticity, as NA to DL. Now if h
bouring panicles in their original order and proportion. be the height of a column of the fluid, equal in vreight ta
 OF SOUND. 69

this weight will be to the weight

of ordinates at its extremities, that is, by the weight of a pojr-
the whole elasticity,
A tion of the modulus equal in height to that difference ; this
A as /i to NA ;
and the force impelling being A.NA DL, ;

A as h to DL, or as force is to the weight, which is to be moved, as the fluxion

this force will be to the weight of
^^ of the ordinate to that of the absciss; and the velocity with
;, to 1. Let there be two pendulums, of which the
'DKq which the density increases will be as the difference of the

AB, then with the same force, they will the extremities of the portions, or as the second
lengths are h and forces at

vibrate in times which are as ^h and ^/^ AB, and if the force fluxion of the ordinate of the curve ; and the increment of

in AB become h. ^^. , the time being inversely in the sub- the ordinate expressing (he density will be to the whole, as
DKq half of its second fluxion to its first fluxion ;
while therefore
of the force, the vibrations will be as v^ A to
duplicate ratio the density varies so as to be represented by the mean of two
^ AB. v/ f^^
^ or as A to ;
and in the time of DK ordinates at a small distance on each side of the first ordi-
[h.ABj
this semivibration in AB, tlie undulation will be transmitted nate, tlie increment of the ordinate being represented by the

DA, therefore in a semivibration of h, it will be mean versed sine of the arcs, or half the second fluxion, of
through
transmitted through a space greater in the ratio of h to DK, the mean ordinate, the decrement of the space occupied by

which will be to h as DA to DK, or as half the circum- the particles will be as much less as the fluxion of the ab-

ference of a circle to its diameter ;

and while a heavy body sciss is less than the ordinate, and the whole velocity being

falls through half /i, the undulation will describe /i

(25g), as much greater than the difference of the velocities, as the
be equal to the final velocity of fluxion, or as the
its velocity will therefore force is greater than its first fluxion of the

Accordfng to this
the body falling through half A (23l). ordinate is
greater than its second fluxion, it follows that, in
theorem the mean velocity of sound should be gifi feet the same time, the particles will actually describe a space

in a second, h being 2788O feet, but it is found to be nearly equal to half of the first' fluxion of the ordinate, diminished in

1 130, which is one fifth greater than the computed velo- the ratio of the fluxion of the absciss to the ordinate; but if
'
city. The most probable reason that has been assigned for the forcewere altered in theratioof the fluxion of the ordinate
this difference is the partial increase of elasticity occasioned to that of the absciss, so as to become equal to that of gra-

by the heat and rold produced by condensation and ex- \ity, the space described would become equal to half the
pansion. fluxion of the absciss, diminished in the ratio of the fluxion'

401. Theorem. The Tieight of the ba- of the absciss to the ordinate ;
and if the time were increas-

ed in the ratio of the fluxion of the absciss to the ordinate,

rometer will not affect the velocity of sound;
the space described would be increased in the duplicate ra-
but, if the density vary, the pressure remain- and would become equal to half tlie ordinate and if a
tio, ;

ing the same, the velocity will vary in its point move each way through the curve so as to describe
an arc while the variation of density causes the ordinate to-
subduplicate ratio.
For the velocity varies in the subduplicate ratio of the be diminished by a space equal to the mean versed sine, it

height of a homogeneous atmosphere, and that height re- wouJd describe a space equal to the ordinate or the height

mains the same while the density is only varied by means of the modulus, while half that space wouldbe described by
of pressure. the action of gravity ^ consequently the velocity of the-
Scholium. The velocity of the transmission of an im- points would be initially equal to that of a heavy body fall-

pulse through an clastic medium of any kind may be more ing through half the height of the modulus. And that it

generally determined without the consideration cf any par- would always remain equal to this velocity, so that the

ticular law for the variation of the density; and it

may be density of the medium might always be expressed by the

directly demonstrated, that the velocity, with which any mean ordinate, may be shown exactly in the same manner
impulse is transmitted by an elastic substance, is
equal to as has already been done with respect to the motions of

that which is acquired by a heavy body in falling through waves and of vibrating chords. The variation of the velo-
half the height of the modulus of its elasticity. The density city, and the change of place of the particles may be easily
of the different parts of the medium, throughout the finite deduced from the successive fonms of the curve representing
space, which is affected by the impulse at
anyone time, may the density ; and the whole eft'ect may also be considered as
be represented by the ordinatcs of a curve ; that which cor- arising from the progressive motion of the. same curves
responds to the natural density being equal to the height of which express the cotemporary affections of the different

the modulus of the elasticity. Tlie force acting on parts of the medium, and which will also show the succcs-
any
small portion will be expressed by the difference of the shestates of any one portion of it- at different times,.
70 OF DIOPTRICS AND CATOPTRICS.

SECTION YII. OF mOPTKICS AND CATOP- index of the refractive density of the medium
I
TRICS. is that number which is to unity as the sine

of incidence to the sine of refraction.

402. Definition. Light is an influence 408. Phenomenon. When, between
capable of entering the eye, and of aflFecting two transparent mediums, a third is in-
it with a sense of vision. A ray of hght is terminated
terposed, by parallel surfaces,
considered as an evanescent element of a
the whole angular refraction remains un-
stream of light ; and a pencil as a collection
changed.
of such rays accompanying each other.
Scholium. The proportions of the sines of the angles
403. Definition. Light is distinguished be deduced from the me-
of incidence and refraction may
by its effect on the sense of vision, into white chanical laws of motion, whether we consider refraction

and coloured light; and coloured light into

as produced by a constant attractive force, acting in a given
small space on the. particles of light as projected corpuscles,
a great number of various hues but they :

or by the change in the velocity with which an undulation

may all be referred to the three primitive
is transmitted through mediums of different densities. For
colours, red, green, and violet. when a moving body approaches a surface obliquely, its ve-

Definition.
404. Those substances, locity may be resolved into two parts, one In a direction

which and the other perpendicular to the surface and

light passes uninterrupted in parallel, ;
through
the attractive force, being supposed to be perpendicular to
straight lines, are called homogeneous trans-
motion.
the surface, will not affect its lateral Now, since
parent mediums. the fluxion of the square of the velocity varies as the flux-
405. Phenomenon. When rays of light ion of the space, and as the force, conjointly (23S), the space

which and the force remaining the same, the finite increments of
arrive at a surface, boundary of
is the
the squares of any two perpendicular velocities will also be
two mediums not homogeneous, they con-
equal. Calling the whole velocity in the hypotenuse a,
tinue in the same planes but a part of
;
and the perpendicular velocity x, the lateral velocity will
them, and sometimes nearly the whole, is —
be /(aa xx) ; and after refraction, we have ,i/{xx+ll)
reflected, making with the perpendicular an for the perpendicular velocity, and v" (aa+ib) for the whole
which therefore in a constant ratio to the former
angle of reflection equal to the angle of in-
is
velocity,

velocity a. But the lateral velocity remaining, in any one

cidence; and another part is transmitted, be made radius, and the virhole
refraction, constant, may
making such an angle of refraction, that at velocities will be the cosecaiUs of the angles, which, bysi-
the same surface, and for rays of the same milar triangles, are inversely as the sines of the same angles,
In the un-
kind, the ratio of the sines of incidence and and the ratio of the sines is therefore constant.

refraction constant, whatever be their dulatory system, the distance

is
may
between any two points of
magnitude. the surface being made radius,
406. Phenomenon. If the same re- the distance
perpendicular
fracted ray return to the surface in an oppo- which the same undulation
site direction,it will be transmitted back in passes over, while it travels

from the first to the second,

the direction of the incident ra3^
is the sine of the respective
406. Definition. ITie medium, in which
angle in each medium, and #
the ray nearer to the perpendicular, is said
is
thesedistances,beingdescribed
to have the greater refractive same time, must be
density ; and a
in the in the constant ratio of the Telo-

cities appropriate to the mediums.

ray of light being supposed to pass from an
empty space into a transpaient medium, the Theorem. The index of refraction
409.
 OP DIOPTRICS AXD CATOPTRICS. 71

at the common surface of two mediums is the of the focus of incident rays, the sum, divided

quotient of their respective indices. b}' the index of refraction, is equal to the
^

For the indices being r and qr, if the sine of incidence sum of the reciprocals of the rudius, and of
from a v.cuum be ;, the sine of refraction in the first me-
jj^g distance of the focUS of refracted rayS :
dium will be 2., and this interposed medium being ter- tlie distances being considered as negative

minated by parallel surfaces, the sine of refraction in the when the respective focl are On the COncave .

second medium will be the same as in the absence of the side of the surface.

or -L, which is toi. as Let AB be the axis, and AC a

first, 1
to?. f-^q
?'' *"
ray infinitely near it ; let D be
410. Theorem.
The angle of deviation the centre, and e the focus con- a

jugate to A.
angles of incidence and re-
the Call BD, a, ab,
being given,
'^'^^' '' '^' '"''"" °^ refraction, r. and the angle CAB, or
fl-action will be equal to the angles at the
its sine, s. Then CD CA : : :
Z.CAB :
/_CVB, the arcs
base of any triangle, of which the sides are
coincidingultimatelywiththeirsines,and z.CDBzr s, and
as 1 index of refraction, including an
to the a

angle equal to the angle of deviation. the angle of incidence ACF=— s+s, whence DCE=:;—
For the sines of the angles of a triangle are proportional a r

to the sides opposite to them.

ACF—{d+a).. But sin. DCE : sin. CDE : : DE :
CE,
411. Definition. The point of inter-
or (d+a).
section of the directions of any two or more
rays of light is called their focus y and the

focus either actual or virtual, accordingly

is

as they meet in it, or only tend to or from it.

412. Definition. When the divergence

or convergence of rays is altered by refrac-
tion or reflection at any surface, the foci of
the incident and refracted or reflected rays 415. Theorem. The distances of the

are called conjugate to each other ; and the conjugate foci from a plane refracting sur
new focus is called the image of the former
72 OF DIOPTRICS AND CATOPTRICS.
—I

e
,
——
or
141
e a d
;
JL,_
and when dzzco, _—
e
1 "
::..
a
principal focal length of any lens, is equal to
the sum or difference of the
and (!= — \a.
reciprocals of
the radii, multiplied the index lessened
418. Theorem. When diverging rays
by
fall on a concave mirror, the reciprocal of by unity : and when diverging rays fall on
a convex lens, or
the distance of the focus of reflected rays is converging rays on a con-
cave one, the reciprocal of the
the difference of the reciprocals of the prin- principal
focal length is equal to the sum of the reci-
cipal focal length and the distance of the
procals of the distances of the
focus of incident rays ;
and the same is true conjugate
foci but to their difference, when
whea converging rays fall on a convex ;
converg-
mirror ;
and in either case, when the focus ing rays fall on a convex lens, or diverging
of incident rays within the principal focal
is rays on a concave one.

distance, the focus of reflected rays is on the For the focus after the first refraction wc have —— _L j.
e ra
convex side of the surface.
— and changing the on account of the chanre
The distance iJ
being negative,—— —
J 1
— —,
Q
and when ru a
, signs, °
e d a

—a > — ,— being of direction of the convexity, — —- ra

to be sub-
positive, the focus is on the convex rd
fi e

side. stituted for — in the second refraction, where the radius is

.a

419- Theorem. When converging rays

I', and the index — j hence — : ._r_ ,
j;
t I 1
_
fallon a concave mirror, or diverging rays T e l> a a d b

on a convex mirror, the reciprocal of the (r

— i)-f-7-H— j
—j> and when d= oo,-t- vanishes, and
focal distance of reflected rays is the sum of
/i
the reciprocals of the principal focal length,
—•—
1
('
— l)'l "T"H
i\
)--~f'
1
'" "'^ concave lens, d be-

and of the focal distance of incident rays ; 1

_ 1
ing negative, ~—-7+—-
'7
In the meniscus, the signs
and the focus of reflected rays is in either

case within the sphere. not being changed, —c=l.-I-+^+2- —L—(r—i\.

Here d remains positive, and — (JL.4.1.\,
e \ a d / \l a J^ d
420. Definition. A lens i« a detached
Scholium. Iftheindex be J, as in some kinds of glass,
portion of a transparent substance, of which the focal length of a double convex or a double concave
the opposite sides are regular polished sur-
lens, will be equal to the common radius ; and of a plano-
faces, of such forms as be described by may convex or planoconcave, equal to the diameter : if the in-
a line revolving round an axis. In general, dex be |, as in water, the focal length will be to that of an
one of the sides is a portion of a spherical equal lens of glass, as 3 to 2.

surface, and the other, either a portion of a 422. Theorem. The joint focus of two

spherical surftice, or a plane ; whence we lenses found by adding or subtracting the

is

have double convex, double concave, plano- reciprocals of their separate focal lengths,
convex, planoconcave, and meniscus lenses. accordingly as they agree or differ with re-
Itis
simplest to suppose the lens of evanes- spect to convexity and concavity ;
or by di-
cent thickness, and denser than the surround- viding their product by their sum or differ-

ing medium. ence.

421. Theorem. The reciprocal of the For it
may be sboivn in the same manner as for two sur-
 OF DIOPTRICS AXD CATaPTRICS. 73

faces, that
— r:-T+-,or
a
— zz— —a- (421} ;
and e— and of the refracted ray with another con-
c J e J centric sphere which is smaller in the same
proportion, are in the same radius.
f±d
423. Definition. The centre of a lens LetAB:AC::AC:AD:: 1 :r;
then the triangles ABC,ACD are
isa point, between which and the centres of
equiangular, and ^ACD~ABC.
the surfaces, segments of the axis are inter- But sin. ABC : sin. .\CB :: AC :

cepted, proportional to the respective radii, AB :: T :

1, and ACB is the angle of refraction correspond-

and lying on the concave or convex sides of ing to the angle of incidence ACD. This theorem affords
an easy method of constructing problems relative to sphe-
bolh surfaces.
rical refraction.
424. Theorem.
All rays, which in their Scholium. It may easilybe shown, that if the ray CD

passage through the lens, tend to the cen- were reflected at D, it would meet the ray CE at E ; and

tre, are transmitted in a direction parallel to supposing the velocity greater in the rarer medium, in the
ratio of the densities, it would arrive there in the same time ;
their original direction.
and if DE were again reflected at E, it would coincide
LetABpass
through the
*. A \cVi-LJL
// with CE again refracted.

g ANy(^^ jj
426. When a pencil of
Definition.
centre C, and

join AD and rays falls

obliquely on the surface of a
BE;thensince sphere, the point towards which those rays,
CD E : : ; AD :
BE, AD is psrallel to BE ;
and the sur-
which are situated in any plane passing
faces at A and B being also parallel, the ray is equally re-
fracted in contrary directions at A and B. through the axis, are made to converge, may
Scholium. In some cases, the optical centre may be be called the peripheric focus.
without the lens, but no practical inconvenience results Scholium. These points form a line of concourse,
from considering it as always within the lens, especially which is a part of the circumference of a circle; and this
when the thickness is evanescent ; and then the two pa- is the focus at which the image of a circular circumference
rallel directions of the rays passing through it must coincide becomes most distinct. It has hitherto been in general ex-
in the same line. Now when the focus of incident rays is
clusively considered, under the name of the geometrical
removed a httle from the axis, the inclination of each ray to focus of oblique rays.
the surface being increased or diminished nearly alike, their
mutual inclination after refraction or reflection remains but
427. Definition. The focus of colla-

little changed, and the conjugate focus is nearly at the same teral rays, situated in a conical surface hav-
distance as before. Hence we may find the place of the
ing the same axis with the sphere, may be
conjugate focus of a point without the axis ;
for since the
called the radial focus.
ray, which passes through the centre of the surface or lens,
Scholium. It is obvious that the rays of the collateral
preserves its rectifmear direction, the focus must necessarily
planes, which are always perpendicular to the surfoce of the
be in this line, and at the distance already determined for
sphere, can only meet in the axis: therefore the points in
rays in the direction of the axis : and thus we have the
which the collateral rays of a pencil meet, constitute a
magnitude, as well as the place, of the image of any object,
portion of the axis. The image of any radiating lines, cross-
sufficiently near the truth for common purposes.
ing the axis, must evidently be most distinct at the radial
425. Theorem.
a ray of light is When focus.

refracted at the surface of a sphere, the inter- 428. Theorem. When rays fall ob-
sections of the incident ray with a concen- on a spherical
liquely surface, the index of
tricsphere of which the diameter is greater in refraction being r, the actual cosine of in-
the ratio of the index of refraction to cidence the cosine of refraction u, and the
unity, t,
VOL. II.
74 OF DIOPTRICS AND CATOPTRICS.
focal distance of the incident rays d, the Let AB be BD, », then CE and DE being the
d, BC, t,

distance of the focus of refracted

peripheric sines of incidence and refraction, are to each other as r to

''^"" 1, or making EFi^r.EB, as EF to EB, and since CEF be-

•n u
rays will be -^ n=^^- becomes equal to the angle of refraction, or BED, z.BEF=
rail— at— tt
•' •,

CBDirCED, and BEF, DEC are equiangular, and DEG

is also similar to BEC, and FB BC : : : CD DG, : and if

GH||BC, •.:
BC:GH=^; also FB FC : :: CD :CG::
FB

BD BH=-^:ir-, and
: AI : BH (=IG} : : AB BK, or AB :

FB
BCq BD.FC AB.BD.FC
AB and AC be two incident rays infinitely near
" .: AB: BK=:- But since
Let FB FB AB.FB— BCq
to each other, refracted into the positions BD, CD ;
FEr:r.BE, FC=r.BD=ru, and FB=ru—«, whence BK:
then EF, GH, will be the increments of the sines ditru
the constant ratio of r to — dt— -zne. And it is obvious that AI and HK are the
EI, GI, which are in l.
rdu tt

Now the angle at A being to the radius unity as

distances of the conjugate foci from the foci of parallel rays
EF GH
EF to AE, is =— -,,
GU-,and/.A:
AE andtheangleatD=—
J .
coming in a contrary direction, and that their product is

always equal to IB.BH.

^D; AE — ::r.GD
GD
: AE. But /.A: /.BKCr: BK 431. Theorem. For parallel rays fall-

! AB, and z.BKC(=;BLC) Z.D BL, : :: BD : therefore

ing obliquely on a double convex or double
/_K: /_n: BK.BD AB.BL :: BE.BD AB.BG :: r.GD
: : :
concave lens of inconsiderable thickness, of
:AE, or te du : r{e—u) d+t, det+eitzzdurf—duru,
: :

which the radii are a and b, thedistanpe of

rdue—dle—ltezzrdiiu, and err—
rdu
—U-.
— dl— If for t and
—+—
the peripheric
^ '^
locus is er: r-. -; r
and au, taking t and u the cosines to the
a o ru—t'~.
u we substitute it
rdavu and u being the cosines corresjjonding to the
-, which,wben a— go ,
, .

we have e=—
, ,

radius unity,
'
rdu dt all — — radius unity.

becomes
rdim
'
and if (i=: oo, e —rrami-I
- This expression is obtained by substitution and reduc-
—tl
The centre from ez:-
raduu
— dt — -, taking for r,
— for a, — t;
429. Definition. relative tion, ;
rdu at t

is the point of intersection of the right lines rauu

and
of conjugate peripheric
for u, t; for d,
ru — t
for t, u.

joining any two pairs

of oblique rays, falling on the 432. Theobem. The radius of a sphere
foci of pencils
same point of a curved surface in the same being a, the actual cosine of incidence t,
that of refraction, m, the distance of the fo-
direction.
Scholium. For the radial foci, the relative centre is cus of incident rays from the given point d,

always the centre of the sphere. from the centre of the sphere c, the distance
430. Theoeem. The relative centre is
of the radial focus from the point of inci-
situated in the bisection of that chord of the rdaa . . .

dence ^"^d from the centre

circle of curvature which bisects the two
is -r:
—
d.{ju—t) aa
rr >

chqfds cut off from the incident and refract- caa

ed rays,
A I F E. LetAB be =:r.AC, thet»
J" /. BAC will be the angle of
deviation, and BCmru — (;
and if DE CF, the triangles1 1
 OF DIOPTRICS AND CATOPTRICS. 75
ABC and DEC are similar, and AC BC : : : DC CE=: :
d+it—
|. If we substitute for EE its ultimate value
b+'i•a /
-, and AE-—^, AC ;
but AE AD : : : AC AF :

AC AC Tab
— — ——
FA =. ~ .ABwiU become . ( ru t qa. 1.
AD.ACq caa
CA BA
qb—a {qi—ay- \ i + 20/
"DC.BC ACq — d.{ru—t)—aa
; also 1 : r :: : ::

Now, when x' is small, x'zz

(xtY
'

since
, (xx)-—2xx, there-
21-
CD DE=rd; AE DE AC CF=: DE.ACq — 'El=^(2ay—yy),
: and : :: :

DC.BC ACq fore since or ^/(2a7/), DE or dz:^

rdna
— —aa—f. yVheaa—CO,f=rd; whenrf=co, ((Z' + 2/)' + 2a i/)z=i'+ —i/; and since the small
angle ACEG
d.(ru t)

._ is
equal to EDC+ECD, its'sine may be considered as the
fc:
ru — t
. If t and u denote the tabular cosines, /~ / a \ cc
1 of their sines, and srz^(2aj/}.l '
+7 ), sszz^ay .—,
rda /._»«
'/~
, , ,

, and when o::i CO , .

d.{ru—t]—a' ru—t cc ss
- = 2ay. ~Ti»andti::na rr^Vm
433. Theorem. For ^{a<t—ss)—t—a—^, rrlb rrbb •''
parallel rays, fall-
on a double convex or double qcc
-ing obliquely whence and ru—t=qa+~.y butd+
m^ra—^.y, rbb''
i

concave lens, the distance of the radial fo-

2cc\ rf+2< cb — ICC
.y=i
cus is — w and t
denoting the — cb
(c
+ ca + cr— ca— ci
lb+2ajbb
{a + b).{ru — t)
•; r-T7-, r, ;
"ice cc
-y— 1— "
y='^-—b-y
{c+a)bb {c+aj'jb
cosines corresponding to the radius unity,
, ,_ be / qcc qac \ qlc
rda
This expression is obtained from fzz
d.[ru
— —a t)
,
sub-
+ rac\ _ qc'{ra-\-c')
stituting
— forr, for d, — b for a, I for u, and u for t. (fc rbb ) y~rbqb a)^'^" '^^^^> when i=: 00 , becomes

434. Theorem. The longitudinal aber- X7-

"When c la, the aberration vanishes, the point D
ration of rays refracted at a spherical surface being in the circumference of the outer circle employed for

qc}(T(l +c)— .
determining the refraction (425).
is ultimately—
^ i; ; .?/,
o beina;
=" r—\,' a .„ r^. r^, , . ,. ,

rbiqb-ay-^'^ 435. Theorem. The longitudinal aber-

the radius, b the focal distance of incident ration of parallel rays refracted
by a double
raySjC-f 6 = c, and 3^ the versed sine of the sire convex or double concave lens of incoiisi-
derable thickness, and of equal radii, the re-
of the surface; and, for parallel rays, -^.
fractive density is to the thickness
qr being 1.5,
The focus of the rays ^ ^—i& of the lens as 130 to 81.
next the axis being A, The effect of the aberration at the first surface is modified
the longitudinal aber-e?

ration will be AB. Now by the refraction of the second, and instead of — , or —3 ,
qr

AC is
b.{qa)
—aa , and BC=:- becomes — y
81
;
for the first focal length is — which may
q

—!— — —
—caa.(d.(ru — aab)
..„
andABn-
(qub
;
1
4)
— aa).{d.{ru— —aaj but EBz:-d.{ru— —aa
'-
' , ^„ rdaa
be called — d, and — =: ra— —rd |

a
, whence — =: ,
(] t) e ee rrdd
"^ rraa
and AB=EB.iif^-Z?h:!^z::EB.-
rd[qab
— aa) r{qab
— (ru—i aaj
nearly,
1 , ,
and e'zz-—d'; but
Tad
,1 , ,
rftf—
,

qq
z:oaa and ezza.

— qa—h" and — =-—

\ I) f/_l_o/ o g
) ; but FD ED : : : GD HD, :
, whence e'=—d' =~y. Then substituting in the formula
/ o i'+2a 27 81

rb{qb
— a)'

AB AK, r«— t—
—Il6a'(aa—+ 4a)
— — 16.14
—
28
: which is
ultimately =;EI.
ri^qab
— ao)
/
f, 4a, we have
2a(,2aj''
.t/ ' .1/^
72^0-^ y,
76 OF OPTICAI. IXSTRUMENTS.

Which
^- , , ,
uddeil to
,
—
"

«i
'/, makes
.
260
81
, or
130
81
^ ,
of the thickness.
^. ,
the radius of curiaturc,
to 3r-f 1.
which is to the focal length e as r

SciiOLiUM. In a similar manner that

Scholium. Hence the mean radius of curvature of the
it maybe shown,
If the radii are a and and the versed sines y and z, the which
?•,
image at the axis may be called- •, istoc, when
'ir+i
aberration will be .y-^
~ -H'-\ has hitherto been usual to neglect the
rzz^, or as 3 to 8.
.( It
qr*[a-\-lij' i^a-^0)' \ rra r
effect of the obliquity, and to consider the focal
length as
l-\ ].;. llcncc, by proper substitutions, the aberration the radius of curvature of the image but it is obvious that
;

this estimation is
extremely erroneous. By similar calcu-
may be expressed in terms of the focal length and one of the
lations it
may be found that the radius of curvature of the
radii, and by making its fluxion vanish, the form of the lens
image of a right line, formed by a single spherical surface,
of least aberration may be determined. The aberration of a
with a diaphragm placed at its centre, so as to exclude all
system of lenses may be found in a similar manner, and
oblique rays, is equal to the principal focal length of the
their proportions may be so determined that the whole aber-
ration be destroyed. surface, whatever roay be the distaace of the line.
may
43G. Theorem. The radial image of
an object infinitely distant, formed by a
double convex lens of equal radii, is a por- SECTION VIII. OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS.
tion of a spherical surface of whic-li the radius
is to the focal length of the lens as r to r + 1
; 437. Theorem. When an angle is mea-
and the peripheric image coincides at the sured by means of Hadley's quadrant, and
axis with a surface of which the radius is to the ray proceeding from one of the objects
the focal length as r to Sr + 1 . is made to coincide, after two reflections,
The focal length for oblique with the ray coming immediately from the

is AB=:- if CD other, the inclination of the reflecting sur-

rays -;but
l(Ui—t) faces is half the angular distance of the ob-
:z.r.AC, C being the centre of cur-

vature, AD is (rit — t)a (43i), and jects. ^

drawing the circle DE, AE^ *,^ A The angle ABC=2CBD, and

——— = ——+ q^na

AF.AG (rn
—^-^=rq+tj'ru — =
a
' t /;
2(n7-f9).AB. The ~P"~>4b BCE=:2BCF; therefore BAC=:
AJJ (ru Ija t
i.

X 2BCF— 2CBD=2CBD (108).

point B will therefore always be situated in a figure similar
to DE, that is, in a circle, and the radius of this circle will

CD ra
be ; but the focal length of the
•irq + iq 'iiq+1q

tens being —
2j
, the radius will be to the focal length as 438. Theorem. When an imaoe of an
actual objectis formed
by anj- lens or spe-
to 1, or asr to r-J-l. Now the distance of the peri-
culum, inverted if the rays become con-
it is

att
pheric focus is -zrAB .
It, and the curvature of vergent to an actual focus, but erect if they
'2{ru—t)
the image be found by adding the sagitta of any small diverge from a virtual focus; and the object
may
arc jf in the circle BH to the difference of AB and AB./f. and image subtend equal angles at the cen-
tre of the lens so that a convex lens and a
;
The sagitta belonging to' BH is —^ and ultimately
concave mirror form an image smaller than
AB.(1— ((;=:AH.(2— 2()=: — , and thesum is — —^^—,
i the object, when the object is at a greater dis-

tance than twice the principal focal length;

and XX divided by this becomes therefore
but larger, when the object is within this dis-
•,
3r-|-i 3r+i
 OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. 77

tance and when it is within the principal

;
441. Theorem. The illumination of the

focus, the magnified image is virtual, and image, formed by any lens or mirror, is equal
erect but a concave lens and a convex
: to that which would be produced
by the im-
mirror, always form a virtual image, which mediate effect of the surface of the lens or
is erect, and smaller than the object. mirror, if
equally illuminated with the object.
For in a lens, if the rays con- Supposing the whole quantity of light that falls on the lens
or mirror to be collected into the image, the condensation
verge after refraction, it must
is in the ratio of the surface of the lens to that of the image.
be to a point beyond the centre,
and the rectilinear rays will de-
Now the illumination produced by a surface equal to the
at the distance of the lens or mirror,
cussate in the centre ; and if
image is equal to the
illumination produced by the object at its actual distance,
hey diverge, it must be from a
supposing the brightness equal, since the linear magnitudes
point on the same side of the
of the object and image are proportional to their distances
centre with the object, and the
from the lens or mirror, and the surfaces are as the squares
rectilinear rays have not cross-
of the distances ; the intensity _of the light falling on the
ed. In the concave mirror
lens is therefore such as the supposed surface would pro-
the foci are always on opposite

sides of the centre of the sphere, duce; and when this is increased in the ratio of the surface
of the lens to that of the image,
it becomes
equal to the il-
since the sum of the reciprocals
lumination produced by the surface of the lens, supposing
of their distance is
equal to
it similar to that of the luminous objiect.
twice the reciprocal of the ra-
dius (418), except when the 442. Theorem. The intensity of illu-

object is within the principal mination of the image of a luminous point,

focus, and then there is an formed by a spherical surface, is inversely as
erect virtual image beyond the
the fourth power of the cube root of the dis-
Surface. In the convex mirror
tance from the centre.
the image is
always virtual and erect, being between the
surface and the principal focus (419) and m the plane
The quantity of light which falls on any portion of the
;

mirror the image surface is as the square of its sine xx, or as the versed sine
is
obviously erect andeijual to the object.
y and the lateral aberration varies as the
439. Theorem. The image of any ob- i
longitudinal
aberration and as the aperture
conjointly, that is as xy o»
ject formed by a spherical reflecting surface as x' ; now the
intensity of light is as the fluxion of the
subtends the same angle as the object both
quantity of light, divided by the fluxion of the surface, or as
from the surface and from its centre. 2xi 1
or as—, or inversely as the fourth
J^> power of the aper-
obvious that the rays which^ass through the centre
It is
ture, or of the cube root of the radius of the circle of aber-
must remain in the same right line ; and since in this case
aa — ad ration.

Scholium. This is not the least circle of aberration

but it is
probably the circle in which the aberration has the
least effect in
producing indistinctness, and therefore it must
the distances from the centre are a— d and e—a, and (/and be considered as determining the
degree of distinctness bi
e are the distances from the surface ; consequently the the image.

image and object are in both cases the bases of similar tri- 443. Theorem. If the whole of the
angles.
light falling uniformly on an infinitely small
440. Axiom. The intensity of light is
sphere were regularly reflected, it would be
inversely as the surface on which any given scattered equally in all directions.
portion of it is spread. The quantity of parallel falling on a rays ring, of which
Scholium. Hence the illumination is said to decrease the breadth is z', the evanescent increment of the
circle, and
as the square of the distance increases.
represented by a hollow^ cylinder, must be as xx', x being
78 OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS.
the SIM, or as xy%', y being the cosine but the angular
:
448. Theorem. Tlie angular magnitude
dissipation after reflection is as the product of twice %' and
of an object viewed through a double micro-
the sine of twice the arc z, since the light forms twice as

great an angle with the axis after reflection as before. But scope is greater than wiien viewed through
the sine of twice the arc z is
lyx, and the product Axyz' is the eyeglass alone, in the ratio of the dis-
ilways proportional to the former product xyz', expressing tances of the object and first image, from
the space in which the light was uniformly spread before re-
the object glass.
flection ;
it will therefore be uniformly spread after reflection.

Scholium. If the quantity of light reflected varied ac- For the first

cording to any given function of the obliquity, the density of image may be con-
the reflected light would vary according to the same law, sidered as a new
considering the obliquity as determined by half the angular object in the focus

The of the eyeglass (424).

distance of the reflected light from the axis. density
of the light reflected by a cylinder varies as the cosine y,
449. Definition. In the Galilean te-
supposing none to be lost.
lescope, or opera glass, a concave eyeglass is
444. Definition. Iu telescopes and
placed so near the object glass, that the first
compound microscopes, the image formed by and near
one lens or mirror stands in the place
image would be formed beyond it,
of a
its
principal focus.
new object for another.
445. Definition. In the astronomical
450. Theorem. In the Galilean tele-

forms an ac- scope, the second virtual image, formed by

telescope, the object glas.s first
the eyeglass, is inverted with respect to this
tual inverted image nearly in the principal
focus of the eyeglass, and the eyeglass a se- image, and erect with respect to the object;
and the magnifying power is the quotient of
cond virtual and inverted image of the first.
the focal lengths.
446. Theorem. Tite inagnifying power
of the astronomical telescope is expressed Since, for a con-

by the quotient of the focal lengths of the cave lens —zz—

e d
glasses.
— (421), when d is little greater than/, e becomes very
For the object
and image subtend 'large ;
and the two images are on different sides of the eye-

equal angles at the glass. The magnifying power is ultimately the quotient of
centre of theobject the distances of the glasses from the first
image.
glass ; and the an-
451. Definition.In day telescopes,
gles subtended by the image at the centre of the eyeglass

and object glass are ultimately in the inverse ratio of the one or more eyeglasses are added, in order
distances (199, I4l). to restore the image to its natural position.

447. Definition. The double mlcro- Scholium. In the common day telescopes of Rheita,
two eyeglasses are employed, of nearly equal focus, and so
scrope resembles in its construction the astro-
placed, as scarcely to affect the magnifying power ; but in
nomical telescope, excepting that the dis-
either case, they may be so disposed as to
Vary it at plea-
tance of the lenses much exceeds their joint sure for such an eye piece is a species of compound
; rai-
focal length. croscope.
 OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. 79

452. Definition. Dr. Herschel's re- principal rays are received and reflected

in their effects, somewhat obliquely, in order to allow the

fleeting telescopes resemble,
the simple astronomical telescope: but the light free access to
the speculum.

[
453. Definition. The Newtonian re- for the convenience of fixing the eyeglass in
flector has a plane speculum placed in its the jde of the tube.

axis, at the inclination of half a right angle. Scholium. Dr. Herschel's construction differs from
this only in the omission of the plane
speculum.

454. Definition. In the Gregorian te- smaller concave speculum, which also re-
verts it it is afterwards submitted to one
lescope, the object speculum is :
perforated,
and the image formed by it, is transmitted or more eyeglasses,
"
through the aperture, after reflection from a
~

4.55. Definition. The telescope of Cas- the first image falls near its
principal focus,
segrain has a convex speculum instead of and the second is thrown back into the focus
Gregory's smaller concave, placed within the of the eyeglass.
focal distance of the large speculum, so that Scholium. The image is here inverted.

456. Definition. Dr. Smith's reflect- and prevented by a screen from falling im-
ing microscope resembles Cassegrain's tele- mediately on the eye. The radii of the sur-

scope, but the rays of light are first admitted faces ar6 equal,

through a perforation in the small speculum.

80 OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS.

Theorem. In ject glass, both in telescopes, and in the common com-

457. refracting te le- all
pound microscopes. The best places for the vari6us lenses
ficopes and microscopes^ the diameter of the
in an eyepiece are partly determined from similar consi-
object glass is to that of
its
image formed derations.

beyond the eyeglass, as the angle subtended
by the magnified image of the object at the
place of this image, is to the angle subtended
by the object at the object glass.
all
Suppo«ng
rays to be <:ollected
in their foci, those
459. Definition. Mr. Dollond's achro-
matic object glasses are composed of two or
more lenses, of different kinds of glass, which
the
produce equal dispersions of tlie
rays of dif-
ferent colours, with different angular deviar
tions; the joint deviation being employed to

which proceed from the centre of the object glass will meet
produce an image, while the equal disper-
in each of its images ;
and those rays coincide iu direction
sions are opposed to each other in such
with the rays from different parts of the distant object a separation of
a manner as to prevent
which cross in that centre, therefore these will also meet
colours.
in the same point, and with the same inclination, deter-

mining the angular magnitude of the ultimate image

at an 460. Theorem. The focallengths of the
infinite distance. But the inverse ratio of these angles is the two achromatic object glass
lenses of an
magnitude of the object glass to
its
same as that of the
must be in the ratio of the dispersive powers
image, and the successive images to each other for the :

from the cen- of the respective substances, at an equal de-

images and objects are always as the distance
tre, and the angles are inversely as the distances. viation.

458. Theorem. The field of view, or the If the ratios of the sines be for one glass 1 +m :
1, and

of the object l+m+n: and the other l+p and l+p+1 1 ;

angular magnitude of the part 1, for :
I, :

of which the telescope forms an ultimate then the dispersive

'^ powers will be as —m
71
and —Q
. Let the
p
is nearly equal, in the astronomical
image, focal lengths of the lenses for the first kind of rays be there-

telescope, to the angle

subtended by the eye-
the whole image
fore —m and —, then for the second they will be —
;

glass at the object glass ; p m^n.

somewhat more, and its and —2— respectively (421) and the reciprocal of the
comprehending P+1
;

somewhat less. m ... — —

brightest part
joint focus in the first case —
p
and m the second "<+" 1

^ B The extreme ray .

n <j
,
"
being AB, the angle
CDB limits the whole _P_ii.(4a2)=-
"
— — ;
therefore the focal length will
y y
image : but no rays be the same for rays of both kinds.
coming to the eye-
Scholium. The chromatic aberration is also some-

glass from E fall above F, thetefore CDF limits the part times partially corrected in an eyepiece, by causing
the

least refrangible rays to subtend, at

fully illuminated. image formed by the
Scholium. If a lens be added at the place of the first
the eyeglass, nearly the same angle with the image formed
ha\e no effect on the distance of any subse-
image, it will by the most refrangible rays.
but will en-
quent image, nor on the magnifying power,
it
4GI. Theorem, If the refractive den-
more on the ori-
large the field of view, by throwing rays

But, if the image fell exactly on such a sity of a medium vary as a given power of
ginal eyeglass.
lens, a particle of dust attached
to the lens, or any acci- the distance from a certain central point,
since
dental opacity, would intercept a portion of the image, the angular deviation of a ray of light will
all the rays belonging to each point of the object
are col-
be to the angle described round the centre
lected in the respective points of the image : the field glass
to unity.
is therefore generally placed somewhat nearer to the ob- as the exponent of the power
 OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. 81

Since the densities are supposed to be times the refraction, at a mean height of the barometer
equal at equal distances from the centre and thermometer. At the horizon the refraction is 33' ;

the radius must always be perpendicular to at the altitude 45°, by".

the direction of the refracting surface, and 462. Definition. The rainbow is
pro-
t\ro perpendiculars falling on the direction of
duced by a combination of refractions and
the ray in any two points infinitely near
each other, will be the sines of incidence reflections, which cause the sun's rays of dif-
and refraction for the intervening surface : this perpen- ferent colours, to be transmitted most co-
the re- from the spherical
dicular will therefore always vary inversely as piously to the spectator,
fractive density and if the density be as the power q of
drops of rain or dew, under different angles
;

the distance x, the perpendicular u will be as of incidence. In the interior rainbow the

v^ax Now v' {xx —uu) : « : :

— l' :
—uu) rays are once reflected at the posterior sur-
•/ [xx
face of the drop ; in the exterior they are
which is the increment of the arc described by the radius
twice reflected.
accompany mg the and the fluxion
x,,/ [xx — uu)
is
ray,
463, Theorem.In the interior rainbow,
of a similar arc of which the radius is I. But the fluxion the tangent of the angle of incidence is
, .
of the arc in the same circle ot which —X ub
is the sine, that twice, in the exterior three times, that of the

of the arc corresponding to the inclination of the angle of refraction.

IS, ray to
When parallel rays fall on a sphere, and after refractioa
the radius, n bt
—uu) . and since k=
V X XX /) v' (xx
;
at their entrance, are reflected again from the posterior

= — q—
—q —qux concave surface, and refracted a second time in their pat-
.
- , and the fhixion of this
X XX sage out of the sphere, the ray in the direction of the axis
luv emerges in the same line, but the lateral rays deviate more
arc becomes —(g-fi; , which is to the
and more from their former direction, till, at a certain dis-
x.^(a:x—uu)
fluxion of the arc described as to therefore the tance from the axis, the deviation is again lessened and, as
(q+l) 1 : ;

increments of these arcs are in the same proportion.

finite in other maximums and minimums, the change of the
But the difference between the angle described, and the deviation being slowest when it becomes a maximum, the

change of the inclination to the radius, is the angle of de- light being most dense where this change is smallest, the
viation, which is therefore to the angle described as g to conical surface formed by the rays most inclined to the axis,-

1, and to the change of inclination as q to q l. + determines the direction of ihe strongest light ; we must

Scholium. It is found that the circumstances of at- therefore compute the magnitude of the greatest deviation.

mospherical refraction agree nearly with such a constitu- Now Z.ABC— "zABD (405) and ABD A X, B
tion of the medium, supposing gzi — \; but from parti- nEFD— BEFnDEF— BEF, there-

cular circumstances which take place near the earth's fore the difference between the angles

surface, the terrestrial refraction, instead of being l of the of refraction and of deviation at E,

arc intervening between two places, is seldom more than must be a maximum, and their flux-

^. any two values of x are given, the ratio of the cor-

If ions must be equal, therefore the fluxions of their sum
responding values of » is also given, and the ratio of the DEB must be double that of DEF. Now, when the sinea
sines of inclination to the radius will be constant for of two arcs are in a constant ratio, the fluxions of the sines,
any
rays passing through the same depth of the medium ; and are in the same ratio as the sines themselves : and the
the angle of inclination being determined, the angle of fluxion of the sine is to that of the arc, as the cosine to the

deviation will be to this angle in the ratio of g to j-l-l. radius (142), or as the sine to the tangent (I2l), therefore

For the whole height of the atmosphere, the logarithm of the fluxions of the two arcs are as the tangents. Hence the
the ratio of the sines of inclination is .ooo"300, and q q+ :
tangent of DEB must be twice the tmgent of DEF. Let
1 : : 1 : 6 ; so that if we deduct this logarithm from the lo- their sines be rxandx; then their cosines will be •/ (l
— r-x')

garithmic sine of the apparent zenith distance,

an angle, which differs from the zenith distance by
we shall find

six
and \/ (1—x'l, and their tangents and — :

VOL. II. M
82 OF OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS.

posterior concave surface,

-—_— —
on
and — — , or -jr'
— r'jrj
ject, a distinct point of its

The
according to the angular place of the object. first re-

—4 — j,':r', 3r'jr'=:4 — r', and the square of the sine of in- fraction is at the surface of the cornea ; but the cornea,

cidence DEB, r'x»=^ (4—r'). The whole angle of devia- being very nearly of equable thickness, has little effect
by
tion in a sphere of water, is thus found to be for red rays, its own refractive power. Its concavity is filled and dis-

so that the external part of the tended by the aqueous humour, which is
partially divided
42°, and for violet 40i° ;

rainbow is red. When there are two intermediate reflec- by the uvea or iris, perforated by the pupil. Immediately

tions, we have for the ultimate inclination, first the devia- behind the uvea, and connected to its base by the ciliary

tion at the first surface, then at each processes, isfhe crystalline lens, a substance much more
reflection two right angles, lessened refracdjse^an the aqueous humour, and increasing in den-
and sity^wards its centre. The remaining cavity is filled by
by twice the angle of refraction,
an aqueous fluid, lodged in a texture of extremely fine
again, the deviation at the transmis-
»ion so that the four right angles membrane, and called the vitreous humour. The retina
;
^^-
which is capable of transmitting to the sensorium the im-
destroying one another, the whole incliirattSn is twice the
difference of the angle of deviation, and twice the angle of pression of the colour and intensity of the light, together

and the tangent of the angle of incidence must with a distinction of the precise situation of the focal point,
refraction,
be three limes the tangent of the angle of refraction ; lines the whole posterior part of this cavity, it is semitranx-

—
whence we have r'i*=J (9 »'). The whole deviation of parent,and supported by the choroid, a very opaque black

red rays, twice reflected, is about 51°, and of violet rays, or brown membrane, continued from the uvea and ciliary

54° so that in this rainbow the violet colour is external. processes ; but immediately where the retina is connected
;

with the optic nerve, the choroid is necessarily perforated;

464. Theorem. In the e^'e of an animal, and at this part a small portion of the retina is
insensible^
the image which is formed on the retina is The whole is surrounded by an opaque continuation of the

inverted with respect to the object. cornea, called the sclerotica.

An image is formed on the retina according to the com-
The eye is an irregular spheroid, composed of transparent mon laws of refraction, it is therefore inverted with respect
substances of various refractive densities, calculated to col- to the object ; but this inversion has no relation to the trans-
lect the rays of light, diverging from each point of an ob- mission of impressions constituting vision.

Theorem.
4()5.

the radius is
If a sphere, of
have a nucleus of uniform
which
will
.
9-H .—
be—- — rab
,qbems—
l.r
; and
a,

density, radius being b, and its refractive

its ifa lens consist of two equal portions of such

density to that of the surrounding medium a sphere, the principal focal

length of the
as r to 1, and if the external parts of the lens will be less by one fourth of the thick-
sphere vary in density according to a certain ness of the portion removed.

power of the distance from the centre, until Since the density varies as a certain power j of the dis-

they become at the surface similar to the tance, 1 : r :: a

1,1
b
: and rl=f
/—
^\1
) whence 9=log. r
, , :

surrounding medium, the distance of the i

log.
— , or
l.r

^_^^
. Now let AB be the path of the
principal focus of the sphere from the centre
J
 ADDITIONS. SB

by the removal of a part of the nucleus, CG will be dimi>

half as much, and EI one fourth.
Scholium. If 9^ — 1, or rt~a, this expression fails,

the numerator and divisor vanishing : in such cases the

value of a fraction is
evidently equal to the quotient of the

CD a evanescent incremenu, or of the fluxions. Now' -

ray within the nucleus, and diameter parallel to

AB call EF, s, then EG perpendicular to CH will be rs, rab

; rait 9+1
and the sine of EHG to that of EAF as
rs
to -7- ; and
rb —a 29 rb —a of which the latter factor only fails j

b
and its value may be found by substituting for r, and mak-
lince the angles are evanescent, they will be in the same
ing the exponent q variable thus rb:^(
yb and the
—— —— 5

ratio as their sines, and the deviation ECH is

f

fluxion of ( —y is
(h. 1. —J rq, which is to q ai
EHC EC ?+l
al-
but ECH EH : : : '
—
j-f 1 rob
} s.{rb a)
( h. 1. — Jr. to' 1; and the focal distance become*

rb— a
, and if EI 1 1 CH, it is obvious that the focal
q
diitancc EI is half CG or C£ ; and that if AB be diminished
2(h.l.r)"
,,.(h.l.(l)

ADDITIONS.

jifter article 331. Jfter article 33S).

331. B. Theorem. The force acting on 339. B. Theorem. The stiffness of a cy-
any point of a uniform elastic rod, bent a linder is to that of its
circumscribing prism
little from the axis^ varies as the second flux- as three times tlie bulk of the cylinder to four
ion of the curvature, or as the fourth fluxion, times that of the prism.
of the ordinate. The force of each stratum of the cylinder may be consi-

For if we consider the rod as composed of an infinite dered as acting on a lever of which the length is
equal to its

number of small inflexible pieces, united by elastic joints, distance x from the axis : for although there is no fixed ful-
the strain, produced by the elasticity of each joint, must be crum at the axis, yet the whole force is exactly the same as

considered at the cause of two effects, a force tending to press if such a fulcrum were placed there, since the opposite ac-
the joint towards its concave side, and a force half as great tions of the opposite parts would remove all pressure from
as this, urging the remoter extremities of the pieces in a the fulcrum. The tension of each stratum being also as the

contrary direction ;
for it is
only by external pressures, applied distance x, and the breadth being called 2y, the fluxion of

so as to counteract these three forces, that the pieces can be the force on either side of the axis will be ix'yi, while that
held in equilibrium. Now when the force, acting against of the force of the prism is 2,r^x, and its fluent 3x'. But'
the convex side of each joint, is
equal to the sum of the forces the fluent of iJfyi, or 2v/(l —xx)x^x, calling tlie radius
derived from the flexure of the two neighbouring joints, the
unity, is
^(j
— y'x), » being the area of the portion of the
whole will remain in equilibrium :and this will be the case section included between the stratum and the axis, of which
vrhither the curvature be equal thioughou, or vary uni- the fluxion isyi; fur tlie fluxion of i—-i/'x is i/.i — i/'i
—
formly, since in either case the curvature at
any point is
equal to the half sum of the neighbouring curvatures ; and 2y xi/z^yx^i
—3y and
it is only the difference of the curvature from this half s m,
•<=r> :jx*.i:+3i/:i'.i^:4!/x'x;

whenx=i, and y::zo, the fluent becomes ii, while the

which is as the econd fluxion Of the curvature, that deter-
mines the acceleiating force. force of the prism is expressed by |.
84 ADDITIONS.

obvious that the strength and resilience

«»/
Scholium. It is
h will be 1.1907 and if a prismatic
are in this case in the same ratio as the stiffness. The feet,
-^;
may be found by deducting from the rod be loosely supported at two points only,
strength of a tube
that of the part removed, re-
strength of the whole cylinder the length of the synchronous pendulum will
duced in the ratio of the diameters.

JJier article 371.

of a
ScHOMtM. The Strain produced by the pressure and in this case, for a cylindrical rod of
substance which confines it, may
be de-
fluid on an elastic

termined from the principles which have been already

laid
which d'ls the diameter, h=- the time
did'-
down respecting the flexure of such substances. Thus if a

be suiiported at its two of vibration being to that of the circumscrib-

plank placed in a vertical situation,
exposed to the pressure of
a cistern of as 2 to the square root
extremities only, and ing prismatic rod
water of which the surface coincides with its upper end, of 3.
the curvature will be every where as ax—x", x being the We must suppose the form of the curve, in which the rod
distance from the surface, and will be greatest where the vibrates, to be such, that all its points may perform their vi-

depth is to the length of the plank as 1 to v' 3. If we wish brations in a similar manner, and arrive at the line of rest

to find the strength of a circular plate, simply supported at

at the same time ;
on this supposition we may determine
its circumference, we must consider the effect of the curva- the time in which the rod capable of vibrating ; and if
is

tures in two directions at right angles to each other ; and the time of vibration is the same in all cases, the determi-

shall find that the second fluxion of the curvature

in a nation will hold good in not, the problem is not ca-
we all ; if

direction perpendicular to a radius of the circle at any point, pable of a general resolution ;
but there appears to be little

is as the curvature in the direction of the radius. The

simply or no difference in the simple sounds excited in various man-
curvature may therefore be represented by the difference
ners, this variety arising principally from a combination of

between a constant quantity and the ordinate of an elastic

secondary sounds. The form of the curve must therefore

curve, the ordinate itself representing the force immediately be such, that the fourth fluxion of the ordinate may be pro-
and since this curve is
may be found
from the curvature supposed portional to the ordinate
itself its equation
arising ; ;

to deviate but little from a right line, its ordinates become eitherby means of logarithmic and angular measures, or
equal to the mean of the ordinates of two logarithmic curves, more simply by an infinite series.
and the position of its tangent may be determined accord- The conditions of the vibration must determine the va-
ingly. Hence it may be shown, that in order to break such lue of the coefficients :
supposing the loose extremity to be
a plate, the height of the fluid must be to the height which the origin of the curve, the curvature and its fluxion must

would break a square plate of the same length, supported at begin from nothing for the curvature
: at the end cannot be

the ends only, as v'S.h.l. (2 + ^/3) or 2.2811 to i. The finite, nor can its fluxion be finite, since in these cases an
a square plate is twice as great, as an infinitely small
height required to break infinite force, or a finite force applied to

if the weight of the fluid were collected in the middle of the portion of the rod, would
be required, and the force could

length of the square (312). not be proportional to the ordinate ; the initial ordinate

must also be independent of the absciss ;

in the case of a
For article 398.
rod fixed at the end, the ordinate and its fluxion must both

398. Theorem. When a prismatic elas- vanish at the fixed point ; and in the case of a tod not fixed,

tic rod is fixed at one end, its vibrations are the second and third fluxions of the ordinate must also va-

nish at the remoter end, and the centre of gravity of the

time with those of a
performed in the same curve must remain in the quiescent line, the whole area, con-
.9707/* sidered as belonging to either side of the basis, becoming
pendulum of which
the length is
ddh equal to nothing ;
a condition which will be found identical

with that of the third fluxion vanishing at the remoter end.

I being the length, d the depth, and h the
, , . . , , , 1 ^- •, I -c I- The series for a c^l^ve, in which the fourth fluxion of the
also \t n
o of the modulus or elasticity
heieht :
' •' , . , , v r ,. ^
ordinate is to be as the ordinate, can only be of this form,
denote the number of complete vibrations in j^^, ,,i„^. „^ i.^x^

a second, the measures being expressed in ^""''^s.3.4.i' 3.3.4.5.6.-. si' ••*'T'"*' 2.3.4.5^*
 ADDITIONS 85

h'eaa^ dax* Idax' beax'

" I'
,

3 ei"
+ ir+;
P i
'

.yP
here call d : but the weight of the particle x' is --
A
x', and
2 . . gJ'^ . . .

+ . , . ,
for the fourth fluxion of this expression, divided by
—ddh "y .

'° unity.
.
„,
Now
the force is to that of gravity as r-;-"^ '*
b, is of the same form with the expression itself ;
and the
number of terms allows it to fulfil all the conditions that

In both the cases here proposed, the co-

y _ ba.x" , .
when x is evanescent,
. .
the subsequent terms
,

may be required.
XX ll
; for,

efficients d and e vanish, because the second and third flux-

are inconsiderable in comparison with this, and the force is

ions are initially evanescent, and the equation becomes

l-a.T* b'ax'^ b'ax" '"'"^ , the space to be described being a ;
and if the spate
'""'"^i i
12i'
y=a+
12^4
b^cax^ became ,
and the force equal to that of gravity, the
In the first case, when bddk
'a . .' gP vibration would be performed in the same time : this is

x—l,OT-'^l, y—0, and i'^0, whence 1-)

— b

. 4
therefore the length of the synchronous pendulum ; that is,

•9707 1*
b* P be b-c b'c for the fundamental sound, in the first case j., , and in
Q . . 8 2 . . 12
+ ...+C +
2 . . 5 2 . . 9 13

*-... =0, and

b
1 1
— 11
+ <•+ 2
be

. .4
thesecond.023976-^Tr'

iV A pendulum, of which the length is

t'c
+ . . . =0 ; therefore — cz::
^^j,
ddh feet.

2 . . 8 . 12
/ h 39.13\ .^ .

m
.

1+-
b b'
—+ • • .
makes I
\.9707
.

1.2 /
I vibrations a second,'
2 . . 12
, and z:
and — ^(
2/'^ \.9707
.— ^

12 /
)=:n double vibrations, such as
i + -
2 . . 5
-+- 2 . . 9 2 . 13
are considered in the estimation of musical sounds. Hence
b . V
2 . . 7 2
:+. /nll\i — And in the same manner, for a rod
Hence, by mul- A=l.igo7( )
•

b b' i^
1 + 2 4 a r+a, 12 /nll\t
. .
loosely supported at two points, A=:.0294l
'
\'t]
tiplying the numerator of each fraction by the denominator

of the other, and arranging the products according to the

When the rod is
loosely fixed at both ends, the figure
coiacides with the harmonic curve, (398. SchoLium), and
1 4
Powersoft, we obtain the equation i b+ i'— lai'
3 .4 3 . .8
the length of the equivalent pendulum is c being
——
, ,^. ,

i'+ . .
.=0, which has an infinite number of roots;*
3. . 12 3.1416, and c'.or b, 97.41.
If a prismatic bar supported at the extremities, be depres-
the first two being ir:i2.3623, and ^=489.4. In a simi-
manner we sed by a weight equal to a portion of itself of which the
lar obtain, for the second case, making the se-

cond fluxion of y, and either its third fluxion, or the area,

length is gl, the depression being e, A will be —rr , and
4CM1C
16
vanish when x:=2, the equation b -f. nH* g
3.4 3 . .8 ^3..ia when *="t73T)'''=8.5— , e being expressed infeet. The
<!4
Ji' i'+ . . . zzo : and of this the first two roots
3 . . 16 weight under which the bar may begin to bend, (sas) will
are i=:500.5 and iiZ3803. From be equal to that of a portion of which the
these values of /', those length is.
of c may be readily found ; and for each value after the first,

the rod has an additional quiescent The stiffness of a cylinder being to that of its circumscrib-
point.
ing prism as three times its mass to four times that of the
In order to determine the time of vibration, we must com-
pare the force acting on a particle x/ at the end of the rod P"^""' *= "^*"*' ^°"^ '^'" ^i'^ S^at as in the
prism,
jj^ and the time be increased in the subduplicate ratio, or
will
with The (32 1), a being equal ^
its weight. force is
^^ j ,„ .ggg. jf ^ cylinder be compared with a
prism of
^j.
the same length and weight, its vibrations will be less fre-
to \x', r to _. (194), and b being the depth, which we may
q„j„,i„ t^e ratio of 300 to 307, or nwriy of 43 to 44.
86' ADDITIONS.

The second values of 6 show the proportion of the first thick, produced (ound consisting of 2t4 vibrations in t
harmonic or secondary sounds of the rods, the length of second, whence hZZQ 610 000 feet. A boxscale .012 f.
thick,
the synchronous pendulum being diminished in the ratios and 1.01 f.long, gave 154 vibrations, hence fe=5 050 000 feet.

of 1 to 39.59, and 1 to 7.6, and the times of vibration in When these substances were held in the middle, the note

the ratios of 1 to 6.292, and of 1 to 2.757. became higher by an octave and somewhat more than a
Scholium. All these results are amply confirmed by fourth. Riccati found the difference between the elasticities

experiment, and they afford an easy method of comparing of steel and brass somewhat greater than this. For ice, k
the elasticity of various substances. In a tuning fork of appeared to be about 850 000.
steel, / was 2.8 inches, d.125, and ?i:::5i2, hence k is about Two small rods of deal, one foot in length, produced

8 530 000 feet. In a plate of brass, held loosely about one sounds, consisting of 270 and 384 vibrations in a second ;

fifth of its length from one end, I was 6.2 inches, dr:.072, their weights were 153 and 127 grains respectively : hence
and jC::273, whence A=:4 S40 000 ; in a wire of inferior the formula .0242«'i' gives nearly 35 and 65 pounds for the

brass, I being 20 inches, d .225, and n=:74, h appears to be force under which they would bend ; the experiment,
4700 OQO. A pUtc of crown glass, 6.2 inches^long and .05 which was made somewhat hastily, gave 3« and 50.
CATALOGUE OF WORKS
SELATING TO

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY,
AND THE

MECHANICAL ARTS.

WITH REFERENCES TO PARTICULAR PASSAGES

AND

OCCASIONAL ABSTRACTS AND REMARKS.

 CONTENTS
OF

THE CATALOGUE.

Page
Catalogues 105
Collections relating to the Sciences 105
Collections of the Works of single Authors 111
Mathematics in General 113
Of Quantity and number, or Algebra 113
Proportion 114
Fractions lU
General Theorems 114
Impossible Quantities 114
Equations 114
Equations with radical quantities 115
Impossible Roots of Equations 115
Cubic and Biquadratic Equations 115
Limits of Equations 115
Machines for Equations 115
Arithmetic 115
ISeries 116
Interpolations, and Reduction of Observations 116
Logarithms 116
|TabIes of Logarithms 117
Combinations and Chances 117
Interest and Annuities
117
Geometry. Of Space in General 117
Mensuration 118
Trigonometry and Polygonometry
I
118
iSpherical Trigonometry 119
Comparison of Variable Quantities 119
[Particular Fluents 120
Properties of Curves 120
Tangents of Curves 120
Curvature 120
Quadrature of Curves 120
Length of Curves 121
Construction of Equations 121
Conic Sections in General 121
[Circle 121
I Ellipsis 123
VOL. II. N
go CONTENTS OF THE CATALOGUE.
Page
|Hyperbola 122
Algebraical Curves of higher orders 122
Mechanical Curves 122
I
Cycloid 122
Involute of a Circle 122
Figures of Sines and Tangents 122
Logarithmic Curve 123
Quadratrix of the Hyperbola . 123
Tractory 123
Curved Surfaces and Solids 123
Maxima of Curves 123
of Mathematics 124
History
Natural Philosophy and Mechanical Arts in General 124
Mechanics in General 129
Motions of a Point in General 130
Composition of Motion 131
Accelerating Forces 131
Central Forces 132
|Compound Central Forces 132
Projectiles 132
Confined Motion 132
iVariable Pendulums and Elastic Surfaces 133
Motions of Simple Masses 134
Centre of Inertia 134
I
Momentum 134
Equilibrium of Systems, or of Compound Bodies 134
Pressure and Composition of Force 134
Mechanical Powers 135
Lever 135
Cylinders 135
Wedge 135
Screw 135
Props or Shores 135
Compound Machines 135
Centre of Gravity 135
of Heavy Sj'stems 135
jEquilibrium
lEquilibrium of Elastic Bodies 136
Motions of Systems, or of Compound Bodies ISfi
Collision 136
Rotatory Power, and Centres of Gyration, Percussion,
and Oscillation 137
Constrained Revolution 138
notation with Progression and Resistance 138
Motions of Connected Systems 138
Bodies acting on each other 139
Pendulous Bodies 139
Vibrations independent of Gravity 139
jPropagation of Motion in Solids 139
Measure of Force 139
Maximum of Mechanical Effect 140
General Derivative Laws of Mechanics 140
Practical Mechanics, and Theory of Machines 141
I Projects for a
Perpetual Motion 142
 CONTENTS OF THE CATALOGUE, 91
"
.
- Page
Mathematical and Preliminary Mechanic* 142
Drawing and Painting 142
V\^riting, Characters, Signals 143
Geometrical Instruments in General 144
Pens and Rules 144
Compasses 144
Proportional Compasses 144
Pantographs 144
Triangles 145
Measurement of Angles in General, and Construe- 145
tion of Instruments 145
M icrometer 1 45

Theodolites, Quadrants, and Sextants 145

Protractors, and Compasses for measuring Angles 146
Angular Surveying 146
Leve s 146
Mathematical Machines 146
Measures 146
Modes of obtaining a Standard 146
Comparison of Measures 147
Tables of Measures. Standards 148
English Measures I
150
Scotch Measures 151
Old French Measures 151
New French Measures 152
Ancient Measures 152
Modern Measures 153
Modern Measures of Surface and Capacity 155
Measuring Instruments 155
Rods 155
Chains 155
Scales 155
Micrometers 155
Hodometers. Machines for measuring Distances 156
Instruments for observing Distances
Surveying
IMaritime Surveying
=156 156

156
Gauging, and Measurement of Solids 156
Modelling 157
[Casting 157
'Sculpture 157
Perspective 157
Perspective Instruments 157 -

Projections of the Sphere 158

Engraving and Etching 158
Printing . I58
Types 158
Musical Types 159
Copper plate Printing 159
Copying ,
,
lo9
Paper I59
Bookbinding 159
92 CONTENTS OF THE CATAtOGUE,
Page
Statics 159
Effect of the Air 159
Balances 159
Weighing Machines 159
Steel3'ards 160
Bent Levers 160
Spring Steelyards 160
Standard Weights 160
English Weights 161
Scotch Weights 161
Old French Weights 161
New French Weights 162
Ancient and Modern Weights 162
Ancient Weights 162
Modern Weights 162
Apothecaries' Grains 164
Sources of Motion 164
Animal Mechanics 164
Aoimal Force 164
Immediate Force of Men 165
Performance of Men by Machines 166
Force of Horses 167
Work of Mules 167
Inanimate Force 167
Passive Strength 168
Friction J69
Architecture in General 172
Columns and Walls ;
their strongest Forms 173
Particular Structures 174
Materials. Masonry, Bricks, Pavements 174
Mortars, Cements, and Stuccos 175
Security from Fire 175
Arches, Domes, and Bridges 175
Carpentry in General 178
Beams and Floors 178
Wooden Bridges and Centres 178
Roofs 178
ISlating and Tiling 179
Furniture 179
Particular Edifices 180
fnclosures and Gates 180
Painting and Preservation of Wood 180
Tools 181
Machinery, or Modification of Motion 181
Regulation of Descent 181
iFire Escapes 181
iJacks 181
Application of Moving Forces 181
Economy of Motion 182
Springs 182
Jointed Work 182
Production and Rectification of Rotatory Motioh 18'2
 CONTENTS OF THE CATALOGUE. ^3
Page
VVheelvvork 183
Particular Kinds of Wheels 183
Stnicture and Proportions of Wheels 183
VVheelwork with Appendages 184
Friction of Wheel work 184
Machinery for Entertainment 184
Union of Flexible Fibres 184
Materials 184
Animal 184
Vegetable 184
Mineral 185
Preparations for Spinning or Winding 185
Spinning 186
VVinding, Reeling, and Simple Twisting 186
Itopemaking '
186
Manufacture of Cloth. Weaving 187
Looms and their Parts
I
187
jOperations subsequent to Weaving 188
Textures not regularly woven '
188
Knots 189
Sewing 189
Appendages to Clothes 189
Felting 189
Papermaking 190
IPapermills 190
Timekeepers in General 191
Particular Construction of Clocks and Watches 191
Parts of Timekeepers 193
Maintaining Power 193
Fusee 193
Wheels 193
Escapements, or Scapements 193
Pendulums and Balances 194
Hands and Bells 194
Compensations and Corrections 194
Sympathy of Clocks 195
Supports'for Clocks, and Management of Timekeepers I95
Sandglasses I96
Measures of Time not simply Mechanical 196
Raising Weightsin General 196
Levers I96
Wheel and Axis 196
•
Capstans 190
Puilies 197
Fixed Inclined Planes I97
Wedge 197
Screws 197
Jacks, Cries, Fr. 198
Cranes and Gins 198
Modes of Raising Weights of particular Descriptions 199
Lowering Weights 200
Removing Weights, Diminishing Friction, 200
94 CONTENTS OF THE CATALOGUE.
Page
Removing Weights without Wheel Carriages 200
Theory of Wheel Carriages 201
Particular Kinds of Carriages 201
Parts of Carriages 203
Appendages to Caniages, Drags, Harnesses, Sadlery 203
Roads 203
Compression 204
Presses, strictly so called 204
Vices, Pincers, and Pliers '204
Calender Mills and Mangles, witli Rollers 205
Compression between Rollers 205
Compression by Percussion 205
Extension 205
Simple Extension
'
205
Extension by Pressure 205
Extension by Percussion 205
Arts depending principally on Extension 206
'
Penetration and Division 206
Theory of Penetration 206
Instruments of Penetration in General, and Substances of
which they are composed 207
Penetration by Pointed Instruments 207
Cutting Instruments or Edge Tools 208
Lathes 209
Division, or Separation without Sharp Instruments 210
Sawing 210
Wheelciitting, Filing, and cutting Screws 210,
Grinding and Polishing 210
Boring 211
Diggin; 211
Mfmng, and Subterraneous Work in General 211
Ploughing, Sowing, and Harrowing 212
Trituration, Pulverisation, Levigation, Mills 213
Parts of Mills 215
Appendages to Mills, Preparation, of Corn and Flour 215
Machines for
Agitation, nearly allied
to Mills 216
Demolition 216,
History of Mechanics 216
(Particular Dates 217
Hydrodynamics in General 219
Hydrostatics 2J9
|Equilibrium of Floating bodies 220
Pneumatostatics, or Pneumatic Equilibrium 220
221
Theoi-y of Hydraulics
Oscillations of Fluids, and of Floating Bodies 223
Phenomena of Rivers 224
Resistance of Fluids, or Hydraulic Pressure 225
Hydrostatic Instruments 231
Levels 231
Determination of Specific Gravities 231
iHydrometers 231
Hydraulic Architecture in General 232
 CONTENTS OF THE CATALOGUE. 95
Page
IThrust of Earth 232
13uilding in Water ,
232
Cisterns. Casks 233
Dii^esand Embankments 233
Harbours 233
Docks 233
Sluices 233
Management of Rivers
'
234
Bridges .
234
VVeres .234
Canals 234
Locks 235
Conveyances substituted for Locks 235
Aqueducts. Irrigation 235
Drains 235
Modificalion or Application of Hydraulic Forces 235
Hydrodynamic Measures 235
Force of Water 236
Wind
Air or 238
Wind and Water combined. Seamanship in General 23^
Bffectsof Wind and Water 240
Naval Architecture, and Forms of Ships 240
Parts of Ships and of their Rigging 241
Masts 241
Rudders 241
Sails 241
Blocks , 241
Cables 241
Anchors 241
Oars 242
Particular Kinds of Ships and Boats 242
Bridges of Boats 242
Modes of Rowing and Impelling Boats and Ships 242
Towing 243
Modes of Raising and removing Ships 243
Preservation of Ships and their Crews 243
Swimming and Diving 243
Instruments subservient to Seamanship 244
Measuring a Ship's Way 244
Sounding 244
Measures of the Wind 244
Marine Quadrants 245
Hydraulic Instruments and Machines, for Producing Motion in
Fluids 245
Regulations of Discharge 245
Pipes and Simple Fountains 245
|Appendages to Pipes. Valves, Stopcocks, and Filters 246
Machines for liaising Water. Pumps of all Kinds, Fiie Engines,
and Fountains not simple 247
Pneumatic Machines ^ 252
Machines simply Pneumatic 252
Bellows, Fans, and other Mechanical Ventilators 252
Au Pumps, Condensers, and Air Guns 253
96 CONSENTS OF THE CATALOGU^E.
Page
Pneumatic Machines and Apparatus, connected with Hydraulics 254
Bellows and Gasholders 254
Submarine Apparatus 255
Pneumatic Machines connected with Heat 256
Aerostation, either by heated Air or by Gases 256
Ventilation by Heat 257
Steam Engine 257
Steam Air Pump 259
[nflammable Vapours 259
Gunner}' 259
Theory of Gunnery, and Operation of fowder 259
Particular Constructions of Guns and their Parts -
262
Kockets and other Fireworks 263
History of Hydraulics and Pneumatics 263
[Particular Dates 263
Acustics. Sound in General , 264
Propagation of Sound 264
Decay of Sound 266
Echos 266
Sources of Sound 266
Vibrations of Fluida 266
Vibrations of Solids 267
V ibrations from Tension 267
Chords 267
Surfaces 268
Vibrations from Elasticity 268
Lateral Vibrations 268
Longitudinal Vibrations 269
Spirtd Vibrations 269
Effects of Sound 269
Sympathetic Sounds 270
Ear and Hearing. Instruments for Hearing 271
Theory of Music 272
Musical Instruments 274
Stringed Instruments 274
Drimis -
274
Elastic Instruments 274
Wind Inslruments 275
Voice and Speech 275
Organs of the Human Voice 275
Speech 275
A Description of Articulate Sounds, with appropriate
Characters 276
with the Mode of Writing the Words
[Examples,
in these Characters 277
I

Teaching the Deaf '

278
Peculiarities of Speech 278
Speaking Trumpet 279
Voices of different Animals 279
Instruments subservient to Music 279
History of Acustics 279
Optics in General 280
 CONTENTS OF THE CATALOGUE. 97

Theory of Dioptrics and Catoptrics

Optical Instruments in General
Photometers
Measurement of Refractive Powers
Measurement of Transparency
Catoptric Instruments
—
Lenses 283
Optical Scenery
284
Microscopes, Simple and Compound 285
Telescopes 280
Micrometers 289
Physical Optics 290
Sources of light 290
Light from Combustion 290
Light attending Decomposition without sensible Heat 291
ISpontaneous Light 291
Solar Phosphori 293
Light from Friction 293
Velocity of Light 293
Aberration 294
Decay of Light 294
Interception and Partial Reflection of Light 294
Refractive Powers 294
Dispersion of Colours by Refraction 295
{Total or internal Reflection 296
Tables of Refractive and Dispersive Powers 296
Table of the Order of Dispersive Powers 298
WoUaston's comparative Table 399
Atmospheric Refraction 299
Ordinary Atmospheric Refraction, Celestial or Terrestrial 299
Irregular Atmospheric Refraction 301
Horizontal Refraction 301
Irregular Refraction
at Various Altitudes 302
Beams of Light from Atmospherical Refraction
or Reflection 303
Observations of Parhelia, or Paraselenes, and Halos303
|Particular Accounts 303
Theory of Halos and Parhelia 305
Glories, or coloured Anthelia SOS
Simple Rainbows 308
Double Refraction 309
Vision in General * "310
Structure of the Human Eye 311
Comparative Anatomy of the Eye
•
'311
Immediate Functions of the Eye 313
Perception of external Objects 313
Shadows 313
Colours, as affecting the Eye 314
Aerial Perspective, and Management of Colours 314
Ocular Spectra, and Coloured Shadows 314.
Imperfections of Sight 315
VOL. II. o
S8 CONTENTS OF THE CATALOGUE.
Page
Defects of focal Distance 315
[m perfection of Focus 315
Squinting 315
Confusion of Colours 315
Debility of Sight 316
Cataract 3l6
Employment for the Blind 316
Production of Colours in Double Lights, 316
Nature of Li»ht and Causes of Colours 3 18
idistory of Optics 323
|Dates 323
Physics 324
Astronomy 324
Fixed Stars in General 325
Stars visible in London 327
System of Stars, Nebulae, and Double Stars 328
Distance and Magnitude of the Slais 329
Proper Motion of the Stars 330
Changeable Stars and new Stars 330
-

Twinkling of the Stars 33 1

Sun 331
[Solar Atmosphere, or Zodiacal Light 332
Planets in General 332
Particular Planets 333
Mercury 333
Venus 333
The Earth, in its Relations to the Celestial Bodies 333
Vlai-s 334
Juno , 334
Pallas 334
Ceres -
534
Jupiter 335
Saturn 335
Georgian Planet S35
Secondary Planets 335
Supposed Satellite of Venus 335
Moon j
335
Satellites of Jupiter i
337
Satellites of Saturn 337
Satelliies of the Georgian Planet 337
Comets 337
Laws of Gravity General
in 338
Equilibrium and Figure of Gravitating Bodies 339
Orbits of the Primary Planets 339
Orbits of the Secondary Planets 340
Orbits of Comets 34 1
Projectiles from the Moon 341
Rotation of the Earth and Planets 341
Theory of the Tides 343
Celestial Appearances in General, with Reference to the Earth '344
Appearances of the Stars 344
Appearances of the Sun 344
 CONTENTS OF THE CATALOGUE. 95
I'ajre
Appearances of the Primary Planets 344
Appearances of the Secondary Planets 345
I Moon 345
Appearances of the Sun and primary Planets jointly 345
|Transits 345
Appearances of the fixed Stars and Moon 345
Appearances of the Suu and Moon jointly 345
I
Eclipses 345
Appearances of the Primary and Secondary Plants conjointly 346
[Eclipses of Jupiter's Satellites 346
Appearances of Comets 346
Planetary Worlds. Appearances with respect to different Planets 346
Practical Astronomy in General 346
Astronomical Apparatus in General 347
Observatories 347
lime 347
Equation of Time 347
Equation Clocks, for Solar Time 347
Observations of Time, in General 348
Dialling, or Gnomonics 348
Chronology and Calendars 349
Instruments for Observation 349
Reflecting Instruments for Angles 350
Astronomical Telescopes, and Telescopic Sights,
Micrometers, and Photometers 351
Theodolites 352
Fixed Instruments 33<i
Transit Instruments 352
Mural Quadrants 352
Zenith Sectors 352
Equatorial Instruments 353
Levels, Mechanical or Hydrostatical 353
Modes of fixing Insrruments 354
Observations in General 354
Corrections 354
Refraction 354
Aberration of tight 355
Parallax iu General 355
Dip 355
Azimuths and Altitudes in General 355
Observations of the Stars 355
Corrections 355
[Aberration 355
Annual Parallax 355
Places of the Stars 355
Altitudes of the Stars 355
Observations of the Sun 355
Parallax, and Modes of determining it 355
Observations of the Solstice 356
Observations of Solar Altitude 356
Observations of the Planets 356
(Aberration 356
100 CONTENTS OF THE CATALOGUE.
Page
lObservations of the Places of the Planets 357
Observations of the Secondary Planets 357
Lunar Observations 357
Corrections Refraction, and Parallax
: 357
Moon's Appearance 358
Observations of the Earth's Motion 358
Geography 358
Figure and Magnitude of the Earth 358
Tabular domparison of Observations 362
Length of a Degree on the Level of the Sea 36a
Length of the Pendulum 363
Ellipticity, or Excess of the Equator
above
the Axis •
363
Density of the Earth 364
Observations for finding the Situation of Places
'
364
Latitudes S65
I

[Longitudes 365
Particular Geography 365
-
[Table of Heigh'ts 367
Observations of the Tides 368
Naviu;ation 370
Collections of Observations and Tables 37 1
Corrections 371
Klementsand Epochs 371
Tables of Places of the Heavenly Bodies 373
Projections, Charts, Globes, Orreries,
and other Instruments,
illustrative of Astronomy and Geography 374
History of Astronomy and Geography 376
Properties of Matter in General 377
Divisibility of
Matter 378
Repulsion, or Impenetrability 378
Inertia 379
Nature of Gravitation 379
Cohesion in General 380
and Capillary Action of Fluids 380
[Cohesion
jFluidity of Liquids,
and firmness of Solids 383
Heat and Cold 383
Sources of Heat and Cold 385
Sources simply Mechanical ; Friction, Compression 385
Combustion 385
Spontaneous Combustion 385
Effects ofHeat 385
Temporary Effects and Measures of Heat. 385
Expansion. Pyrometers, Thermometers 385
lExpansions of different Substances 390
Effects of Heat on the Form of Aggregation 394
Freezing, Thawing, and Melting 394
Degrees of Fluidity 396
Boiling, Simple Evaporation, Sublimation, Vola-
tilisation and Deposition 396'
Construction of Thermometers 398
'

Comparative Table of Thermometers 399

 CONTENTS OF THE CATALOGUE. 101

Page
Table of the Effects of Heat 399
Table of the elasticity of Steam, in Inches of Mercury 400
Chemical and Physiological Effects 403
Permanent Effects of Heat and Cold 403
Communication of Heat by Contact, and in General 404
Radiant Heat 406
Capacity for Heat 408
INatural Zero 409
iHeat denominated latent 409
Economy of Heat and Cold 410
I
Extinction of Fires 413
Nature of Heat 413
Electricity. Literature of Electricity 414
Electricity in General 414
Theory of Electricity 417
Equilibrium of Electricity 418
Induced Electricity 418
Charf^e 418
and Repulsions
Electric Attraction 419
Conducting Powers 419
Table of Conductors, in Order, chiefly fram Cavallo 421
Motionsof the Electric Fluid. 421
Velocity 421
Simple Communication .421
Lateral Explosions
'
422
Discharge 422
[mmediate Effects 422
Cliemical\Effects 423
Physiological Effects 424
Mechanical Changes 422
'

Electric Heat 423

Congelation 423
Supposed Transmission of Odours 423
Secondary Effects of the Communication of Elec-
tricity 424
Streams of Air 425
Excitation, or Destruction of the stable Electric Equilibrium 425
Excitation by simple Contact 425
Excitation by Friction 426
Lichtenberg's Table of Excitation, transposed 426
Excitation by Change of Form, of Aggregation 427
Electricity from Chemical Changes. Galvanism 427
Electrical Apparatus, in General 430
Excitation. Electrical Machines for applying Friction 431
[Amalgams 432
lEIectrophorua 432
Conductors 433
Coated Jars and Batteries 433
Electrical Measures in General 433
Measures of Tension. Simple Electrometers 43a
Microelectrometers. Condensers, Multipliers, and 434
Galvanometers 434
102 CONTENTS OF THE CATALOGUE.

Page
and Dischargers 434
IjRegulators
iDistinguishers 434
Spontaneous Electricity 435
Of Inanimate Substances 435
lAtmosplierical Electricity 435
l-Viineral Electricity. Tourmalin and other Crystals 435
t\nimal Electricity
435
Kaia Torpedo 435
Gymnotus Electricus 436
Silurus Electricus
4Sf»
Trichiurus Indicus 436
Tetrodon, as supposed 436
Magnetism in (jcneral 436
Theory of Magnetism 437
Magnetic Substances 438
[Supposed Magnetism of Animals 439
Particular Experiments and Phenomena 439
Terrestrial Magnetism. Declination, Dip, and Variation 440
Magnetical Apparatus 443
Artificial
Magnetism 443
Compasses and Dipping Needles 444
Magnetical Ob.'^ervations 445
Magnetical Measures 446
Meteorology. Literature of Meteorology 446
Meteorology in General 446
Meteorological Apparatus, and Modes of observing 448
Meteorological Journals 448
General Effects of the Sun and Moon
449
Ulimate m General
450
iParticuiar Observations of Temperature
452
Meteorological Thermometers
I
454
Winds 454
Winds in General 454
Regular Winds 454
Measures of Wind 455
Intensity of Wind 457-
Particular Observations of Storms
457
Particular Kinds and Effects of Winds 458
Currents of the Sea 458
Barometers
459
Mercurial Barometers, and Barometers in General
459
Statical Baroscopes, Air Barometers, and Manometers
461
Variations of the Barometer in General 462
Particular Barometrical Observations 463
|Mean Height of the Barometer 464
Atmospherical Evaporation, or Hygrology 464
Hygrometers 468
Barometrical Measurements 472
Clouds and Mists 474
Dew 474
llain in General 475
Rain Gages 476
I
Particular Registers of Rain 476
 CONTENTS OF THE CATALOGUE. 103

Page
lAnnual Fall of Rain 477
IStorms of Rain 478
Snow and Hail 478
Springs, Rivers, Lakes, and Seas : Water and Ice 479
iSweetening Sea Water, and Preserving Fresh 481
Atmospherical Electricity in General 481
Particular Accounts of Storms 483
Measures of Atmospherical Electricity 485
Preservation from Lightning. Conductors and Precautions 485
Waterspouts 486
Aurora JBorealis 488
Earthquakes and Agitations. In order of Time 490
Subterraneous Fires and Volcanos 493
Geology 495
Luminous Meteors 499
Exhalations 49§
Atmospherical Meteors and Shooting Stars 499
Meteors which have fallen to the Ground 501
Natural History in General 502
"Density of Particular Substances 503
A Table of Specific Gravities 503
A Table of the Capacity of different Substances for Heat 508
A Comparative Table of the Physical Properties of Various
Substances 509
General Effects of Mixture 510
jAffinities and Combinations 510
Mineralogy in General 510
[Systems 511
I
Philosophy of Mineralogy 5 1 1

Form s of Primary Aggregation. Crystallization 511

Botany in General 511
[Systems 511
IVegetable Anatomy and Physiology 512
Zoology in General -516
ISystems 5l6
{Physiology 5l6
Cultivation of 5fatural Productions, including Agriculture
and Horticulture 519
History of Terrestrial Physics 519
 Such of the abbreviations, employed in the Catalogue, as require particular expla-

nation, are inserted in the Index, with a reference to the page, where the CAplauation

may be found.
 A
CATALOGUE OF WORKS
RELATING TO

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY,
AND THE

MECHANICAL ARTS.

CATALOGUES.
Morhojii Polyhistor, 1695. 1714. M. B. Ed. *^//gcwem« repertorium der literaiur. 6 v. 4.

4.«V. 4. Lubeck, 1747. 1785 . . 1795. Jen. 1793. .. B. B.

*Mouthly Review. 8. London, 1749 . • . Murhards litemtur der mathematischen wis-
R. I. senschaften. vol. 1,2. 8. Leipz. 1798. R. I.

BoerA«fli)e Methodusstudii medici, a Haller. *(B. B.) Dryanrfer Catalogus bibliothecae

2 V. 4. Amst. 1751. M. B, Banksianae. 5 v. 8. Lond. 1798.
Rohrs physikalische bibliothek, von Kastner. *Rems Repertorium commentationum a so-
8. Leipz. 1754. cietatibus litterariis editarum. 4. Golt.
Schdbeh einleitung in die mathematische 1801...
bUcherkenntniss. Bresl. 1777. A systematical index, not yet completed.

Wdgel, Grundriss der chemie. 2 v. 8. Greifsw. Dutem Bibliotheque clioisie. 8. Lond. 1 80'2.

I^- ^
1777.

COLLECTIONS RELATING TO THE SCIENCES.

Royal Society of London, originating from the Society ^ious in considerable parts of tbe
many
instituted at Oxford in 1645. ]
world.

*(Pb. tr.) Philosophical transactions, giving Vol. 1. n. 1 . . 22. 1665 —6

some account of the present undertak- 2. 23 . . 32. 1667.
'
ings, studies and labours of the inge- 3. .SS . . 44. I668.
VOL. II. i>
106
 CATALOGUE. COLLECTIOKS. 107

Sprafs history of the Royal Society. 4. Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, iflCfl.

Lond. 1687. *(A. P.) Histoire et memoires de TAcademie

*Birch's history of the Royal Society, as a royale des sciences depuis I666, jusq'a

supplement to the philosophical transac- 1699. llv. 4. Par. 17S3.

tions; to 1687. 4. V. 4. Lond. 1756—7. R. I. Annee 1699 . . . Par. 1702 ... R. L

*Hookt's philosophical collections, n. 1..7, Reprinted 12. Amst. l692...(To 1754.R.I.)
16/9—82. 4. Lond. R. L Recueil des pieces qui ont remporte le prix.

Par. 1721 . 1771. M.B.

Derham's miscellanea curiosa, being the . .

most valuable discourses read and delivered *(S. E.) Memoires de mathematique et de
to the Royal Society 3 v. 8. Lond. 1723. physique presentes a I'Academie. 1 1 v. 4.

R. L Par. 1750 R. L

Philosophical transactions abridged b}' Hut- *(Mach. A.) Machines et inventions approu-
vees par I'Academie. 7 v. 4. 1735 1777.
ton, Shaw, and Pearson. 4. Lond. 1803. ..

B.B. Vol.L 1666... n. 1702. ..HI. 1713.. .IV.

Imperial Academy der Naturforscher, 1654. 1720 ... V. 1727 ... VI 1732. VII.
Miscellanea curiosa. Decur. L IIL 4. . Nu- 1734.. 54. R.I.
remb. 1670. .1706. B. B. RozierTahle des articles, depuis l666jusqu'en
Ephemerides academiae Caesareae. Cent. L 1770. 4 V. 4. 1775—6. 11. I.
X. 1712. .1722. B. B. Duhamel H'istoiia academiae regiae scientia-
Acta physicomedica academiae Caesareae, rum. 4. Par. I698. B. B.
10 V. 1727 ..1754. B.B. j^c^a eruditorumLipsiensia. 4. Leipz. 1682...
Nova acta academiae Caesareae. Nuremb. 1731. B. B.
1757 ... B.B. Nova actaeruditorum. 4. Leipz. 1732 . .
1776.
Abhandlungen der Kaiserlichen academic. 4. B.B.
Nuremb. 1755... Academy of Sciences at Siena, 1891.
Kellneri index rerum memorabilium in E. N. *Atli deir academia di Siena. 176O. 4. Siena.
C. 4. Nuremb. 1739- B. B. 1761 . . . B. B.
Bilchneri historia academiae naturae curio- Harris Lexicon technicum. f. Lond. 1699.
sorum. 4. Hal. 1756. B. B. 1704. M. B.
Archiducal Academy del Cimento, 1657. Extr. Ph. tr. 1704. XXIV,
*S(tggi di naturali esperienze fatte nel' aca- Royal Society of Sciences at Berlin, 1700. Academy, 1743.
demia del Cimento. Flor. * Miscellanea Berolinensia. 7
f. 1667. 1691. v. 4. Bcrl. 17 10
R. L ..1743. B. B.
With additions, in Tozzetti Aggrandlmenti *Histoire et memoires de I'academie royale
H. B. B.
delle scienze fisiche. 4. 1780. des sciences et belles lettres de Berlin. 25 v.
Tentamina academiae del Cimento, a Mus- 4. Bed. 1746.. 1771. B. B.
schenbroek. 4. L. B. 1731. M. B. *Nouveaux memoires de I'academie royale.
Experiments of the academy del Cimento, 16 v. 4. BerL 1770 1787. B. B. . .

translated by Waller. 4. Lond. * Memoires de I'academie B.B.

royale. 1792 . . .

Extr. Ph. tr. 1684. XIV. 757. Histoire de I'academie royale depuis son ori-
Journal des savans. L
12. Paris. 1665 . . . R. gine jusqu' a present. 4. Berl. 1752. B. B;
108 CATALOGUE. — COLLECTIONS.
Institute of Bologna, 1712. Royal Society of Denmark.

*(C. Bon.) Commentarii de Bononiensi sci- Skrifter, som udi det Kiobenbavnske Sel-
entiarum et artium instituto atque acade- sbab ere fremlagde. 12 v. 4. Copenb.
mia. 4. Bologn. 1731 B. B. . . .
1745 1779. B. B.
. .

Imperial Academy of Sciences at Petersburgh, 1725. In Latin, Scripta societatis Hafniensis. 3 v.

*(C. Petr.) Commentarii academiae Petropo- 1745. 1747. .

litanae. 14 v. 4. Petersb. 1726 1752. . .

Acta literaria universitatis Hafniensis. 177*.
B.B. 4. Copenh.
*(N. C. Petr.) Novi commentarii academiae 'Nt/e Samling af det kongelige Danske viden-
Petropolitanae. 20 v. 4. Vol. 1. 1747
—8 ... skabers selskabs skrifter. Cop, 1781 . . .

Petersb. 1750 .. 1770. B. B. . B.B.

*(A. Petr.) jicta academiae Petropolitanae. Abhundhmgen die von der D. G. den preis
1777 ... 1782. B.B. erbalten.Copenh. 1781.
*(N. A. Petr.) Nova acta academiae Petro- Ilamhirsisches Masrazin. 26 v. 8. Hamb.
politanae. Praecedit historia academiae, 1747 . . 1763.
ad annum 1783. 4. Vol. I. .. Petersb. Neues Hamburgiscbes magazin. 8. Hamb.
1787 ... 17O7 1781. B. B.
. .

Royal Academy of Sciences at Upsal, 1725. Royal Society of Sciences at Gottingen, 1750.

Acta literaria Sueciae. 4 v. 4.

Ups. 1720 . .
*(C. Gott.) Commentarii societatis regiae
1739. B. B. scientiarum Gottingensis. 4 vol. 4. Gott.

Acta societatis rcgiae Upsaliensis. 5 v. Ups. 1752, 1755. B. B.

1744.. 1751. B.B. *(N. C. Gott.) Novi commentarii societatis
Nora acta societatis Upsaliensis. 4. Ups. Gottingensis. 8 v. 4. I769 1778. B. B. . .

1773 . . . B. B. *(Conimentat. Gott.) Commeutatloms socie-

Commercinm litterarium Norimbergense. 15 tatis Gottingensis. 4. 1778 . . . B. B.

\. Nuremb. 1731 .. 1745. B. B. Deutsche schriften von der koniglichen so-

Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockliolni, 1739- cietal zu Gottingen. 8.' Getting. 1771.

J'fonw/. Svenskavetenskaps acadcmiens band- B.B.

lingar, 1739 ... 8. Stockh. 1740 1779- . . Assemhlee publique de I'academie de ^lont-
B.B. pelier. 1751.

Nya handlingar. Vol. I. . .

1780 . . . B. B. Pki/sikalische Belnstigungcn. SO st. 8. Berl.

*(Scb\v. Abb.) AbhandhiJigen der kciniglicben 1751 . . 1756. B. B.

Schwedischen akademie, von K'astnerund Society of Basle.

andern. 40 v. 8. Hamb. 1749 . • . Acta Helvetica physicomathematicobotani-

Neue Abhandlungen, 1780 ... 8. Leipz. comedica. 4. Basil. 1751 . . 1777. B. B.

1784 . .
(To 1790. 11. I.) Nova acta Helvetica. Vol. I. Bas. 1787.

Physical Society at Danzig.

B.B.
und Abhandlungen der naturfor-
f'ersucht Society of Edinburgh.

schenden Gcsellschaft in Danzig. 3 th. *Essaijs and observations, physical and lite-

in Edinburgh. 3
rary, of a society
Danz. 1747 . . 175G. B. B. v. 8.

Neue sammlung. 8. Danz. 1778. Ed. 1754. 1771. R.I. .

 CATALOGUE. — COLLECTIONS, loy

"(Ed. tr.) Transactions of the Royal Society skrifter. v. 4, 5. 8. Copenh. 1768 . . 74.
of Edinburgh. 4. v. 1788 . R. I. . . B.B.
Dutch Society of Sciences at Haarlem, 173-2. Nye Samling af dct kongelige Norske vi-

Verhandelingen uitgegeeven door de Hol-

denskabers selskabs skrifter. 8. Copenh.
landse maatschappy der weetenschappen 1784. B;B,
te Haarlem. 8. Haarl. 1775 . . . Electoral Palatine Academy of Sciences, 1763.

In German, by K'astner. Altenb. 8. Historiaet commentationes academiae scien-

1785. tiarumetelegantiorumliterarumTheodoro-
AUgemeines Magazin. 2 v. 8. Leipz. 1753 . > palatinae. 4. Manh. 1776 ... B. B.
1767. Zealand Society at Vliessingen, 17C5.

Electoral Academy of useful Sciences at Erfurt, 1 7 5-1. Ferliandelingcn u'ltgegeeyendoor lietZeeuvvsch

j^ctoacademiaeeiectoralisMoguntinaescien- der vvetenschappen te Vlis-
genootschap
tiarum utilium quae Erfordiae est. 8. Vol. singen. 8. Middelb. 1769. B.B.
I.. Erf. 1751. . . B. B. Berlinisches magazin. 8. Berl. 1765 — 7- B.B.
Dresdniscltes Magazin. 2 v. 8. Dresd. 1759 . . . .Bfr/««/sc/(e sauimkingcn. 8. Berl. 1768 —79-
B.B. B.B.
Physical Society at Zurich. Stralsundischesmagaz'm.'^. Berlin. 1767 . . .

Abhandhingen der naturforschenden gesell- B. B.

schaft zu ZUrich. 3 v. 8. Zurich, I76I . . Mannichfaltigkeiten. 8. Berl, 1769 . . .

176G. . .B.B. Batavian Society of Experimental Philosophy at Rotter-

Electoral Bavarian
Academy of Sciences, 1759. dam, 1769.

Ahhandlmigen der Baierischen academic. 4. Vtrhandelitigen van het Bataafsch genoot-

Munich. 1763 . . . B. B. schap der proefondervindelyke wisbe-
Royal Society of Sciences at Turin, 1 760.
'

geertc. 4. Rotterd. 1774 ... B. B.

*(M.Taur.) Miscellanea })liilosophicomathe- Hessian Academy of Sciences at Giessen,

matica societatis privatae Taurinensis. 4. Ada philosophicomedica academiae scicn-

Tur. 1759. B.B. tiarum principalis Hassiacae. 4. Giessae,
*(M. Tur.) Melanges de la societe royale de 1771. B.B.
Turin. 4. Vol. 2 . . 5. Tur. 1761 . . 1776. •
American Philosophical Society at Philadelphia, J 769.

(To B. B.)
vol. 3. (Am. tr.) Transactions of the American phi-
*Memoires de I'academie de Turin. 5 v. losophical society for promoting useful
(Vol. 3 . . 5. B. B.) knowledge. 4. Philad. 1771 ... R.I.
Brcmisches mixgazin. 7 v. 8. Bremen, 176O. . Neue physikalische Belustigungen. 8.
Prag.
1764. 1770 ...
Neues Bremisches magazin. 8. Brem. I676 . . .
Imperial and Royal Academy of Sciences at Brussels.

Royal Society of Norway. Memoires de I'academie des sciences et belles

Trondliiemske selskabs skrifter. Copenh, 1761 lettres de Bru.xelies. 5 v. 4. 1777 — 88.

. 1774.
. B.B. B.B,
In German, Copenh. 1765. .176?. 3 v. 8. Journal de physique.
Det Kongelige Morske videnskabers selskabs *Ilozierf Introduction aux observations sur
 no CATALOGUE. — COLLECTIONS.
la physique, sur I'histoire naturelle, et sur Crelh neueste entdeckungen in der cheniie.
les arts.
* ObseiTotmiS' sur
2 v. 4. Paris, 1777. B. B. 8. Leipz. 1781 — 4.
la Crelh chemische annalen.
physique, par Rozier, 8. Ilelmstadt,
Mohgez, et Lametlierie. Paris, 1773 — 92. 17S4. ..B.B. R. I.

B. B. Genevan Society for Arts and Agriculture.

Lametherie, Journal de physique, de chimie, Mtmoires de la societe ^tabiie a Geneve.

et d'histoire naturelle. 4. Par. an 2 . . .
Gen. 1778. R. I.

R.I. Sammtuiigen zur physik und natingeschichte,

4 V. 8. Leipz. 1778—92. B. B.
Physical Society of Friends at Berlin, 1773.

Beschaftigungm der Berlinischen Gesell- \Gottiugischts magazin der wissenchaft und 1

von G. C.
litteratur, Lichtenberg und G.I
1
schaft naturforschender Freunde. 4
Berl. 1775—9. B. B.
v. 8.
Forster. 8. Gott. 1780 — 5. B.B.
Leipziger magazin zur naturkunde, mathc-
Sckriften, 11 v. 1787-93. B. B.
Vol. 7. is also entitled
matik, und okonomie, von Funk, Leske,

vol. 1.
Beobachtungen, und Hindenburg. Leipz. 1781 4, B.B. —
Nc«e Schrrften. 4. Berl. 1795. B.B. Leipziger magazin zur naturkunde und oko-

Iliitton's diarian nomie, von Leske und andern. Leipz.

miscellany, from 1704 to
1786—8. B. B.
1773. 5 V. 12.
Hutton's mathematical and Leipziger magazin der reinen und angevvand-
philosophical
ten mathematik, von Bernoulli und
2 v. 4. R. I.
Hin-
dictionarj'.
The Preceptor. 2 v. 8. London. denburg. 1786. . .

'Gothaisches magazin fur das neueste aus der

Erxfebens physikalische bibliotliek. 4 v. 8. 1 .

physik und naturgeschichte, von L. C. .

.Gottingen, 1774—79. B. B. J

A review. I Lichtenberg und J. H. Voigt. 8. Gotha,

Mathematical Society of Bohemia.
1781 . . . B. B.
* Memoire di
mathemutica e fisica della so-
. Mhandlungen einer privatgesellschafft in
Bohmen. fi v. 8. Prag. 1775 84. B. B. — cieta Italiana. Veron. 4. 1782 ... B. B.
Nouveaux memoires de I'academie de
Abhandlungen der Bbhmischen gesellschafti Dijon,
der wissenschaften. pour la paitie des sciences et arts.
4. 1785 1782...
Prag. . . .

B. B. Dijon, 1783 ... B. B.

*
Ebivhard's philosophisches (E. M.) Enci/clopidie methodique. 4. Pa-
magazin.
Bcrnisches Magazin. 8. Bern, 1775. ris, 1782. . . R.L
Scelta di opuscoli interessanti, 3Q\\ 12. Mil. (E. M. A.) Arts et metiers. 8 v.
1775—7. B. B. (E. M. M.) Manufactures el arts. 4 t.
Opuscoli scelti suUe scienze e suUe (E. M. PI.) Plates of the Encyclopedic.
arti. 4.
These have sometimes been quoted to save the
18 V. Mil. 1778—95. B. B. merely
labour of referring to the text.
BrugnatelU biblioteca fisica
d'Europa. 8.
*(S. A.) Transactions of the society for the en-
Pavia.
Crf/Zs
couragement of arts, manufactures, and
chemisches journal. 8.
Lemgo, 1778 commerce. 8. London, 1783 ... R.L
—81. B. B. to distribute
Began premiums, 17 Ji.
 CATALOGUE. — SINGLE AUTHORS. Ill

Physikaliscke aibeiten der eintrachtigen Hindenburgs archiv der mathematik. 2 v. 8.

freunde in Wien, aufgesammelt von Born, Leipz. 1795 ... R. I.

4. Vienn, 1783- 87. B. B. Pictet, Bibliotheque Britannique, Geneva,
Memoires de la societe des sciences physifiues 1796... R.I.
de Lausanne. 4. Vol. 1. Laus. 1784. B. B. Beckinamis history of inventions and disco-
*Memoirs of tlie literary and philosophical veries, by Johnson. 3 v, Lond, 1797. R. t.

society of Manchester.
8. Vol. 1 . . War- Auswahl der neuesten abhandlungen. 2 v.

in 1. Quedlinburg, 1797. R.I.

rington, 1785. .
llepr. Lond. R. . I.

(Am. Ac.) Memoirs of the American acade- *(Enc. Br.) Encyclopaedia Britannica. 18 v.

of arts and sciences. 4. Boston, 1785. 4. Supplement. 2 v. Edinburgh, 1797

my . •

B.B. 1800. R.I,

*(Ir. Tr.) Transactions'pi the Royal Irish aca- *(Nich,) Mc/«o/son's journal of natural philo-
demy. 3 V. 4. Dubl. 1787—9. R. I.
sophy, chemistry, and the arts. 5 v, 4.'
Vol. 4. Dubl. London, 1797—1801. R.I.
(As. Res.) Asiatic tesearches of the society (Nich. 8.) New series. 8. London, 1802 , . .

of Bengal. 4. Calcutta. 1788 B. B. . . . R. L

Atmales de chimie, par Morveau, Lavoisier, *(Ph. M.) Tillock's philosophical magazine,
Monge, Berthollet, Fourcroy, Dietrich, Lond. 1798 ,. . R.L
Hasseufratz, et Adet. 20 v. 8. Par. 1789. • . y/««a/s of philosophy. 8. London, 1800,..
R. L R.L
Annates de chimie, par Guyton, Monge, Annales des arts et manufactures. 8, Paris.

Berthollet, Fourcroy, Adet, Seguin, Vau- R.I.

quelin, Pelletier, Prieur, Chaptal, et Van Jourtuil polytechnique, 4. Paris. R. 1.
Mons. Vol. 21 . . . Par. 1797 ... R. L Gehters physikalisches wcirterbuch. 5 v. 8.
Grfws journal der physik. 8. Halle, 1790... Leipz. 1798. R.L
*Gilherts journal der physik. 8. Halle, ^«r/€rso«'s recreations. 6v. 8. Loud. 1799. ••

1799 . . . R. [. R. I.

*Memoires de I'lnstitut national. 4. Paris, Commercial and agricultural magazine. 8.

1798 ... R. 1. Lond. 1799 ... R.L

* Bulletin de la societe 4. Memoires sur I'Egypte. 8. Par. an 8 ... R. I.
philomatique.
Paris. R. L MemoiresAu musee de Paris. Sciences. Vol. 1 1.

Monthly magazine, London. (From Vol. 9. 8. Par. an 8. R. I.

'
R. L) Decfl^e literaire et politique. 8. Par. an 8 ...

*Repertory of arts. London, 1794 . • • R. L R.L

Magazin encyclopedique, par Millin, Noel, Willich/s domestic encyclopaedia. 4 v. 8.

et Warens. 8. Par. an 3 . B. B. . . Lond. 1802... R,L

COLLECTIONS OF THE WORKS OF SINGLE AUTHORS.

* Aristotelis
o^itxB, ommSi. f.
Lyons, 1590. *B«co?t's works. 5 v. 4. London, 1765. R.L
B.B. JBrtcon's works, by Shaw. 3 v. 4. Lond. 1733.
* Archimedes, f. 0.\f, 1792. R.L R.I,
11« CATALOGUE. SINGLE AUTHORS,
*Galilaei Galilael opera. 4. Bologna. R. I. Rohim's mathematical tracts, 2 v, 8. Land.
Barrow's works. 3 v. f. Lontl. 1683. M. B. 1761. R.I.
*Cartesii opera omnia. 4 v. 4. Amst. 1692. lioUmamii commentationumsylloge. 4. Gott,

Mostly M.B. 1764. R.S.

Dechaics Cursus niathematicus. 3 v, f.
Lyons, Sylloge altera. 1784.
1674. M. B. i-Vaw/n/iVs works. 2 v. 8. London. R.I.
Extr. Phil. Trans. 1674. IX. tables and on and
Ftrgmons tracts arts

*Bo!//c's works. 3 v. f. Lond. 1665, 1744. sciences. 8. R.S,

M.B. Emerson's cyclomathesis.
TorriceUii opera matheniatica. M . B. Emerson's nii3celianie.s.
*Hugemi opera varia, a Gravesande. 2 v, 4. Mayeri opera inedita, a Lichtenberg. 4.

Leyden, 1724. R.I. Gott. 1774. R.S.

*ff?/gf»»i opera rcliqua. 2 v. 4. Amst. 1728, Priftgle's six discourses. 8.

R.I. itaesfwendissertationes mathematicae etphy-
*Hooke's posthumous works, by Waller, f, sicac. 4. Altenb. 1776.
Lond. 1705. R.I. Achards chymisch physische schriften, 8.

•JYooAe's Cutlerian lectures. 4. R.I. Berl. 1780.

*Mnriotte Oeuvres. 2 v. 4.
Leyden, 1717. Fontana Opuscoli scientific!. Flor. 1783.
Vol. 1. M, B. Setiibier Essais de physique et de chimie.

*JVallisii opera, 3 v. f. Oxf. 1713. R.I. Bergmann Opuscula physica et chemica. 6 v.

**Newtoni opera, edente Horsley. 5 v. 4. 8. B.B.

Loud. 1779. R.I. Garnett's tracts. 2 v. 8. R. I.

Leibnitii opera, a Dutens. 6 v, 4. Genev. Jngenhousz Vermischte schriften physischen

1768. R. I. und medicinischen inhalts, von Molitor.
Pascal Oeuvres. R. I. 2v.~8. Vienn. 1785.
Fossil opera. R.I. Ilutton's tracts, mathematical and philoso-
Leeuwenkoek's select works. 4 v. 4. Lond. phical. 4. London, 1786. R. S.
1798. R.I. _ Basse, Kleine beitrage zur mathematik und
JoaH«js Bernoullii opera. 4v, 4. Laus. 1742. physik, Leipz. 1786.
R.I. Links beytr.nge zur physik und chemie. Vol.
Jacobi Bernoullii opera. 2 v. 4. Genev. 1744. I. 8. Bostoch, 1797.
R. I.
Rumford's essays, political, economical, and
Leonardi Euleri opuscula varii argnmenti. philosophical. 3 v. 8. Lond. 1800. R. I.
3 V. 4. Berlin, 174,6 ol. — Rumford's philosophical papers. Vol. I. 8.

MaiipertuisOcuvres. 4 v. 8. Lj'ons, 1756. R. I. London, 1802. R. I.

 CATALOGUE. — MATHEMATICS, GEXERAI.. 113

MATHEMATICS IN GENErxi\L.
The numerous jpapers purely mathematical, contained Ghcrli elementi teoricoprattici dellc itiathe-
fn the memoirs of foreign academies, are in general omitted matiche pure. 7 v. 4. R. S.
in this catalogue.
Karsteus Anfangsgrlinde dcr matliematik.
Mathematici velere^. f. 1(593. R-T.
2v. 8. Greifsw. 1780.
Pai)j)i
coUectaneii matliematica.
idea Matheseos, about l638. Hooke Unterbergers anfangsgrlinde der mathematiL
Pellii
1781.
Ph. coll. V. 127.
Vegas vorlesungen iiber die matheniatik. 3 v.
Mersennus in Pellii ideam. 1639- Hooke Ph.
8.Vienna, 1782. R. I.
coll. V. 135.
Siurms kurzer begriff" der gesammten ma-
Cartesius de Pellii idea. Ilooke Ph. coll. v.
thesis.
144.
Pellii responsio. Hooke Ph. coll. V. 137. Encyclopedic methodique. Mathematiques.
3 V. By D'Alembert, Bossut, and others.
Barrow Lectiones opticae et geometricae. 4.
Amusemens de mathematique. 1 v.
Lond. 1669.
A7«gf/.s encyclopadie. 1784.
Extr. Ph. tr. 1671. IV. 2258, 2264.
Waring Excerpta mathematlca, 4.
Papers an mathematics. Ph.tr. abr.I.i.J.ii.
Tabies to be used with the nautical almanac.
120. IV. i. l.VI. i. 1. VHI. i. l.X.4. 1.
8. B. B.
Dechales Cursus mathematicus.
/Z«f/oM's mathematical tables. 8. Lond. 1785.
WaJIis's mathematical works. 2 v. f.
R.S,
Extr. Ph. tr. 1695. XIX. 73.
Hiitton's miscellanea matheniatica. 12.
JoiiesSynopeis palmariorum matheseos. Lond^
Hutton's translation of Montucla's recrea-
1706. ^
tions. 4v. 8. Lond. 1803. R.I.
Extr.Ph.tr. 1713.
Lsnden's mathematical memoirs. 2. v. 4.
*Simpso}i's mathematical dissertations and
London. R. I.
tables. 4. 1743. R. I.
/fc//?«s's mathematical essays. 4. Lond. 1788.
Simpson's exercises for young proficients, a.
R.S.
1752. R.I.
Simsorii opera reliqua. 4. R.I.
Simpson's essays. 4.
OF QUANTITY AND NUMBER, OR
Stewart's mathematical tracts. 8. ALGEBRA.
Stewart's creneral theorems. Wallis's algebra.
Dodson's mathematical repository. 3 v. 12. *Nevvton's universal arithmetic.
Emerson's cyclomathesisj or Introduction to Extr. Ph. tr. 1685. XV. 1095.
the mathematics. lOv. 8. Lond. 1770. R.I. *Demoivre Miscellanea analytica. 4. 1730.
Emerson's miscellanies. 8. Lond. 1771. n. L
IJendon's six mathematical tracts. 8. R. S. Saunderson's aigehra. 2 v. 4. 1740. R.I.
Lockie's military mathematics. 2 v. 8. R. S. *Maclaurin's algebra. 8. 1788. R. I.

VOL. 11.
e
114 CATALOGUE. MATHEMATICS, ALGEBRA.
Emerson's cyclomathesis. IV. GENERAL THEOREMS.
Condorcef, Essai d'analyse. 4. R. S. Castillioneus de formula polynomia Newtoui.
Davison's algebra. 8. Ph.tr. 1742. XLII. 91.
Davis Miscellanea analytica. 4. On the binomial theorem.

Demoivre's multinomial theorem. Ph.

Waring Meditationes algebraicae. 4. tr.

Waring Miscellanea analytica. 4. R. S. 1697. XIX. 610.

*Waring meditaliones analylicae. 4. Cambr. Ji/Wfwfturof liber den polynomial lehrsatz. 8.

1785. R. S. Leipz. 1795.
Nicolai analyseos elementa. 4. Pad. 1786. Roberts on the binomial theorem. Ph. tr.

R.S. 1795. 292.

Eukr's elements of algebra. 2 v. 8. Lond. Sewell on the binomial theorem. Ph. tr. 1796.
1797. R. I. 882.

Lacroix Elemens d'algebre. R. I. Brougham's general theorems. Ph. tr. 1798.

Lacroix Complement des elemens d'algebre. 378.

Paris, an 7. R. I.

Pront/'s mechanical algebra. Journ. Polyt. IMPOSSIBLE QUANTITIES.

II. 92. Playfair on the arithmetic of impossible
*Donna JgnesVs analytical institutions^ by quantities. Ph.tr. 1778.318.
Colson. 2 V. 4. Lond. 1801. R. S. Woodhouse on the truth of conclusions from

Woodhouse on the independence of algebra imaginary quantities. Ph. tr. 1801. 89.
and geometry. Ph. tr. 1802. 85.
*Woodhomes EQUATIONS.
principles of analytical calcu-
lation. 4. Cambr. 1803. R. S. Collins on some defects in algebra. Ph. tr.
1684. XIV. 575.

PROPORTION. Halley on finding the roots of equations.

Ph. tr, 1674. XVIII. 210.
Glenie on tlie Jaws of proportion. Ph. tr.
Demoivre Aequationum superiorum resolutio.
1777.450.
Ph. tr. 1707. XXV. 2368.
Glenie on universal comparison. 4. Lond. Maclaurin on the roots of
equations. Ph. tr.
1789. R. S.
1729. XXXVI. 59.
GUnie on the antecedental calculus. Ed. tr.
Mallet Analysis aequationum. 4. R. S.
IV. 65. Separate. Lond. 179^. R. S.
* Hatfks Analysis aequationum. 4.
Slusii mesolabum. 4, Liege, 1688.
Waring's problems on equations. Ph. tr. 1763.
Ace. Ph. tr. 1699. IV. 903.
294.

' Waring on the general resolution of

equa.
FRACTIONS, tions. Ph. tr. 1779. 86.

Demoivrede fractionibus algebraicisreducen-

Waring on the method of corresponding va-
dis. Phil. tr. 1722. XXXII. 102. lues. Ph. tr. 1789. 166.
Landen on the resolution of fractions
by the Lord Stanhope on the roots of
equations
circle. Ph. tn 1754. oQQ. Ph. tr. 1781. 195.
 115
CATALOGUE. —MATHEMATICS, ALGEBRA.

Wales on the use of angular tables in solv- Machine f07' Equations.

ing equations. Ph. tr. 1781. 459.
Rowning on a machine for solving equa
Hellins on the equal roots of equations. Ph.
tions. Ph. tr. 1770. 240.
tr. 1782. 417.
Wood on the roots of equations. Ph. tr. 1798.

369. AUITHMETIC.
Wilson on algebraic equations. Ph. tr. 1799-
*Archimedis Psammites Wallisii. O.xf. I676-
265. XI. 067.
Acc. Ph. tr. 1676.
Archimcdeii Arenarius, by Anderson. 8.
Equations with Radical Quantities. *
Dioi)hantus'Qi\.c\\ei\
et Fermatii. f. Toulouse,
Demoivre de reductione radicajium. Ph. tr. 1670.
1738. XL. 403. Ace. Ph. tr. 1671. VI. 2185.
Simpson on equations involving radical
Collins on the resolution of numerical equa-
quantities. Ph. tr. 175 1. 20. tions. Ph.tr. 1G69. IV.929.
Mooney on clearing equations from radicals. Tabula numerorum quadratorum. Lond.
Ir. tr. VI. 221. 1672.
Removes 3 or 6 quadratic surds.
Ace. Ph. tr. 1672. VII. 4050.

fWood on infinite fractions. HookePh. coll.

Impossible Roots of Equations. n. iii.

p. 45.
Maclaurin on equations with impossible roots. Wallis on the extraction of roots. Ph.tr.
Ph.tr. 1726. XXXIV. 104. 1695. XIX. 2.

Campbell on the impossible roots of equa- Taylor on approximation in numerical equa-

tions. Ph. tr. 1728. XXXV. 315. tions. Ph. tr. 1717. XXX. 610.

Leupold Thealrum arithmeticum. f.

Leipz.
Cubic and Biquadratic Equations. R.I.
Colson Aequationum cubicarum et biqua- Reckoning by the fingers. Tab. 1.

draticarum resolutio. Ph. tr. 1707. XXV.

Colson's negativo-aflirmative arithmetic. Ph.
2333, tr. 1726. XXXIV. 161.
Maseres on the irreducible case of a cubic
Emerson's cyclomathesis. I. II.
equation. Ph. tr. 1778. 902. Robertson on circulating decimals. Ph. tr.

Maseres on the extension of Cardan's rule.

1768.207.
Ph. tr. 1780. 85.
Horsley's sieve of Eratosthenes. Ph. tr. 1772. ,

Button on cubic equations. Ph.tr. 1780.387.

327.
Meredith on cubic equations. Ir. tr. VII. G9. of powers and products,
Ilittton's table f.

Ivory on cubic equations. Ed. tr. V. 99. R. S.

Clarke's rationale of circulating numbers. 8.
Limits of Equations. R. S.
Milner on the limiis of algebraic equations. ;M .
Young on the extraction of roots. Jr. tr.

Ph. tr. 1778. 380. 1787. 59.

 116 CATALOGUE. — MATHEMATICS, ALGKBRA.

Waring on the sums of divisors. Ph.tr. 1788. Waring on infinite series. Ph. tr, 1784. 385,
388. 1786.81. 1787. 71.
Goodwyn on the.reciprocals of primes. Nich. Rotheram on geomctiical series. Manch. IVL
IV. 402. III. 330.
* L'Huilicr on scries. Ph.
Lagrange dc hi resolution des equations tr. 1796. 142.
numeriques. Par. 1798. K. I. Brinkley on the transformation and reversioa
IVernehurgs reine zahlen system. 8. 1800. of series. Ir. tr. VII. 321.
Duodecimal arithmetic. Calls I2taun. Hellhis on a coaverging, scries. Ph.tr.~17-98^
Gough on primes and factors. Nich. 8. I. 1. 183.
TJie African nations employ a quinary arithmetic, calling
six five and one. Winterbottom's Sierra Leone.
Numerical equations may often be easily resolved by INTERPOLATIONS, AND REDUCTION Of
finding the result of two conjectural values of the quaoitity OUSF.aVATIONS,
sought then the difference or sura of the errors will be to
;
Emerson's miscellanies. 199.
the diflference of the supposed values nearly in the same
proportion as cither of the errors to the error of the cor-
*Lagrange on taking the mean of observa-
responding supposed value.
tions. M. Taur. V. ii. I67.

Waring on interpolations. Ph. tr. 1779; 59.

SEKIES. Euler on Lagrange's mode of taking a mean,.
Demoivrc on the roots of an infinite equa- N. A. Petr.IlI. 1785.289.
tion. Ph. tr. 1G93. XX. 190.
Monmort et Taylor de scricbus infinitis. Ph. LeGARIXHMS.
"
tr. 1717. XXX. 633. Mercatoris Logarithmotechnia.
Simson on Gerard's remark upon series and Extr. Ph. tr. 1668. III. 753,
fractions. Ph. tr. 1753.368. Hallcy on logarithms. Ph.tr. 1695.XIX.58.
Simpson on the partial sum of a series. Ph. Craig Logarithmotechnia generalis. Ph. tr.
tr. 1758. 757. i7iO.XX.VII. 19L.
Landen on the sums of series. Ph. tr. 1760.553. Long's new method for making logarithms.
Landen on converging series. 4. R. S. Ph.tr. 1714. XXIX. 51.
Landeh's observations on coaverging series. Taylor's method of computing logarithms.
8. R. S. Ph.tr. 1717. XXX. 610.

Lorgiia specimen de seriebus convergenti- Dodson on a series for computing logarithms.

bus. 4. 11. S. Ph. tr. 1753. 273.
*Clarke's translation of Lorgna on series. 4. Bayeson a logarithmic series. Ph. tr. 1 7.63.260.
R;S. Emerson's miscellanies. 189.
Hutton on quickly converging series. Ph. tr. Jones onlogarithms. Ph. tr. 1771.455.
Ferroni theoria magnitudinum exponentiali-
1776^476.
ti^ Hutton pn infinite series. Ph. tr. 1780. 387. um. 4. R. S.
Maseres on a slowly converging series. Ph. Ilellins's theorems for computing logarithms.
tr. 1777. 187. 1778. 895. Ph. tr. 1780. 307. 1796. 135.
Vince on infinite series. Ph. tr. 1782. 389. ilfrtseresscriptoreslogarithmici.^3v. 4. 1791..
1785. 32. 1780. 1791. 295. 6. R. I.
 CATALOGUE. MATHEMATICS, GEOMETRY. 117

Allman on logarithms. Ir. tr. VI. 391. Price's continuation of Bayes's paper. Ph. tr.

1764. 29s.
Murray on Halley's series for logarithms. Ir.

tp. IX. 3. S. C'/rtrft's laws of chance. 8.

*Sevcral papers of Laplace and Condorcet.

Tables of Logarithms. A. P. 1781, and elsewhere.

Lambert on lotteries at cards. Hindenb.
Sfitncin's tables of logarithms. 8.
Arch. III.
DoJsoM'santilogarithmic canon, f. 174G. R.I.
Hindenburg on the combinatorial analysis.
Bernoulli's sexcentenary tables for propor-
Hindenb. i^r.ch.
tions below 10'. 4. R. Sv

Fegfl's tafelnund formuln. 8. R. S. rNTEREST AND ANNUITIES.

Fega Logarithmische tafelu f.Leipz. 794.R.I.
1 .
Martindale on compound interest. Ilooke-
*Tai/lor's tables of logarithms.
4.
Ph. coll. n. 1. 34.
*Calkt, tables de logaiithraes, edition ste-
Halley on the value of annuities. Ph. tr.

reotype. 8. Par. 1795. XVII. 596. 653.

1693.
Errors of Callet's tables. Zach Mon. corr.
Walkinson interest. Ph. tr. 17 14.XXIX. 111.
VI. 398. Demoivre on the calculation of annuities.
Borda et Delambre tables trigonometriques
Ph. tr. 1744. XLIir. n. 473. p. 65.-
decimales. 4. Par. 1801. II. S.
Emerson's miscellanies. 49. 121. 226.
Account of the new decimal tables of loga-
Price on the expectations of lives.. Ph. tr.

rithms. M. Inst. V. 49.

1769. 89.
Price on survivorships. Ph.tr. 1770. 268.
COMBINATIONS AND CHANCES. Pnce on life annuities. Ph.tr. 1776. 109.
On the credibility of human testimony. Ph. Pr/ce on reversionary payments. 8. 2 copies.
tr. 1699. XXI. 359. R.Si.
Robertson on the chances of lotteries. Ph.tr. * Price on
annuities, by Moi-gan. 8; London.
1693. XVII. 677. *Robertson on compound interest.. Ph. tr.
Thornycroft on combination. Ph. tr. 170*5. 1770. 508.
XXV. 1961. Morgan on the value of a contingent rever-
*Demoivre de mensura sortis. Ph. tr. 1711. sion.. Ph. tr. 1789. 40.
XXVII. 213..

Deinoivr£ probleniatis solutioscombinatoria. GEOMETRY. OF SPACE IN GE-

Ph. tr. 1714. XXIX. 145.. NERAL.
Dftnoivre's doctjine of chances. 4.. *Euclides Gregarii. f. Oxford, 1703. R. I.-

U . BeriKJulii de pvoblemate Moivraei. Plu tr. Extr. Ph. tr. 1704.

1714. XXIX. 133. * Bar rote's Euclid. 8. London.

Simpson's laws of chance. 4. Cunn's Euclid. 8. London, 1762. R. I. .

Combinations. Emerson's cyclomathesis. X. *67wsa?j's Euclid. 8. 1801. London, R.I.

Laws of chance. Emerson's miscellanies. I. Cow(ei/'s appendix to Euclid. 4.
13ayes on a problem on chancesj with Price's ^4[po//o?«?nnclinationumlibrialIorsley.4.R.S.
letter.. Ph. tr. 1763.370. Jpollonii loci plani, a Simson. 4.
118 CATALOG UK. — MATHEMATICS, GEOMETRV,

JpoUoiilm on tangencies.by Lawson. 4. R. S. MENSURATION.

Apoltonim de sectione rationis et spatii. 8. See geometrical instruments.
Burrow's restitution of ApoUonius on incli-
•|-Coliins on a chorographical problem. Ph. tr.
nations. 4. R. S.
1671. VI. 2087.
Archimedes a Barrow. 4. London, l675.
Chorographic problems. Ph. tr. 1685. XV.
Extr. Ph. tr. 1675. X.
1231.
*Archimedes. f. Oxford. R. I.
Perks, Gregory, and Wallis, on squaring por-
Gregorii geometriae pars universalis. Pavia, tions of lunes. Ph. tr. I699. XXI. 411.
16G8.
Robarts on the comparative magnitude of
Extr.Ph.tr. lf)68. 111,685.
points. Ph. tr. 1712. 470.
P</rJ/cs elemens de geometric. 12. Par. 1671-
Euler on dikes. N. C. Petr. IX. i. 362.
Extr. Ph. tr. 1671. VI. 3064. Stedman on triangles described in circles.
Brackenridge exercitatio geonietrica. 4. Ph. tr. 1775. 296.
Ash's demonstration of some propositions of
Euclid. Ph. tr. 1684. XIV. 6/2.
Horsley de polygonis circulo inscriptis. Ph.
tr. 1775. 301.
Simson de Pappi et Euclidis porismatis. Ph.
Hutton's treatise on mensuration. 4. New-
tr. 1723. XXXIII. 330.
castle, 1770. R. I.
Stewart on a geometrical proposition of Pap-
Bonny castle's mensuration^ 12.
pus. Ed. ess. I. 141.
S. E. IX. 80. The square of the area of any plane surface
Stetcart Propositiones geomctricae. 8. sum of the squares of any three orthogonal
ii equal to the
Simpson's geometry. 8. Lond. 1768. R.I. plane projections of the surface.
Emerson's cyclomathesis. II.
Bossiit Elemens de geomelrie. TniGONOMETRY AND POLYGONOMETEY.
Ace. A. P. 1775. H.55^ See Circle.
LeIj/veM sur la proportion de la diagonale au
cote. 8. R. S. Murdoch's trigonometry abridged. Ph. tr.

Glenie on the division of lines, surfaces, and 1758. 538.

solids. Ph. tr. 1776. 73. Simson's Euclid.

Honmf castle's geometry. 8. London. Emerson's cyclomathesis. III.

Playfair on porisms. Ed. tr. III. 154. Lexell's polygonometrical theorem. Ph. tr.

Wallace on porisms. Ed.tr. IV. 107. 1775. 281.

Hauff on parallel lines. Hind. Arch. III. 74. Hutton's demonstration of the polygofial
Employs Eucl. X. I. theorem. Ph. tr. 1776. 200.
Mascheroni Geemetrie du compas, par Ca- Hutton's project for a new division of the
rette. Par. 1797.
quadrant, in parts of the radius. Ph. tr.
Xacrojo: Elemens de geometric. 8. Par. 1799. 1784. 21.
R.I.
*Cagnoli Trigonoinelria piana e sferica. 4.
Carnot Geometric de position. 4. Par. 1803, Par. 1786. R.S.
R.I.
Cagnoli Traite de trigonometric. 4. R. I.

Limrick on the 12th axiom of Euclid. As. Cagnoli's trigonometrical propositions. See.
Hes. VII. 449. Ital. VII. 1.
2
 CATALOGUE.— MATHEMATICS, VAIIIABLE QUANTITIES. 119

iniuiUer Polygonometrie. 4. Genev. 1789. Stirling Methodus differentialis illustrata. Pli.

R.S. tr. 1719. XXX. 1050.

Lorgna on the variations of triangles. Soc. Stirling on the differential method. 4. -

Ital. Vir. 346. *Newton's fluxions, by Colson.

Schubert's spherical trigonometry, from Pto- Extr. Ph. tr. 1736. XXXIX. 320.
Fonlenelle's geometry of infinites. A. P. 1725.
lemy. N. A. Petr. 1794. XII. Xdo.
Lacroix Traite de trigonometrie. 8. R. T. Suite.

**Maclaurins fluxions. 2 v. 4. Lond. 1742.

R.L
Spherical Trigonometry. Extr. Ph. tr. 1743. XLII. 325.
See Nautical Astronomy. Bossut on the differentiation of parameters.
Lacaille on the differences of spherical tri- S. E. II. 435.

angles. A. P. 1741. 238. H. 115. Arithmetic of infinites. Emerson's cyclo-

Blake on spherical trigonometry. Ph. tr. mathesis. V.

1751.441. *i'we;-so«'s fluxions. 8. London, 1757. R. I.

Lambert on the simplification of spherical

Emerson's method of increments. 4.

trigonometry by hyperbolic sectors. A. •Lj/ows's fluxions. 8. London, 1758.

Berl. 1768. 327. Rowc's fluxions. 8.
Peniberlon's three problems. Ph. tr. 1772. Euler's elements of the mediod of variations.
434. N. C. Petr. X. 51. XVI. 35.

*Lyons on spherical trigonometry. Ph. tr. *Lagrange on the method of variations. M.

1775. 470. Taur. IV. ii. 163.
Euler on spherical trigonometry. A. Petr. *Eukri calculus integralis. 4 v. 4. Petersb.
III. i. 72. 1792.
Gua on spherical trigonometry. A. P. 1783. Condorcet on partial differences. A. P. 1770.
151.
291.
Cousin Lemons de calcul differentiel. 2 v. 8.
Kelly's spherics and nautical astronomy.
Par. 1777. R.S.
8. London. ,

Caluso sur les manieres de trailer le calcul

Trembley essai de trigonometric spherique.
8. R. S. differentiel. 4. R. S.
Caluso proposes different marks over those o£
letters, like
Spheroidical Trigonometry. See Figure of
fluxions. M. Tur. III.
the earth.
Arbogast sur les differences
partielles. 4. Pe-
tersb. 1791. R.S.
COMPARISON OF VARIABLE *
Arbogast du calcul desderivations. 4. Strasb.
QUANTITIES. 1800. R.L
Ilatley on infinite
quantity. Ph. tr. 1693. Ace. Lalande's Montucla. IV. 659.
XVII. 556. Ftrronius de calculo
integralium. 4. Flor.
Demoivre's specimen of the methcxl of flux- 1792. R. S.
ions. Ph.tr. 1695. XIX. 52. Ditton on fluxions. 8.
*Taylor Methodus incrementorum. 4, Lacroix Traite du calcul differentiel. 2 v. 4.
Extr. Ph. tr. 1715. XXIX. 339, Par. 1797. R. I.
120 CATALOGUE. MATHEMATICS, CURVES.
Lacroix Tralte des differences. 4. Par. 1800. TANGENTS OP CURVES,
R.I.
Apollonius on tangencies. See Geometry,
Brinkley. Ir. tr. VII. See Series.
Wallis's method of tangents. Ph. tr. 1672.
Carnoton the infinitesimal calculus, by Dick- VII. 4010.
son. Ph. M. VIII. 222. Slusius's mode of drawing tangents. Ph. tr.
Variations of Triangles. See Trigono- 1672. VII. 5143. 1673. VIII. 6059.
metry. Dultonus de curvarura tangentibus. Ph. tr.

1703. XXIII. 1333.

PARTICULAR FLUENTS.
CURVATURE.
Simpson on the fluents of polynomials. Ph.
tr. 1748.328. KrafTt on curves which are their own evo-

Table of Fluents. Emerson's fluxions. 75. lutes. C. Petr. II. 216.

Landen on fluents expressed arcs. Ph. tr. Euler on curves similar to theif evolutes. C.
by
1771. 298. Petr. XII. 3.

Vince on finding fluents by continuation. Riccati on determining curves from the ra-

Ph. tr. 1786.432. dius of curvature. C.Bon. II. iii. 159-

Landerbeck Methodus inveniendi curvas e
variatione curvaturae. Ph.
PROPERTIES OF CURVES. tr. 1783. 456.
1784.477.
Problematis de curva alias secante solutio

generalis. Ph. tr. 1710. XXVI. 399-

Cotesii logometria. Ph. tr. 1714. XXIX. 5.

Coteni harmonia niensurarum, a Smith. 4.

QUADRATURE OF CURVES.
Cambr. 1722. R. I. JD. Gregory de dimensione figurarum.
Extr. Ph. tr. 1722. XXXII. 139- Extr. Ph. tr. 1684. XIV. 730.

Taylor on the Leibnitzian problem of a curve Wallis on a quadrable portion of a spherical

cutting others. Ph.tr. 1717- XXX. 695. surface. Ph. tr. 1697. XVII. 584.

Maclaurindecurvarum constructione et men- Wallis on easy measurements of figures. Ph.

sura. Ph. tr. 1718. XXX. 803. tr. 1700. XXII. 1597.
IVlaclaurin methodus describendi curvas. Ph. Gregory on a quadrable portion of a surface.
tr. 1718. XXX. 934. Ph. tr. 1694. XVIII. 25.

*Jliiac/a«n'Kgeometriaorganica. 4. 1720. R.L Craig Methodus figurarum quadraturas de-

Extr. Ph. tr. 1720. XXXI. 38. terminandi. London, 1685.
Maclaurin's further remarks on the descrip- Extr. Ph. tr. I686. XVI. 185.
tion of curves. Ph. tr. 1735. XXXIX. 143. Addition by Craig. 186.
Solutio problematis de curvis inveniendis. Craig de quadraturis. Ph. tr. 1694. XVIII,
Ph.tr. 1722. XXXII.. 106- 113. 1697. XIX. 708,785.
Brackenridge on describing curves by inter- Craig Specimen methodi quadraturaruni.
sections. Ph. tr. 1735. XXXIX. 25. Ph. tr. 1705. XXIII. 1346.
Emerson's cyclomathesis. V- Demoivre's method of quadrature and reduc-
Goudin sur les courbes. 4. Par. 1800. R. I. tion. Ph. tr. 1702. XXII. 1113,
 CATALOGUE.— MATHEMATICS, CURVES. r2i

Newton Tractatus de quadratura curvarum, Waring's two theorems in conies. Ph. tr,

in optices ed. lat. 4. 1706. 1765. 143.

Newton's quadrature of curves, by Stewart. 4. Jones's properties of the conic sections. Ph.
Hobins on a proposition of Newton's quadra- tr. 1773.340.
tures. Ph. tr. 1727. XXXIV. 230. *Fmce's elements of conic sections. B. Camb.
Waring's problems on quadratures. Ph. tr. 1781. R. S. ,. .,

1763. 294. Mallet de planis' aiametralibus in cono. 4.

Landen's new mode of computing areas. Ph. Ups. 1784. R. S.
tr. 1768. 174. Huilon's conic sections. 8. Lond. 1787. R. S.
Landen's new theorems for areas. Ph. tr. Robertson Sectiones conicae. 4. Oxf. 1792.
1770. 441. R.I.
M. Young on the quadrature of curves. Ir. Robertson's conic sections. 8. Oxf. 1802.
tr. 1787. 31. R.I.
Walker's conic sections. 4. Lond. 1794. R. S.
LENGTH OF CURVES. Hellins on the rectification of the conic- sec-

Craig de linearum curvarum longitudine. tions. Ph. tr. 1802. 448.

Ph. tr. 1708. 64.
Circle.
CONSTRUCTION OF EQUATIONS.
Gregorii circuli et hyperbolae quadratura. 4.
See Equations. Pav.

Baker's geometrical key. Ace. Ph. tr. 1668. IIL 640.

- Ace. Ph. tr.
1684. XIV. 549. Leibnitz on the quadrature of the circle.

Halley de constructione problematum solido- Hooke, Ph. coll. n. 6. p. 204.

rum. Ph.tr. 1686. XVI. 335. Demoivre de sectione anguli. Ph. tr. 1722.

Euler on the construction of equations by XXXII. 228.

the tractory. C. Petr. VIII. 66. Jones on the relation of goniometrical lines.

Ph. tr. 1747. XLIV. 560.

CONIC SECTIONS IN GENERAL. Vega, N. A. Petr. 1791-
Gives the proportion of the circumference to the diame-
*ApoUonius Pergaeus et Serenus Halleii. f.
ter as far as 140 or 143 places.
Oxf. 1710. E.I.
Hellins's improvement of Halley's quadra,-
Ace. Ph. tr. 1717. XXX. 732.
ture of ti^e circle. Ph. tr. 1794. 217.
Uhospital on conic sections. 4. on the rectification of the circle.
Kliigel
Demoivre proprietates sectionum conicarum.
Hind. Arch. II. 308.
Ph.tr. 1717. XXX. 622.
of the
Biirmann on the rectification circle.
*Simson sectiones conicae. 4. Edin. 1750.
Hind. Arch. II. 487.
Hamilton de sectionibus conicis. 4. 1758.
Phzati suUa trisezione dell angolo. 8. Ven.
R.I.
1795. R. S.
Emerson's cyclomathesis. V.
Gauss has discovered a mode of dividing the circle into

Waring's new properties of conic sections. any prime number of pans expressible by adding i to an
Ph. tr. 1764. 193. •
integer power of 2.

VOL. 11. R
128 CATALOGUE. — MATHEMATICS, CURVES.
Briakley on the sines of multiple arcs. Ir. tr, by Newton and by Stirling. Ph. tr. 1 740.
VII. 27. XLI. 318.

Brinkley on Cotes's property of the circle. Castilioneus de curva cardioide. Ph.tr- 1741.
Ir.tr. VII. 151. XLI. 778.
Montuclaand Lalande. IV. 6l9. Pemberton on the locus for three and four
lines. Ph. tr. 1763. 496.
Ellipsis. ^rar/wg proprietates algebraicarum curvarum.
Euler on finding the axes of an ellipsis from 4. R. S.
its diameters. N. C. Petr. III. 234.

Vince on the oval lathe. Ph. tr. 1780. 378. MECHANICAL CURVES.
Ivory on the rectification of the ellipsis. Ed. Emerson's cyclomathesis. V.
tr. IV. 177.
Wallace on elliptic arcs. Ed. tr. V. 251.
Cycloid.
If a and b be the diameters, the circuraferencc will be
Roberval squared the cycloid in 1034. Montucla II. 9.
nearly equal to that of a circle of which the diameter is

i(o + + v'9(aa+M)).
i Hutton. Waliis on quadrable portions of the cycloid,
Ph.tr. 1695. XIX. 111.

Hyperbola. Caswell's quadrature of a portion of the

epi-
Brauncker's squaring of the hyperbola. Ph. cycloid. Ph. tr. 1695. XIX. 113.
tr. 1668. III. 645. Halley's general quadrature of epicycloidal
W^ren on a hyperbolic cylindroid. Ph. tr. spaces. Ph. tr. l695. XIX. 125.
1669. IV. 96^1. Hermann on spherical epicycloids. C. Petr.
I. 210.
Gregory on the hyperbola, in answer to Huy-
Clairaut's cycloidal description of the
gens. Ph. tr..l668. IIL 732. 882. spiral
of Archimedes. A. P. 1740. 148.
Klingenstierna Curvarum hyperbolicarum
Lexell on spherical epicycloids. A. Petr. Ill,
quadratura. Ph. tr. 1731. XXXVII. 45.
Landen on the arc of the hyperbola. Ph. tr. i. 49.
1775.283. Euler on the double generation of epicycloids
and hypocycloids. A. Petr. 1781. V. i. 48.
ALGEBRAICAL CUltVES. The concavity of a larger circle rolling on a smaller.

F7mRi de locis solidis. f. J 701.

Extr. Ph. tr. 1704. XXIV. l607. Involute of a Circle.
•Newton de lineis tertii ordinis. 4. With the On the involute of a circle. Ph. tr. 1700.
Optice. 1706. •XXII. 445.
Demoivre on a curve of the third order. Ph. Fantoni on a mechanical curve. Ph. tr. 1767.
tr. 1715. XXIX. 329. 358.
fGrandi flores geometriae. Ph. tr. 1723.
XXXII. 355.
Figures of Sines and Tangents.
Bragelonge on lines of the fourth order. A P.
Stone on two lines of the third order, omitted Emerson's miscellanies. 232.
 CATALOGUE. — MATHEMATICS, CURVES. I2S

Logarithmic Curve. Brackenridge on a solid not yet considered,

Ph.tr. 1759.446.
Craig's quaclralure of the logarithmic curve. A locus of right lines.
Ph. tr. 1698. XX. 373.
On the arrangement of spheres in a
space.
Emerson's miscellanies, 438.
Quadra trix of the Hyperbola.
Monge on stereotomy. Journ. Polyt. Li. 1.
Perks on a quadratrix of the hyperbola. Ph.
Kastner on the screw. Commentat. Gott.
tr. 1706. XXV. 2253.
1795. 1797.
The sum of the tangent and subtangent is constant the !

logarithmic curve may be organically described nearly in the Brinkley on certain portions of a sphere. Ir.

same manner. tr. VIIL513.

Brinkley on the surface of an oblique cylin-
Tractory. der. Ir. tr. IX. 145.
Hiigens, Leibnitz, Grandi, Poleni, Bomie,
AVoodhouse on certain portions of a
sphere.
Bernoulli, Clairaut, and Fontaine. Ph.tr. 1801. 153.
Perks on the tractrix. Ph. tr. 1715. XXIX.
331. MAXIMA OF CURVES.
Cotes, logonjetria.
Clairaut on the tractories of curves. M. Berl. Solution of Bernoulli's isoperimetrical pro-

1739. 'V.33. blems. Ph. tr. 1697. XIX. 334.

Riccati on the tractory and on syntractories. Craig on curves of equal lengths. Ph. tr.

C. Bon. III. 479. 1704. XXXIV. 1527.

Emerson's fluxions. Euler on the general isoperimetrical problem.
Euler on simple and compound tractories. C. Petr. VI. 123.
N. A. Petr. II. 1784. ^3, 28. Euler on the maxima and minima of curves.
The mechanical tractory of a right line, without friction, C. Petr. VIII. 159.
is a cycloid. Eukr Methodus inveniendi curvas maximi
Brougham. Ph. tr. 1798. 378. minimive proprietate gaudentes. 4. Lau-
British Magazine. April 1800. sanne, 1744.
Euler on isoperimetrical curves. N. C. Petr.
CURVED SURFACES AND SOLIDS. VL3.
Wren on a hyperbolic cylindroid. Ph. tr. Simpson on isoperimetrical problems. Ph. tr.

1669. IV. 961. 1755. 4, 623.

Cowley's solid geometry, by Jones. 4. De quihusdam maximis et minimis. 4. R. S.

Demoivre on the solids formed by lunes. Ph. Frisi on isoperimetrical problems. N. C.
tr. 1700. XXII. 624. Petr. VII. 227.
Euler's elements of the doctrine of solids. Borda on the maxima of curves. A. P. 1767.
N. C. Petr. IV. 109. 551. H. 90.
Euler on the curvature of surfaces. A. Berl. Lagrange on isoperimetrical problems. M.
1760. 119. Taur. II. ii. 173.
Euler on the inverse method of L'Huilier de maximis et minimis. 4. Wars.
tangents ap-
plied to solids. N. A. Petr. 1788. VI. 77. 1782. R.S.
124 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS.
niSTOR Y OF MATHEMATICS. Coiiti and Leibnitz on the method of flux-
ions. Ph.tr. 1718. XXX. 923.
Wallis, Biouncker, and Wren on Neile's rec-
Taylor Apologia contra J. Bernoullinm. Ph.
of a parabolic curve in 1657>
tification
tr. 1719. XXX. 955.
and Wren's of the cycloid in 1658. Ph.tr.
History of the quadrature of the circle, by
1673. VIII. 6146. 6149,
Montucla, 1754,
Wallis on~the history of the cycloid. Ph. tr.
Extr. in Mutton's recreations. I.
1697. XIX. 561.
Maseres on the discovery of Cardan's rules.
Wallis affirms that he extracted the square root of a num-
ber of 53 figures, to 27 places, by in bed.
Ph. tr. 1780. 221.
memory,
Gregory on the tFue authors of some inveu- *Montucla, Histoire des malhematiques, par
tidrre. Ph. tr. 1694. XVIII. 233. Lalande. 4 v. 4. Par. I799.

Vindiciae matheseos Ph. tr.

Kastner Geschichte der mathcmatik. 8.
Gregorianae.
1706. XXV. 2336. Gotting. 1796-^7.
Commercium epistolicum Collinsii et alio-
that figures were employed by the Arabs in 8 13,
It is said

runi. R. I. in Europe in 9m, in England 1253 ; that decimal arithme-

Extr. Ph. tr. 1715. XXIX. 173. On the tic was introduced in 1402,
Napier's logarithms in 1614.

invention of flu.\ions.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY AND MECHANICAL ARTS IN

GENERAL.
Some works belonging to thii class are arranged under Mersenni cogitata phj'sicomathematica. Par.
the article Mathematics.
. 1644, M. B.
*Aristotelis naturalis auscultationis libri. B. Porta Magia naturalis. 8. 1650. M. B.
I/Mcrf^j«s de rerum natura. 4. Lond. 1722. Descartes Principia philosophiae. II.
Opp.
Litcretius de rerum natura, a Creech. 8, Oxf, Schotti magia universalis. 4 v. 4. Wurtzb.
1695. Basil, 1770. 1657. M. B.
MaiJiematici veteres., Schotti technica curiosa. 4. Nur. 1664. M. B.
Senecae quaestiones naturalcs. Ven. 1522. M. of JVorcester's scantlings of inventions.
R. I. 24. Loud. 1663. B.B.
R. Bacon 0})us majus, by Jebb. 173,'J. R.I. Repr. Ph. m. XIII. 43.
Ramelli Artificiose machine, f. Par. 1588. Jungii doxoscopiae physicae miuores. 4.
R.I. Hamb. 1663.
Baconis scripta in philosophia. 12. Anist. Power's experimental philosophy. 4. 1664.
1653. M. B.
*Bacon's philosophical works, methodized Clauhergii physica. 4. Amst. 1664.
by Shaw. 3 v. 4. Lond. 1733. R.I. *Hooke's micrographia, f. Lond. 1665. R. I.
On induction. Bacon's novum organum. Hooke's experiments and observations, by
Sennerti philosophia naturalis. 4. Wittemb. Dcrham. 8. Lond. 1726. R.I.
1618. Dni/icss of Newcastle on experimental phi-
Epitome Sennerti. 12, Amst. 1651. losophy, f. 1666. M. B,
 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS. 125

Boyle on the usefulness of experimental phi- Hofmanni lexicon universale. 4 v. f. Leyd.

losophy. 4. Oxf. 1^71. ifiya. R. I.

Extr.Ph.tr. I671. VI. Keillii introductio ad veram physicam. 8.

Rohault Tr-Mte de physique. Par. I671. Oxf. 1700. Lond. 1719.

Extr. Ph.tr. 1671. VI. 2138. Keil's natural philosophy. 8. 1726. R. I.

*RohaulH physica Clarkii. 2 v. 8. Lond. J/aaAsiee's mechanical experiments. 4. Lond.

1711.1729. 1709. 8. 1719. R. I.

Rohault's natural philosophy. 2 v. 8. 1728. Muys Elementa phy sices. 4. Amst. 1 7 1 1 • M .B.
R.I. Sc/ieuchzers naturwissenschaft. 2 v. 8. Zur.

Petty on the use of the duplicate proportion 1711.

in natural philosophy. Birch. III. 156. Derham'i physicoth^ology. 8. Lond. 1754.
Dechales mundus mathematicus. R.I.
Duhamel philosophia vetus et nova. 4. Par. Nieuwenti/t regt gebruyk der wereltbeschou-
168I. M.B. wingen. 4. Amst. 17 16. B. B.
Senguerdi Philosophia
naturalis. 4. Leyd. Nieuzventi/t's religious philosopher. 3 v. 8.

1685. M. B. 1719. R. I.

**Newtoni philosophiae naturalis principia WhistOH on Newton's philosophy. 8. 17 16.

mathematica. 4. Lond. 1687- M.B.
Extr. Ph. tr. 1687. XVI. 297- Servihe, Recueil d'ouvrages curieux. Lyons,
" It may be justly said, that so many valuable philoso- 1719. R. I.

phical truths as are herein discovered

and put past dispute, S'Gravesande Physices elementa mathema-
were never yet owing to the capacity and industry of any
tica. 2 V. 4.
Leyd. 1742. M.B.
one man."
S'Gravcsaiide's natural philosophy, by De-
*Newtoni principia, a Jaquier et liC Seur. saguliers. 2 v. 4. Lond. 1747- R. I.

3 V. 4. Genev. 1739. K. I. S'Gravesande's explanation of Newton, 8.

Newiotti principia, a Tfssanek. 4. P. 1. Verdries Conspectus philosopliiae naturalis.

Prague, 1780. 8. Giess. 1720. M. B.

Newton's mathematical principles. 2 v. 8. Wolff's niitzUche versuche. 3 v, 8. Halle,
Lond. 1729. R. I. 1721—43.
Newton's mathematical principles, by Davis. Wo/J's vernunftige gedanken. 3 v. 8. Halle,
8. Lond. 1803. R. S. 1723—5.
Enurson's commentary on Newton's princi- *Leupolds theatrum machinarum. 9 v. f.

pia. 8. Lond. 1770. R. I.

Leipz. 1724 R. I.. . .

Sturmii physicae conamina. 12. Nuremb. * Pembcrton'sNev/toinan 4. philosophy. 1728,

1687. M. B. R.I.
Slurmii physica electiva. 4. Nuremb. l697. Musschenbroek dissertationes physicae. 4.

1722. M. B. Leyd. 1729. M. B.

Sturmii collegium experimentale. 2 v. 4. Musclienbroek Elementa physices. 8. Leyd.
1676. 1685. M. B. 1734.
Amontons Remarques experiences de phy-
et Musschenbroeh's natural philosophy, by Col-

sique. Par. 1695. M. B. son. 2 v. 8. 1744. R. I.

126 CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS,

*Musschejtb)0€klnlTo6iucUo ad philosopbiam Saverien Dictionnaire de niathematiqueetde

naturalem. 2 v. 4. Leyd. 1762. II. I. physique 2 v. 4. Par. 1753.
Moliires Recueil de legons de physique. M.B. Winklers anfangsgrlinde der physik. 8. Leipz.
Abstr. A. P. 1734,1736—8. H. 1753. 1754.
Winkler's natural philosophy. 2
Teichmeyeri elementa philosophiae naturalis. v. 8. 1757.
4. Jena, 1733. M. B. R. L
Vanderzyl Theatrum inachinarum. f. Amst. Desaguliers's course of experimental philo-
1734. sophy. 2 V. 4. Lond. 1763. R. L
J^a/Kicrgfn elementa physices. 8. Jen. 1735. Martin's philosophia Britannica. 3 v. 8.

M.B. 1759. R. 1.

Voltaire Pliilosophie de Newton. 8. Amst. Martin's young gentleman and lady's philo-
1738. M. B. sophy. 3 V. 8. 1781. R. L
Ilehham's lectures on natural philosophy. 8. Boscovich Philosophiae naturalis theoria re-
1739. R. I. dacta ad unicam legem. 4. Vienn. 1759.
Martints medical and philosophical essays. R. S.

8. 1740. R. I. Suckow Entwurf einer naturlehre. 1761.

Institutions de physique. 8. Amst. 1741. Jones's first principles of natural philosophy.

Cw//rngen' elementa physices. 8. Leipz. 1742. 4. 17!52. R. 1.

* Maclauriii's account of Newton's discove- Jones's physiological disquisitions. 4. Lond,

Lond. 1743. 8. 1750. R. I.
ries. 4. 1781.
Nolkt Le9()ns de physique experimentale. Guyton de Morveau Essais de physique. 12.

6 V. 12. Par. 1743. . . M. B. Dijon, 1762. R. L

AbsU. A.P. 174.S, 1745, 1748, 1755, 1764, Euler Briefe an eine Deutsche prinzessinn.
H. 3 V. 8. Leipz. 17:)9— 74.
?»^o//e< Andes experiences. 3 v. 12. Par. 1770. Euler Lettres a une princesse d'Allemagne,

Segners einleitung in die naturlehre. 8. 3 V. 8. Mituu, 1770 4. —

1746. 1770. Avec les additions de Condorcet et de La-

Rutherforth's natural philosophy. 2 v. 4. croix. 2 V, Par. 1787—8.

1748. R. I. Euler's letters to a German
princess, by Hun-
Crusius iiber naturliche begebenheilen. 8. ter. 2 V. 8. Lond. 1795. 1802. R. L
Hanovii philosophia naturalis. 4. Hal. 1763.
Leipz. 1750.
Kraftii praelectiones in physicam theorett- Lovett's elements of natural j)hilosophy. 8.
cam. 3 V. 8. Tubing. 1750. Handmaid to the arts. 8. London, 1764.
Krugers naturlehre. 8. Halle, 1750. R.I.
Gordon Physicae elementa. 2 v. Erfurt. 1751, Emerson's remarks on the rules of philoso-
Khell physica. 2 v. 4. Vicnn. 1751. phizing. Em. misc. 405.
Eberlmrds erste grlinde der naturlehre. 8. Kdstners einleitung in die mathematik. 4 v.
Halle, 1752—67. 8. Golt. 1764—86.
Eberhards sammlung der ausgemachten Kaestneri dissertationesnjathematicaeet phy-
wahrheiten. 8. Halle, 1755. sicae. 4. Altenb. 1776.

Eberhards beitrage zur maihesi applicatae. From the transactions of the E. S. Gott.

o
 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AND AHTS. 127

Karstem Lehrbegriff der gesammten mathe- Physique du monde, par Marivetz et Gous-
matik. Greifsw. 1764. sier. 5 v. Planches. 3 v. 4. Paris, 1780 '7. —
Karstens Anfangsgiiinde der naturlehre. 8. R. {.

Halle, 1790. R. I. Achards chemisch physische schriften. 8.

Karstens Anleitung zur kenntniss der natur. Berl. 1780.

8. Malic, 1783. R. I. Bailey's plates of machines approved by the

Krislens Kiirzer entwurf der naturwissen- societN' for ihe encouragement of arts. 2 v.

schaft. 8. Halle, 1785. f. Lond. 1782.

Rowiiings natural philosophy. 2 v. 8. 1765. R.I. Atzcood's description of experiments. 8. R S.

Jkffl/f7«
pliysik. 8. Cailsruhe, I767. ^te'ootfsanalysisofacourse of lectures. 8. R.S.
Sigaud de la Fond Lemons de physique 61e- Funics naturliche niagie. 8. Berl. 1733.
mentairc. 2 v. 8. Paris, 1767- R. f. Wieghbs sammlung von kunststiicken. 2 v.

Sigaud de la Fond Elemens de physique. 4 v. 8. Leipz. 1784.

8. Par. 1771. TVieglebs magie, von Rosenthal. 8. Berl.

Sigaud de la Fond Description d'un cabinet 1793 . . .

de physique. 2 v. 8. Par. 1785. R. 1. *Jacobsons technologisches wortcrbuch. 4 v.

Silberschlags ausgesuchte versuche. 8. Berl. Rosenthals fortsetzung. 4v. 8. Berl. 1784...

1768. Beckmanns beitr'age zurgeschichteder erfin-
Slattleri physica. 8 v. 8. Augsb. 1772. dungen. 6 v. Leipz. 1784 • . .

Die tiatur der dinge erki'art. 8. Hannov. 1 773. Percival on the pursuit of experimental phi-

Bet/tr'dge zur allgemeinen naturlehre. 4. Erf. losophy. Manch. M. II. 326.

1773. Bruchhausen Institutiones physicae. Mun-
Hambergers aligemeine experimental natur- ster, 1785 7- —
lehre. 8. Jen. 1774. Bruchhausens anweisung zur physik, von
Titiiphysicae dogmaticae elementa. 8. Wit- Bergmann. 3 v. 8.
tcmb. 1774. Cancrins bergmaschinenkunst. Mayence,
Tilii physicae experimentalis elementa. 8. 1790.
Leipz. 1782. Ilallem magie. 4 v. 8. Vienna, 1785 — 7. R. I.

Bockmanns naturlehre. 8. Carlsr. 1775. 9 V. 8. Berl. 1793.

Maler improved.
Decremps Magie blanche devoilee. Supple-
Senebier Art d'observer. 2 v. 8. Genev. 1775. ment. 8. Par. J 785.
JEier<s naturlehre
tiirschulen.S.Leipz. 1775. Chambers's cyclopaedia, by Rees. 5 v. f,

Ferguson's lectures on natural philosophy. Lond. 1786. R. I.

8. London, 1776. Priestley'sexperiments relating to natural

Goldsmith's survey of ex[)€riniental
philoso- philosophy. 3 v. 8. Birm. 1786. R. S.
phy. 2 V. 8. Lond. 1776. M. B. Priestley on airs. 3 v. 8. 1790. R. S.
Gablers naturlehre. 4 v. 8. Munich, 1778. Schurer El6mens de physique, etv tables. 8.
Kichter Lehrbuch einer naturlehre. 1779- Strasb. 1786.

Horsle^'s'ueatlse on the power of God. Pe/oys Abiege chronologique. 4 v. 8. Strasb.

Turner's introduction to arts and sciences. 1 2. 1786—9. R. I.

128 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AXD ARTS.

*Fan SztindenVosklones physicae. 2 v. Har- Geisshrs beschreibung der neueslen instru-

derwyck, 1786. menteu. 3 v. 8. Zittau. 1792—7. R. I.

*Nichohons introduction to n<itural philoso- Huhe Unterricht in der naturlehre. 2 v. 8,

phy. 2v. 8. Lond. 1787. 1796- R.I. Leipz. {793.

Strrati Lettere di fisica sperimentale. 12. Vince's plan of a course of lectures. 8. Cambr.
Flor. 1787. R. S. 1793.

i/erxGrundlage zu vorlesungen. 8. Bed. 1787. E. M. Amusemens des sciences. 1 v.

Kratzensteim vorleiungen uber die physik. E. M. Mathematique. A Buf. . .

Copenh. 1787- E. M. Physique, par Monge, Cassini, Ber-

4. Lond. 1788. tholon Vol.1. Par. 1793.
King's morsels of criticism.
. . .

,R. S. *Erxlebens naturlehre, von Lichtenberg. 8.

DeZfliVas Physique nouvelle. 8. Par. 1788. R.S. Gott. 1794.

St. Pierre Etudes de la nature. 4 v. 12. Brass. Hooper's rational recreations. 12. Lond.
1788. R. S. 1794. R. I.
Ife///n«Ms volksnaturlehre. Brunsw. 1788. Robison. Enc. Br. Art. Philosophy, Phy-
Nicolai Anfangsgrlinde in der naturlehre. sics.

1788. liobison'selements of mechanical philoso-

*Grens grundriss der naturlehre. 8. Halle, phy. 8. Etiinb. 1804.
*llepertory of arts and manufactures.
1788. 1801. R.I. 8.

Par. London. 1794 R. I.

Jngenhousz nouvelles 8. . • .
experiences.
1789. R. S. .-^Wersow's institutes of physics. 8. Glasgow.
Hoberts grundriss der naturlehre. 8. Bcrl. 1795. R. L
1789. Crfgorys economy of nature. 3 v. 8. Lond.
Abr. tr.
ph. Physique, par Reynier. 2 v. 8. 179G. R.L
Par. 1790. Kunze Schauplatz der maschinen. 8. Ham-
GUtle Maschinen kabinet. Leipz. 1790. burg, 1796 .. .

Wolff's compendium der naturlehre. 8. Gott. *BarruclLii physique reduite en tableaux. 4.

1791. Paris, an 7. R. I.
CiscdrMaquinas y maniohras, fj Madr. 1791 .
*i?fjDorfsofthelateMr.Smeaton.4. 1797.B.B.
B.B. Gthlers physicalisches wbrterbuch. 5 v. 8.
De Luc Lettres physiques et morales. 5 v. 8. Leipz. 1798. R. L
R. I. *Erifield's institutes of natural philosophy. 4,,

Vaiisenviile Essai physicogeometrique. 8. London, 1799. R- L

Kriinitz Oeconomisch technologische ency- Adams's lectures on natural and experimental
philosophy. 4 v. 8. Lond. 1799.
R. I.
clop'adie, von Florken. Berlin.

Kiugels grundriss der naturlehre. 8. Berlin, BrcAw's inquiries. 8. Glocester, 1799. R. L

1792. Walker's system of familiar philosophy. 4.

Klugek encyclopadie. Lond. 1799. R. L

Hutton's dissertations in natural philosophy. Brisson Dictionnaire de physique. 6 v. 8.

4. Edinb. 1792. R, I. Planches. 4. Par. an 8. R. I.

 )
CATALOGUE.—r-PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, MECHANICS. 129

Brisson Principes de physique. 3 v. 8. Par. mechanica. Op. Posth.

Cartesii

R. I. Mechanics. Ph. tr. Abr. I. v. 457. IV. iv.

B'uschMathematik zum niitzen und vergnii- 346. VI. V. 275. VIII. v. 281. X. iv. 1%.
gen. 2 V. 8. Hainb. 180). R. I. Waliisii mechanica. 4. Lond. 1670. Op. I.

Berard Melanges pliysicomatlietnatiques, 8. 571.

Par. an 9. R. I. Extr. Ph. tr. 1669. IV. 1085.
Jacotol Cours de physique experimentale et Pardies Lii statique. 12. Par. 1673.
de chimie. 2 v. 8. PI. 1 v. 4. Paris, an 9. R.I. Extr. Ph. tr. 1673. VIII. 6042.
Lihts Tniite elementaire de phj'sique. 3 v. 8. mathematical magic. 8. 168O. B.B.
JVi/ldns's

Par. 1801. R.I. Roberval's project of a work on mechdnics.

WillicKs domestic encrjclopaedia. 4 v. 8. A.P. VI. 68.

Lond. 1802. R. I. Lahire Mecanique. A. P. IX. 1.

*Rees's cyclopaedia. 4. Ldnd. R. I. **iNewtoni principia. L. i. ii.

*CavaUo's natural or experimental philoso- Leibnitii hypothesis physica.
Op. II. ii. 3.

phy. 4 V. 8. Lond. 1803. R. I. Leibnitii theoria motus abstracti. Op. II. ii.

Imisous elements of science and art. 2 v. 8. 35.

Lond. 1803. R. I. Parent Elemens de mecanique. M. B.
Kelt's elements of general knowledge. 2 v. 8. Parent Nouvelle statique. 1704.
1803. Jean Bernoulli dn mouvement. Op. III. 1.
Hutton's recreations in mathematics and na- *IIermanni phorononiia. 4. M.B. Amst. 1716.
tural philosophy, from Montucla. 4 v. 8. Camus Traite des forces mouvantes. 8. Par,
1803. 1722.
M. Young's analysis of the principles of na- Varignon Nouvelle mecanique. 2 v. 4. Par.
tural philosophy. 8. Lond. 1803. In the 1725. R. I.

form of a text book. D. Bernoulli on the principles of mechanics.

*//aiiy Traite elementaire de physique. 2 v. 8. C. Petr. I. 126.
^ Par. 1803. R. I. Phicfie Spectacle de la nature. 4 v. 8. 1732.
Ace. Joiun. phys. LVII. 412. M. B.
*Dictionii(iire des sciences naturelles. 8. Par. Clairaut's dynamical problems. A. P. 1736.
'

1804 ... 1. H. 105.

Scientific young people. 6
dialogues for v. Clairaut's dynamical principles. A.P. 1742.
12. London, 1800—5. 1. H. 125.
Belidor. Arch. Hydr. 1. 1. 1.
MECHANICS IN GENERAL. Euleri mechanica. 2 v. 4. Petersb. 1736.
Aristotelis mechanica. M. B.^Greifsw. 1790.
Extracts from manuscripts of Vinci. Nich. Euler on the general principles of motion
II. 84. and rest. A. Berl. 1751. 169,199.
Galileo della scienza mecanica. Op. I. 597. Euler on the mechanical
knowledge of bo-
Galileo Discorso intorno adue nuove scienze. dies. A. Berl. 1758. 131.
Op. 11. i. 79. *Eultri theoria motus corporum solidorum.
Torriceliius de motu gravium. 4. Flor. 1644. 4. Rostock. 1765. R. S.
VOL. II. s
130 CATALOQUK.—-PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, MECHANICS.
Lacailk Lemons de mecanique. Ciscar Maquinas y maniobras.
Ace. A. P. 1743. H. lG4. Basse's remarks on Euler and others. .Hind.
*Dalemhert Traitc de dynamique. 4. Par. arch. II. 30.

1743. **LapIace Mecanique celeste. 4 v. 4. Par.

Ty Arcyh dj'naniical problems and theorems. an 6 R. I.
. . .

A. P. 1747. 344. 1750. 107. *Robison, Enc. Br. Suppl. art. Dynamics.
Courtivron's statical and dynamical researches. Robison's elements.
A. P. 1748. 304. 1749. 15. H. 177- jF;a«cpf Mr Traite: de mecanique elementaire.
Bossut's dynamical researches. S. E. III. 473. 8. Par. an 9- R. I.

Bossut Traite elementairede mecanique el de FijtelKdns handbuch der mechanik ut)4 -by-
dynamique. draulik. 8. Berl. 1801. R.I. .V.'Vs '

Ace, A. P. 1763. H. 133. Prony Mecanique philosophique. Joflrn.

Bossut Traite de mecfinique statique. polytechn. III. vii. . . R. I.

Ace. A. P. 1772. i. H. 99-

Foncenex on the fundamental laws of me-
MOTIONS OF A POINT, IN" GENEUAL.
chanics. M. Taur. II. ii. G99.

*Kraft Forelasninger over mechanik. 2 v. Wallis on the laws of motion. Ph. tr. IfiGS.

4. Soroe. 1762—4. III. 864.

ivw//?/? mcchanica, a Tetens. 4. Blitz. 1772. Boyle's philosophical essays, ed. 2. Lond.
Krafts mechanik^ von Steingrliber. Dresd. 1669.
1787. Extr. Ph. tr. 16O9. IV. IO69. On the
Karstens Lehrbeairiff. universality of motion.
Emerson's cyclomathesis. VII. A discourse on local motion, from the French.
Emerson's mechanics. 4. 1794. R. 1. 12. Lond. 1670.
Ferguson's mechanics. 8. 1799- R. I. Extr. Ph. tr. 167O. V. 2010.
Clark's theory of mechanics. 4. Mariotte on motion. A. P. I. 120. 132.
K'astner Anfangsgriinde. Lahire on motion. A. P. IX. 1,50.

Mfiric Traite de mecanique. 4. Varignon's laws of motion. A. P. X. 153.

Klugel grunds'atze der reinen mechanik. fOn the continuation of motion. A. P. 1701 .
Eberhards Phil. mag. I. iv. II. i. H. 14.

Unterberger Anfangsgriinde der mathematik. Cane on the laws of motion. A. P. 1706.

1781. HI. 442. H. 124.
E.M. PI. VII. Mecanique. Hermann's general theory of motion. C.
Farktnson's mechanics. 4. Cambr. 1785. Petr. II. 139.
R.S. Crousaz on the nature of motion. A. P. Pr.
Delangez on the motion of s,olids. Soc. Ital. Li.
III. 1. Riccati on the laws of motion. C. Bon. V. i.

Frisii cosmographia. C. 171. 212.

*Lagrangc Mecanique analitique. 4. Par. Home on the laws of motion. Ed. Ess.

1788. R. I. I. 1.

Pasquich von der bewegung. Leii)Z. 1789. Stewart on motion and inertia. Ed. Ess. 1. 70.
 CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, MECHANICS. 131

Camus on niotiorij and on the elements of tion. X. 231. 242. On arbitrary accele-
matter. Koz. VI. 420. ration. 1709. 69. H. 97- On accelerated

David oh the cause of motion. Roz. XVIII. motion with resistance. 1709.207- H.97.
192, 267. On the velocity caused by various forces.
Watson on time. 8. Lond. 1785. 1719- 195. H. 77- On constant and va-
Sack on motion, Geologic, 1785. riable forces. 1720. 107. H.97.
Machines for measuring the fall of bodies.

Composition of Motion. Leup.Th. M. G. t. 70.

Camus on motion accelerated by springs.
Aristotle Mech. prohl. I. 722.
A. P. 1728. 159. H. 73.
Barrow Lectioues geometricae.
Riccati on the effects of attraction. C.Bon.
Roberval on the composition of motion. A.
II. iii. 143.
P. VI. 1.
Manfredi and Zanotti on the impulse of
Illustrations of the composition of motion.
springs. C. Bon. 11. iii. 383. 413.
S'Gravesande and Musschenbroek.
Euler on the effects of forces. A. Berl. 1748.
Zanotti on compound motion. C. Bonon. I.
184.
515.
Euler on the rectilinear motion of three bo-
Riccati on the cause oF the composition of
dies. N. C. Petr. XI. 144.
forces. C. Bon. 11. ii. 305.
Kurdwanowski on the fall of bodies. A. Berl.
Euler on the motions of solids in all direc-
1755. 394.
tions. N. C. Petr. XX. 188. 208.
J. A. Euler on the fall of a body towards a
on the composition of motion and force.
Pistoi
centre. A. Berl. 176O. 250.
Ace. Sienn. III. 107-
Riccati on rectilinear motion towards a cen-
Gr. Fontana on the resolution of force. Soc.
tre. C. Bon. VI. O. 138.
Ital.lII. 519-
K'astner, Karstens, Kraft.

Vega Vorlesungen uber die mathematik. III.

Accelerating Forces. Frisi on the laws of gravity.
Torricellius demotu gravium. 1641. *Ahi'Ood on rectilinear motion and rotation.
Riccioli alma2;estum novum, ii. c. 21. 8. R. I.

Hooke on falling bodies. Birch. I. 195. Flauguergues on a mechanical problem of

Borclliis de motionibus a gravitate. 4. Reg. forces with resistance. N. A. Petr. 1790.
Jul. 1670. Vlll. H.31.
Abstr. Ph. tr. 1671. VI. 2210. Anstice on the laws of falling bodies. 8. Lond.
Halley on gravity. Ph.tr. I666. XVI. 3. 1794. R. S.
On force. Act. erud. Lips. 1686. 161. I69G. Benzenberg's experiments on falling bodies.
145. Gilb. XII. 367. XIV. 222.
Mariptte on the fall of heavy bodies. A. P. Benzenbergs versuche uber die gesetze des
1.249. falles. Hamb.
Varigiion on the space described by falling Fischer's simplification of Atwood's machine.
bodies. A. P. II. 9tj. On accelerated mo- Gilb. XIV. 1.
 132 CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHT AND ARTS,^IECHA>riCS.
Central Forces. Riccati. C. Bon. V. ii. 421.
Jones's demonstration of Machin's law of
trooke on central forces. Birch. II. 90.
equal solids. Ph. tr. 1769. 74.
*Huygens de cenlrifuga. Op. Posth.
vi
Lexell. A. Petr. 1782. VI. i. 157.
V'arignon on central forces. A. P. 1700. 83.
H. 78. 1701. 20. H. 80. 1703. 140. ai'2. Waring on the resolution of attractive force.
Ph. tr. 1789. 185.
H. 65. 73. 1706. 178. H. 56. 1710.533.
11. 102.

Bomie on central forces. A. P. 1707.477. H. Projectiles.

97. Halley on gunnery. Ph. tr. I686. XVI. 3.

Keill on central forces. Ph. tr. 1708. XXVI. 1695. XIX. 68.

174. Taylor de projectilium motu. Ph.tr. 1726.

*Keill de inverse problemate virium centri- XXXIV. 151.

petaruni. Ph. tr. 1714. XXIX. 91. Maupertuis's arithmetical balistics. A. P.

Hermann and Bernoulli on' the converse pi o- 1731.297. H. 72.
blem of central forces. A. P. 1710.519. Simpson on projectiles, independently of
H. 102. conic sections. Ph. tr. 1748. 137.
*Demoivre de viribiis Ph. tr.
Casali's machine for
measuring the motions
centripetis.
1717. XXX. 622. of projectiles. C. Bon. V. i. C. 121. ii. 71.

*Maclaurin Geomelria organica. Bernoulli on a balistic machine. A. Bed.

1781. 847.
Montigny on the motion of bodies round a
'
centre. A. P. 1741. 280. H. 143. Tennis. E. M. A. Art. Paumier.

Emerson's fluxions. Robison. Eiic. Br. Art.

Projectiles.
Riccati on curvilinear motions. C. Bon.
IV. O. 139. Coiifined Motion.
Zanotti. C. Bon. V. i. C. 184. Hugenii h'orologium osciliatonum. f. Par.
David. Roz. XIX. 1653.
229.
Waring. Ph. tr. 1788. 67.
On the isochronism of vibrations in a cycloid.

Cesaris. Soc. Ital. II. 325. Ph. tr. 1673. VIH. 6032.
*On the inverse method of central forces.
On descent in a cycloid. Ph.tr. I697. XIX.
Manch. M. IV. 369. V. 101. 424.
Sault on the curve of swiftest descent. Ph.
Trenibley on trajectories. A. Berl. 1797. 36. tr.

BrinCley. Ir. tr. VIII. 215. 1698. XX. 425. .

Varignon orl the motion of bodies on united

Central Forces. planes. A. P. X. 301.
Compound
Varignon on certain curves of descent. A. P.
Euler. A. Berl. 176O. 228. N. C. Petr. X. 1699- 1. H. 68. 1703. 140. H. 65.
207. XI. 152.
Varignon on Sebastian's machine. A. P.
Euler on central forces in curves not lying- 1699. H. 116.
in a plane. N. A. Petr. 1785. III. 111.
Craig on the curve of swiftest descent. Ph.
Lagrange. M.Taur, II. ii. 196. ]V. iv. 188. tr. 1701. XXII. 746.
 CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHV AND ARTS, MECHANICS. 13S

Carre on pendulums. A. P. 1707. 49. V. 58. Borda on the maxima of curves. A. P. 1767.
Parent on the descent of a body producing 551. H. 90.
a constant pressure. A. P. 1708. 224. H. Landen's properties of the circular pendu-
84. lum. Ph.tr. 1771.308. 1775.287.
Sanrin on the shortest descent to a given line. Ktistner on the cylinder rolling up a plane.
A. P. 1709. 257. H. 68. 1710. 203. D.Schr. S.Gott. 113.
Machin de curva celerrimi descensus vi data. Maseres's series for a circular pendulum. Ph.
Ph.tr. 1718. XXX. 86. tr. 1777. 215.

Bernoulli on isochronous and brachistochro- Fontana on the descent of bodies in convex

nous curves. A. P. 1718. 136. H. 55. lines. Soc. Ital, I. 174..

Louville on a difficulty respecting the eva- Legendre on the cycloid. A. P. 1786. 30.
nescent arc and chord. A. P. 1722. 128. Lcgendrc's example of a circular pendulum.
H.82. A. P. 1786.637.
Euler on brachistochronous curves. C. Petr. Riccati on the tension of the thread of &
II. 126. IV. 49. V. 143. VI. 28. VII. 135. pendulum. Soc. Ital. IV. 81.
N, C.Petr. XVII. 488. A. Petr. I.ii. 70. Malfatti on circular descent. Soc. Ital. VH.,
Euler on vibrations in finite arcs. A. Petr. I. 462.
ii. 159. Monlucla Hist, math, IV. i. 5.

Euler on a rotatory pendulum. A. Petr. 1780. Biot on tautochronous curves. B. Soc. Phil.
IV. ii. 133. 164. n. 73.

Euler Theoria motus solidorum. Brunings on the motion of a double cone.

Euler on the pressure upon the pivot of a Hind. Arch. II. 321.

pendulum. N. A. Petr. VI. 145. Bunce's governor for steam engines. Nich^
Krafit on the conical paradox. C. Petr. VI. II. 46. A conical pendulum.

389.
Krafft on descent
Variable Pendulums and Elastic
upon an inclined plane.
C.Petr. XII. 261. XIII. 100. Surfaces.
Krafft on circular pendulums. N. A. Petr. Bossut on a pendulum of variable length.
1791. IX. 225. A. P, 1778. 199.
Fontaine on tautochronous' curves. A. P. Euler on pendulums hanging by an elastic
1734. 371. 1768.460. thread. A. Petr. III. ii. 95.
Courtivron on a circular pendulum. A. P. Bernoulli on a rotatory pendulum with an
1744. 384. H. 30. extensible thread. N. A. Petr. 1783. 1.213.
Niicker on a tautochronous curve. S. E. IV. 1784. II. 131. 1785. III. 162. 1786. IV.
99. H. 102.

Lagrange on isochronous curves. A. Berl. Fuss on the descent of a. body on an inclin-

1765. 361. 1770. 97. ed plane, with one or more elastic sup-
Dalenibert on isochronous curves. A. Berl, N. A, Petr. 1791. IX. 252. 1792.
ports.
1765. 381. X. 91.
134 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, MECHANICS.

Confined Motion with Resistance. Kotehiikow. N. C. Petr. VIII. 28G.

on the inclined plane. C. Petr. XII.

Krafi"t
Maupertuis on the laws of rest. A. P. 1740.
170.
2G1. XIII. 100.
Riccati on equilibrium, and on the
Euler on descent upon an inclined plane composi-
tion of forces. C. Bon. 11. ii. 305. iii. Q15.
with resistance. C. Petr. XIII. 197.
V. ii. 186.
Euler on a rotatory pendulum with resist-
Bernoulli. C. Petr. I. 126.
ance. A. Petr. 1780. IV. ir. lG4.
Kaestner de vecte et compositione virium. 4.
JSacker. S. E. IV. 95.
Kastner on the inclined plane. Leipz. Mag. Leipz. 1753.
Kastner on a cylinder appearing to roll
II. 1. up-
wards. D. Schr. Soc. Gott. 113.
See Hydraulic Resistance.
Foncenex M. Taur. II. ii. 299.
MOTIONS OF SIMPLE MASSES. Journal des sav. 1764.
Dalenibert,Dynamique.
Centre of Inertia. Dalembert A. P. 1769.
See Centre of Gravity. Euler on the effect of friction in
equilibrium.
Lahire on the motion of the centre of iner- A.Berl. 1762. 265.
Euler on the distribution of
tia. A. P. IX. 175. pressure on a
Laura Bassi on the motion of the centre of plane. N. C. Petr. XVIII, 289. Hind.
inertia. C. Bon. IV. O. 74. Arch. I. 74.

Robison Enc. Br. Suppl. Art. Position. Euler on some cases of equilibrium. A. Petr.
HI. ii. 106.
Momentum. Bclidor Ingenieur Francois.
Matteucci. C. Bonon. VI. O. 286.
Bulfinger on momentum. C. Petr. I. 43.
Gr. Fontana on the resolution of force. Soc.
EOUILTBRIUM OF SYSTEMS OR OF COM- Ital. III. 519.
POUND BODIES. Frisii
cosmographia.
Fuss on the equilibrium of weights on curved
Pressure and Composition of Force.
surfaces. N. A. Petr. 1788. VI. 197.
See Composition of Motion.
Biiija Grundlehren der statik. 1789.
Sttviii Oeuvres matbematiques. 4. lG34. Delangez on a case of pressure. Soc. Ital.
M. B. V. 107.
Varignon's machine not admitting equilibri- Salimbcni's elements of statics. Soc. Ital.

um. A. P. II. 76. V. 426.

Unstable equilibrium. Paoli on the distribution of Soc.
pressure.
Varignon on a combination of forces. A. P. Ital. VI. 534.

1714. G80. H. 87. Lorgna on the pressure of a body on its

sup-
Loupold. Th. St. t. 1.2. ports. Soc. Ital. VH. 178.
KrafTt on the apparent ascent of a double celeste.
La])lace Mecanique I.

cone. N. C. Petr. VI. 389. *Robison Enc. Br. Suppl. Art, Dynamics.
 CATALOOUE. PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, MECHANICS. 13J

Mechanical Powers. Props.

Desaguliers's new statical experiments, on
Archimedes.
Hamilton. Ph. tr. 1 703. 103. props. Ph. tr. 1737. 62.

His demonstration of the property of the lever is deduced

from that u{ Archimedes. Compound Machines,

Landen's essfiy on the mechanical powers. Marcorelle on the statics of the human body.
S. E. 1. 191.
Edgeworth's pauorganon. Nich. IV. 443.

Lever. • -
Centre of Graviti/.

Lahire on the leveV. A. VAX! 6. 'I'ot Sea Centre of Inertia.

Koberval's paradox. Leup. Th. St. 4. t. 17. Walhs de certtro gravitatis hyperbolae. Ph.
tr. 1672. VII. 3074.
Desagidiers on a paradoxical biilance. Ph. lii,j|.)>i

tr. 1731. 1^5. Roberval on the centres of gravity of solids.

A. P. VI. 270. 282.

Aepinus on a new property of the lever. N.C.
Varignon on the centre of gravity of spheres.
" '

Petr.Vm.271.
A peculiar maximum. A. P. X. 508.
Kaestner vectis theoria. Clairauton finding the centre of gravity. A.
Vince on the lever. Ph.tr. 1794. 331 Ke- P. 1731. 159.

perti Xi 49. Bossut on the centres of gravity of cycloidal

Schwab and Burja on the lever. A. Berl. surfaces and solids. S. E. III. 603.

1797. 137. of the centre of gravity. E. ^l.

Illustrations

Uobison Enc. Br. Art. Statics. Steelyard. PI. VIII. Amiiscmens de mecaniquc.

Gr. Fontana on the axis of equihbriuni and

Cylinders. the centre of gravit}'. Ac. Sienn. VI. 177.

Hotchkiss's patent mechanical power. Re- L'Huilier's theorem respecting the centre of
pert. XIV. 24. gravity. N. A. Petr. 1786. IV. H. 39.
A double capstan.
Kramp on the centre of gravity o(] spherical
triangles. Hind. x\rch. II. 2y6.

Wedge.
7J«r>n«wH de cuneo. 4. Witteinb. 1751. Equilibrium of heavy Si/sfems.
Ludlam's essays. See Architecture.
D. Gregorii catenaria. Ph. tr. 1697. XIX.
Screw. 637. 1699. XXI. 419-
Leupold Th. Macliinarium. t. 6. 7. Clairaut on catenariae. M. Berl. 1743. VII.
C. Bon. III. 131. 304. 270.
Hunter on a new way of applying the screw. Krafft on catenariae. N. C. Petr. V. 145.
Ph. tr. 1781. 58. Canterzani on the catenaria. C. Bon. VI.
Kastner on the screw. Commentar. Gott. p. 265.
XIII. 1795. M. 1,47. XIV. 1797. M.3. Legendre on the catenaria. A. P. 1786. 20.
Kaestner de theoria cochleae. Diss. vi. 38. Kastner on chains of
unequal thickness.
Nich. 1. 1.-58. Hind. Arch. I. 69.
 13^ CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPUY ANB AllTS, MCHANICS.
Fuss on the equilibrium of flexible threads, 1722. 6. H. 109. 1723. 343. H. 107. 1738.
loiwled with weights. N. A. Petr. 1794. I. II. 82. 1740. 1. H. 89.
XII. 145. Moliercs on tin? collision of clastic bodies.
A. P. 1726. 7. H. 53.
Barnes on the forces of moving bodies. Ph.
EquiUhnum of Elastic Bodies. tr. 172fi. 183.

Jo. Bernoulli on the elastic curve. Acta N. Bernoulli on percussion. C. Petr. I. 121.
Jean Bernoulli sur les loix de la communi-
Lips. lGy4. 1695.
Bernoulli On the cohesion and resistance of cation de la motion. Par. 1727. Op. III.

beams fixed atone end. A. Bed. 1706. 78. *iVIaclaurin's demonstratipn, of tjie ^wsr of
Euler ohthe elastic curve. C. Petr. II I. 70.
collision. A. P. Pr. I. Hi. .
"
,-.,

Euler on the equilibrium of elastic bodies. N. *Maclaurin's fluxions.

CPetr. XV. 381. XX. 28(i. A. Petr. III. *Maclaurin's Newtonian philosophy.

ii. 188. Mazieres on the collision of bodies more ,or

jEuler on the rectangular elastic curve. A. less elastic. A. P. Pr. f. F. ,

.5 j / ,.
-.

Bernoulli on the communication of motion.

Petr. 1782. VI. ii. 34.
Lexelli A. Petr. 1781. V.
A. P. Pr. I. vii. ,'
ii. 207.
Euler on collision. C. Petr. V. 159,
Euler-on oblique collision. C. Petr. IX. 50.
MOTIONS OF SYSTEMS, OU OF COMPOUND Euler on percussion. A. Berl. 1745. 21.
BODIES. Euler on the impulse of a bullet on a plane.
N. C. Petr.XV. 414.
Collision.
Euler on the oblique collision of revolving
Of impulsion. Galileo. Op. I. 957- II- 479- pendulums. N, C. Petr. XVII. 315.
.BortZ/us de vi percussionis. Euler Theoria motus corporum solidorum.
Abstr. Ph. tr. 16G7. II. C2(i. Louville's comparison of gravity and percus-

Wallis, Wren, and Huygens. Ph. tr. I668, sion. A. P. 1732. H. 100.
III. 1G69. IV. Hamberger. El. phys.
Huygens, Journal des savans. Mars. I669. Gravesande on triple collision. Nat. PliiL
A. P. X. 341. Op. II. 73. Sect. 1257. v.uvV'.i!

Huygens Opusc. posth. Rizzetti. C. Bon. I. 497-

Huygens was the earliest in discovering the laws of col- Zanotti. C. Bon. I. 557. IV. O. 219.
lision, but not in publishing them. Zanotti on elastic springs. C. Bon. HI. iii.

Mariotte Traite de la percussion. Op. I. 1. 413.

Lahire on percussion. A. P. IX. lO'S. Manfredi on the impulse of springs. C. Bon.
Leibnitz Hypothesis physica. II. iii. 383-
Leibnitz Theoria motus abstracti. Eberhard. Roz. Introd. I. 159.

Hermanni phorononiia. Milner on the communication of motion by

.Saulmon on the collision of elastic bodies. impact. Ph. tr. 1778.344.
A. P. 1721. 126. H. 8G. 1723. H. 101. Lamberts scdanken liber das gleichsjewicht.
Mairan on the reflection of bodies. A. P. Beytrage. II. 3()3.
 tJATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, MECHANICS. 137

Billiards. E. M. PI. IV. Art. Paulmerie, pi. Euler on a new principle of mechanics, A>
4. 5. E. M. Amusemens de mecanique. Berl. 1750. 185.

Kastner Hohere mechanik. Euler on rotation upon a variable axis. A,

Ja. Beraoulir on the stroke of a ball on a Berl. 1758. \tA. 1760. 176.
'
board. N. A. Petr. IV. 1786. US. Euler on the collision of revolving bodies,
Gr.Fontana. See. Ital. III. 509. 513, N. C. Petr, XVII. 272.
Biisch Mathematik. Euler on the mechanical centres -of triangles.
Bruchhauscn Anweisung, I. 31. A. Petr. III. ii. 126.
BernstorlTs problem relating to billiards. Euler on the momentum of rotation with re-
Journ. Phys. XLV. (II.) 45. spect to any axis. N. A. Petr. 1789. VIL
*Robison. Enc, Br, Suppl. Art. Impulsion. 191. 205.
Percussion. Short on Serson's horizontal top. Ph. tr.

1751. 35.
It spun in vacuo 2 h. is'.

Rotatory Power, and Centres of Gy~ Bouguer on the forms fittest for rotation, A. P.
ration. Percussion, and Oscillation. 1751. 1.

Lahire on the effect of weights striking a Segner de motu turbinum. Halle, 1755.
First pointed out the three natural axes of rotation oC
A. P. IX. 175.
••''lever,
all bodies : their existence was demonstrated by Albrecht
Huygens on the centres of oscillation and
Euler in 1760.

agitation. A. P. X. 446. 462. Mechanical centres. Emerson's fluxions.

Parent on the centres of conversion and fric-
Emerson's mechanics, vi.
tion. A. P. 1700. H. 149.
D'Alembert Opuscules.
Bernoulli on the centres of agitation and
Lagrange on the free rotation of a body of
percussion. A. P. 1703. 78. 272. H. 114.
any figure. A. Berl.. 1773. 85.
1704. 136. H. 89. Frisi de rotatione corporum. 4. R. S.
Taylor de centro oscillationis. Ph.tr. 1713.
Frision rotation. C Bon. VI. O. 45.
XXVIII. 11.
Frisii Cosmographia.
D. Bernoulli on mechanical centres. C. Petr. Smeaton on mechanic power. Ph. tr. 1776.
II. 208. 450.
D. Bernoulli on eccentric percussion, C.Petr. Landen's new theory of rotatory motion. Ph.
IX. 189, tr, 1777. 266.
D. Bernoulli on oscillation, C.Petr. XVIII. Landen's mathematic<il memoirs.
245. Landen on the rotatory motion of a
body of
Clairaut on the oscillations of a suspended
any form. Ph, tr. 1785. 311.
body. A. P. 1735. 281. H. 92. Asserts, in contradiction to Euler and D'Alembert, that
Camus on a problem respecting weights on the angular velocity must always be constant.

a wheel. A, P. 1740. 201. H. 103.. Milner. Ph. tr. 1779- 505.

Montigny on the motion of a system of bo- Vince on progressive and rotatory motion.
dies round an immoveable centre. A. P. Ph. tr. 1780. 546.
1741. 280. H. 143. Treats only of symmetrical bodies.

VOL. II.
 138 CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHY AXD ARTS, MECHANICS.
Atwood on motion. Fuss on the motion of a cylinder drawn up
a plane. N. A. Petr. 1787. V. 176.
Pasquich von der bewegung.
Wildbore on spherical motion. Ph. tr. 1790. Fuss on the descent of a rod leaning against

496. a wall. N. A. Petr. 1788. VI. 172.

Defends Euler and D'Alembert, and attributes to Landen Riccati on compound rotatory motion. Soc.
some confusion respecting motive and accelerative forces. Ital. IV. 96.

*Robison, Enc. Br. Art. Rotation. Kononov on the motion of a double cone.

M. Young's N. A. Petr. 1789. VII. 229-

analysis.
Contains several propositions copied from other authors, Delangez on rotation upon inclined planes.
i^i Tvhich motion and force appear to be confounded. Soc. Ital. V. 278.
Charles on the effects of rotation in billiard

Constrained Revolution. balls. Roz. XL. 19-

Bcrnstorff on billiards. Journ. Phys. XLV;

Bernoulli on the rotation of a pipe and ball. -

(II.) 45.
A.Berl. 1745.54.
Brunings on the motion of a double cone. '

Hind. Arch. 11.321.

Rotation with Progression and Re-
Prony sur le mouvement d'un corps sollicite
sistance.
par des puissances quelconques. 4. Par.
D. Bernoulli on the descent of spheroids on 1800. R. S.
inchned planes. C. Petr. XIII. 94. Prony on the rotation of a body actuated by
Euler on motions upon a horizontal plane. various forces. Journ Polyt. II. vi. 297.
C. Petr. XIII. 220. IV. xi. 87.

Euler on the motion of flexible bodies. C.

Petr. XIV. 182. A. Berl. J745.
C. Petr. XX. 286.
Euler on the motion of a body tied on a ho-
rizontal plane. A. Petr. II. ii. l62.
JEuIeron the descent of a rod upon a cylin-
A. Petr. 1782. VI. i. 117.
der.
Euler on the motions of bodies rolling on a
131. 1782. VI.
.'_ plane. A. Petr. 1781. V.ii.
ii. 107. N. A. Petr. 1783. I. 119-
Euler on the motion of a cylinder with a
thread round it. N. A. Petr. 1787. V. 149.
.J. A. Euler on the motion of a globe upon a
horizontal plan*. A. Berl. 1758. 284.
1760. 261.
H. 54. N. Motions of connected Systems.
Parent on the track of bodies tied together.
A. P.1703.H. 110.
D. Bernoulli on the motion of an inclined
surAice. C. Petr. V. 11.
Euler on the equilibrium and motion of bodies
with elastic joints. N. C. Petri," XIII. 250.
Euler on oscillations upon pulleys. A. Petr.
II. ii. 137.
Euler on the motion of connected bodies on
a plane. A. Petr. 1780. IV. i. 107.
Euler on the motion of a perfectly flexible
thread. N. A. Petr. 1784. II. 103.
The problem can only be solved in a few cases, and then

Chabanon de Maugris on the motion of a by indirect methods.

rod between two planes. S. E. IV. 646. Euler on the motion of connected cylinders.
Vincc on friction. Ph. tr. 1785. 165. N. A. Petr. 1785. III. 142.
 CATALOOtlE. PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, MECHANICS. 139

Lexell on the motion of connected bodies on Euler on mixed oscillations-. A. Petr. III. i.

a plane. A. Petr. 1781. V.i, njG. 89.

Ja. Bernoulli on the motion of two irregu- Euler on the oscillations of a suspended
lar bodies connected together. N. A. Pctr. thread. A. Petr. 1781. V. i. 157.
1788. VI. 154. Euler on the pressure of the pivot of a pen-
Fuss on the motion of a cyhnder saspcnded dulum. N. A. Petr. 1788. VI. 1 15.

by a thread wound round it. N. A. Petr. Krafil on a new species of oscillation. C.

1790. VIII. 256, Petr. X. 200.
Ou the motion of flexible bodies. A. Berl.
Bodies acting on each other. 1745. H.54.
See Laws of Gravity. Riccati on compound confined motion. C.
Ealer on the rectilinear motion of three bo-
Bon. V. i. O. 150.
Fuss on a pendulum of two threads. N. A.
dies. N. C. Petr. XI. 144.
Petr. 1783. I. 184. 203.

Pendulous Bodies.
Vibrations independent of Gravity.
Bernoulli on the oscillations of a system of
bodies. C. Petr. VI. 108. VII. 1G2. XV. See Acustics.

97. XVIII. 245. Lagrange on the force of springs. A, Berl.

Bernoulli on the coexistence of simple vibra- 1769. 167.
tions. N. C. Petr. XIX. 239. A spiral spring may be so fixed as to exert a force nearly

A double pendulum, and the oscillations of two scales. constant. Supposing the number of convolutions infinite,

the law of its motion approaches to that of a circular pen-

Euler on the oscillations of a flexible tliread.
dulum.
C. Petr. VIII. 30.
Euler on a new kind of oscillations. C Petr,
XI. 128. Tropagation of Motion in Solids.

Euler on the motion of bodies perfectly flex-

See Acustics.

ible. C. Petr. XIV. 182.

The whole of acustics, except the sounds of some kinds
of pipes, might be introduced here.
Euler on isochronous compound pendulums.
N.C. Petr. III. 286. MEASURE OF FOECE.
Euler on the oscillation of bodies divided or
Louville on the force of moving bodies. A.
suspended by a thread. N.C. Petr.XVlII.
P. 1721. H.81.
269.
The flexure of the thread produces no
Pemberton on the force of moving bodies,
perceptible per-
turbation, when its length is greater than three times the against Poleni. Ph. tr. 1722. XXXII. 57.
radius of tlieball. Desaguliers's experiments to show that force
Euler on a loaded pendulum. N. C. Petr. is
proportional to velocity. Ph. tr. 1723.
XIX. 285. XXXII. 269. 285.
Euler on the vibrations of two scales. N. C. Eames on the forces of bodies. Ph.
moving
Petr. XIX. 302. tr. 1726. XXXIV. 188.
Euler on the equilibrium and motion of flex- Clarke on velocity and force. Ph. tr. 1728.
ible bodies. N. C. Petr. XX. 286. XXXV. n. 401. p. 381.
140 CATALOGUK. PHILOSOPHf AND ARfS, J*fiACTlCAL M£CttANICS.

Mairan on the estimation of moving force, Euler on maxima and minima in the action?

A. P. 1728. l.H. 73. offerees. A. Berl. 1748. 149.

Camus on the force of bodies in motion. A. Blake on the greatest effect of engines. Ph;
P. 1728. 159- H. 73. tr. 1759. 1.

Hermann on the measure of force. C. Petr. *Lambert on machines moved by a winch,

I. 1. N. Act. Helv. 1787. I. 75.
S'Gravesande on the force of moving bodies. Lambton on the maximum of effect. As. res..

Ph. tr. 1733. XXXVIII. 143. VI. 137.

c. 34.
Explanation of the experiments on springs. Langsdorfs hydraulik.
Jurin de vi motrice. Diss. 9. Banks on mills.

Abstr. by Eamcs. Ph. tr. 1741. XLI. 607. Young. Journ. R. I. L Nicb. VI. 5Q. Rep. ii.

Jurin on the measure of force. Ph. tr. 1745. II. 48.

XLIII. 423.
Insists on Maclaurin's illustration by supposing a move-
GEN ERALDERIVATIVEXAWS OF MECHANICS,
able space. Jo. Bernoulli on living force. C. Petr.ll.
Jurin Principia mechanices metaphysiea. 200. Act. erud. 1735. 210. Op. III. n. 145^
Ph. tr. 1746. XLIV. 103. D. Bernoulli on C. X.
living force. Peti-.
Voltaire on moving force. A. P. 1741. XLI. 116. A. Berl. 1748.356.
H. 149.
Maupertuis's principle of motion. A. Berl.
Reid on quantity. Ph. tr. 1748. XLV. 505. 1746.267. ,

Richardson on percussion. Ph. tr. 1768. 17.

D'Arcy on Maupertuis's minimum of action,
Smeaton on mechanic power. Ph. tr. 1776. A. P. 1749. 531. H. 179. 1752. 503.
450. Boscovich on living forces.C. Bon. II. iii.289.
Smeaton's fundamental experiments on col- Euler on the general principles of motion
Ph. 1782. 337.
lision. tr.
and rest. A. Berl. 1751. 169. I99. On
Smeaton says, that, in thecommon hypothesis, the change
Konig's law of equilibrium. 219. 240. A.
of form in inelastic bodies must be an effect without a
Berl. 1751. 246.
cause, since the quantity of motion remains the same. The
motion the relative motion
Bertrand on the least action. A. Berl. 1753.
fallacy lies in the definition of
:

of the two bodies, which is destroyed, is the cause of the 310.

change.
Dalembert on the principles of mechanics.
Milner on the communication of motion by ,
A. P. 1769. 278.
Lexell's general theorems for the motion of
impact and gravity. Ph. tr. 1778. 344.
Against Bernoulli.
solids. N. C. Petr. XX. 239-
Lambert on the effect of the square of the Lagrange on a property of the centre of gra-
Ac. Berl. 1783. 290.
velocity. A. Berl. 1783. 266. vity.
Zuliani Sperimenti sopra I'effetto dellacaduta Lagiange on virtual forces. Journ. Poljt.
di gravi nelle materie cedenti. 4. Pad. II. V. 115.

1798. R. S. Malvestio on the principle of Maupertuis.

C. Bon. VI. O. 315.
MAXIMUM OF MECHANICAL EFFECT. FossombroTti sul principio delle velocita virtu-

S'Gravesande's natural philosophy. I. c. 21. ah. 4. Flor. 1796. R. S.

3
 CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAI, MTECHANICS. 141

Essay on the principle of virtual forces.^ Bdidor Ingenieur Frangoia.

Journ. Phys. XLVIII. 210. Bossut Traite de mecanique.
Fourrier and Prony on the principle of vir- Halle Werkstatte der kiinste. 6 v. 4. Bran-
tual forces. Journ. Polyt. II. v. 20. 191. denb. I769— S6.
Laplace Exposition du systSme du munde. Berthelot Mecanique appliquee aux arts. 2 v.
Laplace on determining a fixed plane. Journ. 4. 1773. '•'.
Polyt. 11. V. 155. SilberscMag on the instruments of the me-
Montucla and Lalande. III. 626. chanicar school at Berlin.' 8. 1777.
*Coulomb on simple machines. S. E. X.
PKACTICAL MECHANICS AND THEOKY OP Extr. Roz. XXVII. 204. 282.
MACHINES. E. M. Arts et Metiers. 8 v. By Roland de
Vitruvius. h. Platri^re.

Vitruve, par.Perrault. f. Par. I673. E. M. Manufactures et Arts. 3 v.

By Pilatre
Newtoti's Vitruvius. 2 v. f. R. I. de Rozier.
Marcjuis of Worcester's inventions.^ Allgemeines repertoriuin der literatur.

iWoxow's mechanic exercises. Lond. 1677.8. Account of various books on machines and manufac-

1703. R. I. iiidi :<jii,t,;'f;

tures.

Abstr. Ph. tr. 1678. XII. 967; 1006. j3ccA7waw«Anleitung2ur technologic. 8.Gott.
' ' • '

Papin Recueil de pieces touchant quelques

'

1787.
machines. 8. Cass. 1695. . *Jacobsons technologisches worterbuch, von
Ace. Ph.tr. XIX. 1697. Rosenthal. Berl. 1787-
Amontons on the force of machines. A^P. Justi Abhandlungen von manufacturen. 8.
1703. H. 100. Berl. 1789.
Leibnitz on the resistance of machines. M. Jungs lehrbuch der fabrikenwissenschaft.
Bed. I. 307. Nuremb. 1794.
Parent on the perfection of machines. A. P. Cancrins Bergmaschirienkunst.
1714. H. 93. Ftnwicli's four essays on practical mechanics,
Cabinet de M. de Servi^re. Newcastle, -^

Leupold Thealrum machinarum. *Smcatori's reports.

Tiekn en Vander Horst Theatrum machina- Laiigsdorff's maschinenlehre. 4.
rum. *Robison, Enc. Br. Suppl. Art. Machinery.
*EuIer the theory of machines. C. Petr.
ot) Mechanics.
X. 67. N. C. Petr. III. 254. VIIL 230. A. Lempe Begiiff der maschinenlehre. Leipz..
Beil. 1747. 1752. 1797.
Vanderzyl Theatrum machinarum. Rinmann and Nordwall on the mechanics of
Pitot on the effects of machines. A. P. 1737. mining. 4. Stockholm.
269. Ace. Ph. M. XIII. 76.
Po//fj/ Theatrum machinarum. Amst. 1737. Dic'tiomiaire des arts
metiers. 5 v. et 8.
Kisffton simple machines. C. Petr. XI. 274. Lyons, 1801. R. I.
Ferguson's select mechanical exercises. 8. Person Recueil de mecanique. 4. Paris, a»
Lond. 1790. R.S. 10. 1802. R, L
us CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS.
* Banks on tlie power of machines. 8. Ken- On painting. Ph. tr. abr. 1. ix. 593. VI. ix.

dal, 1803. R. I. 469.

Lahire on the practice of painting and draw-

ing. A. P. IX. 425, 431, 464.

Frojects for a Perpetual Motion.
Despiles's principles of painting. 8.
Papin on a pretended perpetual motion. Ph. Mazeas and Parsons on encaustic painting.
tr. 1685. XV. 1240. 1686. XVI. 138,26?. Ph. tr. 1756. 652 5. —
Lahire on the impossibility of a perpetual HaTidmaid to the arts. 8. Lond. 1758.
motion. A. P. X. 426. On the materials for drawing and painting.
Parent on the impossibility of a perpetual Colebrooke on encaustic painting. From
motion. A. P. 1700. H. 159. Ph.
Vitruvius. tr. 1759- 40, 53.
Desaguliers on attempts towards a perpetual assistant. 4.
Draughtsman's
motion. Ph. tr. 1721. XXXI.2^4.
Caylus on encaustic painting. 8. Lond.
Leupold. Th. M. G. t. 7- Hydr. ii,t, 15.
Magellan on the use of caoutchouc. A. P.
Emerson's mechanics, pr. 118. H. 10.
1772. i.

On the impossibility of a perpetual motion.

*Reynolds's discourses. 8.
A. P. 1775. H. 65. Russd on painting in crayons. 4.

Apparent perpetual motions. E. M. PI. VIIL aiid painiing. E. M. Beaux Arts.

Drawing
Amusemens de mecanique. PI. 8.
2 V.

Duplessis sur une machine a oscillations

M. A. VI. Art. Peintnre.
Painting. E.
croissantes. 8. R. S.
Brushes and pencils. E. M. M. I. Art. Crin.
Gr. Fontana. Soc. Ilal. III. 502.
Crayons. E. M. A. VI. Art. Pastel.
Montucla and Lalandc. HI. 813. Mosaic work. E. M. A. V. Art. Mosai'que.
Nicholson. I. 375.
Prangens schule der mahlung. 8. Halle,
•f-Shivier's patent. Repert. VII. l65. 1782. .
.

Balls to be raised, as usual.

*Cooper on the painting of the ancients.
fVarley's perpetual moving power. Repert. Manch. xM. III. 510.
X.9.
Bayley's proportional scale for drawing. S.A.
f-Thiville'spatent hydraulic moving power. IX. 156. Repert. I. 144.
Repert. XIV. 289.
Lorgna on painting with compound oil. Soc.
Deduced from the oscillations of fluidSj and from their
Ital. VI. 560.
capillary ascent.
Conte's crayons. Ann. Ch» XX. 370.
Lomet on crayons. Ann. Ch. XXX. 284.
Mathetnatical and
prelimmary Nich. III.416.
Mechanics. Neveu on design. Journ. Polyt. i. 78. ii. 107.
. iv. 698. V. 119. vi.419.
Salmon's method of transferring
DraAving and Painting. pictures.

Repert. VIIL 257.

*nnci on bv Rigaud. 8. London, M.
painting, Fc^bbroni on encaustic painting. Ph. I.
R. I.
23, 141. Gilb, V. 357.
of painting, by Dryden. 12.
Diifres>io>/s art Fabbronion cleaning prints. Repert. XL 14].
2
 CATALOGUE.— PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MrCHA>riCS. 143

Tatliam on encaustic paintings, with hard *BUttner on the alphabets of all nations. N.
resins. Ph. M. I. 406. C. Gott. 1776. VI r. 106.
Blackman's oil colour cakes. S. A. XII. Holdsworth and Aldridge's short hand. 8.

Ph. M. XVIII. 268. Essji/ on signals. 8.

Sheldrake on the Venetian painting. Ph. M. Characters. E. M.'A. I. Art. Caracteres.
II. 302. Repert. X. 56. With 25 plates by Deshauteiayes.
Dayes on colouring. Ph. M. VIII. 1. Writing. E. M. A. II. Art. Ecriture.

Inlaying marble. Repert. X. 326. Multiplying copies. E. M. A. VI. Art. Poly-

On mosaic work. Ph. M. IX. 289- graphe.
*Mechanics of drawing. Imison's elements. Signals. E. M.
A. VII. Art. Signaux.
II.240. Copying drawings. 327- Tablets for writing with silver. E. M. A.

Davy on Wedgwood's mode of copying by VIII. Art. Tabletier.

a metallic solution. Journ. R. I. I. 173. Short hand. E. M. A. VIII. Art. Tachy-
Nich. 8. III. 167. graphe.
Gill on Indian ink. Ph. M. XVII. 210. *Astlt's origin and progress of writing. 4. R.L
Malton's portfolios. Nich. IX. 128. Gilb. Blanchard's short hand. 4.
XIII. 113. Gwrffey's shorthand. 12.

:/ 7/:.U i
Wakefield on the origin of alphabetical cha-
racters. jVlanch. M. II. 278.
Writino;, Characters, Signals.
Grenville's reckoning board for the blind.
Caneparius de atramentis.
S. A. IV. 129, 144.
On the Chinese characters. Ph. Ir. 1686.
'* Blagden on ancient inks. Pb.tff. 1787i 451.
XVni.63.
Repert. II. 389-
Chaumette's knife for making a pen at a
I The letters, may be made visible by moistening them
stroke, with an inkstand for a handle. first with a prussiatcd alkali, and then with a diluted acid.
A. P. 1715. H.66. Mach. A.III.57. 61.
Report on Coulou's tachygraphy. A.P, 1787.
On speaking with the hands. Leup. Th. Ar. H,9.
t.2. Manch.
Harvey on alphabetical characters..
Ckric de stylis vcterum et chartanim generi- M. IV. '135.
bus. nticknesse. on dccyphering^.
Ace. by Gale. Ph. tr. 1731. XXXVII. Thornton on the elements of written lan-
157.
guage. Am. tr. III. 262.
Jcake and Byron on slwrthand. Ph. tr. 1748. On intelligible Am.tr. IV. 162.
signals.
XLV. 345, 388. Cooke on signals. Ir. tr. VI. 77-
shorthand.
.Byro/j'i 8.
Edgworlh on the telegraph. Ir. tr. VI. 95.
Lalaiide Art de faire le Par. 176I.
papier, f.
319. Nich. II. 319.
Lalandc Art du parcheminier. 1762. On writing. Nich. I. 18.
Cotteneuve's polygraph. A. P. 1763- H. 147. On pasigrapliy. Nich. II. 342.'
Vaussenville on ruhng paper. A. P. 1766. H. Chap}>e, Breguet, and Betancourt on the tele-
162.
graph. B. Soc. Phil. n. 16,
Lambert 6n ink and paper. A. Berl. 1770. Coqucbert's mode ef copying. B. Soc. Phil.
58. n.50.
144 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, MECHANICS.

*Frys pantographia. 8. Lond. 1799- R. S. Fletcher's universal measurer.

On a telegraph. M. Inst. III. H. 22. Robertson on the use of mathematical instru-

Telegrapli. Ph. M. I. 312. ments. 8. London.

A telegraph with lamps. Repert, L 382. E. M. A. in. Art. Instrumens de matbiSma*
Northmore on the pangraph, or universal tique. li

character. Repert. II. 307. HI. 91. Fontana's account of the grand duke's ca-
Ribaucourt on ink. Repert. IX. 125. binet. Roz. IX. 41. . .

Galls, log^vood, gum, sulfate of iron and of copper, and Barrow on mathematical instruments.
sugarcandy. Adams's geometrical and graphical essay*,
Nocturnal telegraph. Rejpert. X. 28. by Jones. 2 v. 8. London. !,
*

Brunei's patent double pen. Repert. XIII.

153. : .)(/ .
•
P(ns and Rules.
Boaz's patent telegraph. Repert. XVI. 223. Steel pens. Leup. Th. Ar. t. 24.
Ph. M. XII. 84. Parallel rules. Leup. Th. Ar. t. 21. a.
Enc. Br. Aft. Signals. Telegraph. Among otfclecs tite scales made of late by Marquois.
Anderson on a univeisal char.icter. Manch.
M. V. 89. Anderson's Recreations. VI. 1. Compasses.
Brown on a written character. Manch. M. Duval's new compasses. A. P. 1717. H. 83.
V. 275.
Compasses. Leup. Th. Ar. t. 20. a. b.
Berard's palpable mathematics. Melanges. Triangular compasses. Leup. Th. Ar. t. 28.
182. Nich. 8. III. 189.
Gallonde's wheel and pinion compasses. A.
Close's writing ink. Nich. 8. II. 145.
P. 1745. H. 83.
Sheldrake's indelible ink., Nich. 8. II. 237.
Tiliere's spiral compasses. A. P. 1742. H.
Edelcrantz on telegraphs. Journ. Phjs. LVI. 150. Mach.A. VII. 163.
468. JSich. 8. V. 193. Vince Ph.
Elliptic compasses.
tr. 1780.
Gough's scotiography. Nich. VII. 53. Lorgna on the organic description of the
For the blind. conic sections. C. Bon. VII. O. 32.
A simple telegraph. Nich. VIII. l64. Beam compasses. Shuckburgh, Ph. tr. 1798.

Geometrical Instruments in ge-

Proportional Compasses.
nerai. Vinci's M.SS.
Diggfs's pantometria. Lond. 1571. Leup. Th. Ar. p. 121.
Schotti organum mathemalicum. 2 v. Toussaint de St. Marcel's proportional com-
Wiirtzb. I668. passes. A. P. 1768.
H. 131.
Varignon on the utility of mechanics in
geometry. A. P. 1714. 77- H. 45. Pantograpfts.

Leopold. Th.Ar.Th. Suppl. Pantometer. Leup. Th. Ar. t. 26.

Mayer on geometrical instruments. C. Gott. Langlois's pantograph. Mach. A. VII. 207.

325.
pantograph. Leup. Th. Suppl.
II.
Compound t.

Bion on mathematical instruments, f. 1758. 14. 15. Enc. Br. Art. Pantograph.

R. I. Sike's pantograph. A. P. 1778.

 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHT AND ART3, PRACTICAL MECHANICS. 145

Triangles. Hindley's method was to drill equidistant holes in a brass

plate, and then to make a hoop of it. Smeaton recom-

Triangle. Leup. Th. Ar. t. 18.
mends to take from a scale the chord of 16^, and then to
Cramer's trigonometrical instrument. Leup. bisect it
continually. He thinks divisions can only be as-

Th. A. t. 31. certained to j^ of an inch, even by microscopes; and

Bouffer's trigonometrical instrument. A. P. proposes several indices to be employed at once.

1758. H. 101. Ludlam on Bird's method of dividing. 4.

Lond. 1786. U.S.
Measurement of Angles in general, and con- machine
Hill's for measuring angles. S. A.
struction of Instruments. VL 183.
Hooice's dividing engine with a screw. Ani- A simple instrument for measuring height.
niadv. on Heveiius. Repert. III. 234.
Mayer on gonionietrical instruments. C. Komarzewski on a subterraneous graphomc-
Gott. II. 3-25. ter. Par. 1803. R. S. Nich. 8. V. 283.

Passement's mode of dividing the quadrant.

Mach. A. VJI. 341. Micrometer.
Due de Chaulnes on the dividing machine. Hooke's lectures. Anim. on Heveiius.
A. P. 1765. H. 140. Lambert liber die Branderschen micrometer.
Due de Chaulnes Art pour diviser les instru- 12. Augsb. 1769.
mens de mathematique. A. P. Arts. f. Hunter's screw. Ph. tr. 1781. 58.
Ace. A. P. 1768. H. 127. Enc. Br. Art. Micrometer.
Pattier's dividing tools. A. P. 1771, Austin's mode of
cutting fine screws. Ir. tr.
*Ramsden's description of a dividing engine. IV. 145. Repert. 11. 399.
Lond. R. S. On the use of the screw. Nich. I. 158.
Roz. I. 147. Hoi'nblower on the micrometer screw. Nich.
Romain on the division of an angle. Roz. VI. 247.
VIII. 55. Huddart's station pointer. Nich. VII. 1.
Rochon. A. P. 1777- H. 64. See dso optical instruments.
Castilion on modes of division employed by
Bird and by the D. de Chaulnes. A. Berl.
Theodolites, Quadrants, and Sextants.
1780. 310.
See Practical Astronomy.
Perez Trihchanon goniarithmetron. 4. Flor.

1781. R. S.
Protractors, and Compasses for measuring
Perez sopra suo stromento goniomctro
il tri-
Angles.
plindice. 4. Bologna, 1786. R. S.
XXII. Calibers. Leup. Th. Suppl. t. 24. Enc. Br.
Carangeot's goniometer. Roz. 193.
XXXI. 204. Robertson Math, instr.
Mechanical trisection of an angle, by Ceva.
Hutton's proposal for a new division of the
1694. Leup. Th. Ar. p. I67. t. 27.
quadrant. Ph. tr. 1784. 21.
Into parts of the radius. Duval. Mach. A. III. 113.
Smeaton on the graduation of instruments. Carangeau's graphometer for crystals. Nich,
Ph. tr. 1786. 1. 8. I. 132.

VOL. II.
]46" CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AXD ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS.

Angular surveying. Clairaut's tiigonoraetrical instrument. Mach.

See Figure of the Earth. A. V. 3.

Clairaut's circular instrument. A. P. 1727.

on determining the position of a
I'othinot
H. 142. Nich. V. 40.
place concealed from view. A. ^. X.
Hillerin de Boissandeay's arithmetical ma-
150.
new
chine. A. P. 1730. H. 116. Mach. A. V.
Beighton's plotting table. Ph. tr. 1741.
103.
XLI. 747.
Mean's arithmetical tarif. Mach. A. V. 165.
On the height of the ascent of rockets. Ro-
Gersten's arithmetical machine. Ph. tr. 1735.
bins. Ph. tr. 1749. XLVI. 131. Ellicott.
Ph.tr. 1750. XLVI. 578. XXXIX. 79. Fig.
Smethurst's shwanpan, or account table. Ph.
Gensanne's machine for measaring small
tr. 1749. XLVI. 22.
distances from a single station. Mach. A.
Robertson on Gunter's scale. Ph. tr. 1753. 96.
VII. 111.
machine for fixing instruments. Description, of Robertson's improved Gun-
Langlois's
ter's scale. R. S.
A. P. 1751. H. 174.
Michel! on the use of Hadley's quadrant in Rowning's machine for finding the roots of
equations. R. S.
surveying. Ph. tr. 1765. 70.
Described Ph. tr. 1770. 240.
Enc. Br. Ar. Circumferentor.
Nicholson's logistic circle and scales. Ph. tr.
Meister on Meyer's scale for reducing angles
1787. 246. Nich V.
to the horizon. Commentat. Gott. 1785.

VIII. 75. Lorgna Fabrica delle squadre. 4. R. S.

The white were found the best object by night.
Pearson on Gunter's scale. Nich. I. 45.
lights
Ph. tr. 1790.

Levels. Measures.
See Astronomical Instruments.
Modes of obtaining a Standard.
Mathematical Machines.
Condamine on an invariable measure. A. P.
Hooke in Birch III. 85.
1747.439. H. 83.
Leibnitz's arithmetical machine. M.Berl. I.
Blaket/ on a universal measure. 8. R. S.
317.
Rosier XV. 59.
Napier's reckoning rods. Leup. Th. Ar. t.
Hatton's machine for finding a standard. S.
4.5.
A. I. 238.
Biler's logarithmic circle. 1696. Leup. Th. If hitehurst's attempt to obtain measures of
Ar. t. 13.
length from the measurement of time, 4.
Reckoning machines. Leup. Th. Ar. t. 6.-9.
London, 1787.
Perrault's rhabdological abacus. Mach. A. I.
Fordyce bought his apparatus when well fixed it
:
kept
55. time very accurately. Ph. tr. 1794. 2.

Lepini's arithmetical machine. A. P. 1725. Wkitehurst on pendulums. 1792. R. 1.

H. 103. Mach. A. IV. 131. Boscovich on finding the length of the pen-
Pascal's machine. Macl). A. IV. 137. E. M. dulum. Op. ined. V. 179.
Pi. VII. Algebre 2.
Report on the choice of a unit of measures.
 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MKCHANICS. 147

'By Bovda, Lagrange, Laplace, Monge, Cassini on ancient itinerary measures. A. P.

and Condorcet. A. P. ]7S8. H. 7- 17. 1702. 13. H. 80.
The preference is given to the measurement of the meri- Delisle on the ancient geographical mea- ^
dian.
sures. A. P. 1714. 175. H. 80.
({ ^
Brisson on uniformity of measures, and on
Lahire on the old Roman foot. A. P. 1714.
standards. A. P. 1788. 722.
394.
Recommends the pendulum as a standard, and measures
of wood.
Arhuthnot on antient coins. 4. Lond. 1727.
Bonne Principes sur les mesures. 8. Paris,
*Folkes on the standards in the capitol at

1790. R. S.
Rome. Ph. tr. 1736. XXXIX. 262.
Cotte on standards and universal measures. D'Ons en Bra}' on measures. A. P. 1739.
Roz. XXXVIIL 171. XXXIX. 89.
XLI.51.
Boulard's invariable toise. Roz. XL. Barlow on the analogy between English
198.
f Cooke on a standard. Am. tr. IIL 328. weights and measures of capacity. Ph. tr.

Deduced from the discharge of wat^ 1740. XLI.457.

*Reports to the National Institute on the Comparison of English and Frenali mea-
measurement of the meridian. Roz. XLIII. sures. Ph. tr. 1742. XLII. 185.
169. Journ. phys. XLIV. ([.) 81. B. Soc. *Comparison of English standards. Ph. tr.

Phil. n.28. Nich.III. 316. 1743. XLII. 541.

Account of the measurement of a base in Hellot and Camus on the standard ell. A. P.
France, and of the standards of platina. 1746. 607. H. 109.
Ph. M. 1. 269. *Gray on the measures of Scotland. Ed. ess.

Prony on the reduction of observations of I. 200.

the pendulum. B. Soc. Phil. n. 44. Berk on the Swedish measures. Swedish
Leslie on a standard pendulum. Repert. I. transactions.

170. Raper on the Roman foot. Ph.tr. 176O, 774.

*Remarks on experiments with pendulums. From monuments and buildings.
Nich. III. 29. *Christiani delle misure. 4. Ven. 176O.
Tillet on measures of corn and liquids. A. P.
Comparison of Measures. 1765.452. H. 128.
Jiernardus de ponderibus et mensuris. Oxf. Emerson's cyclomathesis. X.
1685. La Condamine on the toise of the Chatelet.
Ace. Ph. tr. 1685. XV. 1242. With a A. P. 1772. ii. 482. H. 8.

comparative engraving. Norris's inquiry into the ancient English

Cumberland on the Jewish weights and mea- weights and measures. Ph. tr. 1775. 48.

sures. 8. Lond. 1686. M. B. *Paucton Metrologie. 1780.

Ace. Ph.tr. 1686. XVI. 33. E. M. A. VJI. Superficies. E. M. Commerce.
Cassini on some Italian measures. A. P. VII. 3 V.
i. ii. 37. Howard on lazarettos. 5.
Picard de mensura liquidorum et aridorum. Rome de I'lsle Metrologie des anciens. Roz.
A. P. VIL i. 321. XXXIV. 471.
 148 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS.

Rennel on the travelling of camels. Ph. tr. Ph. M. XII. 229. Nich. 8. II. 244. Re-
1791. 129. pert, ii. III. 444. .

Carney sur les poids et les mesures. 8. Montp. Cavallo Exp. Ph. IV.
1792.11.8. Mutton's recreations. I. 434.
Cotte on measures. Jouru. phys. XLIV. (I.) On the Parisian pint. M. Inst. V. 29.
291. Gerard on the Egyptian measure. To bt
Dawes's pantometry. 12. Lend. 1797. R. S. printed. S. E.
Coquebert on the old and new measures. B.
Tables of Measures. Standards.
Soc. Ph. n. 5. Nich. I. 193.
The English yard is said to have been taken from the arm
*Shuckbiu"gh on a standard of weights and of King Henry I. in liol.
measures. Ph. tr. 1798. 133. Nich. III. Graham found the length of the pendulum vibrating se-
97. conds accurately equal to 39-13 inches. Desaguliers.
Fait's tables. R. S. Bird's parliamentary standard is considered as of the

on tiie Pnissian weights and mea- highest authority: it agrees sufficiently with Sir Georgs
Fiiftdzcein
Shuckburgh's and Professor Pictet's scales made by Trough-
sures.
ton.

Goodwyn's tables of English and French The Royal Society's standard by Graham is
perhaps about
measures and weights. 11. S. Nich. IV. a thousandth of an inch longer than Bird's ; but it is not quite
uniform throughout its
Maskelyne. Ph. tr.
163. length.'
The standard in the exchequer is about .007 5 inch shorter
Colebrooke on Indian weights and measures.
than the yard of the Royal Society. Ph. tr. 1743. 541.
As. Res. V. 91. General a scale of Sisson, divided
Roy employed by Bird.
Tables of measures. Nich. I. Z39,. Ph. M. I. He says, that it agreed exactly with the Tower standard

245. on the scale of the Royal Society. Ph. tr. 1785. 385.
Taking Troughton's scales for the standard. Sir G. Shuck-
On the metre. Journ. Phys. XLVIII. 4(50.
burgh finds the original Tower standard 36.004, the yard
Buija on the length of the pendulum at Ber- E. on the Royal society's scale by Graham 36.0013 inches,
lin. A. Berl. 1799.3. the yard Exch. of the same scale 35.9933, Roy's scale

On the cubit of the Nile. Nich. III. 330. 36.00030, the Royal Society's scale by Bird 35.99955, Bird's
parliamentary standard of 1758, 36.00023.
Vega and von Zuch on measures and weights.
The English standards are adjusted and employed at the
•
Zach. Mon. corr. I. 6 10. 1
• •

temperature of 62° of Fahrenheit's thermometer: the

Beigel on the weights and measures of Ba- French at the freezing point of water.

varia. Zach. Mon. corr. I. GlO. The French metre, the ten millionth part of the quadrant

2 v. 4. Pm-. of the meridian, is 39-37100 English inehes. and

Metrologie constitutionelle. Pictet,
Journ. R. I., I. 129. Y.
1801. B. B.
The metre has been found to contain 36.9413 French
Xesj9«rorMetrologie. 2 v. 4. Par. 1801,
inches, or 3 feet 11.296 lines.
R. S. Hence the French toise of 72 inches is equal to 70.736

BnV/af Metrologie FrangaisCi 1802. 11. I. English inches. One of Lalandc's standards measured by
Dr. Maskelyne, was 76.73a, the other "6.736. Ph.tr. 17C5.
Reports to the National Institute. M. Inst.
327-
Egyptian measures. Nouet. Ph. M. XII. In latitude 4 5°, a pendulum of the length of a metre
208. would perform in a vacuum 86116.5 vibrations in a day.
Pictet on the English and French mea- Borda. The length of the second pendulum is .993827 at

sures. Bibl. Brit. n. 148. Journ. R. I., I. Paris. M. Inst. H.

 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL JIECHAXICS. 14^

Prony's Report to the National Institute of Sciences and The first meeting was on the 28th Vendemiaire (21st of
Arts. 6 Nivose, year lo, (27th December, I801). Journ. October), at the house of Mr. Lenoir.
R. I., I. 123. At first a difficulty occurred from the different manner
in which the measures were defined : the English scale was
A member read, in the name of a committee, the fol- graduated by lines ; the French standards were simply cut

lowing report on the comparison of the standard metre of off to the length of a metre : hence the length of the metre
the Institute, with the English foot. could not easily be taken by the microscopes ; nor could
Mr. Pictet, Professor of Natural Philosophy at Geneva, the English scale be measured by the method employed for
submitted to the inspection of the class in the month of making new standard metres, which consists in fixing one
Vendc'miaire, an interesting collection of objects relative to end against a firm support, and bringing the otlier into con-
the sciences and arts, which he collected in his journey to tact with the face of a cock or slider, adjusted so as barely

Englahd.
to admit the original standard between it and the fixed

Among them was a standard of the English linear mea- surface.

sure, engraved on a scale of brass, of 4y inches in length, Mr. Lenoir attempted to overcome this difficulty by re-

divided by very fine and clear lines into tenths of an inch. ducing to a thin edge the terminations of a piece of brass of
It was made for Mr. Pictet by Troughton, an artist in the length of a metre ;
so that it was compared with the

London, who has deservedly the reputation of dividing in- standard metre in the usual manner ;
and its extremities,
struments with singular accuracy , it was compared with when placed on the English scale, constituted two lines
another standard made by the same person for Sir George parallel to those which were really engraved on the scale,
Shuckburgh, and it was found that the difference between and capable of being viewed by the microscopes.

the two was not greater than the difference between the di- The standard metre of platina, and another standard of
visions of each ; that is, it was a quantity absolutely insen- iron, belonging also to the Institute, were thus compared
sible. This standard may therefore be considered as iden- with the English foot each of these two measures being
;

tical with the standard described by Sir George Shuckburgh equal, at the temperature of melting ice, to the ten millionth
in the Philosophical Transactions for 1798. part of the quadrant of the meridian. At the temperature
M. Pictet also exhibited to the Institute a comparer, or of 15.3° of the decimal thermometer, or 59.5'^ of Fahren-

an instrument for ascertaining minute differences between heit, the metre of platina was equal to 39.3775 English
measures, constructed also by Mr. Troughton. It consists inches ;
and that of iron to 39.3788, measured on Mr. Pic-
of two microscopes with cross wires, placed in a vertical si- tct's scale.

tuation, the surface of the scale being horizontal, and fixed These first experiments showed, however, that the me.
at proper distances upon a metallic rod. One of them ic- thod employed was liable to some uncertainty, arising from

mains stationary at one end of the scale, the other is occa- the difficulty of placing the cross wires precisely at the ex-

sionally fixed near to the other end ; and its cross wires are tremity of the thin edge of the plate of brass employed in
moveable by means of a scrnw, desciibing in its revolution the comiratison ; a reflection or irradiation of
fight, which

yig of an inch,
and furnished with a circular index, dividing took place at that extremity, prevented its being distinctly
each mrn into 100 parts ;
so that having two lengths which observed if the optical axis of the
microscope was precisely
only one tenth of an inch from each other, we may
differ a tangent to the surface exactly at the termination.

determine their difference in ten thousandths of an inch. In order to remove this inconvenience, another arranger
The wires are placed obliquely with respect to the scale, so ment was proposed by one of the committee. (It was Mr.
that the line of division must bisect the acute angle that Prony that suggested this ingenious method, and M. Paul
they form, in order to coincide with their intersection. Ge- of Geneva, who happened to be present, that executed it.

neral Roy has described, in the 7ath volume of the Philo- B. B.) A line was traced on a small metallic ruler, per-

sophical Transactions, a similar instrument made by Rams- pendicular to its

length ;
the end of the ruler was fixed

den, for measuring the expansion of metals. against a solid obstacle, and the cross wires made to coin-

M. Pictet offered to the class the use of the standard, cide with the line : the standaid metre was then interposed
with the micrometer described, for the determination of the between the same obstacle and the end of the piece, and

comparative length of ths metre, and the English foot : the line traced on it, which had now obviously advanced
was accepted with gratitude, and MM. Legendre,
the offer the length of the metre, was subjected to the other micro-

Mcchain, and Prony, were appointed to cooperate with M. scope. The microscopes, thus fixed, were transferred to

Pictet in the comparison of the standard metre of platina and the graduated scale ;
one of them was placed exactly over
the English foot, one of the divisions, and the micrometer screw was turned
 liO CATALOGUE. —^PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS.
ih order to measure the fraction, expressing the distance of Allowing the accuracy of the French measurements of
the other microscope from another division. the arc of the meridian, the whole circumference of the

The comparison was repeated in the same manner the globe will be 24S55.43 English miles, and its mean diame-
4th Brumaira (aOth October) last, at the house of one of ter 7911.73. Joum, R. I., I. 129.
the committee, and after several experiments, agreeing very In tlie Bibliotheque Britannique, Vol. 19, No. 4. we
satisfactorily with each other, it was found that at the tem- find a description of the comparer of Lenoir, by Mr. Prony.
perature 12.75°', or 55° of Fahrenheit, the standard of Its peculiarity consists in the application of a bent lever,

platina was 39.378I, and that of iron 39.3795 English of which the shorter arm is pressed against the end of the
inches. substance to be measured, while the longer serves as an
The two metres being intended to be equal at the tem- index, carrying a vernier, and pointing out on a graduated

perature of melting ice, these operations may be verified by arch the divisions of a scale, which by this contrivance is

reducing their results to that temperature. For this deter- considerably extended in magnitude. It does not, however,
mination we are provided with the accurate exiitriments at first sight, appear to be certain that the difficulty of fix-

made by Borda, and the committee of weights and mea- ing the a.tis of the lever with perfect accuracy, and of form-

sures, on the dilatation of platina, brass, and iron ;

from ing a curve for the surface of the shorter arm, or of reducing
which it appears, that for every degree of the decimal tlicr- the graduation of the arc to equal parts of the right line in

mometer, platina expands .00000856; iron .00001156; the direction of the substance to be measured, might not
^
and brass .00001783 ; for Fahrenheit's scale these quanti- in practice more than counterbalance the advantage of this
ties become 476,642, and 990 parts in a hundred millions. mechanical amplification of the scale, over the simpler

From these data we find, that, at the freezing point, the optical method employed in the English instruments.
standard metre of platina was equal to 39.38280, and that Journ. R. I., I. 180.
of iron to 39-38265 English inchesof M. Pictet's scale. The
difference is less than the 500thof a line, 'or the 200000th
of the whole metre, and is therefore wholly inconsiderable.

The result of the whole comparison is therefore this.

Supposing all the measures at the temperature of melting

ice, each of the standard metres is equal to the loooooooth

part of the quadrant of the meridian, and to 39-38272 Eng-
lish inchesof M. Pictet's scale. Paris, 16. Jan. IB02.
On examining the reduction of the standards of platina
and iron to the freezing point, it appears that they differ
somewhat less than is stated in the report, and that they

coincide within a unit in the last place of the decimals

expressing their magnitudes, or one ten thousandth of an

inch. The standard of platina at ^e freezing point be-
comes equal to 39.373SO, and that of iron to 39.37370
English inches on the scale of brass at 55°, and the mean
of these to 39.37100 English inches at 62°, which is the

temperature that has been universally employed in the

comparison of British standards, and in the late trigoi ome-

trical operations in paiticular.This result agrees surprisingly
with Mr. Bird's determination of the lengths of the toiscs
sent by Mr. Lalandc to Dr. Maskelyne, of which the mean
was 76.734 inches : hence the metre, having been found to

contain 36.9413 French inches, appears to be equal to

39.3702 English inches: or rather to be either 39.3694 or

39.3710, accordingly as the one or the other of the two

toises happens to have been the more correct ; we may
therefore give the preference to that which measured 76.738

Inches.
 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS'. 151

A quart 70.5 cubic inches. A chain, or short rood 892.8 E- inches.

A gallon 282. A long rood 1339-2

A barrel, beer measure, is 10152 An acre is 55.353.6 square feet, English, or

A barrel, ale measure, is 9024 1.27 English acre.

A barrel, country measure, is 9588

A gill is 6.462 cubic inches E.
A hogshead, beer measure, is
15228
A mutchkin 25.85
A 13336
hogshead, ale measure, is
A choppin 51.7
A hogshead, country measure, 14382 is
A pint 103.4
A pint, dry measure, 33.6 cubic inches. is
A quart 206.8
A quart G7.2
A crallon 827.23
A pottle 134.4
A 13235.7, or I6 gallons.
hogshead
A gallon 268.8
By the act of union, 12 Scotch gallons are reckoned
A peck, 537.6
equal to an English barrel, or 9588 cubic inches, instead of
A Winchester bushel 2150.42 9927.
A heaped bushel one third more.is
A 200.345 cubic inches
lippie or feed is

A quarter 17203.36
English.
Five quarters make a way or load ; two loads, a last of
wheat. Old French Measures.
A bushel of wheat, at a mean, weighs 60 pounds, of bar-
ley 50, of oats 38. A point is .0 148025 E. inch, or nearly -j^.
A chaldron of coals is 3fi heaped bushels, weighing about A line .088815, or nearly -^.
'
2988 pounds.
An inch 1.06578, or -^-j^y' °'" t?*
Ten yards of inch pipe contain exactly an ale gallon,
Emerson. Thus, if a tall man were six feet four, French measure,
weighing 10| pounds.
The old Standard wine gallon of Guildhall contains 224 he would be precisely six feet nine, English, And — i^
81

cubic inches. 76
It is conjectured, that some centuries before ^he conquest, 9X9
a cubic foot of water weighing looo ounces, 32 cubic feet
4X19
weighed iooo pounds or a ton ; that the same quantity was A foot 12.78933.
a tun of liquids, and a boghead 8 cubic feet, or 1382* An ell 46.8947, or 44 French inches;
cubic incles, one sixtythird of which was 219.4 inches,
or a gallon. A quarter of wheat was a quarter of a ton, or, according to Vega, 43.9.
weighing about 500 pounds, a bushel one eighth of
A sonde 63.9967, or 5 French feet, about
this,

equivalent to a cubic foot of water. A chaldron of coals I E. fathom. Bonne, E. M.

was a ton, and weighed 2000 pounds. Barlow. A toise 76.7360, or 6 French feet.
At present, 12 wine gallons of distilled water weigh exactly
A former comparison made it 76.7 1. Ph. tr. 1742. 185.
100 pounds avoirdupois.
The Bothnian toise was found too short by ^y or ->^ line;
but this was supposed to be froin its having been acciden-
Scotch Measures. tall injured. Laeondamine.

An ell is 37.2 E. inches. Aperche 230.2080, or 18 French feet.

A fall 223.2 A perche, mesure royale, 22 French feet.
A furlong 8928. A league, 2282 toises, or of a degree. ^'-5-

A mile 71424. A square inch, 1.13582 square inches, E.

A link 8.928
*
An arpent was 100 square perches, about
 152 CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHY AND AETS, PRACTICAL MECHAVICS.

-\ E. acio, in the measure commonly used Cubic inches, E.

about Paris. An arpent, mesure royule, was

Hecatolitre 6102.80000
about l^ E. acre. Chiliolitrc 61028.00000
A cubic inch is 1.21063 cubic inches, E. Myriolitre 610280.00000
A litron 65.34
A litre is nearly 2J wine pints; 14 decilitres are nearly
3 wine pinu; achiliolitre is 1 tun, 12.75 wine gallons.
A boisseau 1045.44, or l61itrons.
A decistere for fire wood is 3.5317 cubic
A minot 2090.875, or 3 boisseaux, or
feet, E.
nearly. an E. bushel.
A stere, a cubic metre, 35.3171
, A mine 4181.75, or 2 minots.
A septier 8363.5, or 2 mines, or 6912 Various Measures, ancient and modern.
inches, Fr. For oats the septier was double.
From
A muid 100362.
or 12 septiers. Folkes, Raper, Shuckburgh, Vega,
A ton of shipping contains 42 cubic feet. Hutton, Cavallo, and others.

Ancient Measures.
New French Measures. Journals R. I., 1. 130.

The barbarous terms of the new nomenclature are here

Arabian, foot 1.095 Engl. H.
reduced to a form more consistent with their etymology. „ , ,
.
, C 1.144 H.
liabylonian,
' toot <
English Inches. i 1.135 H.
Millimetre .03937 Drusian, foot ] .090 H.

Centimetre .3937 1
Eg3'ptian, foot 1.421 H.
Decimetre 3.937 10 Egyptian, stadium 730.8
Metre 3.281 feet 39-37100 Greek, foot 1.009 H.
Decametre 393.71000 1.006 "^FoTkes, 1^
Hecatometre 3937.10000 1.007 3 Roman f.
Chiliometre 39371.00000 1.007 C.
Myriometre 393710.00000 Greek, phyleterian foot 1.167 H.
A metre is 1.093(54 yards, or neaily 1
yard, 1^ nail, or
Hebrew, foot 1.212H.
443.2959 lines Fr. or .513074 toise.
Hebrew, cubit 1.817 H.
A decametre is 10 yards 2 feet 9-7 inches.

A hecatometre 1 09 if. i in. Hebrew, sacred cubit 2.002 H.

y.

A chiliometre 4 furl. 213 y. 1 f. 10.2 in. Hebrew, great cubit=6 common cubits. H.
A micrometre 6 miles 1 f. 158 y. O f. 6 in.
Macedonian, foot 1.160 H.
8 chiliometres are nearly five miles.
Natural foot .814 H.
An inch .0254 m. 2441 inches 62 metres, looo feet
is
Ptolemaic = Greek foot. H.
nearly 305 metres.
Roman, foot .970 Bernard.
An are, a square decametre, is 3.95
^ Picard and
perches, E. .967
A I. G reaves.
hecatare, 2 acres 1 rood, 35.4 p.
Cubic Inches, E. .966 >
Folkes.
Millilitre .06103 .967 3
Centilitre .61028 .970 before Titus.
Decilitre 6.10280 Raper.
Litre, a cubic decimetre 6l .02800 .965 after Titus.

Decahtre 610.28000 Raper.

2
 CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOtHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS. 153

Roman, foot .9672 from rules. Brussels, foot .902 H.

Sli. 954 V.
.9681 from build- Brussels, greater ell 2.278 V.

ings. Sii. Brussels, lesser ell 2.245 V.

.9696 from a stone, Castilian, vara 2.746 C.
Sh. Chambery, foot 1.107 H.
.967 H. China,mathematical foot 1.127 H.
Roman mileof Pliny 4840.5 C. China, imperial foot 1.051 H.
Roman mileof Strabo 4903. 1.050 C.
Sicilian foot of Ar- Chinese, li CjOG. C.

chimedes .730 H. Cologne, foot .903 H.

Constantinople, foot 2.195 "^H.
Modern Measures. l.l6o>H.
Altdorf, foot .775 Engl. H. Copenhagen, foot 1.049 H.
Amsterdam, foot .927 H. Cracau, foot 1.169 H.V.
.930 C. Cracau, greater ell 2.024 V.
.931 Howard. Cracau, smaller ell 1.855 V.

Amsterdam, ell 2.233 C. Dantzic, foot .923 H.

Ancona, foot 1.282 H. Dauphine, foot 1.119 H.
Antwerp, fobt .940 H. Delft, foot .547 H.
1.128 H. Denmark, foot 1 .047 H.
Aquileia, foot .

Aries, foot .888 H. Dijon, foot 1.030 H.

Augsburg, foot .972 H. Dordrecht, foot .771 H.

Avignon =: Aries. Dresden, foot .929 Wolfe, Ph.tr.

Barcelona, foot .992 H. 1769. V.
Basle, foot .944 H. Dresden, ell =2 feet 1.857 V.
Bavarian, foot .968 Beigel. See Ferrara, foot 1.317 H.
Munich. Florence, foot .995 H.
Bergamo, foot 1.431 H. Florence, braccio 1.900"?
C.
Berlin, foot .992 H. 1.9103
Bern, foot .962 Howard. Franche comte, foot 1.172 H.
Besan5on, foot 1.015 H. Frankfort =: Hamburg H.
Bologna, foot 1.244 H. Genoa, palm .812 H.
1.250 C.

Bourg en Bresse, foot 1.030 H. .8173

Brabant, ell, in Germany 2.268 V. Genoa, canna 7.300 C.
Bremen, foot .955 H. Geneva, foot 1.919 H.
Brescia, foot 1.060 H. Gr6noble= Dauphine H.
Brescian, braccio 2.092 C. Haarlem, foot .937 H.
Breslau, foot 1.125H. Halle, foot .977 H.
Bruges, foot .749 H. Hamburg, foot .933 H,
VOL. II.
154 CATALOGUE, — PHILOSOPHY AlfD ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS.

Heidelberg, foot .903 H. Paris, metre 3.281 Y.

Inspruck, loot 1.101 H. Parma, foot 1.869 H.

Leghorn, foot .992 H. Parmesan, braccio 2.242 C.

Leipzig, foot 1.034 H. Pavia, foot 1.540 H.

ell 1.833 H.Journ.R.L Placentia=Parnaa 0.
Leipzig,
Leyden, foot 1.023 H. Prague, foot .987 H.
'^

Liege, foot .944 H. .972 V.

fcisbon, foot .952 H. Prague, ell 1.948 V.

Lucca, braccio 1.958 e. Provence= Marseilles

Lyons=Dauphine. Khinland, foot (f 1.023 H.)
Madrid, foot .915 H. 1.030 V. Eytelwein.
.918 Howard. Riga=Hamburg
Madrid, vara , 3.263 C. Rome, palm .733 H.
Maestricht, foot .916 H. Rome, foot .966 Folkes.

Malta, palm .915 H. Rome, deto, tV f- '0604 F.

Mantua, brasso 1.521 H. Rome, oncia, -^ f. .0805 F.

Mantuan, braccio =:Bresci an. C. Rome, palmo .2515 F.

Marseilles, foot .814 H. Rome, palmo di architet-

Mechlin, foot .753 H. tura .7325 F.

Mentz, foot .988 H. Rome, canna di architet-

Milan, decimal foot .855 H. tura 7.325 F.

Milan, aliprand foot 1.426 H. Rome, staiolo 4.212 F.
Milanese, braccio 1.725 C. Rome, canna deimercanti6.5S65 F. 8 palms
Modena, foot 2.081 H. Rome, braccio dei mer-
Monaco, foot .771 H canti 2.7876 F. 4 palms.

Montpclier, pan .777 H. 2.856 C.

Moravian, foot .971 V. Rome, braccio di tessitor

Moravian, ell 2.594 V. di tela 2.0868 F.

Moscow, foot .928 H. -
Rome, braccio di archi-

Munich, foot .947 H. tettura 2.561 C.

Naples, palm .861 H. Rouen = Paris. H.

.859 C. Russian, archine 2.3625 C.

Naples, canna 6.908 C, Russian, arschin 2.3333 Pli.M.XIX.

Nuremberg, town foot .996 H. Russian, verschock, -^ ar-

.997 V. schin .1458

Nuremberg, country foot .907 H. Savoy = Chambery H.

Nuremberg, artillery foot .96I V. Seville =: Barcelona H.
Nuremberg, ell 2.166 V. Seville, vara 2.760 C.
Padua, foot 1.406 H. Sienna, foot , 1.239 H.
Palermo, foot .747 H. Stettin, foot 1.224 H.
Paris, foot I.O66 H. Stockholm, foot 1.073 H.
 CATALOGUE. — PHfiOSOPHV AND ARTS, PRACtlCAL MKCHAKICS. 15.*

Stockholm, foot (.974 CelsiusPh.lr.) Measuring Instruments.

Strasburg, town foot .956 H. For their expansion see Heat.
Strasbuig, country foot .969 H.
Ph. tr. 1790. 121.
ToletIo= Madrid H.
Trent, foot 1.201 H.
Rods.
Trieste, ell for woollens 2.220 H.
Lemonnier on the increase of length of two
Trieste, ell for silk 2.107 H.
rods. A. P. 1761. H. 26.
Turin, foot I.C76 H.
1.681 C.
Boulard's invariable toise. Roz. XL. 198.
Roy found that deal rods, not varnished, were lengthened
Turin, ras 1-958 C. about half an inch in 300 feet by exposure for one night to

Turin, trabuco 10.085 C. moisture. Glass tubes were substituted for them, with

Tyrol, foot I.O96 V. caps of bell metal at the ends, connected with them by
which were brought in each operation to a certain
Tyrol, ell 2.639 V. springs,
mark on the rods ; in order that unequal compression of
Valladolid, foot .9O8 H.
the rods might be avoided. The French have employed
Venice, foot 1.137 H. rods of metal not brought perfectly into contact, measuring

1.140 Bernard, the short distance by a micrometer.

Howard, V.
I.1G7 C. Chains.
Venice, braccio of silk 2.108 C. Ramsden's steel chain. Ph. tr. 1785. .394.
Venice, ell 2.089 V, Thechain was found in the course of the trigonometrical
Venice, braccio of cloth 2.250 C. survey began by General Roy not only the most convenient

Verona, foot 1.117 H. but also the most accurate measure. It was extended,
when used, by a considerable weight, which was always
Vicenza, foot 1.136 H.
equal . See Figure of the earth .

Vienna, foot 1 .036 H.

1.037
A chain of 40 links each 2^ feet long. Ph.
Howard,C.V.
tr. 1795. 423.
Vienna, ell 2.557 V.
Vienna, post mile 24688. V.
Scales.
Vienne in Dauphinc, foot 1.058 H.
Ulm, foot .826 H. Hooke on diagonal divisions. Animadv. on
Urbino, foot I.162 H. Hevelius.

Utrecht, foot .741 H. Wallis on diagonal divisions. Ph. Ir. 1674.

Warsaw, foot I.I69 H. IX. 243.

Weseln Dordrecht H. Calibers, Leup. Th. Suppl. t. 24. Robertson

Zurich, foot .979 H. on instruments.

.984. Ph. M. VIII. Ramsden's description of a machine for di-

289. viding straight lines. 4, R. S.
Beam compasses. See compasses.
Modern Measures of surface and capacity. Enc. Br. Art. Calibers.
In Austria, a yoke of land contain! isoo square fathoms;
1 laetz or bushel 1.9471 cubic feet, 1 eimerz:*o kannen::
Micrometers.
1.79a cubic feet, of Vienna; 1 fassmo eimer. Vega.

In Sweden, a kanne contains io( cubic inches Swedish. C. See Measurement of Angles-.
156 CATALOGUK. — PHLOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS.
Hodometers, Machines for Measuring Emerson's cyclomathesis. X.
Distances. Wild on subterraneous surveying, and on sur-

Vitruvius describes a hodometer which told the miles veying mountainous countries. M. Laus,
by the fall of a pebble into a bason. 1789. 11.328. 333.
A. P. 1.45.
Meagher. Ir. tr. V. 325.
Lcup.Th. Suppl. t. 3 . .6. Drallet on surveying hilly
ground. Journ.
Meynier. A. P. 1724. H. 96. Mach. A. IV. Phys. XLVIII. 321.
ga. 101. 105. For carriages. Pfleiderer on determining 8 points from 4 sta-
Outhier. A. P. 1742. II. 143. Mach. A. VII. tions, after Lambert. Hind. Arch. III. 190.
17.5. For carriages. Dam's surveying. 8. Lond. 1802.
Boistissandeau. A. P. 1744. H. 61. Burckhardt on a problem in
surveying. Zach.
Edgeworth's perambuhitor. Bailey's mach. I. mon. corr. IV. 359. 653.
59. Lomet on the use of balloons in
surveying.
A long screw serves as an axis to several spokes or radii
Nich. VI. 194.
with which it revolves, and carries an index hanging always
vertically. b. Maritime Surveying.
Enc. Br. Art. Perambulator.
Murdoch Mackenzie on maritime surveying.
Tugweli's pedometer. Repert. VI. 249. Edge- R. S.
4.
worth's improved.
Gout's patent watch pedometers.
Sounding line. E. M. A. VII. Art. Sonde.
Repert. Cooke on measuring a ship'sway. Nich. V. 48.
XIII. 73.

Instruments for observing Distances. Gauging, and Measurement of Solids.

See Practical Astronomy. On the tonnage of ships. A. P. I. 243.

Gensanne's machine. Mach. A. VII. 111. Varignon on the tonnage of ships. A. P.

Vantometrum Pauccianum. 4. For a 1721.44. H.43.
single
station. R. S.
Mairan on the tonnage of ships. A. P. 1721.
Wenz on H. 43. 1724. 227.
76.
measuring distances from a single
station. Act. Helv. 176O. IV. 55. Gamacheson gauging casks. A. P. 1726. H.
An instrument for measuring distances. Soc. 74. Mach. A. IV. 223.
Pezenas on gauging casks. A.P. 1741.H. 100.
Lausanne. Roz. XXXII. 95.
Camus's instrument for gauging. A.P. 1741.-
Peacock's reflecting instrument for measur-
385. H. 105.
ing distances. Repert. 1. 163.
Chatelain on gauging casks. A. P. 1759. H.
Pitt's dendrometer. Repert. II. 238. With
and without reflection.
237.
Tillet's two machines for
Fallon's reflecting engymeter. Zach. mon. determining mea-
sures of capacity. A. P. 1765. 452. H. 128.
corr. VI. 46.
Emerson's cyclomathesis. X.
Surveying. Hutton's mensuration.
Ph. tr. abr. I. ii. 120. VI, iv. 271. VIII. jv. Deson the theory of gauging. S. E. 1773. xvi.
228. E. M. A. VIII. Art. Veltage.
E. M. PI. VII. Art. Arpentage. E. M. PI. VII.
Matheinatique PI. 8.
 CATALOOUE. PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL BIECHAMICS. 157

Say's instrument for measuring volumes. Perspective.

Ann. Ch. XXIII. 1.
Aleaume Perspective speculative et pratique.
Faiey on measuring timber. Pii. M. XIX. 13.
2
4. Paris, 1643. R. S.
La perspective practique. 3 v. 4. Par. 1647. •

Modelling. M. B. *
Aurum musivum for bronzing. Birch. I. 103. Jesuit's perspective. 4. Lond.
Moulage. E. M. A. V. Perspective. Ph. tr. abr. I. ix. 598.
Porcelaine. E. M. A. VI. Huret Optique de portraiture, f. Par. 1670.
Artificial gems. E. M. A. VI. 739- Ace. Ph. tr. 1672. VII. 5048.
Papier mache. E. M. A, VI. Art. P&tes * Brook
Taylors linear perspective. 8. Lond.
moulees. R. I.

Beads. E. M. A. VI. Art. Paternotrier. Ace. Ph.tr. 1719- XXX. 300.

E. M. Beaux Arts. Zanotti's general theorem for perspective. C.

Impressions in wax. Duhamel Art du cirier. Bon. III. 169.

f. Par. Emerson's cyclomathesis. VI.
p. 93.
On multiplying copies in relief. Wilson. Malton's perspective. 4. R. I.
Nich.II. 60. i^far^m's graphical perspective. 8. 1771.

Gray. Nich. IV. 286. Priestley's perspective. 8.

Wedgwood's patent for ornamented porce-
Kirhy's perspective.
lain. Repert. VII. 309- Kirby's perspective of architecture.
Yates's patent for multiplying engravings. Clark's practical perspective. 8. R. S.
Report. XII. 309. Perspective. E. M. PI. VII. E. M. PI. VIII.
Thin plates filled up with lead.
Art. Amusemens d'optique.
Torelli Elementa perspectivae. 4. Veron,
Casting. 1788. R. S.
Modelling for foundery. Valvasor on cast- Lambert on perspective. Hind. Arch. III. 1.
ing statues. Ph. tr. l686. XVI. 259. E. Valenciennes Elemens de perspective pra-
M. A. III. Art. Fondeur. E. M. PI. II. an R.
tique. 4. Par. 7. 1.

Art. Per. PI. 3 MauHin's patept for

Q.
*Monge Geometric descriptive. 4. R. I.
iii. . .

casting screws. Repeit. XIII. 6. JSc?aYirrfs on perspective. 4. Lond. 1803. R.S.

Imison's elements. II. 555.

Lenormand on moulding carvings. Ph.^ M.
Perspective Instruments.
XVI. 247. in perspec-
Wren's insuument for drawing
tive. Ph. tr. 1669. IV. 898.
Sculpture. Saint tlare Parallelogrammum prosopogra-
Ph. Abr. I. ix. 598. E. M. A. VIT. Art
phicum. Ph. tr. 1673. VIII. 6079-
tr.

Sculpture. E. M. Beaux Arts. L'ouvrier's instrument for drawing fiom na-

On the use of steatite for gems. Ph. M. ture. A. P. 1753. H. 301.

XVIII. 83. instrument for drawing. Nich.

Edgeworth's
To be hardened by heat. 8.1.281.
 158 CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHT AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS.

Ilettlinger's machine for drawing. Roz. The ground for etching is made of white wax and asphat-

XXIV. tum, each 40 parts, black pitch and Burgundy pitch, each
389.
With
one part : the wax and pitch are melted together, and the
glass.
asphaltum is added ;
the whole is then kept simmering, till
Peacock's instmments for drawing in per-
it becomes of a proper consistence. The plate is to be
spective. Repert. I. 313. heated over a chafing dish, so as to melt the ground. The
+Storer's patent delineator. Repert. IV. 239. margin is surrounded with a mixtuie of one part of bees wax
A camera obscura. with two of pitch. Turpentine varaish, mixed with lamp-
A frame for drawing in perspective. Hut- black, is occasionally used during the progress of the work.
Imison.
ton's recreations. II. 208.

Edgeworth's instrument for drawing. Nich.

Printing,
8.1.281.
Berard's steganographic scale. Nich. 8. IV. For PresseSj see Compression.
246. Fournier Manuel typographique. 2 v. 8.
Par. 1764. R. I.

Projections of the Sphere. Duhamel du Monceau Art

Printing cards.
See Geography. de faire les cartes a jouer. f. Paris.
*Luckombe on printing 8. 1771. R. I.
Engraving and Etching. Anisson on printing, and on a new
press,
with figures. S. E. 1785. X. 6l3.
Evcli/ris art of engraving. 8. Lond. l6G2.
E. M. A. III. Art.Imprimerie. Imprimerie
M. B.
en taille douce. Imprimerie en couleurs.
Mortimer on an antique metal stamp. Ph. tr.
Printers grammar. 8. 1787. R. I.
1738. XL. 388.
Nicholson on printing with rollers. Nich. I. IS.
Gravure. E. M. A. III. E. M. Beaux Arts.
On stereotype printing. M. Inst. Nich. III.
Jackson oa engraving in chiaroscuro. 8. R. I.
43.
Cutting letters in copper. E. M. A. VI. Art.
Rochon on typography. See Engraving.
Plaques de cuivre.
Niebuhr on the Babylonian bricks. Zach,
Etching. E. M. A. VI. Art. Pinceau.
mon. corr. VII. 435.
Rochon's mode of engraving by a machine.
Tilloch on stereotype printing. Ph. M. X.
Rochon Recueil de mecanique. Journ.
267.
Phys. XLVII.(IV) 365. Nich. III. 6l.
Enc. Br. Art. Type. Magrath's Printers' Assistant. 8. 1805.

Nicholson's instrument for drawing parallel

lines. Nich. II. 429. Types.

Lowry's ruling machine. Nich. II. 523. Moricherel's new matri.ves for types. A. P.
Accum upon etching on glass. Nich. IV. 1. 1751. H. 171.

Puymarin on engraving upon glass. Repert. Types. E. M. A. I. Art. Caracteres d'impri-

V. 210. merie.

Longhi's moveable table for engiavers. Re- Luce's vignettes for printing. A. P. 1772. i.

pert. V. 354. ^Barclay's patent types. Repert. II. 4.

The aquatinter. 4. London. Sage on type metal. Repert. VIII. 418.

Imison's elements. II. 345. Ashby on printing types. Repert. XI. 18,
 CATALOGUE, — PHILOSOPIiy AND AUTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS. 159

Enc. Br. Art. Printing press. Balances.

Rusher's patent types, lleperl. ii. I. 91. Lahire on balances. A. P. IX. 42.
Roberval's new balances. A. P. X. 343.
Musical Types. Illustrations of balances. Leup. Th. Slat. 3,
6 . . 9.
Fournier's musical types. A. P. 1762. H.
Euler on balances. C. Petr. X. 3.
192.
Emerson's mechanics. Fig. 188. 205. 206.
Gando on printing music. A. P. 1763. H.
Brander Beschreibung einerhydrostatischen •

134.
wage. Augsburg, 1771.8.

Magellan's balances. Roz.II.253. XVII. 44.

Copijlng. 432.
Watt's patent for copying writings. Repert. Scanegatty's hydrostatic balance. Roz. XVII.
I. 13. 82.

Coquebert's simple method of copying. B. E. M. A. I. Art. Balancier. E. M. Physique.

Soc. Phil. n. 50. Nich. 8. T 147- Art. Balance.
By putting sugar in the ink, and passing a hot iron over Ramsden's balance. Roz. XXXIII. 144.
unsized paper laid on the writing. Turns with of 'he weight, and weighs ten poands.
•fjriisooi

Toplis's method of multiplying copies. Re- Ramsuen's hydrometrical balance. Roz. XL.
pert. IV. 111. 432.
Printing ink is applied to the block, and the correspond-
Shuckbilrgh on a balance. Ph. tr. 1798.
ing parts of the impression remain white.
Liidicke's balance. Gilb. I. 123.

Troughton's balance. Nich. III. 233.

'

Paper. See Union of^ Fibres.

Andrews's patent balance. Repert. XI. 16.

Bookbinding. Prony's universal support for balances. Ann.

Dudin Art du relieur doreur de livres. f.
Ch. XXXVI. 3. JNich. V. 313. Repert.

Par. XV. 51.

E.M. M. III. Art. Relieur. Guyton's report on a balance. Ann. Ch.

Williams's patent for bookbinding. XLII. 23.
Repert.
XLI. 89. Atwoodon balances. Gilb. IV. 148.

Palmer's
Dillon's balance approved. M. Inst. IV.
patent for binding books, with
of metal. Repert. XIV. 305. Wilson's patent weights. Repert. ii. II. 100.
hinges
Studer remarks, that beams of steel become sometimes
Unrolling old books. E. M. A. VI. 732.
erroneous by acquiring magnetic polarity. Gilb. XIII,
124.
For weighing air or gases, the
may be
Statics. apparatus plunged
in water, to lessen the pressure on the beam. Robison.
sometimes weiglied by a simple lever with «
Effect of the Air. Money is

fixed weight :
by flattening it, it might be made to
prepon-
Fuss on the application of statics to geome- derate.

try. N. A. Petr. 1793. XI. 220.

Homberg on the difference of weight in the
Weighing Machines.
air and in a vacuum. A. P. X. 257. See
Weighing machines. Leup. Th. Stat. t. 45.
Hydrostatics. 10 . .
19. Th. M. G. t. 33. 34.
l60 CATALOGUE. —PHLOSOPIIT AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS.

Regnier's spring steelyard, approved. M. Inst.

Desaguliers. p. 23.
Emerson's mechanics, f. 312.
A weighing machine with chains. Standard Weights.
Salmon's patent weighing machine. Repert. See Standard Measures.
VI. 73
Rkemniiis Fannius Palaemon de ponderibus
A weight acting on a spiral.
at mensuris.
Whitmore's patent weighing machine. Re-
Commonly published with Priscian.
pert. IX. 103. Norris's inquiry ancient English
into the
Secured from rust.

weights and measures. Ph.tr. 1775.48.

Weighing machine. R^es Cyclop. II. PI.
Desaguliers on the French and English
Engine.
weights. Ph. tr. 1720. XXXI. 112.

*Barlow on the analogy between English

Steelyards.
weights and measures of capacity.
Ph. tr.
Hooke's steelyard. Birch. IV. 242.
1740. XLI. 457.
Roemer's Danish balance. Mach. A. I. 79.
Comparison oT English and French weights.
Lahire on the steelyard. A. P. IX. 46.
Ph. tr. 1742. XLII. 185. 1743. XLII. 541.
fEmerson's mechanics. F. 190. Compound
Reynardson on English weights and mea-
steelyard. F. 288. sures of capacity. Ph. ir. 1749- XLVI.54.
Lambert. Act. Helv. III. 13.
Considers the avoirdupois as the true standard, and the

Steelyard for iron. E.

M. PI. II. Art. Fer. ii.
ounce as equal to the old Roman ounce.

Pi. X. Chrtsttani delle misure d'ogni genere. 4. Ven.

Cassini's steelyard shows the price of goods weighed. 1760.
Pictet on Paul's steelyard. Ph. M. III. 408.
Tillet on French and foreign weights. A. P.
A coarse steelyard with a moveable fulcrum is sometimes
1767.300. H. 175.
made of wood.
Raper on the Greek and Roman money. Ph.
tr. 1771.462.
Bent Levers.
Brookes on East Indian weights.
Lahire on the bent lever balance. A. P. II- 9- Colebrooke on Indian weights. As. res. V.
Lambert. Act. Helv. III. IS.
91.
Desaguliers on the balance with
an oblique E. M. Commerce. 3 v.

thrust. Ph. tr. 1729- XXXVI. 128. the Chinese weights. B. Soc.
Coquebert on
Ludlam's bent lever balance for yarn. Ph. tr.
Phil. n. 1.

B. Soc.
1765. 205. Coquebert on the Dutch weights.
A balance with a curved surface a* fulcrum it a bad
Phil. n. 74.
substitute for a bent lever balance.
Fair's tables. R. S.

Shuckburgh's experiments on standards. Ph.

Spring Steelyards. tr. 1798.
Studer on the weight of water. Gilb. XIII.
A spring steelyard. Musch. Introd. I. PI. 4.
Formed like a pair of shears. 122.

Hanin's spring steelyard. A. P. 1765. H. 135. Eytelwein. See Journ.

R. I., I. 150.

S. A. IX. 151. Roz. XXXIX. Enc. Br. Cavallo's Philosophy. IV.

 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AN'D ARTS, PUACTICAL MECHANICS. l6l

Hutton's recreations. II. 152. with the sphere ; taking the gramme— 1 5.44 403 gr. If we
prefer Mr. Fletcher's mean, we must make the gramme—
Fletcher onShuckburgh's experiments. Nich.
15.440 grains.
8. IV. 55.
Professor Robison found a cubic foot at 55° weigh 998.74
A gramme, the standard of the new French weights, is
ounces. Enc. Br. Art. Specific gravity. Hence, a cubic inch
the weight of a cubic centimetre of pure water, at its maxi-
is equal to 252j at 50° ; but his weights were not so well
mum of density,n.08l0280 cubic inches, English. The
authenticated as Sir G. Shuckburgh's. Atkins on Specifie
cubic dfcimetre vias found to weigh in a vacuum 1 S8-37.I5
Gravity.
grains of the marc of Charlemagne, which differed a little
Jacquin found a cylinder, 1 inch in diameter, 2 inches
from Tillet's. The chiliogramme of platina wa^ adapted for
long, lose,'in distilled water, 393.6 grains apothecaries weight
a vacuum, that of brass for the air. The cubic foot of water
of V'ienna, the thermometer being at 43°, the baroraetcf
weighed 70 pounds 223 grains, at its maximum ; 70 pounds 2Si inches of Vienna it was weighed in air.
;
130 grains at the freezing point. M. Inst. H. "01. Hence
a pound is 489.5058 grammes, a gramme I8.82;i5 grains English Weights.
French. According to Coquebert Montbret, a pound is
The avoirdupois ounce is supposed by Barlow to be the
only 48y.l47 grammes. B. Soc. Phil. n. 74. thousandth part of a cubic foot of water. The avoirdupois
It may be inferred from Sir George Shuckburgh'j experi- pound has been found to weigh 7001.5 or 7000.5 grains troy.
ments, that the diameter of a sphere being 6.0074 5 inches, Ph.tr. 1743.
loses 28715.85 grains of Troughton in water, reduced to
it
A pennj'wcight, troy is G4 gr.
Jy°, or the maximum of density of water, the air at 39°,
the barometer at 30., the standard brass scale employed at
An ouncCj or 20 pennyweights, 480
62^. Hence, under these circumstances, tire weight of a
A pound, or 12 ounces, 5700
cubic inch of water, weighed against brass in 252.8033
air, is
A drachm, avoirdupois, is 27.35 gr. troy.
parliamentary grains: in vacuo 253.094; of a cubic foot

in air 43684.41
An ounce, or \6 drachms, 437.5
grains::z998.5 oz. av.i::62.4063 pounds
av. ;
in vacuo 43735.6 grains— 999. C? ounces:z62.48 A pound, or iG oz. about 7000.

pounds. A 14 pounds; a quarter 28 pounds;

stone is

If we reduce these measures to more usual temperatures,

a hundred weight 112 pounds; a ton 20
the barometer being still at 30, the weight of a cubic inch
hundred weight, or 2240 pounds.
at 52° will be found 252.08 grains ; of a cubic foot 998
ounces ;
at 60°, the temperature employed by Gilpin,
A scruple, 9j, apoth. weight, is 20 gr. troy.
252.56 grains, and 997.0 ounces; at 62°, the standard A drachm, 5j, or 9iij, 60
temperature of English measures, 252.52 grains, and 997.4 An ounce, ^, or S^'U' '^SO
ounces. At this temperature, four cubic inches make 1010
and 12 gallons exactly 100 pounds avoirdupois.
A pound, ftj, or ^xij. 5760
grains,
Ten ounces troy are nearly Cijual to 1 1 avoirdu]
Mr. Fletcher finds some other experiments of Sir G.
17 pounds troy to 14 avoirdupois.
Shuckburgh more accurate than the author supposed them,
and therefore takes a mean of the whole. After all cor-
Scotch Weights.
barometer standing at 29.5, the temperature
rections, the

60°, th« cubic inch of water appears to weigh in air

An ounce is 476 grains troy.
252.519 grains from the experiments on the cube, 252.432 A pound trone is 20 ounces ;
a stone 16
from the cylinder, and 252.568 from the sphere ; the mean
pounds.
being 252.500 ; in a vacuum 252.806. _If the barometer
be at 30, the weight from the sphere will be 252.563, nearly, Old French Weights.
as already stated, and the mean 252.501 we may there-
; A grain is .8203 gr. Eng.
fore call accurately 252.50; in a vacuum 252.77; for
it
A denier, 24 gr. French, 19.69
we must not add .3, which
whole weight of a cubic
is the
inch of air, but only the difference between the
A gros, 3 deniers, 59.06
weight of
air and of brass. The French experiments, reduced to the An ouuce^ 8 gros, 478.5, ^i oz. troy.
same circumsunces, give 252.56, and 352.83, agreeing A marc, 8 ounces, ^780.
VOL. II. Y
I6''i CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS.
A pound, 2 marcs, 7560. ii ll>-
troy. Roman Weights.
1.08 1b. av. Denarius 51. 9 Christiani, | oz.

New 62.5 Arbuthnot, yoz.

French Weights.
Ounce 415.1 Christiani.
Milligramme .0154 grains Eng.
437.2 Arbuthnot.
Centigramme .1544
Pound of 10 ounces 4151. Christiani.
Decigramme 1.5444
Pound of 12 ounces 4981. Christiani.
Gramme 15.4440 = ^?-°-f^, or
5246. Arbuthnot.
18.827 gr.Fr.
Decagramme 154.4402, or 5.65 dr.av. Various Modern Weights, from Hutton, Ca-
Hecatogramme 1544.4023, or 3 oz. 8.5 vallo and Vega.
dr. av.

Chiliogramme 15444.0234, or 2 lb, 3oz.

5 dr. av.

Myriogramme 154440.2344, or 22 lb. 1.15

oz. av.
A hundred myriogramraes are nearly a ton. The sous and
the franc weigh each 5 grammes. The franc contains one
tenth of copper.

^indent and Modern Weights.

Ancient Weights, from Hutton.

Greek Weights, in English grains.

Attic obolus 8.2 Christian!.

9.1 Arbuthnot.
Attic drachma 51.9 Christiani.
54.6 Arbuthnot.
Attic lesser mina 3892. =75drachms.Chr.
Attic greater mina 5189. =100 dr. Chr.
5464. Arbuthnot.
Attic medicalmina 6994. Arbuthnot.
Attic and other talents=:60 minae.
Old Greek drachm 146.5 Arbuthnot.
An othei: Gr. drachm 62.5 = Ronian denari-
us. Arbuthnot.
Old Greek mina 6425. Arbuthnot.
Egyptian mina 8326.
Ptolemaic mina of
Cleopatra 8985.
Alexandrian mina
of Dioscorides 9992.
 CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS. 16S

Fbunds. E. grains. Pounds. E. grains.

Berlin 7232. Eytelwein. r. ("4426. H.

A cubic foot Fr. of water, weighing 63.9308 pounds.
uenoa <
,(.6638. H.
Bern 6722.
Germany, apoth.
BiIboa=Bayonne. H. pound 5523. = S57.66 grammes.
Bois le Due 7105. H.
Vega.
Bourdeaux = Bayonne '

Hamburg 7315. H.
.Bourg 7074. H, 5968. H.
Konigsberg
Brabant pound of 3146. H.
Leghorn
Amsterdam 7249.=469.12 grammes. 7038. H.
Leyden
Coquebert. Liege 7089. H.
Brescia 4497. H.
Lille 6544. H.
Brussels, heavy pound =Troys. V. Lisbon 7005. H.
Brussels, light
London, avoirdu-
pound 7201 .=466.3 grammes. V.
pois 7000. = 453.61 grammes.
Cadiz 7038. H.
Vega.
r9223. H.
China, kin London,troy 5760. H.=373.14gram.V.
l5802. = 37.5.708 grammes- Lucca 5273. H.
=:12 2 gros24
oz.
Lyons, silk 6946. H.
gr. Fr.= 10 leangs H.
Lyons,to\vn weight 6432.
=: 100 tsiens.
Madrid 6544. H.
Coquebert. Marseilles 6041. H.
f 7220. H. Melun 4441. H.
Cologne
O2I8. Eytelwein. Messina 4844. H.
A cubic foot Fr. of water, making OO.ofisfl pounds.
Montpelier 6218. H.
7223. =467.74 grammes.
Namur 7174. H.
Vega.
A cubic inch Fr. of water, at 59°, weighs 330.04 grains Nancy 7038. H.
ef Cologne. Studer, in Gilb. XL 11. 122. Naples 4932. H.
Constantinople 7578. H. Nuremberg 7871. = 509.78 grammes.
Copenhagen 6941 H. Vega.
Cracau, commer- Paris 7561. H, =489.5 gram.V.
cial pound 6252. H. =404.85 gram. Prague, commer-
Vega. cial pound 7947. = 514.35 grammes.
Cracau mint mark 3071. = 198.82 grammes.' Vega.
Vega. Revel 6574. H.
Damascus 25613. H. Riga 6149. H.
Dresden 7210. = 468.83grammes.V. Rome 5^57. H.
Dantzic 6574. H. Rouen 7772. 11.

Dublin 7774. H. Saragossa 4707- IL

Florence 5287. H. Seville=Cadiz.
Geneva 8407- H. , Smyrna 6544. IL
164 CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHY AXD AUTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS.
Pounds. E. grains. .864
Portugal
Stettin 6782. H. Rome .909
Stockholm 9211. H. Spain .925
Strasburg 7277. H. Sweden .955
Toulouse 6323. H. Venice .809
Troys. See Amsterdam.
Turin 4940. H. Sources of IMotion.
Tunis 7140. H. For the application, see Machinery.
Tyrol 8693. = 562.92grammes.V.
Deschamps on the force of machines. A. P.
t"4215.H.
Venice 1723. H. 120.
16827. H.
*Leup. Th. M. G. t. 33. 34.
Venice, libra sottile oi' 12 ounces=302.03
On the measure and expense of first movers.
grammes. Vega. Nich. H. 459.
Venice, pound of 12 ouuces=:358.1 grammes.
Vega. jinimal Mechanics.
Venice, pound of 12 ounces, peso grosser: *BorelU de motu animalium. R. I.

468.17 grammes. Vega. Perrault on animal uieclianics. A. P. I. 181.

Venice, libra grossa=477.49 grammes. Vega. Parent on animal mechanics. -A. P. 1702. H.
Verona 5374. V. 95.
C4676. H. J). Bernoulli on the muscles and the nerves.
Vicenza
(.6879. H. C. Petr. I. 297.
Vienna, commer- Mairan on the position of the legs in walk-
cial 8648. =560.01 H.
pound grammes. ing. A. P. 1721. 24.
Vega. Bourgelat on the motions of a horse. S. E.

Vienna, apoth. pound=:420.01 grammes. HI. 531.

Vega. Motions of animals, flying, and swimming.
Vienna, mint mark =280.64 grammes. V. Emerson's mechanics, f. 222 226, p. . .

The jeweller's carat at Vienna is .206085 grammes. Vega.

206.
Horses. E. M. A. IV. Art. Marechal ier-
Apothecaries Grains of different countries,
rant.
from Vega.
Pinel on animal mechanics. Roz. XXXI.
Austria 1.125 =1 350. XXXIII. 12. XXXV. 457.
Bern .956 Barthez Elemens de la science de I'homme.
France .981 Extr. Journ. Phys. XLVII. (IV.) 271.
Genoa .850. Imison's elements. I. 73.
.958
Germany Animal Force.
{ .959=-H- Gilbert.
Hanover .978 On the strength of men and horses. A. P.
Holland .989 . 1.47.
Naples .860 Lahire on the strength of men and horse*.
Piemont .824 A. P. 1699. 153. H. 96.
 CATALOGUE.— PHILOSOPHY ANB ARTS, PUACTICAL MECHANICS. \65

Aiiiontonson moving powers. A. P. 1703. H. active man, working to the greatest possible advantage, and
without impediment this will be found, upon a moderate
* Camus Traite des forces mouvantes. 8. Par. ;

estimation, sufficient to raise 10 pounds 10 feet in a second,

1722. ]\I. B. for 1 hours in a day : or to raise 1 oo pounds, which is the

Instances of Inimaa strength. Desag. Lect. weight of 12 wine gallons of water, 1 foot in a second, or

I. '289. scooofcetinaday; or afiooooo pounds, or 432 000 gallons,

1 foot in a day. This we may call a force of 1. continued
Deparcieux on the draught of horses. A. P.
36000".
1760. 263. H. 151.
Emerson's mechanics. Immediate Force of men, without deductioii
Ferguson's mechanics. for friction.
Lambert on human strength and its
appiica-
Force. Continu- Days
ation. work.
catiou. A. Berl. 1776. 19.
A man weighing 133 pounds Fr.

Cazaucl on sugar mills. Ph. tr. 1780. SIS. ascended 62 feet Fr. by steps, in

Horses. E. M. A. I. Art. Chevaux. was completely exhausted.

34", but

Schulze on the strength of men and horses. Amontons. 2.8 3-t"

A sawyer made 200 strokes of

A. Berl. 1783. 3S3.
18 inches Fr. each in 14 5", with a
Rennel on the rate of travelling of camels. force of 25 Kr. He could
pounds
Ph. tr. 1791- 1'29. not have gone on above 3 minutes.
About ll miles an hour. Amontons. .6 145"
A man can 00 pounds Fr. 1
Kegnier's dynamometer. Journ. Polyt. II. v. raise

foot Fr. in 1", for 8 hours a day.

160. Gilb. li. 91. Ph. M. I. 399.
Bernoulli. .69 sh. .a-i
Coulomb on the daily labour of men. B. Soc. A man of ordinary strength can
Phil. n. 16. M.Inst. II. 380. Nich. III. turn a winch, with a force of 30

416. pounds, and with a velocity of 3^

in l", for lO hours a day.
Buchanan on human hibour. Repert. XV. feet

Desaguliers. i.Oj loh. 1.05

319.
Two men working at a windlass,
The comparative force exerted in the action of pumping with handles at right angles, can
was ]74i, by a winch 2856, in ringing 3 s 83, in rowing raise 70 pounds more easily than
4095.
one can raise 30. Desaguliers. 1.22 1.22
On the powers of horses and steam engines. .A man can exert a force of 40
Nich. IX. 214. pounds for a whole day, with the
to Schulze's experiments, the force which a assistance of a " when the
According fly,

man or a horse can exert with the velocity v, is n: / motion is

pretty quick, as about 4
or 5 feet in a second." Desaguliers,
1 Y ,/ being the force in equilibrium, and a the ve-
( Lect. 4. But from the annotation

locity without resistance. This is a formula of Euler : ano- it

appears to be doub'.ful whether
the force is 40 pounds or 20. 2. 2.
ther of his expressions// 1 \ does not agree so well
For a siiort time, a man may
with Schulze's experiments. But Euler's theory is founded exert a force of 80 pounds, with
on assumptions wholly to the a " when the motion is
arbitrary. According first fly, pretty
formula, the greatest mechanical effect would be wlien jizi quick." Desaguliers. 3. 1'

^a ; according to the second, when D=:v' I". A man going up stairs ascends
In order to compare the different estimates of the force of 14 metres in 1'. Coulomb. 1.182 l'

moving powers, it will be convenient to take a unit which A man going up stairs for a day

may be considered as the mean effect of the labour of an raises 205 chiliogramme* to the
 1(56 CATAI.OGUK.— rillLOSOPHY AN<D ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS.
Forcf. Continu- Days chiliogrammes as the greatest weight that can be raised.

ation. work, I le observes that in Martinique, where the thermometer is

height of a chiliometre. Cou- seldom below 68°, the labour of Europeans is reduced to
lomb. .412 one half.
With a spade a man doee \l as Harriot asserts, that his pump with a horizontal motion
much as in ascending stairs. Cou- enables a man to do one third more work than a common
lomb. .391 pump with a vertical motion. See hydraulic machines.
With a vrinch a man docs J as Porters carry from 200 to 300 pounds at the rate of 3
much as in ascending staire. Cou- miles an hour ;
chairmen walk 4 miles an hour with a load
lomb. .258 of 1 50 pounds each ; and it is said, that in Turkey there are

A man carrying wood up stairs porters who by stooping forward carry from 700 to 900
raises,togeihtr with his own weight, pounds placed very low on their backs.
109 chiliogrammesto l chiliometre. The most advantageous weight for a man of common
Coulomb. .219 strength to carry horizontally is 1 1 1
pounds, or if he returns
A man weighing i.io pounds Fr. unladen, 135.With wheel barrows, men will do half as

can ascend by stairs 3 feet Fr. in a much more work as with hods. Coulomb.
second for 15" or 2o". Coulomb. 5.22 20"
For half an hour loo pounds Fr.

may be raised i foot Fr. in a second. Performance of Men by Machines.

Coulomb. 1.152 30'
Force. Continu- Days
According to Mr. Buchanan's
ance. work.
comparison, the force exerted in
turning a winch being made equal
A man raised by a rope and
to the unit, the force in pumping pulley 25 pounds Fr. 220 feetlFr.

will be .01 in 145". Amontons. .436 145"

In ringing 1.36 A man can raise by a good com-

In rowing 1 .48 mon pump a hogshead of water 1 o
feet high in a minute for a whole
Allowing the accuracyof Euler's
formula confirmed by Schulze, sup- day. Dcsaguliers. .8?5 .875

By the mercurial pump, or ano-

posing a man's action to be a max-
imum when he walks ai miles an ther good pump, a man may raise

we have 7i for his greatest a hogshead 18 or 20 feet in a mi- <

hour,
velocity, .04 (7^
—vY for the force nute, for one or two minutes. I.61 2'

exerted with any other velocity, and In a pile engine 551 pounds Fr.

.016!)(7^
— f)' for the action in each were raised 1 foot Fr. in 1", for 5

case : thus, when the velocity is hours a day, by a rope drawn hori-

one mile an hour, the action is .676 zontally. Coulomb. .64 5h. J2
When two mile» .
.964 Robison says, that a feeble old man

Three .972 .
raised7 cubic feet of water 11^ feet

Four .784 in 1' for 8 or 10 hours a day, by

And when five .5 walking backwards and forwards
on
a lever. Enc. Br. .837 9h. .759
And the force in a state of rest becomes ^^, or about 70 ,

pounds, with a velocity of two miles, 36 pounds,

with three, young man weighing 135
A
raised 9i
24 pounds, and with four, 15. It is obvious that in the ex- pounds, and carrying 30,
treme cases, this formula is inaccurate, but for moderate cubic feet ill feet, high for 10 hours
a day without fatigue. Robison. 1.106 loh. 1.106
velocities it is
probably a tolerable approximation.
Coulomb makes the maximum of effect, when a man Wynne's machine enables a man
to raise a feet in
weighing 70 chiliogrammes carrMs a weight of 53 up stairs. hogshead twenty
a minute. Y. 1-7* '
But this appears to be too great a load he considers 1 4 S :
 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AND. ARTS, PRACTICAL MKCHANICS. 167

Force of Horses. Inanimate Force,

Force. Continu- Days Beale's remarks on mills. Ph. tr. 1677. XII.
ance. work. 841.
Two horses attached to a plough Cassini and Lahirc on the water required for
in moderate ground exerted each a
a mill, A. P. I. 28(J.
force of 150 Fr. Amontons. We
that they went a
Kratzenstein's thormometrical power fur a
may suppose little

more than 2 miles an hour, for 8

'

clock. N. C. Petr. II. 221.

hours. 5.4 8h. 4.3'2 *Smeaton on the powers cjf wind and water.
A horse can draw with a force
Ph.1759. 100. Reprinted 8. Lond.
tr.
of 200 pound-s 2i miles an hour for
Loriot on raising weights by the tide. A. P.
8 hours in the day. 7.33 Sh. 5.87

Withaforceof 240only 6 hours. 1761. H. log.

Desaguliers. 8.8 6h. Stedman on the degrees of wind required for
The mean draught of 4 horses
machines. Ph. tr. 1777. 493.
was 36 myriogrammes each, or 794
Meavy machines can only work about 10 of the
year.
pounds. Regnier. This must have
Coulomb on windmills. A. P. 1781.65.
been momentary. Supposing the
y A windmill with 4 sails measuring 66 feet Fr. from one
velocity 2 feet in a second, the ac-
extremity to that of the opposite sail and 6 feet wide, or a
tion would have been 15.88 1"

horse can
little more, was capable of raising lOOO pounds Fr, 218 feet
By means of pumps a
in a minute, and of working on an average 8 hours in a
250 hogsheads of water 10 feet
raise
day. This is equivalent to tlie work of 34 men as it has
high in an hour. Smeaton's re-
been above estimated, 25 square feet of canvass performing
ports. 3.64 ih.
about the daily work of a man.
A horse can in general draw no more up a steep hill than
three men can carry, that is from 450 to 750 pounds, but On a perpetual motion by barometers. Jsich.
a strong horse can draw 2OQO pounds in a cart up a steep hill III. 126.
which is but short. Desaguliers. Robison says, that a hundred weight of coals burned in a

The diameter of a walk for a horse mill ought to be at steam engine will raise at least 20000 cubic feet of water 24
least 2S or 30 feet. Desaguliers. feet high : this effect is
equivalent to the daily labour of
"
Some horses have carried 650 or 700 pounds or 8 miles 8.32 men A steam engine in London, with a 24 inch cy-
without resting, as their ordinary work; and a horse at linder, does the work of 72 horses, and burns a chaldron of
Stourbridge carried 11 hundred weight of iron, or 1232 coals in a day ; each bushel being equivalent to two horses,

pounds, for 8 miles. Desaguliers. and each square inch of the cylinder performing nearly the
A horse was exhibited in London, Jan. I8O5, which was work of a man.
stated in the adverdsement to be 20 hands high, 16 feet 5 If we calculate the quantity of motion produced by gun-
inches long, and 8 feet 2 inches in girt : it vra.s a coarse cart
powder, we shall find that this agent,though extremely con-
horse, bred at Denham in Middlesex. As nearly as I could venient, is far more expensive than human labour. But the
measure it, its real height was 19^ hands, or 6 feet 7 inches.
advantage of powder consists in the great rarity of the ac-
It appeared to be very sluggish in its motions. tive substance a springer a bow can only act with a mo-
:

derate velocity on account of its own weight ;

the air of the*

atmosphere, however compressed, could not flow into a

Work of Mules.
vacuum with a velocity so great as 1500 feet in a second ;

Force. Continu- Days hydrogen gas might move more rapidly; but the elastic

ance. work. substance produced by gunpowder is

capable of propelling
Cazand says, that a mule works in a very heavy cannon ball with a much greater velocity.

the West Indies 2 hours outof about It is said that 9 tons of water, falling 10 feet, will grind

18, with aforceofaboutliOpounds, and dress a bushel of wheat ; cousequently a man might do
walking 3 feet in 1* 4.5 2h 40' 1.3 the same in 33' 30".
 168 CATALOGUE. — I'lUi.OSOPHY AXD ARTS, I'KACTICAL MECHANICS.

Passive Strciisith. Duhamel on water imbibed by wood. A. P.

Marchetti de resistentia soliflorum. 4; Flor. 1744.475. H. 1.
1665. Duhamel Exploitation des arbres. R. I.
Extr. Ph. tr. 1672. VII. 40.50. Account of Duhamel's work on felling
Plott on idling timber. Pli.tr. l693. XVII. timber. A. P. 1764. II. 68.

455. Account of Duhamel's work on the preserva-

Leeuwenhoek on Ph. tion and strengtii of wood. A.P. 1767. H. 81.
felling timber. tr. l6<)4.

XVIII. 2'24. Jurin on the action of springs. Pii. tr. 1744.

Bloiidel on the forms of greatest strength. XLIII. n. 472. p. 46.
A.P.V. 116. Krajj't de corporum coliacrcutiaj a NeufTer.

Lahire on the resistance of solids. A. P. IX. 4.Tubing. 1752.

203. Emerson's fluxions. 343.
A. P- Emerson's mechanics,
Varignon on the resistance of solids. viii.

1702. 66. H. 102. -r Showj that the force exerted

by a spring is as its curva-
ture. 10*.
Parent on hollow cylinders. A. P. 1702. H.
120. Euler. N. C. P. 1757. A. Petr. 1778.

On the resistance of solids. A. P. 1705. 1 76. Belidor Architecture

hydraulique. I. ii. 92.
H. 1.%. Jo. Bernoulli on the extension of threads,

Parent on the strength of beams. A. P. 1707. and on the resistance of beams. A. Berl.

512. 1708. 17. H. 116. 1766. 78. 108.

Parent on the points of rupture. A. P. 1710. Coulomb. S. E. VII. See Architecture, Co-
177. n. 126. lumns.

Dcschamps's machine for measuring the force Coulomb on the force of torsion. A. P.
of springs. A. P. 172,5. H. 120. Mach. A. 1784. 229.
IV. 49. Gauthey on the strength of stones. Iloz. IV.
402.
Leup. Th. Po'ntif. t. 8.
Pilot on the strength of centres. A. P. 1726. Fougeroux on the oak and the chesnut. A.
216. H. 65. P. 1781. 49. H. 14. Daubenton. 205.

Bulfinger on the resistance of solids. C. Petr. A7mf«esdelleresistenze deisolidi. 2 v. 4. Flor.

IV. 164. 1782. Pisa, 1784. R. S.
Makes some mistakes. Robison.
Skkitigeii liber die platina. 8. Manh. 1782,
Mussehenbroek. Dissert. Phj's. On timber. E. M. A. IV. Art. Marchand de
*MusschenbroekIntroductio. cap. 21. 1.390. bois. V. Suppl.
Musschenbrotk Systeme de physique par La- On timber fit for knees, E. M. PI. V. Marine.
fond. Par. 1760. PI. 97. 103.
Buffon on increasing the strength of timber. On iron. E. M. A. IV. Art. Marchand de fer.
A. P. 1738.169. H. 54. Coach springs. E. M. PI. IV. Serrurerie. pi. 29.
Buffon on the strength of timber. A. P. 1740. Ropes. E. M. PI. V. Marine, pi. 24.
453. 1741. 292. Gazeran on the .strength of iron. Ann. Ch.
Duhamel on the strength of timber. A. P. VII. 97.
1742. 335. 1768. 534. H. 29. *Robison. Enc. Br. Art. Strength.
 CATALOGUE.— PHLOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS. I5y
Girard Traite de la resistance dcs solides. cohesive strength, but the difference is less in fibrous sub-
stances than in others. Robison. Coulomb found them
Paris, 1797.
The historical part of the preface is the only thing of va- nearly equal.
Six of the pieces of oak
lue that the work contains. employed in Girard's experiments
broke under the pressure of
On the strengtli of beams. Banks on ma- 2710 pounds on a square incli
at a mean ; but 1 5 others
supported a much load. greater
chines. 73.
Aribofcasrironwithabutmentsof29§feetspan, 1 inches 1

On steel. Nich. I. 468. 11. 64. Stodart, Nich. high in the centre.supported 11130 pounds, but sunk 3Z
IV. 127. inches, and rose again | inch: without abutments it broke

A wire of -L inch of lead breaks witli 29i

pounds ;
of tin
with 6174 pounds. Bars of iron i inch square and 3
fett
with 491 of copper with aggi; of brass with long, weighing y pounds, sunk about an inch, and broke
;
360; of
silver with 370; of iron with 450; with 960 pounds. In
of gold with -500. general iron is about 4 times as strong
Emerson. as oak, and 6 times as
strong as deal. Banks on machines,
A yard of oak an inch square will bear in the middle for
93.
The
hardness of metals follows this
a very short time 330 pounds. But, according to Emerson, a
order, iron, platina,
copper, silver, gold, tin, lead. C^vallo. II. 147.
third or a fourth of this is as much as can be applied in
When a body is broken by means of an
impulse of any
practice. Mech. p. 114. It is in fact much more; for in
kind, there is a certain
general the weight supported ought not to produce a sensi- velocity which is sufficient to pro-
duce whatever
be the bulk of the
ble bending ; and this practical limit requires more atten-
firacture, may impelling
tion than body. Thus, supposing any body to be capable of
it has hitherto received. Allowance must also be being
made for the occasional compressed or extended one hundredth part of its
depredations of insects. length,
this effect will
Wood is from 7 to20 times weaker transversely than require the pressure of the hundredth part
of the weight of the modulus of
longitudinally. It becomes stronger both ways when dry. elasticity, or the impulse of
the same weight falling through J^ of the length, or the
Proportional strength of various substances in bearing
impulse of a weight equal
pressure. Fine freestone 1 :
alder, asp, birch, white fir,
to its own, falling through -^ of
the height of the modulus, and acquiring a velocity
willow, 8: lead, 61: beech, cherry, hasel, 6|: red fir, equal
to one hundredth of that which is due to half the
holly, elder, plane, apple, 7 walnut, thorn, T\ elm, ash,
: : height
of the modulus : this is therefore the utmost velocity
8^ ;
box, yew, plumbtree, oak, 1 1 bone, 22 brass, 50 : : :

that the particles of such a body can receive without

iron, 107. These results however differ materially from
some others. exceeding the limit at which a separation takes place ; and
for this reason that a
it is
A cylinder an inch in diameter will bear, when loaded to l body, moving very rapidly, carries
before it only the part of the substance which is in
of its whole strength, if of fir 8.8 cwt., if of rope 22 cwt., if immedi-
ate contact with it, and does not extend its effects fur-
of iron O.75 tons, or 135 cwt. Emerson. any
Count Rumford found the cohesive strength of a cylinder
ther. The same limit may also be derived from a consider-
ation of the
of iron an inch in diameter 63466 or 63173 pounds ; the velocity with which an impulse is transmitted

mean 63320. Ph. tr. 1797. This is only Jj more than through any substance.

Emerson.
A body being broken by a force directed to a
point at the
distance a from the axis of a beam, of which the depth
Sickingen makes the comparative cohesive strength of is b,
the strength is to the directcohesive or repulsive
gold 150955, of silver 190771, of platina 262361, of copper strength
as b to 6a±i,
304696, of soft iron 362927, of hard iron 5598SO. Gilb. accordingly as the beam gives way 6n the
side next to the force or on the opposite
Journ. Guyton makes platina a little
stronger.
side.

In Buffon's experiments, h, d, and /

being the breadth,
depth, and length of a beam of oak in inches, the weight Friction,
'
25 <. Amontons on the resistance of machines. A.
(54 10). Robison.
P. 1699.206. H. 104. 1700. 47. 1703. H.
A piece of sound oak
an inch square bears gooo pounds di-
105. 1704. 173. 206.
rectly, and
broken transversely by 200 at the distance of
is

Allows about | of the weight.

12 inches from the fulcrum. Iron is not cheaper than
wood of equal strength. The immediate transverse strength
Pixrenton the centre of friction. A. P. 170O.
of lateral adhesion of most substances eiceeds their direct H. 149.
VOL. II.
170 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AXD ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS.
The friction of bard bodies a uniform force, that of
Parent's statics with and without friction. A.
is

cloth increases with the velocity. The friction is

greater
P. 1704.
as the surface is greater, but not in any regular proportion.
Sauveur on the friction of ropes coiled round
Metternkh dc frictione. 4. Erfurt, 1786.
a cylinder. A. P. 1703. 305.
Metternich von dem vviderstande der reibung.
Sturm on friction. M. Berl. I. 294.
Maynz. 1789-
Leibnitz on tlie resistance M.
o^^achines. Burrow on friction. As. Res. I. 171.
Berl. I. 307.
Prony Architecture hydraulique.
Varignon on the pressure of solids round
Cavallo. N. Ph. I. 275.
which ropes are coiled. A. P. 1717- 195.
A block of 5 puUies, which with 150 pounds should raise
n. 68.
15O0, will barely draw up 500.
Lcupold. Th. M. G. t. 30 . . 32. Southern on friction. Ph. M. XVII. 120.
Bulfinger'on friction. C. Petr. II. 403. In confirmation of Vince's observations.
Makes it i of the weight.

Desaguliers on friction. Ph. tr. 1732. 292.

Abstract of CoulomVs memoir on friclion. S.E. 1785. X
394. 161.
Allows about \.
This memoir received a prize from the academy of sci-
Kuler on friction. A, Berl. 1748. ^122. 133.
ences in 17 81 ; the experiments were made on a large scale,
Euleronthe friction of revolving bodies. N. at Rochfort, in 1779.

C. Petr.Vl. 233. Amontons thought that friction was nearly independent

of the extent of the surfaces. Musschenbroek found '

Euler on the pressure and friction of ropes. it

otherwise.
N. C. Petr. XX. 304. 327.
At a maximum, that is, after resting some time, the fric-
Musschenbroek Introductio. I. 145.
tion, or rather the adhesion, is found to be, for oak on oak,
Schober Versuch ciner theorie von der iiber-
from to —of
3.39
the weight, according to the magnitude
wicht. 1752. 2.-28

Bernoulli on friction. N. C. Petr. XIV. i.

of the surface : for oak on fir ;
for fir on fir ; for
1.5 1.78
249.
elm : the fibres moving longitudinally. When they
Emerson's mechanics. Pr. 118. <2.18

Meistcr. N. C Gott. I. 181.

cross at right angles, the friction of oak is
'1
-r-rr- For iron on
Lambert on friction. A. Berl. 1771. 9- 177fi.

3. oak
1
-^: for iron on iron —1

3.5
: in this case the time of

Thinks it not constant, as commonly supposed, but

varying as the square of the velocity.
rest had no cfFect. For iron on brass — when the surfaces

Belidor. Arch. Hydr. 1. 70. are well polished ;

when larger, and not guite so smooth,

Machine for experiments on the friction of 1

pivots. E. M. PI. III.

Horlogerie.
3.8'

With tallow or grease on oak, some days were required to

JjCDigez Esperienze intorno alia vesistenza del
when
obtain the maximum of friction or adhesion, the sur-

fregamento. 8. Verona, 1782. faces were large : but when they were small was very
it

Ximcfies Resistenze dei solidi. soon acquired. This maximum was nearly the same at

Coulomb. S. E. X. Account in Journ. without grease ;

sometimes a little greater. The addition

from rest varied at first as the fifth root of the time. For
Phys. Sept. 178). iron or copper with tallow, the increase during rest is less
*Vince on friction, and on the centre of fric-

M. XVII.
considerable : at first the friction is — of the weight, be-
tion. Ph. tr. 1785. 165. Ph. 47. 11
 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS. 171

sides a small force, of a pound for evety 30 square inches, metal move slowly on each other ; thus the friction of iron

independent of the weight. After some time the friction be- I 1

on oak becomes —, of brass on oak— ; but after 15 expc-
comes — — or • When olive oil is used, the friction bc-
liments, more than three times as much force v\-as
10 9 necessary

comes at once _L, with old soft grease about — .

to continue the

newed appears
motion
be injurious
; so that tallow not frequently re-

when
6 7 to : the surfaces are small,

In order to examine the friction of bodies in motion, the it has little effect. For narrow surfaces of wood, moved
adhesion was destroyed by shaking the apparatus a- little.
on iron across the grain, the friction was —1

in all velocities.
When oak moved on oak in the direction of its fibres, the 14 ^
was nearly the same in all degrees of velocity ; but
friction In cases also where the operation has been long continued,

when the surfaces were large, the friction increased a little as in all machines, the friction is independent of the velo-
with the velocity, and was diminished as the velocity in-

For a pressure from 100

cit}'. For iron on iron, with tallow, the friction was —
10
, the
creased when they were small. to

4060 pounds on a square foot, the friction is about — , be- adhesion 1 pound for 15 square inches ; on copper — , the

sides a resistance of about 14 pound for each square foot, adhesion l pound for 13 square inches; with oil or soft

a little with the

independent of the pressure, increasing
1

grease, the friction of iron or copper was , without any ad-

velocity,occasioned jjerhaps by a down on the surfaces.

When the surface is very small, the friction is somewhat dition for adhesion. Whenthesurfacc of iron, moving on cop-

diminished. The narrow surface being cross grained, the

per, was small, the friction
1
was -— with tallow,
— With
1
oil,

friction was invariably—. For oak on fir, the friction was

10 in all velocities. On the whole it
appears, that in the case of

— : for fir on fir —6 for elm on elm —10 ,

but varying ac- most machines, — of the
1

pressure is a fair estimate of the

6.3
friction.
cording to the extent of surfiice;
for iron or copper on
The next subject investigated the of ropes.
^ood —
13
, which was at first doubled by increasing the velo-
This was supposed by Amontons and Desaguliers
is
rigidity
to vary as

a foot in a second, but after continuing the operation the diameter, as the curvature, and as the tension. Cou-
city to
for some hours, was again diminished. For iron on iron lomb finds the power of the diameter expressing the rigidity
be generally
, on copper, , after long attrition,
—6 , in all velo-
to

constant quantity
1.7 or 1.8,

must be supposed
never less than 1.4, and that a
to be added
3.55 4.15 to the

cities. weight. Wet ropes, if small, are a little more flexible

When an unctuous substance was interposed between than dry ; if large, a little less flexible. Tarred ropes are
surfaces in motion, the hardest was found to diminish the stiff'er by abouti, and in cold weather somewhat more. The
friction most, where the weight was great. Tallow being stiffness of ropes increases after a little rest.

A rope of three strands, each of 2 yarns, 12^ lines in cir-

applied
'
fresh from time to time to oak, the friction was
28 cumference, 8 inches of which weighed 2^ gros, and conse-
of the pressure, besides an adhesion of 1 pound for every 38 quently 125 grains E., being bent on a fixed axis 4 inches in

square inches, when the velocity was insensible, or for every diameter, required a constant force of j^ pound Fr., and
20 or 24 inches, when the velocity was afoot in a second.
.;
of the weight, to overcome its
rigidity. The same
When the surfaces are very small, the tallow loses its effect,

and the friction becomes — or — ;

it is also increased by an rope tarred required J paund, and —of the weight.
"
The
17 10
increase of velocity, and by the substitution of soft grease for strands being of 5 yarns, the circumference 20 lines, and
<allow. When the surfaces were soaked in grease, and the weight OJ gros, the rigidity was equal to 1 pound, and

wiped, the friction was about — ,

the adhesion 7 pounds for of the weight ; when tarred, the rope required 1 pound
14

a square foot. The narrow surface being placed across the

and of the weight to move it. With strinds of 10
fibres of the fixed board, and drawn in their direction, the 21 >4

effects were nearly the same, but more regular. The inter- yarns, a circumference of 28 lines, and a weight of 12^ gros

position of tallow has the greatest effect

where wood and for 6 inches, the untarrcd rope showed a of 2 rigidity
2
172 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PEACTICAL MECHANICS.
in practice. This excellent memoir is concluded by a cal-
pounds, and of the weight, and the tarred rope, of
culation of the force requisite to raise 8O00 pounds by a

3.3 pounds and — - of the weight.

10.34
capstan, and a rope of 120 strands, with a purchase of 12 to
1 ; and it
appears, by inferences from the experiments al-
These were confirmed by experiments on a roller
results
ready stated, that about one ninth of the force employed
allowed to move on a horizontal plane, while a rope was would in this case be lost.

coiled completely round it. Here becomes necessary

it

to make an allowance for the friction of the roller on

the plane, which varies as its weight, and inversely as Architecture in General.
its diameter. For a roller of guaiacum or lignum vitae,
Vitruvius.
1
8.8 inches in diameter, moving' on oak, it was of the Vitruve par Perrault. f. Par. ] 673.
Weight ;
for a roller of elm |-
more. Newton's Vitruvius. 2 v. f. R. S.
Mr. Coulomb proceeds to relate experiments made imme- Palladio. i. 1721. R.I.
diately on a simple pulley, where the fiiction of the axis and
Pli. tr. Abr. I. viii. 588. VI. viii. 4Go.
the rigidity of the rope produce a joint resistance. When
Blondel's resolution of the four principal
guaiacum moved on iron, the friction was —
5.4
or—
6.4
of
problems of architecture. A. P. V. ii. 1.
the weight in all velocities, besides the rigidity of the rope ; Aldriclis elements of civil architecture. 8.

the mean was — , or, with a small weight, a little greater. Oxf. 1789.
Krafft's theory of the orders of architecture.
For axes of iron on copper — or , where the velocity was C. Petr.XI. 288.
11 11.5
small : the friction being always a litde less than for plane Nollet's observations on architecture in
Italy.

surfaces. With grease, the friction was about — 1

.
A. P. 1749. 473. H. 15.
7.5
Emerson's mechanics.
With an axis of green oak, or ilex, and a pulley of guaia-
Emerson's miscellanies, 322.
cum, the friction with tallow was — '; without it-L ; with
ae 17 Vitruvius Britannicus. 3 v. f. Continued. 2 v.

a pulley of elm, these quantities became 1- 3, i. An f. London.

33 20
Kent's Inigo Jones, f. 1770. R. I.
axis of box, with a
pulley of guaiacum, 'gave i. and
23
— .
' Pini dialoghi dell' architettura. 4. Milan,
14

•with a pulley of elm, — and J.. An axis of iron, and a 1770. R. S.

29 20
Huths biirgerliche baukiinst.
pulley of guaiacum gave, with tallow, _L. *Coulomb's application of the rules of max-
20
The velocity had little effect on the rigidity of ropes, ex- ima and minima to problems of architec-
cept to increase the resistance slightly, when the pressure ture. S. E. 1773. 343.
was small.
E. M. Architecturo, 1^ vol. to Es. R. I.
Mr. Coulomb suggests that the lower surface of a
dray
Chambers on civil architecture, f. 1791.
ought to be a little convex, in order to facilitate a slight agi-
tation, and to diminish the friction. For launching ships,
R. I.

he recommends oak sliding on elm, well Rudiments of antient architecture. London.

previously
rubbed with tallow, by means of
heavy weights ; and ob-
Essai/s on Gothic architecture. 8. London.
serves that the
velocity ought not to be so great as to melt
R.I.
the tallow.
In the pulley, the friction on the axis is somewhat modi-
S<?/ar/'s ruins of Athens, f. London. R.I.
fied by the simation of the surface of
contact, which is not P. Nicholson's student's instructor. 8. Lond.
perfectly horizontal, but the difference may be neglected R. L
 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS, 173

P. Nichoko7i's principles of architecture. 3 v. Account of a memoir on the pressure of

8. 1795. R.I. earth. N. A. Petr. 175)3. XI. H. 3.

The plates by Lowry. Chiefly on architectural drawing. Girard Traite de la resistance des solides,
et des solides
Labauuie, Lamblardie, and Ballard on ar- d'egale lesistance.
Contains a general determination of the strongest forms.
cbitecture. Journ. Polyt. I. i. 15. ii. 124.
iv. 577. Lambton on the theory of walls. As. res. VI.

Prony on the declination of the columns of 93.

the Pantheon. B. Soc. Phil. n. 57- Prony on the lateral pressure of earth. B.
die baukunst betreffcnd. Berlin. Soc. Phil. n. 24.
Sammlung
Hall on Gothic architecture. Ed. tr. IV. ii.3. Front/ surla poussee des terres. 4. Par. 1802.
B'dsch Practische darstellung der bauwissea- R. S.

schafi. 2 V. 8. Hamb. 1800. R. I. Prony sur les murs de revctement. 4. Par.

Rees's cyclopaedia. I. II. 1802. R. S."-

Beautiful plates. The strongest form of a substance included by horizon-

tal surfaces, or cut out of a horizontal plank, for supporting
a weight at its
extremity, is that of a triangle. The same
form For supporting a weight distribut-
Columns and Walls ; their strongest is also the stiffest.

ed uniformly throughout its

length, the form must be that
forms. of a parabola, with its convexity turned inwards.

For a vertical plank, bearing a weight at its

extremity,
See Hydraulic Pressure.
the strongest and stiffest form- is thatof a common parabola,
with its convexity outwards. If the weiglit is
equally di-
Blondel on the diminution of columns. A. P.
vided, it must be a triangfe. To support its own weight,
.
V. ii. 7. it must have for its outline a common parabola, with its
Couplet on the thrust of earth against walls. convexity inwards. If such a plank were supported by its
lateral adhesion only, its outline must be a
A. P. 172Q. logarithmic
curve, to sustain its own weight.
Euler on the strength of columns. A.
Berl. 1757. 252. A. Petr.
A horizontal column turned in a lathe, or
having all its
II. i. lai. 14(3.
transverse sections similar, must have its outline a cubical
163.
parabola, convex outwards, in order to support the greatest
Lambert on the fluidity of sand and eartli. weight at its extremity. The same form is also the stiffest.

A. Berl. 1772. 33. To support a weight equally distributed through the length,
the curve must be a semicubical parabola. To
Lorgna on the resistance of walls to the support its
own weight, the outline must be a common parabola, con-
pressure of earth. A. Sien. II. 155.
vex towards the its vertex at the
axis, having extremity.
Emerson's mechanics. A one end, with
triangular prism fixed at its
edge upper-
Does not sufficiently consider the compressibility. most, is weaker than if its depth were reduced to ei-'lit

ninths, by cutting away the edge. With, a certain force,

Belidor on the thickness of walls. Arch. such a beam would crack at its edge, and not break off.
hydr. IT. i. 420. If a beam, cut out of a vertical
plank, be supported at
*Coulomb. S. E. VII. both ends, and bear a weight at any one
given point, its
portions must be bounded by two common
Lagrange on the figure of columns. M. Tur. If parabolas.
the weight be equally applied
V. ii. 123. throughout the length, or If
it be
applied at a point variable at pleasure, the outline must
Refers the resistance to flexure ; makes a cone stronger be an ellipsis.
than any conoid ; but a cylinder the strongest form of all. If a beam, supported at both ends, have all its transverse
I74 CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS.

sections similar, the two portions must have their outlines

Particular Structures.
cubic parabolas. For a weight equally divided, or applied to

any point at pleasure, the cube of

the diameter must be as Barville's turning parapets for defence. Mach.
the square of the segments. A. II. 23.
A wall, turning a vertical face to the wind, ought
to have
Godefroi's staircase. A. P. 1716. H. 78.
the other face an inclined plane, in order to resist the force
of the wind to the advantage, if made of cohesive
Mach. A. III. 99.
greatest
materials ;
but if of loose materials, it ought to be convex Lahire on keeping out rain from windows.
and parabolic behind. Emerson. A. P. 1716. 326.
A cohesive wall, supporting a bank of earth or a fluid
Beiidor on lighthouses. Arch. Hydr. II. ii.
with its Vertical face, ought to be concave behind, in the
form of a semicubical parabola, with its vertex at the top of pi. 18.

the wall : but if the materials are loose, the back of the wall Meister on the pyramids of Egypt. N. Q.
should be an inclined plane. Emerson. Gott.V. 192. On fortifications. Commen-
A pillar or column of cohesive materials, formed to resist
tat. Gott. 11. M. 20. III. 30. 52.
the wind, must be a cone or a pyramid ;
of loose materials,

a parabolic conoid to support its own weight only, a pillar Report of a committee on prisons. A. P. 1780.
;

must have the logarithmic curve for its outline. Emerson. 409- H. 8.

A mortise hole should be taken out of the middle of a Tessier on stahles. Roz. XV. 1 14.

beam, not from one side ;

but if it is on the concave side, *Smeulon on the Eclystone lighthouse, f.

and is filled Bp with hard wood, it does not diminish the

Lond. 1793. R. I.

strength. For similar reasons,

a piece spliced on, to strength-

en a beam, should be on the convex side. If a cylinder is Lighthouses. .Smeaton's reports.

to be supported at two points with the least strain, the dis-
Saunders on theatres. Vol. 1. 4. London.
tance between the points should be .5858 of the length. Battham's panopticon.
Emerson. Beatson, Hunt, Crocker, and Sinclair on
If a piece be spliced on a divided beam, equal in depth
farm buildings. Board Agr. I. 1.
to half the depth of the beam, the strength is greater than
in the ratio of 1 to 1.054, very
Lord Brownlow on cottages. Board Agr. I. 8o-
that of the entire beam,
Saillet 8ur les theatres 4. 1801.
nearly.
Coulomb found the lateral cohesion of brick and stone Flaw's rural architecture. 4. 1802. R. I,

only jlj more than the direct cohesion, which, for stone, was
Chimnies. See pneumatic machines.
215 pounds for a square inch ;
for good brick from 280 to

300. Supposing this lateral cohesion constant, a pillar will

support twice as much as it will suspend, and its angle of Materials. Masonry, Biicks, Pave-
rupture will be 4 5°. From the same supposition it may be
form of a body of given thickness
ments.
inferred, that the strongest

for supporting a weight, is that of a circle, since the power

See Passive Strength. Roofs.
of the weight in the direction of every section varies as the

length of that section ;

and the strength is therefore equal
Fourcroy et Gallon Art du tuilier briquetier.

throughovit the substance.

But if the cohesion is increased,
f. Paris.
like friction, by pressure, and supposing,
with Amontons,
Extr. A. P. 1763. H. 139.
that this increase, for brick, is three fourths of the weight,
Dtihaniel Art du couvreur. f. Par.
the plane of rupture of a prismatic pillar will form, accord-

ing to Coulomb, an angle of 63° 26' with the horizon,

and E.xlr. A. P. 17C6. H. 156.
the strength will be doubled. On both suppositions the Jars on bricks and tiles. A. P. 1768.
making
is simply as the section. It is of the less conse-
•trength H. 127.
lateral pressure of soft materials, as
quence to investigate the
]\Iasonry. Beiidor. Arch.
I. ii.
Hydr.
they arc generally liable to be penetrated by water, which
acts according to the laws of hydrostatics. Bricks. Roz. Introd. I. 433.
 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICA L MECHANICS. 175

E. M. A. I. Art. Ardoisier, Briquetier, Carre- Mud walls. E. M. A. VI. Art. Plaqueur en

Jeur. II. Alt. Couvieur. IV. Art. Magou- arhfile.
O
nerie. Marbrier. VI. Art. Paveiir. A new kiln for plaster. Roz. XXXVI. 470.
On the disposition of stones in masonr}'. Smealou's lidystone.
Roz. XXX. 401. Williams's patent stucco. Repert. II. 1.

Mongezon iloman buildings. Roz. XL. 143. Guyton on mortars. Ann. Ch. XXXVIl.
On brickmaking. Bergman's essays. Nich. 253. Nich.V. 109. Repert. XV. 132.
II. 498. Holland and Jacour on pise. Board Agr. I.

Georgi on artificial slate. Ph. M. III. 148. 387.

Cartwright's patent bricks. Repert. III. 84. Puymarin's new mortar. Ph. M. XIV. 125.
To tie together.
Eulcher's patent stucco. Repert. HI. ii.329.
Anderson on lime as a cement. 8. London.
Walker's patent houses, baked in a mass.
Anderson's recreations.
Repert. III. 369-
See mills.
Richter's patent for inlaying marble, Re-
Parker's patent stucco is said to stand extremely well.
pert. X. 326.
Brodie's hollow iron bars for building. S. A.
Security from Fire.
XXII. 256.
The Romans sometimes built with pitchers, or hollow See Machinery.
bricks, as in the upper part of Caracalla's circus. A noble- Hales on checking the progress of fires. Ph.
man has lately employed hollow bricks for arches in a mag- tr. 1748. XLV. 277.
nificent edifice in this country.
A fire ladder. A. Petr. I. i. H, 6?.
Supporting itself.

Lord Mahon on securing buildings from fire.

Mortars, Cements, and Stuccos. Ph. tr. 1778. 884.
Perrault on a hard mortar. A. P. I. 199- Krafft on Lord Mahon's incombustible house,
Pike on a mortar made in the East Indies. A. Petr. HI. ii. H. 9.

Ph.tr. 1732. XXXVII. 231. Mann on preserving buildings from fire. Roz.
'
Macquer on lime and
'

plaster. A. P. 1747. XII. 149.

678. H. 65. On safety from fire. Roz. XIII. 306. 356,
Machy Art dii distillateur des eaux fortes, f.
M. A.
Hartley's prevention of fire. E. VI.
Paris, p. 102. Art, Preservatif.
Mortar for water. Roz. Intr. I. 237.
Repert. Vlll. 233.
Pise. Roz. Intr. I. 682. A patent for interposing plates of metal.

Lafaye on Roman mortar. Roz. IX. 437. Cartwright's patent incombustible substitute
On plastering walls. Roz. XIV. 417. wood work. Repert. VIII. 155,
for

Higgins on cements. 8. London, 1780. Audibert's machine for fires approved. Mem.
Higgins's patent cement. Repert. II. 289- Inst. IV.
Mortar. E. M. A. I. Art. Ciment. V. Art,
Mortelier. Arches, Domes, and Bridges.
Plastering. E. M. A. IV. Art. Marbrier. VI. Robinson on the Roman bridge at St. Esprit.
Art. Plafonneur, Pouzzolane. Ph. tr. 1684. XIV. 583.
176 CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHY AST) ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS.

Abeille's flat arch. A. P. I, 159- Giral sur les constructions des ponts. 4.
Sebastien's flat arch. A. P. I. iGs. U.S.
Lahire on curves used in architecture. A. P. Baldwins plates relative to Blackfriars bridge.
1702. 94. H. 119. On arclies. 1712. 69. London. R. [.

H.74. Regemotte on the bridge at Moulins.

Sen^s on arches and vaults. A. P. 1719-363. Abstr. A. P. 1771. H. 66.

Leupold Theatrum Pontificiale. Lambert on the fluidity of sand and earth.

Couplet on the thrust of arches. A. P. 1729- A. Berl. 1772. 33.

79. H. 75. 1730. 117. H. 107. Bossut on the equilibrium of arches. A. P.

Chardon on arches. A. P. 1731. H. 53. 1774. 534. H. 59. 1776. 587.

Bouguer on arches and domes. A. P. 1734. Coulomb. S. E. 1773. 343.

149. Observes, that in the plates bandes, or flat arches, over

Frezier des pierres les voutes. windows, the planes of the joints should converge to a
Coupe pour
single axis; and that the stones will fall unless the perpen-
3 V. 4. Strasb. 1737- dicular to the lowest point of the abutment meet the verti-

Labeh/e on Westminster bridge. 1739. R. I- cal, passing through the centre of gravity of the half arch,

Aepinus on the abutments of an arch. A. within its substance. This may be easily understood by

Berl. 1755. 386. considering the arch as composed of two pieces.

Emerson's fluxions, 325. Mechanics. F. 307. Centres of earth. Roz. III. 67.

311. Arches tied across with iron. Roz. VIII.

Emerson's miscellanies, 148. 158.

Euler on the eflTect of friction Efl^ect of temperature on a bridge. Roz. VIII.

in equilibrium.
A. Berl. 1762. 265. 399.
Euler's mode of judging of the strength of
Nordstern's model of a bridge. A. Petr. II. ii.

85.
a bridge from a model. N. C. Petr. XX.
271. Lorgna on the curve of an arch. A. Potr.
III. ii. 156.
Belidor. Arch. hydr. II. ii. 415.
Ferrari on arches. A. Sienn. VI. 193.
A quadruple vaulted bridge. Belidor. Arch.
Arrow's oval dome for avoiding fires. Bailey's
hydr. II. ii. pi. 56.
Perronet on preventing the sliding away of maeh. II. 62.

fCazeneuve's plan of a bridge. Roz. XVIII.

ground. A. P. 1769. 233. H. 1 12.
Perronet on the forms of bridges. A. P. 1777. 407.
* Fuss on the strains of
553; H. 51. carpentry. A. Petr.
n. i. 194.
Recommends that the arch should hegin at high water
mark Arch in equilibrium. E. M.Pl.VIII. Amuse-
:
remarks, that the breadth of the piers may be made
much less than one fifth of that of the arches. mens d'architecture.
Perronet is sometimes too ostentatious of art, but his Foundations of bridges. E. M. A. VI. Art.
bridge at Orleans is a masterpiece ; the bridge at Neuilly Ponts.
can scarcely stand long. Robison.
Plan of an iron bridge of 400 feet
span, with
*Pfr;'o«e< sur les ponts. Par. 1782.. 3. Sup- a-pyrometer. E. M. PI. V. Voutes.
f.

plement. 1789. R. S. Arches for cielings. E. M. A. VIII. Art.

t Krafft. N. C. Petr. IV. 199. Voutes.
 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AND AUTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS. 177

Bunce's plan and elevation of a dome. Loud. Review of Atwood, said to be by Robison.
1792. R. I. British critic. XXIII. 6.
Southern on the equilibrium of arches. Ph. Person's pumps to be used in building
M. Xr. 97. bridges. Recueil, pi. 4.
Note of Bossut's memoir on arches. Ph. M. Iron bridges. Fulton on canals.
XI. 179. Tatham's circular architecture. 8. Lond.
Tatham's bricks for circular arches. Ph. M. 1803. R. I.

XV. 143. Tatham's patent clumps. Ph. M. XV. 143.

Mascheroni sull' equilibrio delle volte. 4. Repert. ii. II. 3^3.
Bergam. 1785. Wilson's patent for uniting iron blocks. Re-

Montpetit on the theoryof iron bridges. Roz. pert. ii. III. 87.

XXXII. 430. Rees's cyclopaedia. Art. Arch.

Trembley on arches. Roz. XXXIII. 132. New bridge at Paris. B. Soc. Phil. n. 78.
Hutton's principles of bridges. R. I. Reports on the port of London, f. R. I.

Hutton recommends an elliptical arch.

M. Young on the gothic arch. Ir. tr. 1789. Supposing the pressure of the materials vertical only, a
III. 53. quadrant of a circle will support a horizontal road in equili-
brium, if the depth of the bridge in the middle be to the
Kastneron cylindrical vaulting. Commentat.
radius as 1 to 61, that is, about onfe ninth of the span.
Gott. X. M. 30. 104.
Emeis. Mech. But this appears to be only an approxima-
Prevost Dacier on the iron bridge at Coal- tion.

brook Dale. Roz. 16. XXXV. A catenaria will support a horizontal road lOo feet above

Bridges. Smeaton's reports. it, if the height and half the span are each 159. A loga-
rithmic curve will form a half arch of equilibrium if the
Arches. Langsdorffs hydraulik. pi. 8. 9,
road be horizontal. Emerson. But all these proportions
Burdon's patent cast iron blocks and tubes
would make the bridge too heavy.
for arches, with an account of the Perronet thinks that a bridge of 500 feet span might
bridge
at Wearmouth. Repert. V. 36l. stand, the bridge of Mantes having sunk to a radius of soo
The arch is a segment of a circle, its span 236 feet, its
feet.

versed sine 31, making about 84°. Its is goo In the construction of bridges. Professor Robison obsenres,
weight tons,
260 of them are iron. The height from the level of the th^t something is to be allowed for the lateral pressure of

water is 61 feet. the materials ; and that the cohesive strength of the arch,

Plates of the bridge at Wearmouth. R. I. and its resistance to any force in the manner of a
lever,

Jordan's patent for bridges. Repert. VI. 220. ought to be taken into the calculation. These remarks are
extremely just, but they do not appear to have been practi-
A path suspended from an arch.
cally considered, except so far as theory has been modified
Nash's patent bridges, of hollow iron and
by experience.
earth. Repert. VI. 36 1. If there be an arch composed of stones of a given magni-

XIV. tude considered as perfectly solid, the effect of a weight

Wyatt's bridges without wood. Repert.
145. bearing on the key stone will be a displacement of the

Hollow pressure ou the abutment : the centre of pressure on the

pieces of cast iron.
abutment will be removed to a distance, which is to the
Robison. Enc. Br. Suppl. Art. Arch.
height of the arch nearly as the tangent of the immediate
Atwood on arches, with a supplement. 4. change ot the direction of the new compound thrust of the

1801. R.I. key stone to the radius. It seems to be desirable that this

VOL. II. A a
 178 CATALOGUK. PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PEACTICAL MECHANICS.

displacement should never exceed the limits of the abut- Smart's patent masts and beams. Repert.
ments themselves.
XIV. 17.
Supposing the pressure of the materials vertical only, the
Woart's mode of securing decayed beams.
curve may be constructed mechanically without difficulty^
S. A. XX. 258. Nich. VI. 120.
by making the centre of each portion of it at a distance be- Repert.
low the arc which is inversely as the distance of the arc ii. II. 346.
from the road. In the case of z horizontal road, the great-
est curvature will be where this distance is a mean propor-
tional between the radius of curvature at the vertex and the Wooden Bridges and Centres.
depth of the materials at the same point.
Perrault'swooden bridge of a single arch.
Mach. A. I. 59.
Carpentry in General. Perrault's drawbridge. Mach. A. II. 51.
Hebert's turning bridge. Mach. A. II. 68.
Moxon's mechanic exercises.
A wooden bridge. Ph. tr. 1684. XIV. 7 14.
Account, Ph. cr. 1677. XII. 967. 1006.
The three first numbers treat of smith's the three
Wooden bridges, drawbridges, centres, a
_work,
next of joiner's work. l^ridge of ropes.
Leup. Th. Pontif.
Pilot on the strength of centres. A. P. 1726.
Houbo Alt du m^nuisier. f. Paris. Ace. A.
P. 1769. H, 124. 1770. H. 111.
216. H. 65.
Gallon's faUing drawbridge. A. P. 1733. H.
*Fuss on the strains of framed carpentry. A.
120.
Petr. 1778. II. i. 194.
E. M. A. I. Art. *Charpentier. IV. Art. M^- Meyzeray's model of a bridge of ropes. A. P.
1748. H. 120.
nuiserie.
Emerson's mechanics, f. 212.
Pain's practical house carpenter. 4. Lend.
Perronet on the centres of
P. Nicholson's carpenter's new guide. 4. bridges. A. P.
London. 1773. 33. H. 72.
Perronet sur les ponts.
P. Nicholson's carpenter's and joiner's assist-

ant. 4. Lond. 1797. R. I. Drawbridge. Behdor. Arch. Hydr. II. ii.

pi,
53.
Rohison. Enc. Br. Suppl. Art. Carpentry.
Turning bridge. Belidor. Arch. Hydr. II. ii.
Ilassenfratz Art de la charpenterie.
Approved by the Institute. pi. 54. 53. Enc. Br. Art. Drawbridge.
Robison. Enc. Br. Suppl. Art. Arch, Car-

pentry, Centre.
Beams and Floors. Plans of Grubenmann's bridge at SchaflT-

Morveau on increasing the strength of beams. hausen. R.I.

Roz. IV. 157. A wooden bridge. Person Recueil. PI. 10,

Panseron and Bonnin on floors. R02.XXXV.
211. Roofs.

Upton's barn floor. S. A. XIV. 305. Repert. Couplet on roofs. A. P. 1731. 69. H. 62.
VI. 111. Salimbeni on roofs inclined one
way. See.
Wilson's patent for combining timbers. Re- -Ital.IV.249.

perm IX. 100. Robison. Enc. Br. Art. Roof.

 CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHA'NICS. 179

Woait's mode of raising a sunk roof. S. A. Coarse work in bone. E. M. A. IV. Art
XXI. 374. Layetier.
Robison and others recommend that the abutment of a Doors and Hinges. See Ironmongery.
rafter should be an arch having the other end of a rafter for
Windows. Godefroi's window protected from
its centre ;
but this can be of no use unless we suppose the
lower end of the rafter to slide upwards on the abutment
wind. Mach. A. II. 21. E. M. A. VIII. Art.
rrhen the other end sinks. Vitrier. Fontanieu's machine for shutting
windows. A. P. 1771. H. Playfair's pa-

Slating and Tiling. tent sashes, drawn through rollers. Repert.

VIII. 158.
See Masonry.
Beds. Chaumette's ciel de lit. Mach. A. III.

et Gallon, Art du tuilier briquetier. 67. St. John on the arcuccio. Ph. tr.
Fourcroy
f. Par. Ace. A. P. 1763. H. 139- 1732. XXXVII. 256. Hanot's bed for
Duhamel Art du couvreur. f. Par. Ace. A. invalids. A. P. 1742. H. 155. Mach. A.
P. 1766. H. 156. VII. 121 . Hanot's bed without posts. A. P.
Meister on the best forms for tiling a roof
1745. H. 81. Fresnel's miUtary bed. A. P.

with economy. Commentat. Gott. 1781. 1746. H. 120. Mach. A. VII. 321. Carat's
IV. M. 57. bed for the sick. A. P. 1771. H. 68.
E. M. A. I. Art. Ardoisier. II. Art. Gouvreur. Tranoy's jointed bed. A. P. 1772. i. H.
Georgi on artificial slate. N. A. Petr. 1 786. +Thoelden's patent spring bed. Repert. ii.

IV. 266. II. 104.

McCarthy's patent compound for covering Cabinets. Guyot's cabinet for curiosities.

houses. Repert. XI. 14. Mach. A. VI. 169.

Elliott's patent slate. Repert. XII. 385. Trunks. E. M. A. I. Art. Coffretier. E. M.
Loffler on increasing the durability of tiles. M. III. Art.
Malle. Aughtie. Repert. X.
Repert. Xllf. 212. 73. Boxes of sheet lead. Repert. ii. I.

Cathala's tiles
hanging diagonally. Repert. 133.

ii. III. 479. Hangings. Fougeroux Art de faire des ta-

pisseries de cuir. f. Paris. Ace. A. P. 1762.

Furniture. H. 187. Eckhardt's patent cloth and paper

hangings. Repert. II. 87, 90. Nichol-
RouJo Art du menuisier en meubles. Art du son's patent for printing paper.
Repert.
menuisier ebeniste. V. 145.
JSowSo Art du treillagure. f. Paris, 1775. Aumont's lock. A. P. 1721.
Ironmongery.
E. M. A. IV. Art Menuiserie. P. 1. Furni- H. 98. Mach. A. IV. 21, 23. Duhamel Art
ture. P. 4. Trellis work. du Serrurier. f. Paris. Ace. A. P. 1768.
Ince and Mayhew on furniture, f. II. 126. Boissier's locks. A. P. 1778. H.
Upholstery. E. M. A. VIII. Art. Tapissier. 56. Delivetz's screw hinge. Bailey's Mach.
Inlaid work. E. M. A. II. Art. Eb^niste. I. 165. Gascoigne's falling hinge. Bai-
Tortoiseshell and ivory vfoxk: E. M. A. II.
ley's Mach. II. 68. E. M. A. I. Art. Clou-
Art. Ecaille. tier. VII. Art. Serrurier. Marshall's secret
180 CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHY AXD ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANIC!?.

escutcheon. S. A. III. l63. A spring Tennis. Garsault Art du paumier raquetier.

II. 17. *Bra- f. Paris. Ace. A. P. 1767. H. 182.
staple for horses. Report.
mali's patent for locks. Repert. V. 217.
Clifford's patent nails. Repert. VII. 217- Particular Edifices.
377. Spears's patent locks. Repert. Vltl. Tents. Marius. Mach. A II. 93, 97, 147-
91. Benthaiii's patent fire irons. Repert. Granaries. E. M. A. III. Art. Grainier..
VIII. 145. Finch's patent nails. Repert. Dobson's barn. Repert. VI. 319.
IX. 390. Arkwri^ht's door lock. S. A.
XVI II. 242. Repert. XIV. 372. Bul- Inclosures and Gates.
lock's lock, not closing till the door is Sluice gates. Belidor. Arch. I. ii.
Hydr.
shut. S. A. XIX. 282. Nich. 8. II. 204. Orme's field gate. Bailey's machines. II. 7.

Holoraberg's patent locks. Repert. XV. Raised by inclined planes. Produces a great strain.

S66. Berard's lock. Melanges. 107. Nich. Underwood's patent railing. Repert. VII. I67.
8. III. 21G. An old secret lock. Nich. 8. *Haddingtonon inclosures. Board Agr. II. 1.
V. 203. Regnier's padlock of combina- Par/rer on gates. 8. London, 1801. R. L
tion. Nich. VI. 43. Pritty's patent hinges. Repert. ii. II. 50.

Repert. ii. I. 321. Opening on either side Waistell'sgate*. S. A. XXII. 73.

of the doorway. Smith's patent alarm bell. Dickson's practical agriculture. R. 1.

Repert. ii. III. 182. An Egyptian lock.

Nich. VIII. 115. Painting and Preservation of Wood .

Cooper's work. Fougeroux Art du tonne- See Drawing.

Jier. f Paris. Ace. A. P. 1763. H. 140.
Grinding paint. See trituration.
Levee's bathing tub. A. P. 1767. H. 186.
Colebrooke on encaustic painting. Ph. tr.

Hoops. E.M.A.VI. 721. E. M.A.VIII. 1759. 40.

Art. Tonnelier.
Ward on preventing the bad effects of white
Buckets, measures, and turnery ware. E. M. lead. S. A. XIII. 229.
A. I. Art. Boisseher. Eniersou's mecha- Batson on the dry rot. S. A. Repert. II. 112.
nics. F. 261. 262.
Recommends that the wood be charred, and kept very
Beehives. Saintefois's beehive. A. P. 1772. i.
dry. I

H. V. E. M. A. .VII. Art. Ruches. A Ludicke's substitute for oil Ph. M. I.

paint.
beehive. Bailey's Mach. I. 65. Harasti's 22.
beehive. Repert. XI. 342. Worth's patent preparation for preserving
Umbrellas. Navarre's umbrella. A. P. 1759.
ships. Repert. V. 177.
H. Marius's umbrella. Mach. A. II. 87, Fabbroni "on encaustic painting. Ph. M. I.

89, 145, 161. E. M. A. V. Art. Parasols.

23, 141.
E. M. M. I. Art. Boursier. Beevor on the duration of wood. Repert.
Snuff boxes. Chaumette. A. P. 1715. H. VIII. 57.
66. Mach. A. III. 55. Pattenson's preservation of weatherboards.
Cases. E. M. M. III. Art. Gainier.
Repert. VIII. 126.
Machine for drawing lotteries. Daubicourt. Atkinson's patent white paint, from zinc.
Mach. A. II. 109- l63. Repert. VIII. 309-
 CATALOGUE. — PHII.OSOPHr AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS. 181

XIV.
Nystrom's amber varnish. Repert. Regulation of Descent.
391.
See Cranes.
Cadet de Van X on painting with milk. Re-
M. X. 338. Nich. V. Fire Escapes,
pert. XV. 411. Ph.
247. Leup. Th; Machinarium. t. 54. 55.

Darcet on painting with Nich. Emerson's mech.

milk.
Stay on a rope by
8. I. friction.
*
w i ^. f. 228. 229.
Garbonel on painting with serum. Journ. Varcourl. A. P. 176I. H. 158.

Phys, LVI. 228. Ph. M. XV. 240.

Re- Collins. Am. tr. IV. 143. Repert. XV. 35.
pert,
ii. 11. 373. Audibert's machine approved. M. Inst. IV..
Johnson on tlie dry rot. S. A. XXI. 284.
Repert. ii. I. 439.
Said to be the boletus lacrymans.
Jacks.

Emerson's mechanics, f. 258..

Tools.

See Penetration and Division. Application of Moving Forces.

Walking wheels for horses, oxen, and goats, .

E. M. A. IV. Art. Menuiserie. vertical and oblique. Leup. Th. M. G.

Makingglue. E. M. M. III. Art. Colle.
t. 35. 36.
Rich's bolt drawer. S. A. Repert. I. 246.
for invalids, Leup. Th. Hy-
Employment
Bentham's patents for working in wood and diot. 2. t. 14.
metal. Repert. V. 293. X. 250. M. G.
Application of weights. Leup. Th. t..

Chiefly by rotatory machines.

86.
Phillips's tubes for driving copper bolts with- Emerson's mechanics. Pr. II9.
out flattening the heads. S. A. XIX. 274. Churchman. Ph. tr. 1734. XXXVIII. 402.
Nich. 8. III. 35. Harnesses his horses to a fixed point, and makes them 1

walk in or on a wheel.

Machiner I/, or Modification ofMotion. fSarrebourg's new moving power. A.P. 1753.
H. 300. Mach. A. VI L 461.
Perrault's hand. Mach. A. I.
Mercury descending in a spiral tube.

fLespiniere's assemblage
of machines. A. P. Bernoulli on the application of force to ma-
1726. H. 73. Mach. A. IV. 221. chines. N. C. Petr. XIII. 242. -
On communicating motion by ropes, rods, Lambert on the winch. N. Act. Helv. I. 75..
endless ropes with knots, endless chains, on
Baillet de Belloy applying the draught of.
wheels, systems of levers, and racks. horses in a perpendicular direction. Roz.
Emerson's mech. Prop. 110. On equal- XLII. 129. Repert. III. 422.
ising or accelerating motion. Pr. 111. On Buchanan's improved cattle mills, with a
changing its direction. Pr. 112. catch. Repert. IF. 19.
Lowndes's gymnasticon, for exercising the Eckhardt's patent for applying animal force. .

body. Repert. VI. 88. Repert. II. 36l.

Imison's elements. I. 78. By external walking wheels, and flexible roads.
182 CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS.

Lambie's patent for applying force to ma- derive their strength either from their breadth, or from the

addition of different plates.

chinery. Repert. XI. 37
!•

A man standing on a moveable foot board.

Person's mill worked by a lever. Recueil. pi. Jointed Work.
3 . . 5.

Walker's familiar philosophy. Lect. 3. Hook's universal joint. Lect. Cutl. Heli-

Mills are sometimes driven in military service by the oscopes, p. 14. Birch. IV. 2l6.
wheels of waggons. Fig. Martenot's endless chain. Mach. A. II. 115.

R. 15. on a barometrical perpetual motion. Loriot's endless chain. A. P. 1761. H. l6l.

Nich.IX.212. K'astner on suspended systems of rods. N.C.
For the forces of wind and water, see hy- Gott. 1770. II. 132.
draulic machines. Chains. E. M. A. I. Art. Chainetier.

Vaucanson's chain. E. M. PI. VIII. Tirage

of Motion. des soies.
Economy
Giraud on the best forms of chains and cords.
Hooke's centrifugal regulator. Hooke. Lect. Roz. XXXV. 42.

Cutl. Lampas. p. 43. Jointed levers and frame work. LangsdorfFs

On fly
wheels. Leup. Th. M. G. t. 22. 23. hydr. PI. 33. 40.
Emerson's mechanics. Pr. 113. Hancock's chain. S. A. XIV. 313. Repert.

On fly wheels. Langsd. Hydr. c. 35. VL 241.

Burgess's patent rotatory

motion by a catch Fussell's patent chain for lessening friction.

and fly. Repert. V. 11. Repert. XII. 303.

Fly wlieels. Imison's elements. I. 65. King's patent joint. Repert. XIII. 297.
B. Soc. Phil.
fProny's condenser of force.
n. 85. Nich. IX. 275. Production and Rectification of
Nicholson justly observes, that wherever a weight is

wound up there is a loss of force.

Rotatory Motion.

Lahire on winches and cranks. A. P. IX. 99.

164.
Springs-
Auger's machine for producing perpendicular
Emerson's mech. 177. motion by a jack. A. P. 1721. H. 97.
Springs are weakened by use,
but recover their strength
Leup. Th. M. G. t. 13, 21 . .
27, 71. Th.
if they are laid by.
Hydr. ii. t. 26, 27.
Hopkinson's spring block. Am. tr. III. 331.
Belidor. Arch. Hydr. I. i. 36.
Repert. I. 44.
Garousse's lever. Mach. A. H. 15. 17. Beli-
To prevent the heeling of the ship, which might be caused
dor. Arch. Hydr. I. i. 122. •

by too sudden an impulse.

On springs. Ph. M. II. 67. A lever with a double catch to mm wheels.
Metal springs, if allowed to vibrate freely, soon break or of cranks. Belidor. Arch.
Ellipses instead
change their form, and take a set : wooden springs are
Hydr. II. i. PI. n. 13, 14.
more liable to break if stopped and not suffered to vibrate.
Red deal is the fittest wood for springs.
Cranks. Emerson's mechanics, f. 238. Un-
Springs roust be thin in order to be flexible ; and rautt dulating rollers. F. 247.
1
 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPIIT AND ARTS, PnACTlCAL MECHANICS. 183

Lambert on the winch. N. Act. Helvet. I.

Wheels without cogs. Nich. I. 328.
Kastner on the velocity of a crank or winch. On lantern pinions. Nich I. 522i 546.
N. C.Gott. 1774. V. 119.
fKelly's instrument for bevilling wheels.
Triple crank. Corn mill. Am. tr. Repert. VI. 106.
Alternate racks. LangsdorfFs hydr. PI. 32.
Says that the angles should be as the diameters of the
Fulton's patent cylinder for working pumps. wheels : in reality the tangent of the angle must be to the
radius as one diameter to the other.
E-epert. III. 220.
A double screw. Walking wheels. See application of force.
mode of moving pump rods.
When a strap runs on a revolving cone, and is sufficiently
Lauden's patent
tight, it advances towards the base of the cone, and does
Repert. XII. 145. not slide towards the point ; for the edge of the strap near-
Prony on converting rotatory into alternate est the base is drawn more rapidly than the other, and the
motion. M. Inst. K. 216. part advancing towards the wheel is bent towards the base.

Cranks. Banks on machines. 46. Hence, in order that the strap may remain on the middle of
a wheel, it must consist of two portions of cones joined at
Jones on Wolff's equalised crank. Nich. VII.
their bases, and if rounded, must be convex, not concave,
133. at its circumference, as may be seen in many manufacto-
Nearly f csembling a fly in its effect. ries. Y.
R. B. Nich. IX. 212.
The distance of two centres being 3, two levers move oa
them of which the lengths are 2 and 4 the shorter sup- :

Structure and Proportions of Wheels.

ports a third of which the length is 5, receiving the end of
the longer in a joint at the distance 1 ; the motion of the
end will be initially almost rectilinear. Lahire on the teeth of wheels. A. P. IX. 90.
The truth of this may be shown from the properties of 283. 292.
the and from the comparison of the sines of the
ellipsis,
*Camus on the teeth of wheels. A. P. 1733.
evanescent angles. But, more correctly, the length of the
117. H. 81.
second lever being to the same length increased by the
fhort portion of the third a« a; to 1 , the distance of the fixed Blakey's mode of drawing wire for pinions.

points must be to the same whole length as ix^Axx to 1. Mach. A. VII. 255.
Thus if aftz.8, as in the case proposed, the distance of the Gallonde's compass for wheelwork. Mach.
fixed points must be to the whole length as .64 to 1 , and to
A. VII. 315.
the short levei as .64 to .36 or as 16 to g, and not as 3 to 2.
*Euler on the teeth of wheels. N. C. Petr.
V. 299. XI. 207.
Wheelwork. A form without friction is
perfectly impracticable, al-

though for a single tooth possible.

Leup. Th. M. G. 1. 14. Belidor. Arch. Hydr.
Cutting engine for wheels, Emers. mech. f.
I. i. 119. E. M. A. PI. III.
Horlogerie.
304.
E. M. A. VII. Art. Roiie.
Lecerf on the proportion of wheels and pi-
nions. Ph. tr. 1778. 950.
Particular kinds of Wheels.
Kastner on the teeth of wheels. Commentat.
Hook's perfection of wheelwork. Animadv. Gott. 1781. IV. M.S. 1782. V.M. 1. Dis-
on Helvetius. sert. Math.
Several wheels on the same axis.
*tEryC. Br. Suppl. Art. Machinery.
Bevilled wheels. Enc. Br. Art. Mechanics. Imison's elements. I. 78.
184 CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS.

Haynani's gage for cutting wheels. S. A. Helmstadt. Raisin's automaton harpsichord was found to
contain an infant performer.
XVII 325
Donkins's table of the radii of wheels. Nich.
VI. 86. Union of Flexible Fibres.

(E. M. M.") Various manufactures. E. M.

WheelwoTk with Appendages.
Manufactures, arts, et metiers, par Roland
See Jointed Work, Cranks. d* ^
Plati^re. III. t. 1785—91.

Deparcieux on the form of the undulations ISIaterials.

for raising stampers. A. P. 1747. 243. H.
121. Animal.
Garousse's tooth wheeled lever. Mach. A. II.

15. 17. Lever with a hook. 19. Aglionby on the nature of silk. Ph. tr. I699.
XXI. 183.
Gensanne's lantern substituted for cranks.
Bon on the silk of spiders. Ph. tr. 1710.
Mach. A. VII. 105.
XXVII. 2.

Daubenton on the magnitude of the fibres of

Friction of Wheelwork.
wool. A. P. 1775. l.H. 1.
See removing weights. The fibres of superfine wool arc ^5 of a line in
diameter,
or^. E.I.

Coulomb on the friction of pivots.

Daubenton on the new wool. "A. P. 1785.
A. P.
454.
1790. 448.
The friction varies nearly as the pressure. Pivots run
Silkworms. E. M. A. VIII. Art. Vers^soie.
with on garnet than on agate a perfect polish
less friction : Silk. M. M. II. Art. Soie.
E.
reduces the friction to i or j of what is usual in Wool. E. M. M. I. Art. Moutons. Laine.
ordinary-
work. For the point of a cone of steel bearing less than loo Hair. E. M. M. I. Art. Poll.
grains, the best angle is 10° or 12° ; when the weight is 4
Intestines. E. M. M. III. Art.
or soo or more, about *i°. Boyaudier.
Leather. E. M. M. III.

Swayne's apparatus for rearing silkworms.

Machinery for Entertainment.
S. A. VII. 148.

Maillard's artificial swan. Mach. A. VI. 133. Chappe on a transparent texture derived from
the silkworm. Ann. Ch. XI. 113.
Gondola with an artificial horse. 137.
Silk gut. Hochheimer. Ph. M. I. 3G8.
Tumbling figures. Mussch. Introd. I.
pi. 11.
Des Lozieres on animal cotton. Nich. 8. IV.
Ferguson's mechanical paradox. Mech.
exerc. 44.
Ph. M. XIX. 120.

Wheels moving in contrary directions.

Automatons. E. M. Physique. Art. Auto-

Vegetable.

mate. Cloth of the bark of the genista. C. Bon.

Vaucanson's flute and duck. IV. o. 349.
player, piper,
Montucla and Lalande. III. 802. 803. Cerati on the bark of the broom. A. P. 1763.
These machines were purchased by Professor
Bayreuss of
H. 52.

2
 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AXD ARTS, PRACTICAL MKCUANICS. 185

Ironside on the son, or crotalaria juncea, used beyond contradiction, that many advantages may be obtain-
ed from the cultivatiori of this flax on a large scaje and ;
for ropes. Ph. tr. 1774. 99-
that it
may be attempted with a prospect of success in the
Antill on hemp. Roz. XIII. Suppl. 97. Re- southern parts of France.

pert. V. 384.
Flax and hemp. E. M. M. I. Art. Lin.
Mineral.
Chanvre. II. Suppl. Art. Lin et Chanvre.
Cotton. E. M. M. I. Art. Colon. Ciampini on asbestus. Ph. tr. 1701. 91 !•

Gold thread. E. M. PI. IV. Tireur d'or.

Stipa tenacissima, lime-tree bark, reeds, straw,
and agave or tree aloe. E. M. M. II. Art.
Sparte. Pi'eparalions for Spinning or
Apocynum Syriacum. Moller on the Syrian Winding.
silk
plant. Ph. M.VIH. 149- machine used in cards.
Chopitel's making
Guthrie on the cottan tree. Manch. M. V. A. P. 1747. H. 127.
214. Roz.
Preparation of silk. Intr. II. 227.
Labillardieire on the flax of New Zealand.
Comb mach. I. 111.
pots. Bailey's
B. Soc. Phil. n. 15. Journ. R. I. II. Ph.
Antill on hemp. Roz. XKl. Suppl. 97. Re-
M. XVII. 374.
perl. V. 384.
Roxburgh on the strength of various vege- Machine for hackling flax. E. M. Art Ara-
tables. S. A. XXII. 3fi3.
toire.
Finds hemp the strongest of all, except the agave and the
Enc. Br. Art. Woolcombing. E. M. M. L
aletris : the agave Jj stronger, the aletris nerv«^a f
Art. Peignage.
E. iM.M. I. Art. Cardes.
From the Journals of the Rnyal Inslitiition, II. 104. Ex-
tract from a Memoir of Mr. LaHUardiire, on IheStrength CoUomb on the varnish of silk. Roz. XXVII.
of the Fibres "f the Fiax of New Zealand. Read before 9.5.

Hughes's machine for twitching wool. S. A.

the National Institute. B. Soc. Phil. n. 75.

This flax, the phormium tenax, was procured from the

VII. 193. Repert I. 93.
inhabitants of New Zealand, by Mr. Labillardiere himself, Prozet on dressing hemp. Roz. XXIX. 241.
in the voyage he made in search of La Peyrouse.
Carlwright's patent machine for combing
In these experiments particular to employ care was taken
wool. Repert. I. 228.
substances of a diameter as equable as possible throughout
their lengths. The inferences are, that the strength of the Wright's patent machine for combing wool.
fibres of the great aloe, agave Americana, being equal to 7, Repert. 11.217.
that of common i that of comb Repert. VII. 199.
flax is
represented by 1 1
; hgmp, Daniel's pot.
by 16^ that of the flax of New Zealand by and that
; 23-,^;
Hawksley's patent for combing wool. Re-
of silli by 3-1. If we call the strength of flax lOOO, that of
the aloe will be 59O, of hemp 1390, of the
pert. VIII. 217.
phormium 1990,
and of silk 2894. Varley's patent for carding and spinning.
The degree of extension of these fibres, before ihey break, Repert. XI. 217.
is in a different proportion. Supposing it 1 for flax, it is 2 for
Foden's size for dressing cotton. Repert."
hemp, 3 for the flax of New Zealand, 5 for the agave, and
XIII. 5.
10 for silk. It is well known that the strength of cords de-
Bovvden's patent machine for batting cotton.
pends as well on their elasticity, as on the ultimate force

required to break them. Repert. XVI. 5.

The experiments and reflexions of Mr. Labillardiere show, Before carding.

VOL. II. Bb
186 CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHAXICS.

Walinsley's patent machine for batting

cot- *Vancanson on winding silk. A. P. 1770.
ton. Repert. ii. I. 401. - 437. H. 106. 1773. 445. H. 74.

Berthollet on imitating cotton with hemp. Vaucanson on the construction of silk mills.

Nich. VI. 252. Repert. ii. HI. 388. A. P. 1776. 156. H. 46.
Barlcer's machine for preparing wool. S. A. Twisting mill. Emers. JNIech. F. 300.
XXI. 323. new silk reel. Ph. tr. 1759.
PuUein's 21.
Paukt Art du devidage des soies. f. Paris.
Vaussena's macliine for winding silk. A. P.
Spinning.
1767. H. 184.
Ciampini on spinning asbestus. Ph. tr. 1701. An Italian silk reel. Bailey's mach. I. 104.
XXII. 9U. Reels. Bailey's mach. I. HI.
Andre's spinning wheel. A. P. 1745. H. 82.
Cruger's machine for doubling yarn. Bailey's
Mach. A. VII. 293. mach. II. 31.

Spinning wheel. Emers. mech. F. 191.

Spoules for winding thread. E. M. M. I.
Brisout's spinning machine. A. P. 176l. H. Art. Canons.
154. M. M.
Twisting silk. E. II. Art. Retordre.
A wheel that spins and reels at once. Roz.
Twisting bowstrings. E. M. M. III. Art.
XIV. 415.
Boyaudier.
Spinning wheels. Bailey's mach. I.
111.
Descharmes on twisting. Roz. XXV. 466.
Spinning and spinning machines. E. M.
M.
I. Art. Filature.
Antis's spinning wheel, the bobbin moving Ropemaking.
backwards and forwards. S. A. XI. 157-
Hooke's experiments on cordage, I669.
Repert. I. 37. Further improved. Repert.
Birch. II. 393.
IV. 173.
Showed that twisting diminished its strength.
Kendrew's patent spinning machine. Repert. Reaumur on the strength of ropes compared
XVI. 73. with that of their parts. A. P. 1711. 6. H.
Thread has been sold for 4I. an ounce.
82.

Depontis on cords. A. P. 1739- H. 56.

Winding, Reeling, and simple *Duhamcl Traite de la corderie perfection-
nee. 4. Paris. R. S.
Twisting.
E. M. M. I. Art. Corderie. E. M. PI. V.
Grieser's machine for doubling and twisting Marine, 26, 27, 31 . .91.
A. P. 1743. H. 170.
silk. Belfour's patent ropes and cordage. Repert.
Rouviere's reel for silk. A. P. 1744. H. 62. II. 145.

Mach. A. VII. 265. Chapman's patent for laying

cordage. Rep.
Vaucanson's machine for winding silk. A. P. IX. 1.
With an account of the whole process of ropemaking.
1749- 142.
Vaucanson's machines for doubling and Chapman's patent preservative of cordage.
A. P. 1751. 121. 1757- 155. ii. II. 91.
twisting silk, Repert.
H. 160. Curr's patent flat rope. Repert. X. 36I.
 CATALOGUE. PHILbSOPHV AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS. 187

*Robison. Enc. Br. Art. Ropemaking. Ribbons. E. M. M. II. Art. Ruban.

Mbglich's woven rope. Ph. M. IIL 331. Velveret. E. M. PI. VI. Toilerie. E. M. PI.

Mitchell's patent for cordage. Repert. XI. VIII. Velours de coton.

302. Repert. ii. I. 19- Borders of cloths. E. M. M. I. Art. Lisiere.

More divided than usual. Carpets. E. M. M. II. Art. Tapis.

*lludclart's patent registered cordage. Rep. Drawing patterns. E. M. BI. I. Art. Dessins.

XIl. 80. Preparation for weaving. E. M. M. I. Art.

Hnddart's patent for tarring cordage. Rep. Chaine. Ourdir.

XIV. 231. Size for weaving. E. M. M. I. Art. Colle.

Huddarfs remarks on the patent registered Daubenton on the first superfine cloth of

cordage. 4. Lond. 1800. France. A. P. 1784. 76.

With 3 yarns in a strand, nothing is lost in the corHnion Rochon's varnished wire cloth, as a substi-
way with 8, l or with 100, about l the regis-
Phys. XLVI.
less
; ; ;
tute for horn. Journ. (III.)
tered cordage of 98 yams loses nothing, according to the

author's theory but in the experiment it to lose

'272. Nich. II. 412.Rq5ert. X. 207.
; appeared
an eighth. The registered cordage stretches also much less Miller's patent for weaving. Repert. VII f.
than the common. 148.

With wheelwork for winding up the cloth.

Manufacture of Cloth. Weaving. Holland's patent fleecy hosiery. Repert. XV.
17.
Petty's history of cloth making. Birch.
I. 53.

Cerati on cloth made of the bark of the Enc. Br. Art. Weaving.
broom. A. P. \1Q3^ H. 52. Fryer's patent cotton goods. Repert, ii. I.

JPaukt Art de fabriquer les etoffes de soie. f. 257.

Paris. Haden's patent nail bagging. Repert. ii. III.

Duhamel Art du f. Paris. 13.

drapicr,
Ace. A. P, 17G5. H. 132. Cobb's patent shag or pkish. Repert. ii. III.

Duhamel Art de faire des tapis, "f. Paris. 14.

Ace. A. P. 1766. H. 157.

Cloths. Roz. Intr. I. 236. Looms and their parts.
I'ine muslins are woven wet in India. Vau-
canson. A. P. 1776. l6l. Genn^'s machine looms. Ph.tr. 1677. XII.
La Platriire Art du fabriquant des etoffes en 1007.
laine. f. R. S. From the Journal des Savans.

La Platritte Art'du fabriquant de velours de Vaucanson's tapestry loom. A. P. 1758. 245.

coton. f. R. S. H. 96.
Improvements in weaving. Bailey's much. Delier's mode of making the combs of looms.
I. 124. A. P. 1767. H, 185.
Woollen cloths. E. M. M. I. Art. Draperie. Combs. Paulet Artdu Peignier. Paris, 1776.
Cloth of linen and hemp. £. M. M. II. Art. Almond's loom for woollen cloth.
Bailey's
Toile. mach. I. 99. Other looms. 111.
Gauzes and crapes. E. M. M. I. Art. Gazes. Looms. E. M. M. I. Art. Metier.

2
183 CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHr AND ARTS, PRACTICAL JIECHAXICS,

Combs or reeds. E. M. A. V. Art. Parfaiseur Jeffrey's machine used in dying. Rep. VIII.
de peignes. E. M. M. 1. Art. Peigtie ou 296.
Ros. Gillispie's patent for printing calicos. Rep.
Heavels or harnesses. E. M.M. I. Art. Lisse. XI. 365.
Shuttles. E. M. M. I. Art. Navette. Chaptal on cleaning cloths. Rep. XII. 56.
Shott's loom for slight silk. S. A. VIII. 172. Ilarmar's patent machine for raising a shag.

Repert. V. 322. Repert. XII. 289.

Enc.Br. Art. Ribbon loom. Silk loom. Weav- Ilarmar's cropping and shearing machine.

ing loom. Repert. XV. I.

Clulow's loom Tor figured ribbons. S. A. Hornblovver's patent machine for glazing ca-

Repert. XIV. 374. licos. Repert. XIII. 289.

Clulow's improved loom, applicable to weav- Newman's patent for embossing cloth. Rep.
ing sacks. S.. A. XX. 347. Repert. ii. III. XIII. 295.
35. Fryer's patent for dressing cloth. Repert. ii.

I. 335.

Operations subsequent to zeeavhig. Fryer's patent for cutting cloth. Repert. ii.

II. 23.
Moulin's machine for folding stuft's. A. P.
H. Vauquelin on water-proof cloths. R. Soc.
1737. 107.
Phil. n. 87.
Durand's mill for fulling and raising a nap.
Thinks the operation is performed by means of soap,
A. P. 1744. H. 160. Mach. A. VII. 223. and a little sulfuric acid.
glue, alum,

Fulling mill. Emers.

mcch. V. 155.
Vaucanson's machine for laminating stuffs.
Textures. not regularly woven.
A. P. 17o7. 155. H. I6l.
Vaucanson's machine for cording silk stuffs. Bedeau's stocking machine. A. P. 1737. H.

H. lOy. 118.
A. P. 1769. 5.

A for stuffs. Roz. Intr. 1. 74. Unvvin's stocking frame. Bailey's mach, I.
printing press
Duhamel Art do friser et de ratiuer les 93.

6toffes de laine. f. Par. Hairwork. Garsault Art du perruquier et du

barbier. Paris.
Ace. A. P. 1766. H. 156.
f.

eu Ace. A. P. 1767. II. 183.

La Platriere Art d'imprimer les etoffes

laines. f. R. S. Knitting and stocking weaving. E. M. A. I.

M. M. Art. Frise. M. M. [. Art. Bas.
Art. Bas. E.
Raising a nap. E.
I.

M. M. Art. Chardon-bonetier. Lace. E. M. M. I. Art. Dentelles.

Teazles. E. I.

E. M.Pl. VIII. Im- Hairwork. E. M. A. VI. Art. Perruquier.

Printing woollen stuffs.
Rushvvork and matting. E. Al. M. II. Art.
pression des
etoffes.

Descharmes on the dressing of stuffs. Roz. Sparte.

XXXIV. 381.
Mats and straw work. E. M. A. V. Art.
Nattier.
A cylinder of paper
for calendering. Journ.
Basket work. E. M. A. VIII. Art. Vannier.
Phys. XLVII. (IV.)389.
Beehives. See Carpentry.
Nicholson's pateut for printing linen. Rep.
V. 145. Sieves. E. M. ]VJ. III. Art. Cribles.
 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS. 1 Sfl

Wire gratings. Duhamel Art. de I'epinglier. Lasts. E. M. A. IIP Art. Formier. '

55. Brushes. E. M. M. 1. Art. Crin.

Fishing nets. E. M. A. II. Art. Filets. E. M. Needles. E. M. A. I. Art. Aiguillier.
Peches. Pi. 36. Camper sur la meilleure forme des souliers. 8.

Wiiips. E. M. M. III. Art. Fouets. R. S.

Boswell's loom for fishing nets. S. A. XIV. Dunnage's waterproof hats. Repert. IV. 302.
275. Bell's patent needles. IX. 47.
Repert.
Slocl<ing loom. Nich. III. 229. Boileau's patent straw hats.
Repert. XI. 97.
Woven ropes. Moglich. Ph. M. III. ^31. Broussonet on morocco leather. Repert. XI.
Eaton's patent stocking frame for cross- 282.
stitch. Repert. XI. 36 1. Simpson's patent straw plat. Repert. XV. 19.
The straw is folded instead of platting ;
hats are made by-

Knots. sewing the plat together.

Holden's improvements in shoemaking. S.
Knots. Eniers. Mech. Pr. 114. E. iVI. PI. V.
A. XXII. 304.
•
Marine. PI. 15. E. iM. PI. VI. Soierie. PI.

113.
Appendages to Clothes.

Sewing. Chaumette's buckle. Mach. A. III. 61.

Umbrellas. See Carpentry'. Duhamel Art de I'epinglier. f. Paris.

Ace. A. P. 1761. H. 152.
La Chaumette's matrass. A. P. 1717. H. 83.
Pins. E. M. A. 11. Art. Epinglier.
]Much. A. II. 117.
Button moulds. E. M.A. I. Art. Boutonnier.
Cay's coat of six pieces. A. P. 1720. H. 114.
Bell's patent buckles. I. 149.
Mach. A. IV. 9. Repert.
Cheston's patent buckles. Repert. V. 19.
GarsauU Art. du tailleur. f. Paris.
Clay's patent bullous. Repert. XII. 241.
Ace. A. P. 1769. H. 124.
Harris's patent pins. Repert. XIll. 217.
Garsaidt Art du cordoniiier. f. Paris.
Hornblower's patent pattens. Repert. XIII.
Ace. A. P. 1768. H. 127.
236.
Garsault Art de la lingero. f. Paris.
Barneti's patent buttons. Repert. XIII. 368.
Dudin Art du relieur doreur de livres. f.

Longman's patent pattens. Repert. XVI.

Paris.
145.
Anisson on bookbinding. M. S. f. R. S.
Ross's expanding ring. S. A. XXI. 370.,
Bookbinding. See printing.
Clothes. E. M. M. I. Art. Habit. Modes.
JI. Art. Tailleur. Felting.
Linen. E. M. M. I. Art. Cbuturiere. Linge. Nollet Art du chapelier. f. Paris.

Embroidery. E. M. M. I. Art. Broderie. Ace. A. P. 1765. H. 132.

Fiinges. E. M. M. I. Art. Passementier. Gerard on felts. A. P. 1770. H. 1 16.

Belts. E. M. M. III. Art. Ceinturon. Hats. E. M. M. I. Art. Chapellerie. HI.

Gloves. E. M. M. III. Art. Gant. Suppl. Art. Chapeau.
Shoes. E. M. M. III. Art. Cordorinier. Trousier on beaver hats. Roz. XXVII. 71.
igO CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS.

Monge on felting. Ann. Ch. \'I. 300. Re- On regenerated paper. Journ. Phys, XLIV.
,
pert. III. 351. (I.) 303.
Thinks the hairs are united by projecting serratures or
Deyeux on regenerated paper. Ann. Ch.
filaments. But this supposition is not necessary Tor ex-
XIX. 237. Repert. X. 136.
plaining the adhesion of felts, which may be deduced from
Eckhardt's patent paper hangings. Repert.
the force of friction only.
II. 90.
Cbaussier on hatmaking. Journ. Pol)'!. I.

162, Nich. 1. 399. Repert. X. 275. Cunningham's patent preparation of rags.

On 467. 509. HI. 22. Repert. II. 222.

hatmaking. Nich. II.

Hooper's patent printing paper. Repert. Ill,

23. 73. IV. 236.
Tilstone's patent for hats. 377.
making Repert.
I. 1. With a mixture of plaster or of talc.

Burns's patent for hats. Repert. IX. I67. Carpenter's patent for bleaching paper. Re-
Dunnage's patent for ventilating hats. Re- pert. V. 369.

pert. X. 149. Bigg's patent for bleaching paper. Repert.

for taking off the fur from YI. 235.
Chapman's patent
sealskins. Repert. XI. 374. Koop's patent for regenerated paper. Re-
Ovey and Jepson's patent for h.its. Repert. pert. XIV. 225.

XIII. 373. Koop's patent straw paper. Repert. ii. 1. 241.

Walker's patent waterproof hats. Repert. With quicklime.

XVI. 217. Sewel's specimen of paper made of gunny

bags or paut, corchorus. 8. Lond. 1801.

Papermaking. Straw paper. Journ. Phys. LII. 376.

Guetlard on the materials for making paper. Loysel on bleaching pulp for paper. Ann.
A. P. 1741. H. 159. Ch. XXXIX. 137. Nich. 8. I. 118. Re-

Lalande Art de faire du papier, f. Paris. pert. XVI. 200. Ph. M. XI. 273.
Winter's patent animal floor paper. Repert.
Desmaret on the mode of making paper in

Holland. A. P. 1771. 335. H. 65. 1774.

XVI. 361.
599. H. 64. Campbell on the state of papermaking. Nich.

mode of making paper 8; II. 6.

Ironside on the in
Plus's patent paper. Repert. ii. II. 406.
India. Ph. tr. 1774. 99-
Paper of cotton said to have been used about the year
Papermaking. Bailey's mach. 124. is
I.
1006, of rags in 1319 the manufacture was introduced into
E. M. A. V. Art. Papier.
J

England in 1588.
Cards. E. M. A. I. Art. Cartier.

Pasteboard. E. M. A. I. Art. Cartonnerie.

Am. Papermills.
Franklin on papermaking in China. tr.

III. 8. Repert. I. 41.. A paper and corn mill. Mach. A. I. 121.

Roz. Pannetiers stampers of cast iron. A. P.

Faujas on paper of mulberry bark.
XLII. 239. 1772. i.

Broussenel on mulberry paper. Roz. XLIII. Enc. Br. Art. Papermill.

See Mills,
394.
 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS, l^I

Pearson on watches. Nich. III. 49. 189. V.

Timekeejjers in General.
46.
*Hugenii horologium oscillatorium. f. Par,
E. Walker on Barraud's improved timekeep-
1673, ers. Nich. VII. 203.
Ace, Ph. tr. 1673. VIII. 6068. Disapproves of jewelling.

Huygens on the invention of watches. A. P. *J. Halcyon the wear of timekeepers. Nich.
X. 381. VIII. 46.
Hooke's centrifugal regulator. Hooke. L. C. Watches -were made at Nuremberg in 1477. Hoi
watch with a spring in I653.
Lampas. 43.
Hooke on timepieces. Nich. IV. 237.
Particular Constructions of Clocl^^il^.ifCRNlA.~ ^''
Lahireon clocks. A. P. 1700. I6I.H, 144,

1703.285. H. 130. and Watches.

Lahire on the invention of pendulum clocks. On the watches of Hugens and Lord Kin-
A. P. 1717. 78. cardine. Ph. tr. I. 1665 — 6.
*The clockmaker, by W. D. F. R. S.
artificial Hooke's spring watches, Hooke on heli-
(Derham). 12. Lond. 1714. M. B,
oscopes. 4. Lond. 1675.
Saurin on clocks. A. P. 1720. 208. H. IO6. Ace. Ph. tr. 1765. X. 440.
Kratzenstein on marine timekeepers. N. C.
Hugens's portative watches. Ph. tr. l675. X.
-Pelr, III. 381. 272.
Cumming's elements of clock and watch work. With a spiral spring, and a pinion on the axis of the ba-

4. Edinb. 1766. R. I. lance.

llatton on clock and watch work. 8. Wheeler on a rolling clock. Ph. tr. 1 684.
BerthoudTy&\te des horloges marines. 4. R.S. XIV. 647.
Berthoud cclaircissemens. 4. R. S. Baufre's watch with a balance seve-
making
*Berthoud histoire de la niesure du temps par ral revolutions. A; P. I. 288.
les horloges. 2 Par. Ace. Journ.Phys.
v. 4. Harcjuiii's new watch. A. P. II. 68.
XLVIII. 461. ed. 2. 1802. R. I. Perrault's clock moved by water. Mach. A.
With an account of works on the subject, at the end. 1.39.
Harrison on the mensuration of time. Lond. Lebon's clock with a weight. A. P. 1714. H.
1767. 128.
Harrison on clockwork and music. 8. 1775. Sully's watch. A. P. 1716. H, 77- Mach. A.
'
R.S, IV. 93. 95.
Schulze on clocks. A.Berl. 1780. 349. 359.. Sully's marine clock. A. P. 1724. H. 94.
Chabert on marine watches. A. P. 1783.49. Mach. A. IV. 75.
Chaberl Extrait. 4. Par. 1785. R. S. Massy on marine timekeepers. A. P. Priv.
*E. M. A.m. Art. Horlogerie. I. ii.

Whidby on marine timekeepers. Papers on Leroy's repeating clock. A. P. 1728. H. no.

Nav. Arch. II. iii.
54.^ Mach. A. V. 61.
Enc. Br. Art. Clock. Leroy's watches. A. P. 1751. H. 174.
flat

Rittenhouse on timekeepers. Am. tr. IV. 26. Leroy's clock of two wheels. A. P. 1752. H,
*Robison. Enc. Br. SuppI, Art. Watchwork, 149. Mach. A. VII. 423.
192 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS.

Leroy's clock with one wheel ia each part. Millot's half second clock. A. P. 1762. H.
A. P. 1755. H. 140. 139. 190.

Leroy's night watch. A. P. 1761. H. 157. Lespine's repeating watch. A. P. 1763. H.

Leroy's simplified watches. A. P. 17G3. 420. 140.
H. 127. Biesta's watches. A. P. 1764. H. 182.

Leroy's marine watches. A. P. 17^7. H. Coupson's watch without a fusee. A. P. 1764.

125. H. 183.
Cassini on Leroy's watches. A. P. 1769. H. Nioux's watches. A. P. 1764. H. 183.
102. Tosembach's striking watch of 26 pieces. A.
Voyage pour eprouver les montres de Leroy. P. 1769. H. 128.
4. Paris. R. S. Franklin's clock with three wheels and two
His watches determined the longitude within 15' after pinions. Ferguson's mech. e.\erc. 1. Ano-
six weeks. ther similar clock. 4.
Collier's repeating clock. A. P. 1728. H. 110. Wollaston on the rate of a clock of Holmes.
Mach. A. V. 75. 77. Ph.tr. 1771. 559. 1773.67. 1775.290.
Dutertre's marine clock with a double pen- It varied but 2" or 3" a day for a whole year.
dulum. Mach. A. V. 79. Ferin's watches. A. P. 1772. i.

Outhiei's spring clocks. Mach. A. VL C)5. Robin's clock. A. P. 1778. H. 56."

Largay's repeating clock. A. P. 1734. H. IO6. Robin on turret clocks. Roz. XXXII. 45.
Mach A. VL 191. Magellan's clock. Roz. XVII. 283.
Thiout's repeating watch and clock. A. P. Hill's repeating timepiece. Bailey's mach.
1737. H. 107. Mach. A. VIL 61. \l.63.
Gallonde's clock with few wheels. A. P. 1740. With large plates.

H. 110. Mach. A. VIL 79. Fleuiku Voyage pour eprouver les horloges de
Gourdain's portable watch and clock without Berthoud. 4. R. S.
fusee. A. P. 1742. H. 161. Mach. A. VIL Count de Bruhl's registers of a watch. 4. R. S.
147. Sampson's chime clock. S. A. IV. 177.
Gourdain's half minute watch for the Maskelyne on Mudge's timekeepers. 8. Lond.
log. A.
P. 1743. H. 172. Mach. A. VIL 217. 1792. R. S.
Jodin's watch with two balances. A. P. 1754. Leslie's patent nautical watch. Repert. 11. 91.
H. 140. Henry's sentinel Repert. V.32.
register.

Charmy's clock. A. P. 1754. H. 141. Haley's patent timekeeper. Repert. VI. 145.
Mesurier's clock resembling Leroy's. A. P. Desaguliers's chronometer. Enc. Br. Art.
1755. H. 141. -^ Chronometer.
Romilly's watch. A. P. 1755. H. 143. Day's patent noctuary for a watchman. Nich.
Ridreaut's repeating clock. A. P. 1756. H. 8. V. 133. Repert. ii. III. l6l.

131. H. 103.
1758. Marquis of Exeter on a timepiece for regis-
Clock. Emerson's mech. F. 302, 303. tering the attendance of a watchman.
Mason on the rate of Ellicott's clock. Ph. tr. Nich. 8. V. 158.
1762, 534. Clock. Imison's elements. L pi. 5.
 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS. 193

Prior's simple striking part. S. A. XXI. 400. Escapements, or Scapements.

Nich IX. 92. Mach.
Sully's escapement without friction.

Massey's clock with a striking part regulated A. III. 95.

by a pendulum. S. A. XXI. 402. Nicli. Leroy's and Sully's clock escapement. Mach.
VIII. 162. Ph. M. XVIII. 303. A. VI. 83.
Elliott's simple repeater. S. A. XXII. 319.
Leroy's escapement of repose for watches.
Nich. VII. 157. A. P. 1742, H. 158. Mach. A. VII. 127-
Leroy's detent escapement. Mach.A.VII.385.
Parts of Timekeepers. The first detached escapement.

Leroy's new dead beat escapement. A. P.

Maintaining Power.
1748. H, 120.
See Machinery.
Volet's watch escapement. A. P. 1742. H.
Leboii's clock winder. Mach. A. III. 23.
162. Mach. A. VII. 139-
On making springs. Leup. Th. M. G. t, 69. Gourdain's watch escapement. A. P. 1742.
Kratzenstein's thermometrical power for a H. 158, Mach. A. VII. 141.
clock. N. C.Petr.II.221. Galonde's clock escapement with rollers. A.
Leplat's mode of winding up
clocks by a cur- P. 1742. H. 165. Mach. A. VII. 159-
rent of air. A. P. 1751. H. 171. Mach. A. Soumille's crank escapement. Mach. A. VII.
VII. 401. 325.
A weight hung on an endless cord. Eniers. For a pendulum of 19 feet, with a weight of 50 pounds.

mech. f. 230. Carou's dead beat escapement, A. P, 1734.

Galloys's machine for winding up continu- H. 139-

ally the weights of

a clock. A. P. 1766. H. Christin's watch escapement. A. P. 1755. H.
159. 138.

Thorowgood on a new watch key. 8. R. S. Lagrange on escapements. A. Bed. 1777. 173,

On the maintaining power in clocks and Magellan's escapement. Roz. XX. 376.
watches. Nich. I. 429. II. 49, Howell's detached escapement. S. A. X.
216,
Fusee.
Robin's watch escapement. Roz. XLIII.342,
Lahire on the fiaiureof fusees. A. P. IX. 102. Prior's detached escapement, S. A. XVI,

Varignon on the fusee. A. P. 1702. 192. H. 307. Nich. II. 3G3.

122. Goodrich's crank escapement for clocks, S,
Leroy on a new situation of the fusee, A. P. A. XVII. 333. Nich. III. 342.
1763. 420. H. 127. Reid on escapements. Nich. V. 55.
Chains for fusees. E. M. PI. I. Chainetier.
Delafons's watch escapement. S. A. XIX,
PI. 2. 331. Repert. XVI. 241. Nich. 8. I. 251.

Seems to resemble Mudge's and Haley's : but the locking

Wheels.
is said by the inventor to be simpler.
See Machinery.
Breguet's escapements. Montucla and La-
Ridley's sector and deepening tool, S. A. VI, lande. III.794.
188. 196. With a figure.

VOL. It. C C
194 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS.

Massey's escapement for clocks.

S. A. T. XX tion of a pendulum. Nich. 8. II. 76. 273.
414. Nich. VIII. 161. Ph. M. XVIII. 305. III. 35.

The scape wheel of Arnold's and of Earnshaw's pocket Hardy's mode of banking or checking the
timekeepers has 15 teeth: those of the box timekeepers 13. motions of a balance, S. A. XXII. 311.
Arnold makes the impelling teeth of the scape wheel cy-
Length of the pendulum. See Geography,
cloidal, acting against a point. His detent unlocks in-
and Rozier's Index. A. P. Art. Pendule.
wards, or towards the axis of the wheel ;
Earnshaw's out-
For every minute that a clock varies in a day, a second
wards.
pendulum must be altered -^ or .054 inch ; a half second

pendulum, ^ or .00134.
Bernoulli observes, that the time of vibration in a circular
Pendulums and Balances.
arc may be found very nearly, by adding to the radius one.
8 millionth of the versed sine.
Paufre's watch with a balance making se-
Six balance springs weigh a grain, and are worth 2l. 5s. j
veral revolutions. A. P. I. 288.
a grain of gold only 2d.
Leibnitz's proposal for regulating motion by Springs may be made of gold with i or i its weight of
wound more and more
up. Ph. tr. l67 J. copper they are elastic brittle than hard
springs alternately ;

drawn steel wire, but less so than spring tempered wire.

X. 285.
Lahire on second pendulums. A. P. 1715.
130.
Hands and Bells.

Derham's experiments on pendulums. Ph. tr.

Molard's mode of moving hands at a dis-
1736. XXXIX. 201. tance. Mach. A. II. 159.
Euler on a new kind of oscillation. C. Petr.
Pouchy on applying small clocks to large
XI. 128. bells. A. P. 1740. 122,
Rivasi on apendulum moving in small arcs. Dupont's enamelled dialplates. A. P, 1755.
A. P. 1749. H. 182. H. 138.
Godin's watch with a double balance. A. P. Ridrot's striking part. A. P. 1758. H. 103.
1754. H. 140. Courtois's changeable chimes. A. P. 1769.
Grenier's pendulum. Roz. XVI, 139. H. 129.
Magellan on the advantage of a large vibra-
tion. Koz. XX. 376.
Compensations and Corrections.
Crossthwaite's pendulums. Ir. tr. 1788. II. 7.

Repert. III. 254. Picard on clocks gaining in summer. A. P,

One of them supported by a diamond, L 73.
Mackay. Enc, Br. Art. Pendulum. Lahire on the inequalities of clocks. A. P.
Atwood on the vibrations of watch balances. 1703. 285. H. 130.
Ph. tr. 1794. 119. Derham on pendulums in a vacuum. Ph. tr.
An isochronous combination of springs. Approves 1704. XXIV. 1785.
Mudge's escapements. A half second lost a" in an hour, when placed
pendulum
Leslie's patent short pendulum. Repert. II. 91. in a vacuum •
when the arc of vibration was increased to

Benzenbergon a centrifugal pendulum. Gilb, the same extent in the open air, it lost 6" in an hour.

XVI. 494. Williamson's general correction. Ph. tr. 17 19.

For avoiding the alternation of motion. XXX. 1080,
E. Walker on the effect of the arc of vibra- An equated clock, including a correction for temperature.
 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHT AXD ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS. 195

Criaham's correction for temperature. Ph. tr.

ing a bob or weight. Cavallo, N. Ph. III.
1726. XXXIV. 40. PI. 18. f. 10.
in a tube of glass or of varnished brass. Ben zenberg's gridiron pendulum.
Mercury Gilb. XIV,
Tliiout's new corrections for timekeepers. A. ,315. Nich. VII. .300.
P. 1737. H. 107. The balances of brass and ste^l, carrying a weight at the
Cassini's compensation pendulum. A. P. 174 1 • ciid, are best made by immersing the steel into melted brass,

H. and turning it afterwards into a proper form.

363. 147.
Sometimes the compensation is made by the flexure of a
Eiiicott's two compensations. Ph. tr. 1751.
compound bar, which only widens or contracts the distance
479. of the two pins between which the spring plays.
One of them is eSected within the weight of the pendu- Earnshaw make the vibrations of the balance
professes to
lum. in short arcs more rapid than in larger, in order that the
Short's history of compensation pieces. Ph. contraction of the arc by the increased tenacity of the oil

tr. 1751. 517. may compensate for the unavoidable diminution of force of
the balance spring, which is relaxed by continual action.
Guinette's compensation. A. P. 17G0. H. 155.
Lemonnier on the increase of length of two
rods. A. P. 1761. 11.26. Sympathy of Clocks.

Leroy's compensation. A. P. 1769. H. 131. Hague on tiie invariable agreement of twy

Lambert on the resistance of the air to pen- clocks. Coll. Acad. I. 252.
dulums. Bcrl. Ephem. 1/76. Ellicot on the mutual influence of two clocks.
Bernoulli on compensations. A. Petr. I, ii. Ph. tr. 1739. 126.
109. The clocks resting against the same rail agreed for scveraF

Grenier's pendulum. Roz. XXIX. days, without varying a second : when separate, they varied
1 14.
l'36" in 24 h. The slower, having a longer pendulum, set
Crossthwaite. Ir. tr. 1788. II. 7. Kepert. III.
the other in motion, by the intervention of the rail, in I6i',
254. and stopped itself in 36j' : when the cases were connected

Fordyce on a new penrlulum. Ph. tr. 1794. 2. by a bar of wood, the shorter pendulum was set in motion
The fixed cheeks which embrace the spring are raised by in 6', and the longer stopped in 6' more. On a stone floor
a bar of the same materials as the pendulum ; but aE much the effects were slower. The shorter pendulum could not
longer as to compensate for the expansion of the fixed sub- put the longer one in motion, because, as its vibrations be-
stance. came wider, they were still slower.

Pine's new pendulum. Repert. III. 15.

The method resembles Fordyce's ;
but the expanding bar Supports for Clocks, and Manage-
is made too short.
ment of Timekeepers.
Riltenhouse. Am. tr. IV. 26. Nich. III. 522.
Instructions for the of pendulum watches
u.se
'

Repert. XiV. 323. Ph. M. IX. 298.

at sea. Ph. tr. 1669. IV. 937.
On compensations for temperature. Nich. I.
Massy on using clocks at sea. A. P. Prix,
66, 575. III. 205.
I. ii.

Varley on the errois arising from magnetism.

Biesta's suspension for a clock. A. P. 1770.
Ph. M. I. 16.
A difference of 24 h. was observed in the different
H. 114.
1 2' in
Arsandaux's suspension was judged injurious. A. P.
positions of a watch.
Cumming recommends that a watch or clock be fixed to
Diihler's compensation for clocks. Gilb. VII. a block of marble.
318. Berthoud found that a clock lost 297" in a day, by being
Two rods which carry a cross bar support- more firmly fixed ;
and Bernoulli, in the memoirs of the
 196" CATALOGUE. — PHriOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS.

Academy of Petersburg, calculates, that according to theory, Loriot on raising weights by the tide. A. P.
-it ought to have lost 2" only. But Bernoulli's theory ap-
1761. H. 1,59.
pears to be erroneous he says, that the compound vibra-
tions can only exist in such a
;

manner that the point of sus-

A fire ladder. A. Petr. I. i. H. 67.
Supporting itself.
pension shall move in a direction opposite to that of the

Nicholson asserts, with more apparent truth, that Brooks's buoyant machine for raising weights.
weight.
the vibrations are more rapid as the fulcrum is firmer. The Repert. VII. 36I.
fulcrum must not be considered as a weight, but as a por-
Harriott's engine for raising and lowering
tion of an elastic substance.
weights by water. Nich. 8. IV. 41.

Sandglasses. Levers.
Lahlre's hourglasses. A. P. X. 472.
new
Levers. Leup. Th. Machinarium. t. I6.
Prospei's hourglass. A. P. 1727. H. 143. Levers on a large scale. Leup. Th. Hydrot.
Mach. A. V. <i3.
t. 11. Th. Hydraul. I. t. 56.
Soumille's sandglass of 30 hours. S. E. 1. 80.
Compound Levers. Leup. Th. Machinarium.
Sand is said to flow equably. Cooke. Ph. M.
t. 17. 18.
XII. 312.
Levers with ratchets. Leup. Th. Machina-
Gould's patent log glass. Rep. ii. III. 242.
rium. t. 17.

"t-Emerson's niech. f. 186.

Measures of Time not simply me-
Liftingstock, a lever with a double fulcrum.
chanical. Emers. mech. 29.5.
See Hydraulics and Practical Astronomy. Lever with a counterpoise, for raising a
bucket. Musschenbr. Introd. I. PI. 5.
Bernoulli on marine clepsydras. A. P. Pr.
Lever with ratchets. Musschenbroek. Introd.
1.4.
PI. 6.
Duguet's clepsydra. Mach. A. VI. 131. Mrs. Wyndham's lever. S. A. XIV. 296.
Arderon on the weaver's alarm. Ph.tr. 1745.
Repert. VI. 246.
XLIII. 555. With a cross bar.
A candle burning a thread passed through it.

Hamilton's clepsydra. Ph. tr. 1746. XLIV. Wheel and Axis.

171.
Supplied from a cistern running over. Too complex. Lahire. A. P. IX. 90.

Enc. Br. Art. Chronometer. Debelloy on reducing the weight of chains

The motion of air, the consumption of oil, and the burn- and ropes. Roz. XXXII. 375.
ing of a candle may be employed as measures of time. Observes, that if
they are to be always vertical, the lower
King Alfred is said to have used six wax tapers burning part may have its weight diminished.
in a lantern. Hero's clepsydra was a siphon, supported by
Featherstonehaugh's counterpoise to the chain
a float, and bent over the side of the vessel.
of an axis. S. A. XVII. 338. Repert. XH.
105.
Raising Weights in general.

Leup. Th. M. G. Th. Machinarium. Th. Capstans.

Hydraul. Th. Hydrost. t. 18. 29. Leup. Th. Machinarium. t. 19. 20.
Belidor. Arch. hydr. I. i. 25. Madelaine's capstan. Mach. A. II. 3.
3
 Catalogue. — philosophy and arts, practical mechanics. 197

Bourg^s's lantern capstan. Mach. A. II. 7. Garnett's pullies. Cavall. N. Ph. I. pi. 8.
J. Bernoulli on the capstan. A. P. Pr. V. i. f. 2.

On the capstan. A. P. Pr. V. ii. a pulley with ropes not parallel is called by seamen a
twigg.
Polen on the capstan. A. P. Pr. V. iii.

Ludot on the capstan. A. P. Pr. V. iv.

Fixed Inclined Planes.
DepOntis on the capstan. A. P. Pr. V. v.

Fenel on the capstan. A. P. Pr. V. vi. See Roads.

Lorme on the capstan. A. P. Pr. V. vii. Inclined plane with a series of carriages.
fEmerson's mechanics, f. 248.
Leup. Th. Hydrot. t. 22.
Eckhardt's double capstan with a catch. A. Belidor. Arch, II.
Hydr. ii.
pi. 27.
Petr. 1781. V. i. H. 38. Fulton's patent machine for conveying boats.
Ximenes on the capstan. Soc. Ital. I. 6l3.
Repert. VII. 222.
Ilotchkis's patent mechanical power. Rep. Fulton on canal navigation.
XIV. a4.
Egerton on the Duke of Bridgewater's in-
a double capsSn.
-'

clined plane. S. A. XVIII. 288. Nich. IV.

Lalande's capstan. Montucla and Lai. IV.
486. Ph. M.IX. 30. Repert. XVI. 153.
585.
Hamilton's capstan. Rep. ii. II. 126.
The 9° 3o', so that
Wedge.
obliquity of the surface to the axis is

the messenger easily slides up. Varignon on the wedge. A. P. II. 117.
On the compound capstan. Nich. VII. 50. Lahire on the wedge. A. P. IX. 120.

Hawkins on the compound capstan. Nich.

VIl. 267. Screws.
Plucknett's patent capstan has levers and inclined planes See Presses.
" to surge the rnessenger."
Lahire on the screw. A. P. IX. 129. 141.

Varignon on the screw. A. P. 1699. 91. H.

Pullies. 111.

Leup. Th. M. G. t. 18 . . 20. Th. Machina-

Lahire on pullies. A. P. IX. Il6. rium, t. 45 . . 48.
Parent on the friction and equilibrium of Lemaire on raising weights by the screw.
pulhes. A. P. 1704. 206. H. 96. A. P. 1726. H. 71. Mach. A. IV. 179-

Leup. Th. M. G. t. 8 . . 10. Th. Machinarium. Hunter's way of applying the screvV. Ph. tr.

t. 35 39.. . 1781. 58. Nich. VH. 50.

Bessonius's complicated pullies. Leup. Th. E. M. A. VHLArt.Vis.
Machinarium. t. 37. Making screws. E. M. PI. IV. Tourneur.
Smeaton's new tackle. Ph. tr. 1751. p. 494. pi. 8.
Emerson's mechanics. F. I96 . . 198. On the constiTiction and uses of the screw.
E. M. A. VI. Art. Poulieur. Nich. I. 158.

Taylor's patent pullies. Repert. VI. 93. Pocock's patent machine for raising
heavy
Of metal 01 cross grained wood. bodies. Repert. XIII. 79.
158 CATALOGUE.— PETILOSOPHr AVD ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS.

Jacks. Cries, Fr. Montigni's machine. A. P. 1728. H. 109,

Heronis barulcus, from a manuscript trans- Mach. A.V.55.
lation from the Arabic. Brugmans Com- Desaguliers on the crane. Ph. tr. 1729. I94.
mentat. Gott. 1784. VII. M. 75. Desaguliers on Perrault's crane and axis.
Ph. tr. 1730. 222.
Perrault's balance jack. Mach. A. I. 5.

Thomas's circular jack. Mach. A. I. H. Guyot's crane. Mach. A. VI. 167.

209.
Loriot's safe crane. A. P. 1755.H. 144.
37.
Loriot's crane A. P. 1761.
Thomas's jack applied to a cart. Mach. A, acting by the tide.

II. 39.
H. 159.
Loriot's tumbler crane. A. P. 176I. H.
Gobert's jack. Mach. A. I. 213. 215. I60.
Dalesme's jacks. A. P. 1717.301. Emerson's jnech. F. 193 . .
195, 227, 233,
242 .
244, 250, 257, 298.
Leup. Th. Machinarium.t. l6.
.

Emerson's mech. f. 249. Vaucanson's weighing crane. A. P. 1763.

326. H. 131.
Staghold's screw jack. Bailey's mach. I. l68.
E. M. Pi. I. 30. E. M. PI. III. Marechal Ferguson's crane with four powers. Ph. tr.

1764. 24.
grossier. PI. 4.
Berthelot's crane. A. P. 1768. H.
Mocock's jack. S. A. VIII. 180. Roz. 13Q.
Pinchbeck's walking wheel crane.
XXXIX. Bailey's
mach. 1. 146.
Person's jack moved by a lever, Pers. Re-
cueil. PI. 6. Bailey's mach. I. 183.
£. M. PI. I. 30.
Praithwaite's crane. S. A. III. 159.
Cranes and Gins.
A portable crane. Ph. tr. 1790. PI. 11.
Perrault's rope crane without friction. Mach. Andrews's weighing crane. S. A. X. 221.
A. I. 13.
Leup. Th. Machinarium. t. 14. White's crane, with an
oblique walking
15.
wheel and a break. S. A. X. 230.
Repert.
Thomas's jack applied to a crane. Mach. A. III. 113. Enc. Br.
•
11. 41.
Johnson's double gibbed crane for
Thomas's machine letting
for raising
weights. Mach. down the weight on different
places. S. A
A. II. 131.
XL 173.
Resson's invention for
lowering weights. Dixon's bar for supporting the labourers in a
Mach. A. III. 25.
crane. S. A. XI. 201. I. 34. Repert.
Crane with screws. Leup. Th. Machinarium. Hall's expanding crane, with a spiral groove.
t. 48.
S. A. XII. 284. Ph. M. XVIIL 270. >

Crane with a chain. Leup. Th. Machina- Davis's portable cart crane. S. A.
278. XV.
rium. t. 40.
Ph. M.
V. 392. Repert. X. 273.
Crane with a perpetual screw.
Leup. Th. A perpetual screw for cranes. Repert. II.
Machinarium. t. 49. 312.
Henry's machine. A. P. 1725. H. 103. Mach. Collins's elevator. Am. tr. IV. 5 19. Repert
A. IV. 141.
XV. 26.
Auger's machine. A. P. 1726. H. 71. A lever with pullies.
 CATALOGUE. — PHILOJSOPIIY AND ARTS, VTIACTICAL MECHANICS. JQg

Millington's double capstan crane. Repert. Macary's machine for clearing harbours. A.
XIII. £99. P. 1744. H. 62. Mach. A. VII. 259.
Inclined plane with cranes. Fulton on ca- Lav'ier's machine for
clearing harbours. A. P.
nals. 1745. H. 81.
Gent's crane. S. A. XIX. 293- Repert. ii. I. Lonce's machine with
revolving buckets for
418.
raising ballast. Mach. A. VII. 449.
With a quadrant for raising or lowering the gih.
Clearing harbours. Belidor. Arch. Hydr. II.
Keir's crane at Ramsgate. Nich. 8. ill. 124.
ii. 131. 156.
Marriott's engine. Nioh. 8. IV. 41.
Machine employed for
clearing the port of
Brainah'sjib for a crane. Nich. VIII. 99. Toulon. Belidor. Arch.
With a which Hydr. II. ii. PI. 20.
rope in the axis, is
perforated.
Walking wheel for a sluice board.
raising
Belidor. Arch. 54
Hydr. If. ii. PI. . . 56.
Modes of raising Weights of par- Robertson's account of the
raising of the
ticular Descriptions. Royal William. Ph. tr. 1757.288.
See seamanship. Jurine's machine for pulling up trees. A. P.
Blondel on raising marshes. A. P. I. 234. 1765. H. 136.
Labalme's machine for clearing harbours. A. Redelykheid Machine a creuser les pores, f.

P. 1718. H. 74. Hague, 1774.

Gonffe's machine for clearingharbours.Mach. Chatel's machine for
clearing harbours, A. P.
A. II. 63. 1777. H.
mode of raising materials in build- Frazer's tongs for
Ressin's fishing up goods. Bailey's
mach. II. 72.
ing. Mach. A. III. 27.
Ressin's mode ofloading and unloading ships.
Mode of climbing up a steeple. E. M. PI. L
Mach. A. III. 29. Couvreur. 2.

A machine for ^clearing harbours. Mach. A. Suspended scaffolding. E. M. PI. IV. Pein-
tre en batimens.
Ill, 167.

rods. Mach, A. IV. Cranes used in glass houses. E. M. PI. II.

Perpoint'sjack for pump
33. Glaces. PI. 16.

Machine Machine for clearing harbours. E. M. PI. I.

for pulling up trees. Leup. Th.
t. 11. 27. E. M. PI. V. Marine. PI. 76.
Hydrot.
Mode of raising scaffolding or shears. Leup. Machine for pulling up trees. E. M. Art.

Th. Machinarium. t. 33. Aratoire.

Bertrand's machine for clearing harbours..
Pump rods raised by screws or by oblique
circles. Leup. Th. Hydrot. ii. t. 36.
Journ. Phys. XLVIII. 373.

for telescopes. Mach. A. V. EUicott's corn mill with buckets for raising
Mairan'sjack 31.
Dubois's machine for clearing harbours. A. flour. Repert. IV. 319.
P. 1726. H. 70. Sparrow's patent machine for raising earth.

Guyot's machine for clearing harbours. A. P. Repert. V. 77.

Davis's cart crane. See cranes..
17.53. H. 98. Mach. A. VI. l63.

Briandferes machine for raising stones. A. P. A machine for pulling up trees, Enc. Br. Art.
H. 106. Bern machine.
1737.
200 CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS.

Arkwrighi's machine for raising ore. S. A. Perrault's machine for drawing weights.
XIX. 278. Nich. 8. I. 303. Repert. ii. I. Mach. A. I. 31.
261. Machine for drawing weights. Mach. A. I.

Buckets connected by frames. 129.

Raising and lowering boats. Fulton on ca- Willin's sedan chair. Mach. A. II. 137.
nals. Hermand's dray on connected rollers. 1713.
Whidbey on the recovery of the Ambuscade. H. 76. Mach. A. III. 7.
Ph.tr. 1803.321. Such a carriage was lately made in London.
Machine for raising floating wood out of the Alix's machine for drawing weights. Mach.
water. Person Recueil. PI. 11. A.m. 193.
Ponti's stone gatherer. Repert. IV. 137. Sebastien's machine for moving trees. Mach.
Willich Dom. Enc. Art. Stones. A. IV. 107.'
Saint Victor's machine for rooting up trees. Coetnisan's machine for moving trees. Mach.
Nich. 8. IV. 243. A. IV. 109.
Antis's register for the draughts from a mine. Rollers. Leup. Th. Machinarium. t. 8. 9-

S. A. XXI. 380. Nich. IX. 114. Buckets hung on a rope for moving earth.
Leup. Th. Hydrot. t. 20.
Lowering Weights. Fenel on the alternate tensions of cords

Most machines for raising weights are also employed for drawing a load. A. P. 1741. H. 155.

lowering them ; some are appropriated to this purpose only. PuUies. Emers. mech. f. 239.
See regulation of descent.
CarburiTnxvaux pour transporter un rocher.
8. Paris, 1777. R. I.

Diminishing Riding. E. M. Equitation. 1 vol.

Removing Weights.
Friction. Monge on the best mode of moving a given
Lahire on lessening friction. A. P. IX. 119. quantity of matter into a given situation,
deblais et remblais, Fr. A. P. 1781. 666.
Hermand's mode of diminishing friction.
H. 34.
Mach. A. III. 7.
Screws for removing flour. EUicott's corn
Mondran's machine for diminishing friction.
mill. Repert. IV. 319.
A. P. 1725. H. 102. Mach. A. IV. 1 19-
Coulomb on carrying See sources
Fitzgerald on friction wheels. Ph. tr. 1763. weights.
139. of motion.
Coulomb observes, that the surface of drays ought to be
By means of friction quadrants a Steam engine was ena-
bled to do the work of 6 hours in 5, the friction of its beams made convex, in order that they may be more shaken, and

of a pound, and from that the friction maybe diminished. See Friction.
being reduced from 95 pounds to ;J

425 pounds to
2-^i)ounds. in fires. Person's parafeu.
Removing goods
Recueil. PI. 12 . . 15.

Removing AVeiglits without Wheel Heavy blocks may be removed on rollers mounted upon
wheels, so as to avoid the friction on the axles. But this is
Can"iages. not great.
Duncombe's patent sedan chairs. 1634.
when wooden usual
In Holland, drays are employed, it is

Blondel's mode of raising marshes. A. P. I.

to carry water for moistening them, in order to prevent their
taking fire.
 CAtALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS. 201

run in the same ruts. On harder roads, whether smooth

Tlieory of Wheel Carnages. or rough, if not very steep, two wheels have the advantage,
On the benefit of high wheels. Ph. tr. lG85. and sometimes on soft roads, where there is much lateral

XV. 856. friction on the flat surfaces of the wheels.

Lahire on the magnitude of wlieels. A. P. Anderson's institutes of physics. Mech. xvii.

IX. 116. quoted by Cavallo. N. Phil.

Parent on the friction upon axles. A. P. A horse can draw 25 cwt. on a level road in a cart weigh-

ing 10 cwt. with wheels 8 feet high. In a common cart 1

1712.96.
horses easily draw 30 cwt. In a common waggon 6 horses
Reaumur on the axles of wheels. A. P. 1724.
draw 80 cwt. : in 3 carts they might draw QO, in 6, 150
300.
cwt. : and 3 carts cost less than a waggon.
Couplet on the draught of carriages. A. P.
1733. 49.H. 82: Gumming on the effect of conical wheel*.
Board Agr. II. 351. Repert. XIII. 256.
Dupin de Chenoncenu on fourwheeled car-
Would have the axis straight and the wheels cyUndricat«
riages. A. P. 1753. H. 301. but somewhat dished.
Emerson's mech. 194. Montucia and Lalande. III. 732.
The axis is conical, that it may not wear loose ; and it
Imison's elements. I. 129.
must be a little inclined in order to avoid its working against
the linch pin. Ferguson's lectures by Brewster. 3 v. 1 805,
With many useful additions, yet not without mistakes.
Beparcleux. A. P. I76O. 263. H. 151. The great advantage of broad wheels is in deep road*,
Boulard and jSlargueron on broad wheels. where the resistance is derived from the depth of immer*
Eoz. XIX, 424. sion.

Jacob on the draught of wheel carriages. 4.

Anstice on wheel carriages. 8. Particular kinds of Carriages.
Rizzetti Riforma d^' carri di quattro ruote, 8. Sailing carriages. Wilkins's mathematical

Trevigi, 1785. 'R. S. magic.

Gusset's cart for hi nurd
Edgeworth's experiments on wheel carriages. moving great weights,
Ir. tr 1788. II. 73. Repert. I. 101. Fr. ]Mach. A. I. 99-
Lamber on four wheeled carriages. Hind. Thomas's cart with a windlass. Mach. A. II.

Arch. II. 51. 39.

The axes of the wheels should be as their diameters, the Beza'« ehrnr on castors. Mach. A. II. 173.

rcntre of gravity should divide the distance in the ratio of Girard's machine for moving a chair. Mach.
the cubes of the diameters. A good proportion for the A. II. 187.
wheels is 4 to i, the centre of gravity being twice as near
Descainns's coach suspended in the middle.
the hind as the fore wheels. This is nbl ¥ery remote from
A. P. 1713. H. 76.
the usual practice.
Descamus's improvements in coaches; A. P^
Grobert sur les voitures a deux roues. 1797.
Enc. Br. Art. Mechanics. 1717. H. 83. Mach. A. III. 65. 109.

A. Young, annals of agr. XVIII. Godefroy'sinversable chair. Mach. A. III. 97.

Strongly in favour of carts. Lelarge's jointed car. A. P. 1719- H. 81.

Fuss Versufch einer theorie des widerstandes Mach. A. III. 197.

zwey-und-vier-r'adiger fuhrWerke. Copenb . Tanney de Gourney's inversable coach. A. P.

1798.- 1719- H. 82. Mach. A. III. 207.
Extr. Ph.M. Xm. 115. Reaumur's carriage^ for narrow streets. A.P.
On muddy roads, four wheels have the advantage, if they 1721. 224.
VOL. II. Dd
202 CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS.

Mondran's carriage with little friction. Mach. Carriages for casks. E. M. PI. IV. Tonnelier.

A. IV. 123. PI. 8.

Coetnisan's machine for trees. A. P. With a windlass.

moving
1724.H. Qfi. Scavenger's carts. E. M. A. VIII. Art. Vui-
Maillard's chairs driven by winches. A. P. dangeur.
1731. H. 92. Mach. A. V. 171. 173. Carriages used in glass houses. E. M. PI. II.

Maillard's chair with an artificial horse. Glaces. PL I6.

Mach. A. VI. 141. Wheelbarrows. E. M. Art. Aratoire.

Lievre'slandaulet. A.P. 1732. H. 118. Mach. Boulard's cart. Roz. XXVII. 426.
A. VI. 3. Hatchett's plates of the coach of safety. R.S.
Besant's high wheeled timber carriage. S. A.
Duquel's inversable coach. Mach. A. VI. 7.
Brodier's chair for driving one's self. S. E. VI. 203.

IV. 351. E. M. PI. VII. Anderson's conveyance for boats. Repert. II.
Mecanique. PI. 3.
Chenonceaux's carriage. Mach. A. VII. 439. 21.
The lowest wheels 4 feet high. Weldon's patent machine for conveying ves-
Loriot's machine for moving statues. A. P. sels.
Repert. II. 235.
1755. H. 144. Middleton's machine for dragging haj'. S. A.
Loriot's jointed cart for barrels. A. P. 1761. XIV. 197. Repert. VI. 27.
H. 16I. Beatson's mode of avoiding deep ruts. Re-
Garsault's new berline. A. P. 1756. H. 127. pert. vin. 26.
Cart. Emerson's mech. f. 201. Jeffrey's patent for conveying coals. Repert.

Waggon, driven within. Emerson's mech.*f. XI. 145.

202. Overend's patent carriage on castors. Repert.
Brethon's carriage remaining horizontal. A. XI. 159.
P^ 1763. H. 147. Bakewell's improved car. Repert. XIV. 1 10.
Brethon's chaise for bad roads. A. P. 1766. Reddel's patent land and water carriages.
H. 159. Repert. XIV. 369.
Roubo Art du menuisier carossier. f. Paris. •f-A coach. Walker's philosophy. Lect. iii.

Ace. A.P. 1770. Lord Somerville's dray cart. Board Agr. II.

Ferry's arm chair on wheels. A. P. 1770. H. 415. Repert. XVI. 49.

117. Capable of elevation, so as to bear more or less on the

La horses; with Mr. Cumming's drag, applied laterally to the

Gabrielle, a cart for sculpture. Roz. XI.
wheels.
522.
Improved Irish car. Board Agr. 11.417.
Carriages. Bailey's mach. I. 185.
Low and wheels cylindrical and under
easily laden, the it.

Bailey's waggon for short

turnings. Bailey's Lord R. Seymour's cart. Willich's Dom. Enc,
mach. II. 59.
Art. Cart.
The axles connected diagonally.
Wheelbarrows. Person Recueil. PI. 6, 7.
Waggons and carts. E. M. A, I. Art. Char- Bauer's patent carriages. Repert. ii. I, 250.
ron. With small axles.

.Carriages. E. M. A. IV. Art. Menuiserie. Mason's patent waggon making two carts.
Parts. ii. III. 249.
Repert.
 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS, 203

For deep roads, a dray may be combined with a cart, so as Black's Roman
yoke. S. A. II. 87.
tlie weight when the wheels sink too much.
Colley's locking pole for a carriage. S. A.
to support

XI. 198.
Parts of Carriages. Jones's patent woman's saddle. Repert. IV^. 9.
Thomas's suspension of carriages. Mach. A. Kneebone's wheel drag. S. A. XIII. 262. Re-
II. 43. pert. IV. 25.
Godefroi's mode of hanging post chaises. A. Hesse's elastic stirrups. Repert. XIII. 371.
P. 1716. H.78. Inglis's patent saddle. Repert. XV. 217.
Zacharie's suspension for coaches. A. P. 1761. Snart's alexippus, or
sliding 1 ever for a cart
H. 156. S. A. XVIII. 230. Repert. XV. 110.

Reynal on carriage springs. A. P. 1765. H. Davis's mode of unlocking horses and stop-
134. ping the wheels. S. A. XVIII. 256. Re-
Maillard's suspension for chairs with wheels. pert. XV. 166.
Mach. A. VI. 95. Dickinson's patent saddles.
Repert. XVI.
Jacob's spiral carriage springs. Bailey's 294.
mach. I. 167. Dickinson's patent saddle ii.
straps. Repert.
Jacob's patent box for axles. Repert. ii. III. I. 247.

170. Cumming's drag. See Lord Somerville's cart.

Wheelwright's work. E. M. A. IV. Art. Ma- Williams's patent for
disengaging horses. Re-
rechal grossier. VI [. Art. Roue. pert. ii. I. 86.

Coach springs. E. M. PI. IV. Serrurerie. PI. Pottinger's patent for disengaging horses.
29. Repert. ii. III. 96.
Dodson's patent naves of wheels. Bowler's gripe for carriages. S. A. XXI.
Repert.
XII. 235. 358. Nich. IX. 177.
"
With rollers. Meyer has a patent for a method of stopping horses
by
winding up the reins on an axis turned by a wheel of the

Appendages to Carriages. Drags, carriage.

Harnesses, Sadlery.
Roads.
Horses. See Statics.
See Inclined Planes. Agricultural Instruments.
Dalesme's simple mode of stopping horses. A.
P. 1708. H. 141. Mach. A. II. 153. Lelarge's mode of paving roads. Mach. A.
By blindfolding them. III. 129.

Lahire's machine for unlocking horses. A.P^ Considerations on roads. 8. Lond 1734. R. S.
1712.242. Lambert on the best ascent of roads. A. BerL
Ressin's mode of facilitating descents to car- 1776. 19.

riages. Mach. A. III. 31. Meister on the shortest roads to different

Harness and sadlery. Garsault Artdu Bour- places. N. C. Gott. 1777. VIII. 124,
relier et du Sellier. f. Par. E. M. M. IH. Pinchbeck's road plough.
Bailey's mach. II.
Art. Sellier. 21.
Accoutrements and harness. E. M. A. II. Harriott's road harrow. S. A. VII. 205.
Art. Eperonnier. With sweeps.
204 CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS.
Beatson's roller for preventing deep ruts. Simple press with a windlass. E. M. PI. IV.

Repert. VIII. £6. Parfumeur. PI. 2.

Edgeworth oa rail roads. Nich. 8. 1. 221. Tobacco and snuff presses. E. M. A. VIII.
Roads. Board Agr. I. 119. Art. Tabac.

Harrows and rollers for roads. Board Agr. I. An oil press with screws. E. M. PI. VIII.

150. Moulin £l huile.

Wilkes, Board Agr. I. 199- Wine press. E. M. Art Aratoire.

Concave roads are much approved in Leicestershire, Anisson Description d'une presse d'imprime-
Wilkes on iron railways. Board Agr. II. 474. rie. 4. R. S. S. E. X. 613.

Repert. XIII. 167. ^ Many figures ; somewhat complicated.

Iron roads. Board Agr. I. 203. Haas Description d'une presse d'imprimerie.
A horse drew 3 tons up a railway rising 7 inches in 144.
4. Basle. 1791. R.S.
The draught was 327 pounds besides friction.
Ridley's printing press with a lever. S. A.
Woodhouse's patent rail roads. Repert. ii. III.
XIII. 243. Repert. V. 26.
15.
Peck's packing press. S. A. XV. 267. Rep.
Woodhouse on concave iron roads. Repert.
VIII. 46.
ii.III.i7.
Sabatier's patent mode of packing. Repert.
Wyatt on a railway. Repert. ii. III. 283.
VIII. 73.
Hollister's patent machinery for making Prosser's patent printing press.
roads. Repert. ii. III. 401. Repert. VIII,
.

368.
Winterbottom's machine for clearing roads
With
from mud. S. A. XXI. 334. Nich. VIII. springs..

Whieldon's patent press. Repert. IX. 217.

29. '
'
With wheelwork.
Enc. Br. Art. Cyder Press. Press.
Compression. Printing
Press.
Buschendorfs packing
Presses, strictly so called. press. Repert. ii.
Ill,
362.
See Printing.
Bowler's press with a spiral spring. S. A.
Leupold. Th. XXI. 363.
Moulins's machine for folding stuffs. A. P. To continue an active pressure.

1737. H. 107.
Cheese press.
Emers. mech. f. 189-

Lloyd's cyder press. Bailey's

mach. II. 5. Vices, Pincers, and Pliers.
Without a screw. »

Hunter's screw. Ph. tr. 1781. 58. Nich. VII. HuUot's new vice. A. P. 1756. H. 127.
50. E. M. PI. III. Horlogerie. E. M. PI. IV.

Press with a water wheel. E. M. PL I. Char- Taillanderie.

pentier. t. 18. Clamp vice. E. M. PI. II. Doreur. PI. 2. f.

Cheese press. E. M. A. HI. Art. Fromage. 20.

Printing press. E.M. A. III. Art. Impri- Wooden vices. E. M. PI. H. Ebeniste. PI.
merie. VI. .
 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS. 205

Caleoder Mills and Mangles, with Blackey on drawing steel wire. A. P. 1744.
Rollers. H. Gl.Mach.A. VII. 2.'>5.

Bunting's calender mill, worked by a crank Chopitel's machine for laminating iron. A.
XV. P. 1752. H. 148.
supported on rollers. S. A. 269. Re-
YUl. Vaucanson's machine for laminating silver
pert. 176.
XVI. and gold thread. A. P. 1757. 155. H. I6I.
Jee's mangle worked by a crank. S. A.
303. Repert. XIV. 109. Ph. M. II. 419- Plating mill. Emers. mech. f. 251.

Calendering is
usually performed by a polishing stone or
Glazier's vice. Emers. mech. f. 305.
glass pressed down by a spring, and moved backwards and Duhamel Art de reduire le fer en fil d'archal.
forwards by a mill.
f. Par.
Ace. A. P. 1768. H. 128. 1770. H. 110.
Compression between Rollers. E. M. A. IV. Art. Laminage.
Rolling press. Emers. mech. f. 273. Wire drawing. E. M. A. VIII. Art. Tireur-
Cazaud connaissances pour juger des moulins
fileur. Trefilerie.
acannes. Pli.lr. 1780.318.
Drawing rods for bolts. E. M. PI. IV. Serru-
The work of 36 mules produces 80 or lOO gallons of li-
rerie. PI. 24.
quor in an hour :
making 120 to 150 hogsheads in a season;

the immediate resistance being about 19,000 pounds ;

a good
Glazier's vice. E. M. PI. V. Vitrier. PI. 3.

water mill should do twice as much. Wilkinson's patent pipes, drawn on a core.

Sugar mill. E. M. PI. IV. Sucrerie.

Repert. XVI. 92.
Watt's patent for copying writings. Repert.
I. 13. Extension by Percussion.
Kirkwood's patent copperplate printing press.
Compagnot's forge hammer. A. P. 1730. H.
Repert. ii. III. 245.
Mach. A. V. 101.
115.

Forge hammer. Emers. mech. 236.237.

f.

Compression by Percussion. Courtivron et Bouchet Art des forges a fer. f.

Dubois's rams or stampers for beating the
Paris.
earth. A. P. 1726. H. 70. Mach. A. IV.
Ace. A. P. 1761. H. 153. 1762. H. 187.
163,169, 171. Duhamel Art de forger les enclumes. f. Par.
Ace. A. P. 1762. H. 188.
Extension.
Forges. Roz. Introd. II. 76.
Simple Extension. Forges. E. M. A. II. Art. Fer.
Glass blowing and drawing threads of glass. Hand M. PI. IV. Serrurerie. PI. 32.
forge. E.
£. M. A. VIII. Art. Verre. Gold and silver leaf. E. M. A. I. Art. Bat-
Reaumur thinks that glass as fine as spider's webs might
teur.
be woven.
Forges at Carron. Smeaton's reports.
Extension by Pressure. On hammering metals into plates. Nich. I.

131.
A. P. 1714. H.
Dalesme proposed draw leaden pipes with a
to core, ift Hand forge. PesronRecueil. PI. 9, 17.
the way that the patent pipes are now made.
Walby's forge hammer worked by a man. S.
Fayolle's machine for laminating lead. A. P. A. XXII. 335.
1728. H. 108. Mach. A. V. 43. A hammer of 70 pounds making 300 strokes in a minute.
206 CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHY AKD ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS.

Arts depending principally on Ex- Rcsingue is an elastic anvil, which rebounds, and acts as
a hammer in the inside of a vessel. Vocab. Art. Rc-
tension.
singue.
See Appendages to Clothes.
Pipemaking. E. M. A. VI. Art. Pipes a fu-
machine for casting lead mer.
Plumbery. F;i3olle's

pipes. Mach. A. V. 53. Plumber's work. E. M. A. Art. Plomb.

Coining. Dubuisson's machine for prevent-
Pewter. Salmon Art du potier d'etain. f.

Par. 1788. R. S.
ing accidents in coining. A. P. 1731. H.
91. Mach. A. V. 155. Coining. Montu's coining press, with a swing
Gold and lever. B. Soc. Phil. n. 14.
silver plate. .Dufay on applying
reliefs of gold to gold or silver plate. A. P. Pottery. Lasteyrie on the alcarraza, for cool-
1745. H. 45. ing water. Ph. m. I.
Horn D'Incarville on the Chi- Smith's work. Moorcroft's patent horse shoes.
plate vvoik.
nese lanterns. S. E. II. 350. Repert. VI. 157.
Made by machinery.
Plumbery. Art du plonibier. f. Paris,
Pipemaking. Duhamd Art de fabriquer les Porcelain. Dechemant's patent paste for
f. Paris. teeth. Repert. VI. 379-
pipes,
Porcelain. Milli Art de la porcelaine. f. Par. Porcelain. Turner's patent. Repert. XII.
Pottery. Duhamd du Monceau Art du potier 294.
deterre. f. Paris. Nails. Spencer's patent horse nails.
Repert.
Anchors. Duhamd Art de la fabrique des XV. 316.
ancres. Coining. Hatchett and Cavendish on the wear
Ace. A. P. 1761. H. 152. of gold. Ph.tr. 1803.43. Nich. 8. V.286.

Baking pottery. Roz. Intr. II. 266. Journ. R. I. II.

Pottery. Bosc d'Antic on pottery. S. E. VI.

372.
Tenetration and Division.
Defensive arms. E. M. A. I. Art. Armurier.

Coppersmith's work. E. M. A. I. Art. Chau-

dronnier. Theory of Penetration.
Brass work. E. M. A. II. Art. Cuivrejaune. Camus on a board pierced by a bullet, and
Pewter ware. E. M. A. II. Art. Etain.
scarcely moved. A. P. 1738. 147. H. 98.
Pottery. E. M. A. II. Art. Fayencerie. VI. Euler on the strokes of bullets on a board.
Art. Poterie,
N. C. Petr. XV.414.
Tin plate work. E. M. A. II. Art. Ferblan-
Ja. Bernoulli on the stroke of a bullet upon
tier.
a board. N. A. Petr. 1786. IV. 148.
Blacksmith's work. E. M. A. IV. Art. Mare-
Gough on the motion of a cylinder urged by
chal-grossier. a falling block. Manch. M. IV. 273.
Coining. E. M. A. V. Art. Monnoyage. Merely speculative. Observes, that in driving piles, the
With an account of the coins of difTerent nations.
resistance is neither uniform nor proportional to the depth.
Goldsmith's work and jewellery. E. M. A. V. The velocity of a carpenter's baminet is about 2i feet in

Art. Orfevre. a second, Robison,

 CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS. 207

Instruments of Penetration in ge- Cort's patent for

preparing iron. Repert. III.
289, 361.
neral, and Substances of which
Dize on the copper cutting instruments of
they are composed. the ancients. Repert. IV. 62.

Military engines. Mathematici veteres Vege- Hartley's patent for tempering instruments.
tius, and Ammianus Marcellinus. Repert. IV. 310.
a thermometer.
Reaumur Art de convertir le fer en acier. 4. By

Paris. Clouet on cast steel. B. Soc. Phil. n. 14.

Silbersciilag on the warlike machines of the Varley on steel and its

preparation. Ph. M.
II. 92. 178.
ancients. A. Berl. 176O. 378.
Ferret Art du coutelier. f. Paris. Mushet on iron and steel. Ph. M. II. 155.
Ace. A. P. 1769. H. 131. 340.
Collier on iron and steel. Manch. m. V.
Fougeroux Art du coutelier en ouvrages IO9.
communs. f. Paris. Repert. X. 97-
Saws are quenched in oil penknives are tempered
Duhamel Art du serrurier. f. Paris. 5 till

they become light yellow ; scissors light brown table

Cutlery. E. M. A. II. Art. Coutelier.
;

knives, swords, and watch springs, blue.

Sword cutlery. E. M. A. III. Art. Fourbis-
Edgill's patent steel. Repert. XI. 157.
seur.
Gazeran on steel. Ann. Ch. XXXVI. 6l.
Coarse tool?, files, and ironmongery. E. M. On gilding cutlery. Cecum's chemistry. 11.172.
A. VIII. Art. Taillanderie. Nich. VI. 142.
Agricultural instruments. E. M. Agriculture,
Conte sa.ys, that oil varnish with half its
weight of spirit
of turpentine, is a good preservative from rust.
3^ volumes io Ey.
Stodart on Damascus sword blades. Nich.
Instruments of agriculture and horticulture.
VII. 120.
E. M. Art Aratoire. I vol.
on making
Little steel. Am. Ac. I. 525.
Vandermonde on steel and cutlery. Amii Ch.
Penetration by Pointed Instru-
XIX. 13.
, inents.
Franklarid on welding cast steel. Ph. tr. Taking whales. Buch. I; 325.

1795. 296. Repert. V. 327.

Pile engine.Mach. A. I. 125.
Lahire's pile engine. A. P. 1707. 188.
Pearson on woolz. Ph. tr. 1795. 322.
Pearson on some ancient arms. Ph. Camus's pile engine. A. P. 1713. H. 76.
tr. 1796.
395. 422.
Mach. A. III. 3.

Consisting of copper with some

tin, from g to 14 per Vergier's machine 'for
driving piles. Mach.
cent. The ancients sometimes also employed cast steel, of A. III. 189.
which some specimens were examined. A mixture of cop-
Driving piles. Leup. Th. Hydrot. t. 24, 25,
per and iron was less hard than an alloy with tin.
29.
On steel. Nich. I. 468. II. 64. Ann. Ch. Raucourt's invention for
shooting with cross
XXVU. 186. bows. Mach. A. VI. 157.
Stodarron steel. Nich. IV. 127.
Murtin's pile engine. A. P. 1742. H. 156..
Wild's patent for
uniting steel and hon. Re- Bond on killing whales by means of a ba-
pert. 11. 368. lista. Ph. tr. 1751.429.
208 CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PIIACTICAL MECHANICS.

L'Herbctte's pile engine. A. P. 17.59- H. Q36, Mury's machine for pruning large trees. A-

Q5G. P. 1760. H. 159-

Arrows. Emers. mech. f. 220. Razors. Garsault Art du peiruquier. f. Par.

Revolving in order to move more steadily. Perrtt Pogonotomie.

Old pile engine. Emers. mech. f. 245. A machine for cutting files. Am. ir. I. 365.
Loriol's pife engine. A. P. 17.C3. H. 14«. tliistle cutter. Bailey's mach. I.
Ringrose's
Vauloue's pile engine. Belidor. Arch. hydr. 36.
I. ii. 107. Edgill's chaffcutter, with
a spiral knife. Bai-
Fish hooks. Duhamel Art de peche. f. Par.
ley's mach. I. 43.

p. 12. Edgill's machine for slicing turnips. Bailey's

Piles. Bugge Theoria sublicarum. Ph. tr. mach. I. 65.

1779- 120. Scythes from Brabant and Hainault. Bailey's
Staghold's gun harpoon. Bailey's
mach. II. mach. I. 65.
61. Smith's machine for cutting straw, with a
Needles. E. M. A. Art. Aiguillier. double, knife. Barley's mach. II. 24.

Pile engines. E. M. PI. I. Charpente. PI. 11. Cork cutting.

•
E. M. A. I. Art. Bouchon-
Balistas,Bows. E. M. PI. VII. Art. Militaire. nier.

,
PI. 2, 4. Engraving plate. E. M. A. I. Art. Ciseleur.

A gun harpoon. S. A. II. IQl-

Shtting mill, E. M. PI. II. Fer.
v. pi. 1..8.

Moore's harpoon gun. S. A. IX. l64. Razors. E. M. A. VI. Art. Perruquier. From
Bell's harpoon gun, S. A. XI. IQl. Perret.

£nc. Br. Art. Balista. Bow. W^orking stones. E.M. A. VI. Art. Pierres.
Kirby's fish-hooks are of
an improved form, the point Sword blades. E. M. VII. Art. Sabres.
more so as to be in the direction of
being turned inwards,
Stone cutting. E,,M._A- VIII. Art. Tailleur
the line.
de Pierres. .„
'
/, '

Shears. E. M. M. I. Art. Forces.

Cutting Instruments, or Edge Potatoe cutter, scythes, chaff cutter, root

Tools. cutter, and compound chaff cutter with
knives placed side by side. E. M. Art.

Du verger's machine for cutting files. Mach. Aratoiie,

A. I. 155. Pike's chaff cutter, with a revolving knife.
Chaumette's flexible knives. Mach. A. II. S. A. V. 63.
117. Betancourt Molina's machine for cutting
Cutting machine. Leup. Th. M. G. t. 15. weeds. S. A. XIV. 317. Repert. VI. 175.
Fardouel's machine for cutting files. A. P. Salmon's chaff cutter, with two knives, cut-
1725. H. 103. Mach. A. IV. 125. to 20 different lengths. S. A. XV.
ting

Focq's plane for iron. A. P. 1751. H. Mach. 281. Repert. Vll. 40LPh. M. III.292.

A. Vfl. 407. Choumert's machine for splitting hides.

Brachet's machine for cutting files. A. P. Repert. IV. 104.

1756. H. 128. Scythe of Milan. Repert.
V. 62.
Messier's chaff cutter. A. P. 1758. H. 100. Sandilands's sward cutter. Repert. X. 329-
 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS. 205

Enc. Br. Art. Chaff cutter. Turning ivory and snufF boxes. E. M. A.
On a ipachine for cutting files. Nich. II. VIII. Art. Tabletier.

309. Repert. V. 179- E. M. A. VIII. Art. Tourneur.

Bentham's patent modes of working. Repert. Common spring lathe. E. M. PI. IV. Tour-
X. 250. 293. neur. PI. 2.
Willich's Dom. Enc. Art. Scytlies. Tournant's lathe for mouldings. Roz. XLII.
Riesch's straw cutter. Willicii's Dom. Enc. 215.
Art. Straw. Ridley's foot lathe. S. A. XV. 273. Repert.
Sward cutter. Willich's Dom. Enc. Vin.395.
Reaping wheelbarrow. Person Rccueil, Bentham's patent. Repert. X. 250.
PI. 8. Cook's mode of turning spheres. Repert.
'

Nicholson on razors. Nich. 8. I. 47, 210. XIV. 260.

Gilb. XVII. 453. Healy on turning screws. Ph. M. XIX.
Nicholsoo's patent for cutting files.
Repert. 172.
ii. II. 258.

Sawdon's patent straw cuttei-. Repert. ii. I. Division, or Separation without

409.
sharp Instruments.
Bramah's patent machinery for planing.
ii. II. l65. Lahire on separating millstones from tlieir
Repert.
Brown's patent machine for slicing turnips blocks. A. P. IX. 327.

and tallow. Repert. ii. III. 405. Parent on the force of the wedge in
separa-
tion. A. P. 1704. 186. H. 96.
Lathes. On the wedge. Leup. Th. M. G. t. l6.
Flumier Art de tourner. Fr. Lat. 1710.
f.
Ph. tr. 1729. XXXVI.
M. B. Stones are sometimes divided by drawing lines on them
Lahire's machine for turning
polygons. A. P.
with fat and then exposing them to heat.
or oil, It

may be doubted whether the oil, by preventing the eva-

1719.320.
poration of moisture, allows the stone to be more
Leup. Th. Suppl. t. 26. heated at the part oiled, and by the
irregularity of the
Grandjean de Fouchy's lathe for screws.
expansion produces a separation ; or on the contrary, the
'
Mach. A. V. 83, 89,91. oil, having insinuated itself, is converted into vapour at a
La Condamine on the lathe. A. P. 1734. high temperature, and forces the stone asunder.

216, 295. fSiitting mill for iron. Eniers. mech. f. 251.

Balzac on turning silver plate. A. P. 1756. Working slate. Fougeroux de Bondaroy Art
H. 129. de I'ardoisier. f. Paris.
JRoubo Art du menuisier ebeniste. f. Paris. Ace. A. P. 1762. H. 186. -,

p. 902. Stonequarries and limekilns. E. M. A. I.

Arquier's wheel lathe. A. P. 1769. H. 128. Art. Carrier.

Hullot Art du tourneur mecaniclen. 1776. whalebone. E, M. A. II. Art Fa-
Slitting
Ludlam on the oval lathe. Ph. tr. 1780. 378. nons de Baleine.
Lathe, for ornamental plate. E. M. PI. IV. Slitting mill for iron. E. M. PI. II. Fer. v.
Orf^vre grossier. PI, 11. PI. 1 . . 8.

VOL. II. Ee
210 CATALOGUE.— PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS.

Working stones. E. M. A. VI. Art. Pierres.

E. M. A. VIII. Art. Tailleur de Pierres.
Wheelcutting, Filing, and Cutting
Screws.
Unrolling old books. E. M. A. VI. 732.
P. Nicholson on the
wedge. Ph. M. I. 3I6. VVheelcutter. See Machinery, Structure of
Wheels.
Sawing.
Files. See Cutting Instruments.
Lahire's machine for moving saws. A. P.
Zeiher's two machines for cutting screws.
IX. 159.
N. C. Petr. VIII. 279.
Sawing machine. JNlach. A. I. 115.
On files.
Repert. XVI. 60.
Duguet'ssaw for curved work. Mach. A. I.

169.

Fonsjean's machine for sawing marble. Mach. Grinding and Polishing.

A. I. 199.
Jenkins's machine for
Guyot's sawing machine. A. P. 1720. H. 114. grinding spherical
Mach. A. IV. 3, 7. lenses. Ph. tr. 1741. XLI. 553.
Chambon's mode of making saws act. A. P. Jeffries on diamonds and pearls. 8. 175].
1740. H. 111. R.I.

Pommyer's machine for Polishing iron and steel. Perret Art du cou-
sawing off piles un-
der water by the force of the stream. A. P. telier. Duhamel Art du serrurier.

1753. H. 302. Mach. A. VII. 453. Songy's polishing machines. A. P. 1763. H.

Euler on saws. A. Berl. 1756. 267. 143.
Cone's composition for whetstones and razor-
Sawing machine. Emers. mech. f. 263.
A. P. 1766. IT. 160.
Sawing mill. Belidor Arch; Hydr. 1.1.321. straps.

Machine for sawing piles. Belidor Arch. Polishing gems. E. M. A. II. Art. Diaman-
II. PI. CO. taire.
Hydr. ii.

Model of a sawing mill. A. Petr. I. i. H. 60. Polishing looking glasses. E. M. A. III. Art.
Standfield's saw Glacerie.
mill.
Bailey's mach. I. 136.
Saw under water. E. M. Pi. I. Working stone. E. M. A. VI. Art. Pierres.
Charpente.
PI. 9. VIII. Art. Tailleur de Pierres.

mill. E. M. PI. I. Polishing. E. M. A.

VI. Art. Poliment.
Sawing Charpente, PI. 21.
Mill for sawing stones. E. M. PI. III. After Polishing gunpowder. E. M. PI. IV. Poudre
a canon, Lissoir.
Ma^onnerie.
Saws and sawing. E. M. A. VII. Art. Scie.
Grindstones. E. M. PI. IV. Tourneur, PI. 10.
Benlham'iJ patent rotatory saw. Tripoli. E. M. A. VIII. Art. Tripoli.
Repert. X.
250. Cutting glass. E. M. A. VIII. Art. Verre

Fould's semicircular and circular saws for tourne.

piles. S. A. XIII. 241. Repert. XI. 171. Pajot's machine for

polishing glass and cop-
An improvement on the old method of working a saw per. Roz. XXXIII. 430.
backwards and forwards by a lever, with Lambert on the
ropes and puUies. velocity of vessels in which
Bundy's patent for cutting combs. Repert. balls are rounded. Hind. Arch. II. 287.
XI. 227. Enc. Br. Art.
Grinding glass. Burrough's
Wilde's patent saws. Repert. XVI. 389. machine. Glass, Lens.
 CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS. 211

On grinding. Nich. I. 131.

Digging.
Person's grindstone. Pers. Recueil. PI. 18.
F. Cuvier on an oxid of iron. B. Soc- Phil. See Clearing Harboun
n. 67.

Guyton on an oxid of iron for polishing. Ph. Leup. Th. Hydrot. t. 7 • . .

VCf/ ' '^'^^Ty
M. XIV. 276. Laplatriere, Art du tourbier. 4. R. S?^^^;^^NW
Made from old hats. Digging trenches. E. iM. A. VII. Art. Sa-
Looking glasses are polished by a block, moved by a peur.
crank; sometimes one glass is made on another.
Cutting turf. E. M. A. Vtll. Art. Tourbe.
to slide

See optical instruments.

Cook's hoe. E. M. Art. Aratoire.
Stone quarries and lime kilns. E. M. A. I.

Art. Carrier.
Boring.
Macdougall's turnip hoe. S. A. XI. Frontisp.
Leu p. Th. Hydrot. t. 12, 25. Eckhardt on a machine for deepening canals.
mills. Belidor Arch. Hydr. I. i. 321. f. R. S.
Boring
Morand Art d'e.\ploiter Ducket's hand hoe. Board Agr. 424.
Boring for coals. II.

les mines de charbon. II. ii. 388. Repert. XIV. 112.

Boring small cannon. Roz. Introd. I. 137.

Horse hoes. See ploughing.

Bailey's auger with wheelwork. Bailey's

mach. I. 159.
Cook's spiral auger. Bailey's mach. I. 163. IMining, and Subterraneous Work
Boring for coals. E. M. PI. I. Charbon de in general.
terre. PI. 1.

Boring gun barrels. E. M. PI. I. PI. 17. Moray on the mines at Liege, and on blast-

Boring cannon. E. M. PI. I. 58. ing rocks. Ph. ir. 166'5 ..6.1. 79, 83.

Old method. Leup. Th. Hydrot.

Drill with a bob or weight. E. M. PI. II. PI. Belidor on military mining. A. P. 1756. 1.

7. f. 34. 184. H. 11.

Boring. E. M. A. VII. Art. Sonde. Jjcach on navigation and mines. 8.

Boring mill. Smeaton's reports. Coal mines. Dithamel Art du charbon nier. f.
Enc. Br. Art. Pipe borer. Paris. Ace. A. P. 1761. H. 152. Morand

Bailiet's borer and sounding instrument. B. Art d'exploiter les mines de charbon de

Soc. Phil. n. 39. Nich. IV. 227. terre. f. Paris. Ace. A. P. 1768. H. 129.
Howell's patent for boring wooden
pipes,
Calvor vom Oberharze. Brunsw. 17(53.

Repert. IX. 45. Ddim Anleitung zur bergbaukunst. Vienna,

By a hollow cylindrical borer. 1773.
Eccleston's peat borer. S. A. XIX. 168. Coal mines. E, M. A. I. Art. Charbon mi-
Repert. XVI. 317. Nich. 8. V. 28. neral.
Poterat's boring mill approved. IM. Inst. Bituminous coal. E. M. A. III. Art. Houijle.
IV. E. M. A. VIII. Art. Travaux des mines.
Billingsley's patent boring machine. Repert. White on the quarries under Paris. Manch.
ii. II. 321. M.II. 3G1.
212 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY A>fD ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS.

Kirwan on coal mines. Ir. tr. 1788. II. 157. Lloyd's horse hoe and harrow. Bailey's macb.

Proposal for a tunnel under the Thames. Ph. I.S9.

M. I. 223. Various ploughs described. Bailey's mach. I.

Lefebure on the French coal mines. Ph. M. 68.

XVI. 15. Clark's drain plough. Bailey's mach. I. 68.

Devonshire and Corn- Chateau Veaiix's cultivators. Bailey's mach.

Taylor on mining in

wall. Fh. M.V. 357. L71.

Marescot on military mines.
Props used in mining. Rees's Cyclop.
Art. Mineralogy.
M. Inst. III. 370. Baker's scarificator. Bailej''s mach. II. 9.
II. pi- Peters's plough. Bailey's mach. II. 11.
With a circular coulter, for ploughing up furze.
Brand's iron plough. Bailey's mach. II. 13.

Hope and Clare's drill

plough. Bailey's mach.
PloughingjSowing, and Harrowing. XL 17.

Evelyn on the Spanish sembrador, for plough- Pinchbeck's road plough. Bailey's mach. II.

ing, sowing, and harrowing.

Ph. tr. I(;i70. 21.
V. 1055. Blanchard'sdrill plough. Bailey's mach. II. 30.
windmill for ploughing. A. P. 1726.
Lassisi's Meister on the best direction for ploughing.
H. 69. Mach. A. IV. 157- Commentat. Gott. 1*81. IV. 26.
Jaravaglia's plough without cattle. Mach. A. Drills. E. M. A. VII. Art. Semoir.
V. 35. Ploughs, drills, and hairows. E. M. Art.
Tuirs horse hoeing husbandry. 8. Aratoire.
Clark and Lord Kaimes on shallow plough- Harrows and rollers for roads. Board Agr. I.
ing. Ed. ess. III. 06, 6'8. 150.
Knowles's open drain plough. Bailey's mach. Snow plough. Board Agr. I. 198.
I. S. Halcott on the oriental drill plough. Board
With three coulters, and with wheels.
Agr. I. 352.
Makin's drain plough. Bailey's mach. I. 4. A figure of the plough long used in the east.

Without wheels. Close's frame for setting wheat. S. A. IV. 8.

Gee's six furrow plough. Bailey's mach. I. 8. Harriott's road harrow. S. A. VII. 205.
Ducket's three furrow plough. Bailey's mach. With sweeps.
I. 13. A mould board. Am. tr. IV. 313.
Ducket's trenching plough. Bailey's mach. Coquebert on the arrangement of ploughs,
I. 16. with an account of a plough with two

Willey's plough. Bailey's mach. I. 19.

drill shares. B. Soc. Phil. n. 6. Journ. Phys.
Hewit's horse hoe and harrow. Bailey's mach. XLV. (II).311.
1.22. Knight's harrow with wheels. S. A. XIV.
Riugrose's plough for turning up heath. 201. Repert. VI, 311.

Bailey's mach. I. 26. Knight's drill machine. S. A. XIX. 128.

Arbuthnot's double furrow plough. Bailey's Repert. XVI. 319- Ph. M. XII. 271.
mach. I. 29. For turnips.

Clarke's plough, with adjustments for the di- Kirkpatrick's instrument for
transplanting
rection of the draught. Bailey's mach. 1.32. turnips. Repert. VII. 196.
 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS. 213

Duke of Bridgewater's drain plough. S. A. Trituration, Pulverisation, Leviga-

XIX. 128. Repert. ii. I. 340. Ph. M. tion, Mills.
XII. 269.
Langelot's philosophical mill. Ph. tr. 1672.
Scott'smole plough. S. A. XVI. 234. Rep.
VII. 5056, 5058.
VIII. 316.
Beale's remarks on mills. Ph. tr. 1677. XII.
Watt's patent implement for draining. Rep.
846.
VIII. 225.
Garouste's four corn mills united. Mach. A.
A mole plough.
II. 143.
Sandilands's harrows. Repert. X. 329-
Moralec's powder mills. A. P. 1722. H.
Euc. Br. Art. Agriculture, Brakes, Drill-
122. Mach. A. IV. 41.
plough, Harrow, Plough.
Windmills. Leup. Th. M. G. t. 39 47.
Wynne's harrows and drag. Repert. XIII.
. .

102. Auger's bark mill. A. P. 1726. H. 71.

La Cache's little mill. Mach. A. IV. 37.
Francois de Neufchateau sur ies charrues. 8.
Dubuissou's machine for
beating plaster.
Par. 1801. U. S.
Mach. A.VL 129.
Manning's drill machine. S. A. XIX. l68.

XVI. 306.
Limperch Architectura mechanica of Moele-
Repert.
boek. f. Amst. 1727. R. I.
Lester's cultivator. S. A. XIX. l68. Repert.
XVI. 314. Ph. M. XIII. 20.
SnufF mills. Mach. A.VL 161.
Soumille's snuff mill. A. P. 1735. 103. Mach.
With seven shares, for pulverising fallovirs.
A. VII. 37.
Wright's patent machine for sowing wheat. Mansard's portable mill. A. P. 1741. H. 167.
Repert. XV. 369.
D'Ons en Bray's snuff mill. A. P. 1745. 31.
Jackson's patent turnip drill. Repert. XVI.
Gensanne's paper mill. Mach. A. VIL 201.
220.
Mill for
Harrows and rollers for roads. Board Agr. grinding madder. Duhamel sur la
Garance.
I. 150.
Ace. A. P. 1767. H. 50.
Lord Somerville's two furrow plough. Board
Jodin's washing mill for
goldsmiths. A. P.
Agr. II. 418.
With and without
1759. H. 233.
wheels.
Mills in general. Emerson's mech. Wind-
Willich. Dom. Enc. Art. Drill, Plough.
mill, f. 203. Common grist mill. f. 260.
Green's hand drill. S. A. XXI. 230. Nich.
Horse mill. f. 294. Powder mill.
VIII. 19.
f. 297.
Corn mills. Belidor Arch. Hydr. I. i. 27().
Charles's machine for
levelling lands. S. A.
Windmills, handmills, and horsemilJs. Beli-
XXI. 272. Nich. VIII. 181.
dor Arch. Hydr. 1. i. Pi. n. 26.
A kind of plough.
Powder mills. Behdor Arch. Hydr. Li. 343.
Ploughs and other instruments. Dickson's Belidor Arch. Hydr. I. i. 359.
practical agriculture. Mill for grinding mortar.

Curtwright's three lurrow plough. Nich. Loriot's machine for grinding ore. A P J76l
VIII. 24. H. 159.
214 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AND AETS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS.

A machine for washing and stamping. A. P. Tobacco and snuff mills. E. M. A. VIII. Art.
1761. H. 161. Tabac.
Flour mills. Malouin Ait du meunier. f. Par.
Stamping mill for bark. E. M. PI. V. Tan-
Ace. A. P. 1767. H. 182. neur. PI. 7.

Chamoy's watermill forsnufF. A. P. 1767- H. Handmill, and mill driven by an ox in a

184. walking wheel. E. M. Art. Aratoire.
Leather mill. Lalandc Art du chamoiseur. Baunie on polatoe mills. A. P. 1786. 689.
p. 7. Repert. III. 62.
Kastner on the lifters of stamping mills. N. Boulard's mode of preserving the health of
C. Gott. 1770. II. 117.
colourgrinders. Roz. XXXVII. 353. Re-
On oil mills. Roz. VIII. 417. XII. 399. port. V. 138.
Dutch oil mills. Roz. X. 417. Mills and millstones. Langsdorfs
Hydrauhk.
Mortar mill. Roz. XIII. 199. PI. 44 46, 48
. . 50. . .

Quatremere Dijonval on a handmill for

Stamping mills. Langsdorfs Hydr. PI. 52.
grinding indigo. S. E. IX. 78. PI. 7- Banks on mills. 8. London, 1795.
A machine for grinding colours. Roz. XIX. Nancarrovv on mills. Am. tr. IV. 348.
314. A paper mill. Kunze. I. f. 1 10.

Evers's windmill for threshing and grinding Howard's engine for beating tanning mate-
corn. Bailey's mach. 1. 54. rials.

Various mills. Bailey's mach. I. 175. Lasterie's machine for

powdering bones. B.
Lloyd's cider and maltmill. Bailey's mach. Soc.Phil. n. 14.
II. 1. A corn mill at Kilrie. Board Agr. I. 52.

Lloyd's handmill. Bailey's mach. II. 44. Ellicott's corn mill. Repert. IV. 319.

Verrier's windmill. Bailey's mach. II. 47- Grenet's machine for granulating potatoes
'

Malt mills. E M.Pl. I. Brasserie. PI. 45. Repert. IV. 353.

Cider mill.M. PI. I. Cidre.
E. Ward's prevention of injury from grinding
Coffee mills. E. M. PI. II. I)istillateur.P1.4. white lead. S. A. XIII. 229. Repert. V.
Mills for pOtteiy. E. M. PI. II. Fayencerie. 249.
PI. 9. Dearman's patent malt mill. Repert. V.
•

Washing and stamping mills for ore. E. M. 247.

Pi. fl. Fer. i. PI. 7 • . 10. vi. Pi. 1, 2. Weldon's patent bark mill. Repert. X. 77.
Some mills. E. M. PI. III. Art. Instrumens XV. 90.
de mathematique. Rustall's family mill and bolter. S.A.XVIIL
Stamping mills. E. M. A. IV. Art. Lavage. 222. Repert. XIV, 197.
Corn mills. E. M. A. V. Art. Meunier. Terry's mill for hard substances. S. A.
Hesiod's pestle worked by the foot. E. M. A. XIX. 282. Nich. 8. II. 206. Repert. ii.

VI. Art. Piler. II. 182.

E. M. A. VI. Art. Pulverisation. With a spring regulator.

Stamping and rolling mills for gunpowder. Bagnall's machine

for chopping and pound-
E.- M. PI. IV. Poudre ti canon. ing bark. Repert. XV. J 45.
 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, PRACTICAL MECHANICS. 215

Barralt's patent machine for grinding corn. Jppnuh/ges to Mills.

Preparation of Corn
Repnt.XVI. 79- and Flour.
A windmill. Threshing machine with flails. M. Berl. I.
Enr. Br. Art. Levigation, Oil mill. Paper 325.
mill. Descamus's machine for working several
Rasping Berard Melanges. 147.
mill. sieves. A. P. 171 1. H. 101.
Pounding mill. Berard Melanges. l6l. Knopperf's fan for corn. A. P. I716. H. 78.
Powder mill. Person Recueil. PI. 5. Mach. A. III. 101, 103.
Moved by a luver.
Duquet's threshing machine. A. P. 1722. H.
Hand mill. Person Recueil. PI. 16.
121. Mach. A. IV. 27, 31.
With a fly.
Meiffien's threshing machine. A. P. 1737.
Stamping mill. Person Recueil. PI. 17.
H. 108.
By hand.
The Indian hand mill. Nich.8. III. 18(3. Malassagny's threshing machine. A.P. 1762.
On H. 193.
the Scotch querns or hand mills. Nicli. 8.
Loriot's A.P. ]763."H,
IV. 220. threshing machine.
141.
Hawkins's patent floating mill. Repert. ii. I.
Poix's cylindrical sieve for corn. A.P. 1763.
162.
Table for the construction of mills. Imison's
H. 14.5.

elements.
Gambler's sieve for corn. A. P. 1768. H.
I. 90.
131.
Corn mill. Imison's elements. I. PI. 3.

Mills of kinds.
Munier's winnowing machine. Roz. Intr. II.
all
Gj^ys experienced mill-
79.
wright. London.
With plates. A>M«?7z Drcschkunst. 8. Bcrl. 177G.
Rawlinson's colour mills. S. A. XXII. 260. Tlireshing, threshing mills, wooden fan. E.
Ferguson's lectures by Brewster.
M. Art. Aratoire.
Enters much into the form of the teeth of wheels. Evers's
winnowing machine. mach.
Bailey's
Paper mills. See union of fibres. I. 51.
^vers's mill for
Pearl barley is prepared by first
pounding the barley, to threshing by Stampers. Bai-
separate the husks, then grinding the corns between mill ^^y S mach. 1.54.
stones set wide, and separating them by sieves of different Stedman's bolting, mill. mach.
Bailey's If.
sizes. .
;;-
•J i .

Bolting mills. Langsdorfs hydraulik. PI. 47.

Desmazi's machine for
dressing corn. Joura.
Parts of Milk.
Phys. XL[V.(I.)314.
Cranks connected by rods.

Millstones. E. M. A. V. Art. Meulier. Threshing Board Agr. I. 51, 52.

mills.

Pratt's patent composition for millstones. Re- Wardrop's threshing machine with elastic
pert. VII. 1.
flails.
Repert. IV. 243.
Bowes on a quarry of millstones. Repert. Steedman's patent threshing machine with
XIV. 189. flails.
Repert. VII. 305.
216 CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, HISTORY OF MECHANICS.

Meikle's patent machine for separating corn Lavier's machine for breaking ice. A. P. 1743.
from straw. Repert. X. 217. H. 167.
Tunstall's hand engine for threshing. Repert. Belidor on military mining. A. P. 1756. 1, 184.

XIII. 361. H. 11.

Machine to thresh, sift, and winnow at once. See mining.

Person Recueil. PI. 1, 2.
Machine for drawing piles. Belidor Arch.

Dom. Enc. Hydr. I. PI. 12.

Threshing machines. WiUich's
ii.

Art. Thrashing. Silberschlag on the military engines of the

Polfreeman's winnowing machine. WiUich's antients. A. Berl. 1760.378.
Doiii. Enc. Art. Winnow. Loriot's machine for breaking ice. A.P..1763.
See Pneumatic Machines. H. 141.
Winnowing.
See Mills, Saverland's machine for levelling land. Bai-
Bolting.
ley's mach. 1.61.

Machines f07' Agitation, nearly allied Rollers for breaking clods of earth. E. M.
to Mills. Art. Aratoire.

machine Rich's nail drawer. S. A.IX. 156. Repert. I.

Solignac's for kneading dough. A. P.
1760. H. 156. 246.

Churns. E. M. PI. II. Hill's nail drawer. S. A. X. 224.

Fromage.
Bowles's pendulum churn. S. A. XIII. 252. Bolton's bolt drawer. S. A. XVI. 315. Re-
Xr. 39. Ph. M.
Repert. IV. 107. Ph. M. XIX. 56. pert. III. 189.

Machine for Enc. Br. Art. Catapulta, Shipbolt drawer.

kneading dough with horses.
Journ. Phys. LI. 64. Nich. IV. 281. Rep. Knight's apparatus for blasting wood. S. A.
III. 283. Ph. M. VII. 261. XX. 258. Repert. ii. II. 342. Nich. 8. V.
31. Gilb. XIV. 342.
Raby's patent churn. Repert. VII. 289.
Jones's machine for mixing malt. Baillet on blasting rocks under water. Ph. M.
Repert.
IX. 242. XIII. 268.
Sonnini's machine for XIV.
Fischer'swashing machine. WiUich's Dom. blasting. Gilb.
Enc. Art. Washing. 345.
Common crow. Cavall. N. Ph. I. PI. v. f. ig.
Jumilhacon churning. Nich. 8. IV. 241.
Charles's machine for
levelling land. S. A.
Machines for bleaching and washing. Rees
XXI. 272.
Cyclop. III. PI. Art.
Bleaching. A kind of plough.

See Pneumatic machines.

Demolition.
Military engines. Malhematici veteres, Ve- HISTORY OF MECHANICS.
and Ammianus Marcellinus.
getius,
Diogenes Laertius Meibomii. 2 v. 4. Amst.
Beaumont on blasting rocks. Ph. tr. 1685.
1692. R. I.
XV. 854.
P. Vergilius de inventoribus rerum.
Dubois's spoon for the removal of earth Basle,
1521. R. I.
beaten down by a ram. A. P. 1726. H.70.
Hooke on Hevelius.
Mach. A. IV. 165. Claims the invention of the circular
pendulum in 1665.
 CATALOGUE. PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, HISTORY OF MECHANICS. 217

Hooke Lect. Cutl. on Helioscopes. *Cooper on the art of painting among the
Claims the invention of the balance spring. ancients. Manch. M. III. 510.
Huygens on tlie invention of watches. A. P. Shows that it was highly improved.

X. 381. Mongezon ancient coining. Roz. XL. 426.

Bagford on the invention of printing. Ph. tr. Dutefis on the origin of discoveries. 4. R. I.

1707. XXV. 2397. Beckmmins history of inventions. 3 v. 8.

Pancirollus's history of memorable things. 3

Lond. 1797. R. I.
V. 12. 1715. R. I. Camus Histoire du polytypage et de la stereo-
Lahire on the invention of clocks. A. P. typic. 1801.

1717.78. Foppe Geschichte der uhrmacherkunst. 8.

1801.
Derham's artificial clockmaker.
*Montucla et Lalande Histoire "des mathe-
Leup.Th. Arithm.
Says, that proportional compasses were invented by Justus matiques. 4 v. 4. Par. R. I.

Byrgius in 1600. Perhaps reinvented after Vinci. Fischer sur les monumens typographiques de
Regnault Origine ancienne de la physique Gutenberg. Mentz, 1802. R. S.
4.
nouvelle. 3 v. Amst. 1735. Account of Newton. Tumor's collections for
Mairan on Des Piles's balance of painters. the history of Grantham. 4. Lond. 1806.
A. P. 17.55. l.H. 79. B. B.
Maitaire, Marchand, Borcyer, Ames, and Le- Contains the original papers sent by Mr. Conduit to Fon-
and some other documents.
moine's works on the history of printing. tenelle,

R.I.
Particular Dates, chiefly from Luckombe's
Borvyer and Nichols's origin of printing. 8.
Tablet of Memory.
R. S.

Rolliti'shistory of the arts and sciences of Scipio Nasica's clepsydra. B. C. 159

the ancients. 3 v. 8. 1768. R. I. Scissors invented in Africa.

Luckombe's history of printing. 8. 1771. R.I. Diophantus employed some algebraic

Luckombe s tablet of memoiy. 12. London. symbols. Montucla.

Waring's prefaces to his mathematical works. Pens made from quills. A. D. 635
De Loys Abrege chronologique. Glass introduced into England 674
Silk worked in Greece about
Degoguet's origin of laws, arts, and sciences. 700
3 V. 8. 1775. R.I. Paper of linen introduced about 1100
'*Pti€stky's chart of biography. R. I. Glass commonly used in England 1 180

Dictionnaire des origines des inventions Some Greek weavers settled at Venice 1207
utiles. 6 V. 12. Par. 1777. R. I. Linen first made in England 1253
*Astle's origin and progress of writing. A clock at Westminster Hall about 1288 •

Brugraans on the mechanics of the antients. A clock at Canterbury 1292

Commentat. Gott. 1784. VII. M. 75. Faenza's earthern ware invented 1299
Lord Charlemont on the antiquity of the Two weavers from Brabant settled at
woollen manufacture in Ireland. Ir. tr. York 1331
1787. 1. Ant. 17. Wire invented at Nuremberg 1351

Burja on the mathematical knowledge of Engraving on metal and rolling press

Aristotle. A. Berl. 1790. 257. printing invented 1423
VOL. II. Ff
218 CATALOGUE. — PHILOSOPHY AND ARTS, HISTORY OF MECHANICS.

Printing invented by Faust 1441 Fromantil is said to have applied

Delft ware invented at Florence 1450 pendulums 1655
to clocks in

Printing thade public by Gutenberg 1458 Hooke's watch with a balance spring 1658
Wood cuts invented 1460 Threshing machines with flails in-
Casts in plaster, by Verocchio 14*0 vented 1700
Watches made at Nuremberg 1477 China made at Dresden 1702
Diamonds polished at Bruges 1489 China made at Chelsea 1753
Hats made at Paris 1504 Wedgwood's improvements in pot-
Etching on copper invented 1512 tery 1 763
Proportional compasses invented by Muslins made in England 1781
L. da Vinci, before 1519 In 1787 about 23 million pounds of cotton were manu-

Spinning wheel invented by Jiirgen factured in Britain ; about 6 were imported from the British

of Brunswick 1530 colonies, 6 from the Levant, and lo from the settlements of
other European nations. Half the quantity was employed
Pins brought from France 1543
in white goods, one fourth in fustians, one fourth in ho-
Needles made in England 1545
siery, mixtures, and candle wicks ; giving employment to
Stockings first knit in Spain about 1550 60 000 spinners, and 360 000 other manufacturers. In 1791,

Many Flemish weavers were driven the quantity was increased from 23 millions to 32.

to England by the Duke of Alva's The value of the wool annually manufactured in England
is about 3 millions sterling ; it employs above a million per-
persecution 156?
sons, who receive for their work about 9 millions.
Three clockmakers came to England
Thread has been,spun so fine as to be sold for L.4 an
from Delft 1568
ounce ; lace for L.40.
Log line used 1570
The premiums annually proposed by the society for the
Coaches used in England 1580
encouragement of arts, enable us to form some opi-
Stocking weaving invented by Lee of nion of the present our machinery and manufac-
state of

Cambridge 1589 tures. Some of their objects are, a substitute for white

A slitting mill erected at Dartford 1590 lead paint, a red pigment, a machine for cardin.; silk, cloth

made from hop paper made from raw

The dimensions of bricks regulated 1625
stalks, vegetables,
transparent paper, the prevention of accidents from horses
Vernier's index made known 1031
falling, cleaning turnpike roads, machines for raising coals,
Clocks and watches generally used and for making bricks, instruments for harpooning whales ;

about 1631 machines for reaping or mowing corn, for dibbling wheat,
for threshing a family mill, a gunpowder mill, a
Bows and arrows still used in Eng-
; quarry
of millstones 3
and a mode of boring and blasting rocks
land, and artillery with stone bullets l640
1803.
Newton born 1642
 CATALOGUE. HYDRODVXAMICS, HYDROSTATICS. 919

HYDRODYNAMICS IN GENERAL.
Schotti raechanica hydraulico-pneumatica.4. Burja Grundlehren der hydrostatik. 1790..

1657. M.B. Busch Mathemjitik. II.

Ph. tr. Ahr.I. vi.515.IV. v.423. VI. vi.526. Enc. Br. Art. Hydrostatic Amusements.
VIII. vi. 321. X. V. 247. Venturi Recherches experimentales. 8. Par.

*Newtoni 1797.
principia.
Z)/«ow on fluids. 8. Lond. 1719- M.B. liinmann and Nordwall's essay on the me-
*D. Bernoulli Hydrodynamica. 4. 1738. R.I. chanics of mining. 4. Stockholm.
Abstr. Ph. M. XIII. 76.
hydroslatical and
Cotes's lec-
pneuniatical
tures. 8. 1747. R. I. Eytelweins mechanik und h3'draulik. 8. Ber-

S'Gravesande. Nat. Phil. lin, 1801.

Musschenbroek Introd. Trembley on the uncertainty of hydrody-

Belidor Architecture hydraulique. 4 p. 4. namics. A. Berl. 1801. Ph. 33.
Par. 1782. R. I.
D'Alembtrt de i'equilibre et du mouvcment
HYDROSTATICS.
des fluides.
Ace. A. P. 1744. H. 55. Stevini hydrostatica.
LeccAf Idrostatica e Idraulica. Mil, 1765.
Boyle's hydrostatica] paradoxes.
K'astner Anfangsgriinde der hydrodynamik. Ace. Ph. tr. \m5—Q. I.
8. Gott. 1769.
Boyle on the weiglit of water in water. Ph.
*Bos.'>ut Traite d'hydrodynaniique. 2 v. 8.
tr. 1669. IV. 1001.
Paris, 177 1. R.I. Sinclari ars gravitatis et levitatis.
Rotterdam,
Ace. A. P. 1771. H. 61.
1669.
German by Langsdorf. Frankf. 1792. Ace. Ph. tr. 1669. IV. 1017.
*Buat Traite d'hydraulique. 2 v. 8.
Luni}/Mecanique. 12. Par. 1674. M. B.
E.M.Pl.VII.Matheinatique. Hydrostatique. Mariotte on hydrostatics. A. P. I. 69.
Emerson's hydrostatics. On the equilibrium of liquids. A P. II. 78.
'

Cousin on the mathematical theory of fluids. Lahire. A. P. IX. 144.

A. P. 1783. 665. Describes an arrangement of levers by which a
single
Lambert on fluids. A. Berl. 1784. 299. weight is made to
produce a pressure on each side of a box
Karstens Lehrbegriff". V. VI. equal to the hydrostatic pressure.

Langsdorfs theorie der hydrodynamischen. Varignon on conical vessels. A. P. X. 10.

grundlehren. Frankf. 1787. Saulmon on the principles of the actions of
Langsdorfs hydraulik. 4. Altenb. 1794. fluids. A. P. 1717. H. 73.

Klugei's remarks on Langsdorf. Hind. Arch. Leup. Th. M. G. t.

55, 5Q. Th. Hydraul. I.
11.221. , t. 1, 41.
Parkinson's hydrostatics. 4. 1789. R. T. Switzer's hydrostatics. R. I.

*Lagrange Mecanique analitique. Belidor. Arch. hydr. I. i. 126.

Pfw/tj/Architecture hydraulique. 4.PariS; 1790. Nollet's experiments on the affections of
220 CATALOGUE. PNEUMATOSTATICS;

fluids in a revolving globe. A. P. 1741. PNEUMATOSTATICS, OR PNl^UMATIC

184. H. 1. EQUILIBRIUM.
Nollet's new A.P. See Properties of Matter.
hydrostatical phenoniena.
1766. 431. H. 150. Boyle on the spring and weiglit of the air.

Gulielmini on hydrostatics. C. Bon. I. 545. 4. Oxf. 1663.

on the surfaces of fluids. C. Gott. Ace. Ph. tr. 1668. III. 845.
fSegner
1751.1.301. Boyle's statical baroscope. Ph. tr. 1665. 1.

Euler's principles of hydrostatics. A. Berl. 231.

1755. 217. Boyle on air. 4. Lond. 1670.

N. C. Petr. Ace. Ph. tr. 1670. V. 2052.
Euler on the equilibrium of fluids.
See airpumps.
XIII. XIV. XV.
of sand and earth. Boyle on the effects of atmospherical pres-
Lambert on the fluidity
sure. Ph. tr. 1672. VII. 5155.
A. Beri. 1772. ."JS.
Guericke Experimenta nova Magdeburgica.
Meister on oil swimming upon water. Com-
f. Amst. 1670.
mentat. Gott. 1778. I. 35.
Ace. Ph. tr. 1672. VII. 5103.
Matteucci on a principle of statics and hy-
Table of the compression of air.- Ph. tr. I671.
drostatics. C. Bon. VI. O. 286.
VI. 2191, 2239.
Gr. Fontana on the pressure of fluids. Soc.
Hooke on the elasticity of the air. Birch. Ill,
Ital. 11.142.
384, 387.
J. Bernoulli's hydrostatical considerations.
Mariotte sur la nature del'air. 1676.
N. Act. Heiv.1.229.
Mariotte and Horn berg on the weight of air.
Delangez on the statics and mechanics of A. P. II. 41.
semifluids. Soc. Ital. IV. 329-

Kastner on the pressure of a fluid covering a

Homberg on the spring of air in vacuo. A.P,
IF. 105.
1. 424.
sphere. Hind. Arch. Ph.
VVallis on the air's gravity. tr. 1685.XV
1002.
EquUibrium of Floating Bodies. Lahire on the condensation and dilatation of

Regulating counterpoise. See Hydraulic In- the air. A. P. 1705. 1 10. H. 10.

struments. Wo^'ielementaaerometriae. 12. Leipz. 1706.

**Archimedes de insidentibus humido. Amontons on the rarefaction of air. A. P.

Parent on floating bodies. A. P. 1700. H. 1705. 119. H. 10.
154. +Hauksbee on condensing the air perma-
D. Bernoulli on the equilibrium of floating nently. Ph. tr. 1708.217.
bodies. C. Petr. X.147. XI. 100. Carry's experiment on the spring of air. A.P.
Bouguer on the oscillations of floating bo- 1710.l.H. 1.
dies. A.P. 1755.481. H. 135. Varignon on the densities of elastic fluids

E. M. PI. V. Marine. PI. 152. 153. from pressure, according to given laws of
English on floating bodies, from Chapman. compression. A. P. 17 16. 107. H. 40.
N. Svensk. Hand!. 1787. Ph. M. I. 371, Pressure of the atmosphere. Leup. Th. Aero-
393. staticum.
 CATALOGUE. — THEORY OP HYDRAULICS. 221

Btdaut's atmospherical machines. Mach. A. *Mariotte Traite du mouvemeni des eaux. 8.

VI. 27- Par. 1686.

Elasticity of the air. C. Bon. I. 208. Acc.Ph.tr. 1686. XVI. 119.

Kichmann on the compression of the air by
Contains a good account of ajutages.

ice. N. C. Petr. II. 1G2. Nevvtoni principia. L. ii,

The air was compressed tncclianically to ^ig, without Varignon on the principle of the motion of
much deviation from Hooke's law ; by freezing it was re- water. A. P. II. 162.
duced to
^of its bulk. •

Varignon on the motion of fluids. A. P. 1703.

Lowilz Versuche Uber die luft. 4. Nurem-
238. H. 125.
berg, 1754.
Picard de aquis effluentibus. A. P. VII. 323.
Belidor. Arch. Hydr.II. i. 1.
Lahire on the motion of fluids. A. P. X. l62.
Achard on the properties of gases. A. Berl. Lahire on the motion of waves. A. P. X. 264.
1778.27.
Hauksbee's experiment ilhistiative of the ef-
Beds of air or bladders. E. M. A. VI. 731.
fects of wind. Ph. tr. 1704. XXIV. 1629.
E. M. Physique. Art. Air. A blast produced by a condensation to 3 or 4 times the
Cavallo on air and elastic fluids. 4. R. I. natural density caused a column of mercury connected with
Fontana on the of gases.. Soc. Itul. a vessel through which the blast passed to fall two inches or
eUisticity
more,
1.83.
Gerstners luftwage. Gren. IV. 172; f Carre on the discharge of
long pipes. A. P.
Hutton's recreations. IV. 135.
1705. 275. H. 135. ^

Saulmon's experiments on bodies in a vortex.

Dalton's theory of mixed gases. See Meteo-
A. P. 1712. 279. H. 77. 1714. 381. H.
rology.
Barometers and manometers.
102. 1715. 61. H. 61. 1716. 244. H. 68.
See Meteo-
Bodies floating on the surface of water in an
eddy are
jology.
to Lavoisier cubic inch Fr. of impelled either towards the centre or towards the circum-
According l air weighs 48
ference, according to circumstances ; they are not made to
grains. A. P. V77*. 364. According to Fouchy a, cubic
foot weighs 10 gros. A. P. 17 80. 3. A hundred English approachthe centre on accountof their levity, since they only

wine gallons weigh a pound avoirdupois. displace as much water as is equal to their own weight, but

thinks that there are some exceptions to the law of probably because the resistance of the air causes them to
Roy
move more slowly, and to have less centrifugal force than
Boyle and Mariotte. Ph.tr. 1777. Others attribute these
the water. When they move towards the circumference,
irregularities to the presence of water.
it is probably because of the greater retardation of the water
from the friction of the vessel. Y.

THEORY OF HYDRAULICS.- Hermanni phoronomia.

Poleni de motu aquae mixto. 4. Pad. 1717.
Baliani de motu gravium. 4. Genev. I646.
M.B.
Extr. Ph. tr. 1717. XXX. 723.
Polenus de castellis.
Davis and Papin on the siphon. Ph. tr. 1685.
•j-Jurin de motu aquarum fluentium. Ph.
XV. 846. tr,

1718. XXX. 748. 1739. XL. l, 5.

Papin on the air rushing into a vacuum. Ph.
Follows Newton, with some inconclusive and erroneous
tr. 1686. XVI. 193.
inferences.
Assumes the specific gravity of air equal to -^ of that of

water, and deduces thence a velocity of ISOS feet in a se-

Juiin de motu cordis. Ph. tr. 1718. XXX.
cond. 863,929. 1719- XXX. 1039.

/
222 CATALOGUE. — THEORY OF HVDRAULIC3.
Juiin defensio contra Miclielottium, Ph. tr.
of heat.
efl'ects N. C. Petr. XIII. 305.
1722. XXXir. 179- XIV. 270. X.
i. 1. 210,219.
Keill de viiibus cordis contra Jurinum. Ph.
Emerson's fluxions, iii.

tr. 1719. XXX. 995. Robertson on weres. Ph. tr. 1758. 492. See
Huccolta di autori chi trattano del moto
Hydr. Architect.
dell' acque. 3 v. 4. Flor. 1723. Belidor. Arch. Hydr. I. i. 165.
Contains Archimedes, Albici, Galileo, Castelli, Michcl-
Laura Bassi on a hydraulic problem. C. Bon.
inl, Borelli, Montanari, Viviani, Cassini, Guglielmi, Grand!,
IV. O. 61.
Manfredi, Picard, and Nanducci.
Batarra and Pistoi on the descent of water
Eanies on the estimation of force in hv-
in bent pipes. A. Sienn. III. 85.
draulicexperiments. Ph.tr. 1727. XXXIV. *Borda on the discharge of fluids. A. P.
343.
1766. 579. H. 143.
D. Bernoulli on the motion, action, and
Nuovo raccolta. 7 v. 4. Parm. 1766. . .

lateral pressm-e of fluids. C. Petr. II. Ill,

K'astner on hydraulics, after Bernoulli. N.
304. IV. 194.
C. Gott. 1769. 1.45.
Pitot on the motion of fluids. A. P. 1730. Mkhelotti Sperienze idrauliche. 2 v. 4. Turin,
336.H. 110.
1771. R.S.
Couplet on the motion of fluids. A. P. 1732.
Stattleri physica.
113.11.107.
*D'Alembert Opuscules. VI.
Dufay on two streams crossing each other.
Ace. A. P. 1773. H. 87.
A. P. 1736 191. H. 118.
Mairan on the analogy of sound and waves. Lagrange on the motion of fluids. A. Berl.

A. P. 1737. 4j. H.97. 1781. 151.

*Lagrange Mecanique analitique.
S'Gravesande. Nat. Phil. *Bossut.
Clare on the motion of fluids. 8. 1737. R.I. Buat Principes d'hydraulique. Ed. 2. Paris,
Jo. Bernoulli on the motion of water in 1786. R. L
pipes.
Ximenes Nuove sperienze idrauliche.
C. Petr. IX. 3, 19. X. Op. IV.
Riccati on the cavity of a fluid in a funnel.
Krafit on hydraulics. C. Petr. X. 207.
Wolf Cursus mathemal. Soc. Ital. III. 238.

On Lametherie on the motion of fluids. Roz.

cataracts or weres. C. Bon. II. i. 413.
Mackenzie. Ph.tr. 1749. 149. XXVril. 283.

Says, that eddies with a cavity of 2 or 3 feet, which

M. Young on spouting fluids. Ir. tr. 1788.
sometimes swallow up small boats, may be broken and II. 81. VII. 53. Repert. XV. 95.
filled up by throwing in an oar. Shows by experiments on a long pipe through which
Petit Vandin on hydraulics. S. E. I. 261. mercury runs in a vacuum, that the pressure of the atmo-
sphere increases the discharge in some cases in the ratio of 28
Euler on the motion of water in
pipes. A. to 19.
Berl. 1752. 111. Jo. Bernoulli on the reaction of water in
Euler's principles of hydraulics. A. Berl. 1755. N. A. Petr. 1788. VI. 185.
pipes.
274,316. N. C. Petr. VI. 271. Lateral friction. Saint Martin's ventilator.
Euler on the reaction of water in N. Roz. XXXIII. 161.
pipes.
C. Petr. VI. 312. Btrnhard Hydraulique. Germ, by
Langsdorf,
Euler on the equilibrium of and the
fluids, Leipz. 1790.
 CATALOGUE. — THEORY OF HYDRAULICS, OSCILLATIONS. 223

water; by a pressure of 6 feet in 21.3". This .634 to

Prony Archit. hydraulique. gi-ves

1 for the contractionof the stream: the velocities being 233.3

Lorgna on spouting fluids. Soc. Ital. IV. 369.
and 3C1.0. Hence a pressure of a foot gives 14?^, of an
Loigna on the discharge of weres. Soc. Ital.
inch 42, or 20 miles an hour.
V. 313.
"Young's summary of hydraulics from Eytel-
Lorgna on the principles of Castelli. Soc. wein. Journ. R. I., I. Nich. 8. III. 25.
Ital. VI. 218.
Young on the discharge of a vertical pipe.
Lempe BegrifF der maschinenlehre. Leipz. Journ. R. I., I. Rep.ii. II. 45. Nidi. VI. 56.
Vince on the motions of fluids. Ph. tr. 1798. Leslie found that hydrogen
gas admitted through an aper-
Gilb. II. 399. IV. 34. ture filled a given space in an inverted
jar in 45" ; common
*Gerstner on the discharge of water at differ- air in 130"; hence he infers that the defisities were as

ent temperatures. BiJhm. (ieseliech. 1798. 1:81. Lesl. on heat. The same mode might be applied to
steam.
Gilb. V. IfiO.
Miehelotti found a stream of water a little more contracted
Bonati on the discharge of a vessel with as the velocity was Kobison.
greater.

diaphragms, and of a lengthened pipe. Air is

subject to friction in pipes in the same manner as
Soc. ital. V. 501. water.
With experiments on the lateral communication of mo-
tion. 1700.
Stratico on the pressure of Soc. Ital.
Oscillations of Fluids, and of Floating
fluids,
Bodies.
V. 525.
On the lateral friction. Mairan on the analogy of sound and waves.
Girard on the pressure of running water. A. P. 1737. 45. H, 97.
Roz. XLir.429. D. Bernoulli on the oscillation of
floating
Shows that it is not perceptibly dimijiished by atty com- bodies. C. Petr. 100.
mon velocity. Franklin's works.
Venturi sur la communication laterale du Franklin observed, that when oil
swimming on water
was contained in a vibrating vessel, the water was agitated
mouvement dans les fluides. Par. 1798.
while the oil remained still.
R. S. Journ. Phys. XLV. (11.) 3G2. B.
Meister on the eifect of oil svvimminsr on
Soc. Phil. n. 8. Gilb. 11.418. III. 35. Nich.
water. Commentat. Gott. 1778. 1. 35.
II. 172.
On the oscillations observed by Franklin.
Venturi found the discharge of a pipe greatest when the
Achard on calming the agitation of a fluid.
ajutage diverged in an angle of 3° : when the angle be-
came 11°, the augmentation ceased. The diameter of tht A. Bed. 1778. 19.
external orifice of a conical pipe may be to that of the vena fPercivalon attraction and repulsion. Manch.
contracta as is to 10. M. II. 429.
Busse's remarks on Venturi. Gilb. IV. Il6. Bennet on Prankliu's e.xpciiment. Manch.
Eytehvein's experiments with Venturi's ap- M. III. 116.

paratus. Gilb. VII. 295. Shows, that if the lower part of a vessel of water be
Afterwards published in his Handbuch,
tinged with it
may be made to exhibit the
any colour,
Hobison. Enc. Br. Art. River. same appearance with water on which oil is
swimming.
Banks on the velocity of air. Manch. M. V. The fact is easily explained by
considering the distance of
the different parts of the fluid from the axis of vibration.
398. Nich. 8. II. 2G9. Report, ii. 1.342.
The area of an aperture being .0046, 425.1 cubic inches Stratico on the agitation of fluids in oscillat-

of air were expelled in 33" by a pressure of so inches of ing vessels. Ac. Pad. I. 242.
224 CATALOGUE. — THEORY OF HYDRAULICS, RIVERS.
Journ. Sav. Oct. *Raccolta d'autori. 3 vol. 4. Fiorenz.
Flaugergues on waves.

1789. Montucla and Lai. III. 717. 1723.

Found the velocity of waves independent of their mag- Hermanni plioronomia. X. 226.
nitude. Wolf cursus matliem. Hydraul. c. vi. -4.

Paterson on Franklin's experiments upon Genev. 1740.

the oscillations of a fluid. Am. tr. HI. 13.
Buffon Hist. Nat. II. 38. ed. in 12.
Dr. WoUaston observed, that a bore or large wave, 80o
feet
Pitot and others. A. P. 1730. 1732.
moved a mile in a minute, where the depth of the vrater
Wide,
S'Gravesande Elementa physices. I. ii. c.
was said to be 50 fathoms. Lagrange's theorem gives about
40 fathoms for the depth with this velocity. I have also ob- 10.

served the waves or oscillations of water in a cistern, moving *Lecchi hydrostatica. Milan, 1765. With
with a velocity smaller than that of a body falling through some pieces of Boscovich.
half the height, and nearly in the same proportion.
Statlleri physica. 111.^232. 8 vol. 8. Augsb.
1772.
Pheno)nenll of Rivers.
Frisius de fluviis.
From Mann. Lalande's history of canals, fol.
" Fronlinus Poleni. 1722. M. B.
Forfait on clearing^canals. Mantua." fMann
Aleotti. on and canals. Ph.
rivers tr. 1779- 555.
*Castdli de mensura aquarum currentium. Marks the best with asterisks.

M. B. Danubius illustratus.

Baratteri dell architettura d'acque lib. vi. Grandi de castellis.

Piacenz. 1656. M. B. Guglielmini de fluviis et castellis.

Bdtinzoli. Guglielmini on running water. M. Berl. I.

Cabaeus in Aristotelis meteora. M. B. 188.
Galileo. Pitot on the confluence of rivers. A. P. 1738.
*Baliani de motu liquidorum. 299. H. 101.
Riccioli geographia et hydrographia refor- Belidor Arch. Hydr. II. ii. 273.
mata. M. B. Condaniine's voyage on the river Amazons.
*Deschales de fontibus et fluminibus. A. P. 1745. 391. H. 63.
Vartnnius by Jurin and Shaw. 1765. I. Euler on the motion of rivers. A. Berl. 176O.
295—358. M. B. 101.
Jurin. Ph. tr. n. 355. p. 748. Carena on the course of the Po. M. Taur.
Mariotte Trait6 du mouvement des eaux. II.

Varignon. A. P. l699. 1703. Ximenes on the velocity of rivers. A. Sien.

Newton Princip. ii. 7. ed. 1726. III. 16. VI. 31.
*D. Bernoulli hydrodynamica. 4. Strasb. Ximenes on the effect of obstacles in a river.
1738. ASienn. VII. 1.
*Guglielmini della natura dei fiumi. 4. Bo- Ximenes Nuove sperienze idrauliche.
logn. 1697. Bacialli on the mouths of rivers. C. Bon. V.
*Polei)us de castellis et demotu aquae mixto. ii. 99.
Patav. 1697. 1718. 1723. Michelotli Sperienze idrauliche
 CATALOGUE. THEOUY OF HYDRAULICS, RiVEUS.

Zendrini de motu aquarum. of the siiperficial velocity v above the vc-locity at the bottom,

Bossut.
is 2v/k — li V being expressed in French inches. The
mean \'elocity is z) — ^v-\-l. Buat.
Genette Tableau des rivieres.
Gerstner finds Buat's formula not perfectly accurate at
Buat. any temperature, for small pipes. But in fact the formula
Measurement of the depth of a river. Roz. can by no means have been intended to be applied to such

III. 64. 47Si

theorems are i=-
Lespiiiasse and Frisi on the velocity of rivers.
pipes. Buat's
~478A — v''
l being the length

Roz. IX. 145, 398. XI. 58. of the pipe wrhich employs the pressure of an inch of the
head of water in overcoming its friction, I the
length of the
Lorgna Memorie intorno all'
acque correnti.
pipe, h the whole height of the head, and v the velocity,
Veron. 1777. all in French inches; but for the number 478 Langsdorf
Lorgna Ricerche intorno alia distributione
•1)
delle velocita nella sectione de fiumi. 4.
substitutes 4S2; then un^

R. S. — .l),e being the hydraulic mean depth, or one fourth of the

Rennel on the Gansres.
o Ph. tr. diameter d ;
and for the determination of v, I-
may be taken

Brilnings iiber die geschwindigkeit des flies- ~

_H-45£ In English measures, we
k may use the same valutj
senden wassers, von Kronke. Frankf.
Woltmann's beitr'age zurhydr. arch. III.
/+45rf
•fori,andt)~Cv'e
^
— .l).i . ,V
on the force of torrents. Roz. XIV. Vv^i— h.l.v/(/'+i.e) /
Aubry
101. Instead of h.l.^/ (1+1.6), we may substitute .851"' which
Bernhard Hydraulique.
is nearly the same, for moderate velocities. The ex-
Stratico on rivers. Ac. Pad. III. 3S3. IV.
114. pression f^aorCv'e — iJ.(J_+i:L_.ooi)wiIlalso

Trembley on the course of rivers. A. Berl. be found to agree extremely well with Buat's formula, and
1794. 3. 1798.62. 1799- 8. will perhaps be in many respects more useful ; and we may
Hennert on the velocity of water in rivers. employ, with very little inaccuracy, i-*" instead of i-",

Hind. Arch. I. 1. 1.6 ^ .

——
i.ei' ^. ,

the term -r—— becoming ; , which may be determin-

l'-°
Smeaton's reports.
ed without logarithms, and the whole formula may be
Fabre sur Ics torrens et les rivieres. Par. 1797.
R.I. thus e^tpressed: vz:i53(y/d — .'i).[-/l )+1.6
\ \l-\-4id I
Robison Enc. Br. Art. River.
(-—
—-j" — .001.1. These formulas may also be <in-
Silbenchlag Theorie des fleuves.
Ace. Montucl. and Lalande. III. 712. ployed for rivers-— being the sine of thei nclination.
CI

Venturi on the motions of fluids. When the pipe is bent in one or more places, the efTect

On friction in watercourses. Nich. III. 252. of the flexure may be found by adding into one sum j tlie

Edelbrooke on the Ganges. As. Res. VII. 1.

squares of the sines, then ?— .

or more
Cavallo Nat. Phil. 11. 173. k—(\ 482
+ )
3000/
. .Chiefly from Venturi.
/ 4 82rfA \
Simply Langsdorf, fK,m Buat,
The friction of rivers is not quite proportional to the ^=^{ a+j_i+,{^)-
square of the velocity, the velocity increasing somewhat A floating log descends faster than a chip, its ovv'n
weight
more rapidly than the square root of the fall. The excess tending to accelerate it. Robison.

VOL. II.
Gg
226' CATALOGUE. THEORY OF HYDRAULICS, HYDRAULIC PRESSURE.

Resistance of Fluids, or Hydraulic Pitoton the oblique impulse of fluids. A. P.

1727. 49. H. 137.
Pressure.
Molieres on motion in a spherical vortex.
See Seamanship. •

A. P. 1728. 245. H. 97.

Newton's Principia. Molitires on the resistance of ether. A. P.
Mariotte. 1731. H. 66.
fWallison the air's resistance. Ph. tr. 1686. D. Bernoulli on hydraulic pressure. C. Petr,
XVI. 269. III. 214. VIII. 99, 113.
Lahire on the elevation of bubbles of water. D. Bernoulli on projectiles with resistance.
A. P. IX. 315. ,
C. Petr. IV. 136.
L'Hopital on the solid of least resistance. D. Bernoulli on pendulums with resistance.
A. P. 1699. 107. H. 95. C. Petr. V. 106.
Craig on the solid of least resistance. Ph. tr. Euler on tautochronous curves with resist-
1701. XXII. 746. ance. C. Petr. IV. 67. N.C.Petr. X. 136.
Carre on the refraction of balls in water. XVII. 333, 349, 362.
A. P. 170'i. H. 14. 1705. 211. Euler on the motions of projectiles in th^
Derham on pendulums in vacuo. Ph. tr. 1704. air. A. Berl. 1753. 34.
XXIV. 1785. Less elegant in theory than Benioulli,but more convenient
Parent. A. P. 1704. for practice. Robison.

Hawksbee on bodies falling in vacuo. Ph. tr. *Euler on the friction of fluids. N. C. Petr.
1705. XXIV. 1946, 1948. VI. 338.
Hawksbee on the descent of balls in air. Ph. Euler on the resistance of fluids. N. C. Petr.
tr. 1710. XXVII. 196. VIII. 197.
Varignon on motions in a resisting medium. Euler on the figure of a fluid exposed to the
A. P. 1707. 382. H. 139. 1708. 212, 250, wind. A. Petr. I. i. 190.
302, 419. H. 123. 1709. 1710. 1711. 248. According to the law of resistance, the surface may be a

cycloid, or a tractory, or
a curve of an intermediate namre.
H. 87.
Bernoulli on central forces in resisting me- Euler on the vibrations of a board exposed to
diums. A. P. 1711. 47. H. 84. the wind. N. A. Petr. 1786. IV. 131.
Fatii problema de solido minimae resisten- Maupertuis on the curve of equable descent
tiae. Ph.tr. 1713. XXVIII. 172. in a resisting medium. A. P. 1730. 233.

Lahire on the fall of bodies in the air. A. P. H. 94.

1714.333. Maupertuis on the ascent of a bubble of air.

Bomie on the densities of resisting mediums. A. P. 1733. 255. H. 90.

A. P. 1714. H. 52. Bouguer on curvilinear motion in moving
Desaguliers on the resistance of the air, from media. A. P. 1731. 390. H. 76.

e.vperiments in St. Paul's cathedral. Ph. tr. Bouguer on the solid of least resistance. A.
1719. XXX. 1071. n. 362. P. 1733. 85. H. 86. 1767. 504. H. 110.

Desaguliers on the motion of a pendulum in Bouguer on the impulse of fluids on pyrami-

fluids. Ph. tr. 1721. XXXI. 142, dical prows. A. P. 1746. 237. H. 289.
 CATALOGUE. — THEORY OF HYDRAULICS, HYDRAULIC PRESSURE. 227

Pendulum experiments on resistance.

for Lambert on the constitution of fluids. A.
S'Graves. N. Ph. by Desagul. Ph. tr. 1748. Berl. 1784. 299-

332. Molinelli on the descent of bodies in water.

Krafft on the impulse of a vein of water. C. C. Bon. V. i. O. 280.

Petr. VIII. 253. XI. 233. Bossiit E.xperiences sur la resistance des
Krafft on tables for the motions of projec- fluides.

tiles. A, Petr. IV. i. 154. ii. 175. Ace. A. P. 1777. H. 61. E.Ktr. Bossut
Clairaut on the centre of oscillation in re- Hydrod.
mediums. A. P. 1738. 159-
sisting Bossut's experiments. A. P. 1778. 353. H.
D'Arcy on the curve of equal pressure in a \ 38.

resisting medium. A. P. 1742. H. 56. S. E. Mann's experiments on the resistance in

1.73. shallow canals. Ph.tr. 1779. 629.

St. Jacques de Silvabelle on the solid of least J. and J. Bernoulli on a balistic machine. A.
resistance. S. E. III. 639- Berl. 1781.347.

Necker on curves of descent in a resisting Komarzewski's curves of projectiles. M. S.

medium. S. E. IV. 96. R. S.
D'Alembert's theory of the resistance of E. M. PI. V. Marine, pi. 152, 153.
fluids. Edgeworth on the resistance of tlie air. Ph.
Ace. A. P. 1753. H. 289. tr. 1783. 136. Repert. X. 87.
Adami de resistentia corporum in fluidis mo- A vertical axis was made to revolve with a given velocity,
torum. 4. Berl. 1753. bearing a horizontal arm. Alone, it required a weight of
Sulzer on the resistance of the air to a mus- 40 ounces. With a parallelogram 9 inches by 4, fixed .to

ket ball. A. Berl. 1755. 104. the arm, the longer side being horizontal, 112 ounces ; the
shorter horizontal, 121. With a piece of tin 4 inches
Sulzer on the resistance of fluids. A. Berl.
square, 803:40+40 ounces, with a piece 8 inches square
1761.41. 262=40+222, instead of 40+160. The parallelogram
Euler junior on kites. A. Berl. 1756. 322. being bent into an Mch with a chord of 8 inches, theshorter

Emerson on the solid of least resistance. Pap.

side being horizontal, the weight required was 128, instead

on N. A. II. i. 39. of 121 ; when the chord was only 71 inches, 133 ounces.
Hence it is inferred that sails act best when bent. The dif-
Kites. Emers. mech. f. 209. ference of the effect in different positions must have been
Robins's gunnery. derived from the effect of the rotatory motion.
*Borda on the resistance of fluids. A. P.
1763. 358. II. 118. 1767. 495. H. 145. MarguerieM6m.de I'Acad. Royale de ma-
*Borda on the curve described by A. P. rine.
balls.

1769. 247. Riccati on rectilinear motion towards a cen-

Lambert on the resistance of fluids to pro- tre. C. Bon. VL O. 138.

jectiles. A. Berl. 1765. 102. Coulomb on the force of torsion. A. P. 1784.

Lambert on a balistic scale. A. Berl. 1773. 229-

34. Finds the constant friction of water only 1 grain in 2iS
Lambert on the resistance of pendulums of square feet ;
from the oscillations of a cylinder sustained

clocks. Berl. 1776. by a wire.

Ephem.
 228 CATALOGUE. — THEORY OF HYDRAULICS, HYDRAULIC PRESSURE.

Coulomb on the cohesion and resistance of 1. Nich. in. 506. Papers on nav. arch. 11.

fluids. M. Inst. 111. Ph. M. VII. 183. iii. 12.

Examined by the force of torsion. Pressure does not aug- The resistance to a globe moving in water was J
of the

ment the frictionon the contrary, the resistance is greater

;
resistance to a cylinder. The force acting in the direction

when tile immersion is only partial. Greasing wood does of a plane struck by a stream of water, varied considerably

not lessen the friction. The friction of oil is 1 71 times as according to the part of the plane impelled.

great as that of water. A part of the friction is

proportional Hutton's abstract of experiments on the re-
*
to the velocity : the constant part is almost insensible. A sistance of the air. Ed. tr. II. 29. Hutt.
circle .195 metre in diameter, turning in water with a velo-
meets a resistance equivalent to a
Math. diet. II. 365.
city of .14 m. in 1",

on a lever of .143 m. The Gerstner's theory of the impulse of water.

weight of 1 gramme acting

portion proportional to the velocity is equivalent to .042 gr. Bohm. Abh.1795. II.
for a surface equal to twice such a circle moving in its own
PronyArch. Hydr.
direction with a velocity of .01 m. *
Experiments of the society for the advance-
Ulloa. ment of naval architecture. 4. Lond. R. I.
Juan Examen maritime. Avanzini on the resistance of fluids. A. Pad.
Buat Hydraulique. IV. 96.
Legendre's example of the solid of least re- On bodies falling in serpentine lines.
^
sistance. A. P. 1786. 21. Extract from Schober's experiments on the
Tempelhoff on the motion of a projectile in impulse of the air. Kunzes Schauplatz. I.
a resisting medium. A. Berl. 1788. 2l6. 312.
Michclolti on tlie impulse of the vein of a mediums. A.
Trembieyon motion in resisting
fluid. M. Tur. 1788. IV. App. 121. Berl. 1798. 60.
Produces some experiments not agreeing with the com-
Eytelwein's experiments with the hydraulic
mon
quadrant. Samml. zur Baukunst. 1799-
theory.

Loigna on the impulse of fluids. Soc. Ital. IV. Otto on the eficct of oil on waves. Zacb.
418. [I. 5l6. 111.242.
Ephem.
Saint Martin's ventilator acting by lateral Seems to depend on the friction of the air.

friction Roz. XXXIII. l6l. Benzenberg's experiments on falling bodies.

Gilb. XII. .S67. XIV. 222.
Hydraulic pressure. Langsdorfs hydraulik.
A body fell 144 feet Fr. in 1S6.95'", instead of 180.86'".
pi. 5, 6.
When the velocity exceeds loo feet in l", the resistance
Resistance of fluids. Langsdorfs hydraulik.
'
increases faster than its square. Robins says 200.
pi. 7, 8.
Benzenberg Versuche liber den gesetz des
Zuliani on the impulse of a vein of a fluid.
falles. Hamb.
A. Pad. III. 337.
Lacroix on the resistance of fluids. B. Soc.
Zuliani sperimenti sopra Veffetto della caduta
Phil. n. 69.
de' gravi nelle materie cedenti. 4. Pad.
Robison's table of elevations and ranges.
1798. R. S.
Enc. Br. Art. Projectiles.
Vince on the motion and resistance of fluids.
Moreau on projectiles in resisting mediums.
Ph. tr. 1795. 24.
Journ. Polyt. IV. -xi. 204.
A machine for measuring the resistance of the air.
Corda found the resistance of a sphere to that of a circle,

Vince on the resistance of fluids. Ph. tr. 1798. as 1 ; 2.45 in air, in water as i : S.5. Button found the
 CATALOGUE. — THEORY OF HYDRAULICS, HYDRAULIC PRESSURE. 229

resistance of the flat side of a hemisphere moved in air to

that of the convex side 2.45:1. Ed. tr. ;

tothat of the whole

globe as 2-1: 1. Math. diet. Whence we might conclude,

that the resistance of a globe is
greater than that of a hemi-

sphere. This,- however, cannot be the fact.

The experiments of the society for naval architecture con-

tain some valuable remarks on the difl'erent efi'ects of the

form of the different parts of a body moving in water. The

form nearest to the shape of a fish appears to move with
least resistance. Soaked planks were more resisted than

planks not soaked.

A furfacc of 4S square feet, moving in its own direction

with a velocity of I nautical mile per hour, produced a

friction of .563 pounds, with a velocity of 2 miles 1.992,
of 4, 6.642, of 6, 12.839, of 8, 19.856.
The direct resistance appeared to vary as k''"*. The
same body having prows differently inclined, the resistance

at different angles was thus.

9°
 230 CATALOGUE.— THEORY Ol" HYDBAULICS, HYDRAULIC PRESSURE.
varying with the tangent of the angle of incidence, and a until the angle of incidence becomes greater than 80°. Thus,
-third portion proportionate to the square of the cosine, di- the direct resistance being unity, and a the angle of inci-
minished in the ratio of a power, or other function, of the dence.lhe oblique resistance will be.2 + .04t.a+288(cos.o)';
angle of incidence. And it will appear upon inquiry, that (360+a°). A formula, somewhat more accurate than
if we take one fifth of the radius, increased by one twenty- this, deduced from experiment only, is r := (cos.o)'
fifth of the tangent, and add to it four fifths of the square of +.000C00!'217a'''''; the quantity added to the square of
the cosine, diminished in the ratio of the circumference of the cosine being a little less than the millionth of the cube
k circle Increased by the angle of incidence, to the simple of the angle of incidence, expressed in degrees. The re-

circumference, we may approach always within about one suits of these and other formulas are compared, in the

fiftieth, to the number expressing the oblique resistance, following table, with various experiments.

Angle
 CATALOGUE. —HYDROSTATIC INSTRUMENTS. 231

HYDKOSTATIC INSIRUMENTS. Monconi's hydrometer. Birch. I. 257.

Hooke's waterpoise for liquids. Ph. tr. 1693.
Levels.
XVII. 63.
See Geometrical Instruments, and Astrono-
Hooke's hydrometer. Birch. III. 344, 348,
mical Instruments.
364.
DeteTmination of Specific Gravities. A bulb nearly of the vyeight of water.

Boyle's works. Ed. 1772. IV. 204.

Romberg's areometer. A. P. 1699. 46.
Fahrenheit areometri destriptio. Ph. tr.
Homberg on the difference of weight in the
air and in a vacuum. A. P. X. £57.
1724. XXXIII. 140.
With a cup on the stem for weights.
Jurin on weighing bodies. Ph. tr. 1721.
Leupold Th. hydrostaticum. Th. hydro-
XXXI. 223.
tech n.
Observes, that wood becomes heavier than water, when
the air is extricated from it. Desaguliers on Clarke's hydrometer. Ph. tr.

Fahrenheit on Ph. 1730. XXXVI. 277.

specific gravities. tr. 1724.
Clarke substituted copper for
XXXIII. 114. glass, and screwed on
weights at the bottom of the instrument.
Dalibard on the weight of bodies in different
Gfsncr de hydroscopio. Zurich, 1754.
liquids. S. E. I. 212.
Gesner \on den hydroscopen. Vien. 1771.
Baume Elemens de pharmacie.
Baume's hydrometer. Avantcoureyr. 1768, 9.
Montigny on comparative areometers. A. P.
1768. 435.
Nich. L37.
Le Roy on comparable areometers. A. P.
Ramsdenon the specific gravities of fluids. 4.
1770. 5'26.
Lond. 1792. Roz. XL. 432. Ann. Ch.
XIII. 243.
De Luc's comparable areometer. Ph.tr. 1778.

Schmeisser's instrument 509.

for
determining
Ph. tr. 1793. l6o.
Casboison the areometer. Roz. XV. 228.
specific gravities.
Robison. Enc. Br. Art. Specific
E. M. A. VI. Art. Pese-liqueurs.
Gravity,
E. M. Physique. Art. Areometre.
Prony Architecture hydraulique. § 6l4.
instrument for
On the oenometer. Roz. XXII. 89. XXIIL
Say's measuring volumes.
55.
Ann. Ch. XXIH. 1.
.

Ilassenfratz and Schmidt on

Nicholson's hydrometer. Manch. M. 11.370.-
specific gravi-
hydrometer was chiefly for guineas.
Boyle's Clarke's
ties. Ann. Ch. XXXIX. 193. had weights that were screwed on below. Quin's had a
H. prefers weighing in a bottle to a hydrometer.
conical stem, making the degrees more equal. Nicholson's
^;A7«s on specific gravities. 4. Lond. 1803. has a dish below, as well as above, and may be employed
R.L for examining solids.

Extr Ph. M. XV. 277.

Weigel de historia barylliorum. 4. Greifsw.
Leslie measures the specific gravity of gases
by the velo-
1785.
city with which they are' discharged. Lesl. on heat.
Brisson's areometer, requiring no calculation.
A. P. 1788.582.
Hydrometers.
Vullet on areometers. Roz. XXXIII 241.
Boyle's hydrometer for solids. Ph. tr. I675. On the hydrometer. Ph. tr. I790 .'^42.
X. 329. Quin's hydrometer. S. A. VIII (98.
232 CATALOGUE. — HYDRAULIC ARCHITECTURE.
Schmidt's areometer. Gren. VII. 186. JViebekirig um\ Kronke Wasserbaukunst. 2 v.

Sclimidt's remarks on HassentVatz. Gilb. IV. 4. Darmst. 1798. B. B.

194. Smeaton'.s reports.
Sanmartini on the areometer. Soc. Ital.VII.
79.
Thrust of Earth.
Guyton's gravimeter. Ann. Ch. XXI. 3.

Nich. 1. 110.
Couplet on the ihrust of earth. A. P. 1726.
Hassenfratz on the areometer. Ann. Ch. 106. H.' 58. 1727. 139. H. 132. 1728. 1 13.
XXVI. 3, 132. XXVIII. 3,282. XXXI. H. 103.
125. XXXIII. 3. Journ. Phys. XLVII. Lambert on the of sand and earth.
fluidity
(IV.) 274. Nich. IV. 128. Gilb. I. 158, A. Berl. 1772. 33.
396, 515. IV. 2. Delangez on the statics and mechanics of
Arnim on the areometer. Gilb. I. 412. semifluids. Soc. Ital. IV. 329.
Nicholson. I. III. Account of a memoir on the pressure of
Barre on graduating areometers. Journ. Phys. earth. N. A. Petr. 1793. XI. H. 3.
LVII.433. Prony on the lateral pressure of earth. B.
Speer on the hydrometer. 8. London. 1802. Soc. Phil. n. 24.
R. S. Ph. M. XIV. 151.
Prony sur la poussee des terres. 4. Par.
Speer's patent hydrometer. Repert.
ii. III. 81. 1802. R. S.
Atkins on specific gravities. Prony sur les murs de revetement. 4. Par.

Fletcher on Atkins's hydrometer. Nich. 8. II. 1802. R.S. .

276.
On Atkins's hydrometer. Nich. 8. III. 50.
Richter's areometer. Gilb. XVII. 485. Building in Water.

See Architecture.
HYDRAULIC ARCHITECTURE IN GENERAL.
Machine for
digging foundations in water.
Leup. Th. hydraulicum. Th. hydrotfechni- Belidor Arch. Hydr. II. ii. pi. 25. Build-
cum. ing in water, p. 16'8.
*Belidor Architecture hydraulique. 4 parts. Perronet on subaqueous A. P.
buildings.
4. Par. 1782. R. I. 1766. 139. H. 137.
Ace. A. P. 1737. H. 105. 1750. H. 157. A mortar for water. Roz. Intr. I. 237.

1753. H. 294. On Loriot's mode of building in water. Roz,

Hydraulic architecturfe in a strict sense. Bel. IV. 162. 416.
I.ii. JEiSsai de batir sous I'eau. 4. Stockholm.
Woltmann Beitrage zur hydraulischen ar- Leyritz on Building in water. Roz. XXX.
chitectur. Gotting. 88.

Prony Architecture hydraulique: Semple on building in water. London.

Gilltf Grundriss zu den vorlesungen liber On the cones at Cherbourg. Roz. XXXIII.
wasserbaukunst. Berl. 1795. 246. XXXIV. 133. Fig.
 CATALOGUE. HYDRAULIC ARCHITECTURE. 233

Cisterns. Casks. Harbours.

Belidor Arch. Hydr. II. ii. 53.
See Carpentiy. Sluices for clearing harbours. Belidor Arch.

Cisterns and reservoirs. Belidor Arch. Hydr. Hydr. I. ii. pi. 33.

II. i.
pl.n.47. Description of Dunkirk. Belidor Arch. Hydr.
F. de Bondaroy on cisterns for wine. Roz. I. ii. 25.

XXIV. 301. Romain on improvements of the port of

Meux's porter cask is 65ifeet in diameter, 251 high, Toulon. Roz. VI. 71.
containing 20 000 barrels of porter, worth 30 shillings each. On jettees. Roz. IX. 291.
It cost Luckombe.
10,0001. On the port of Havre. Roz. XVI. 42.
Smeaton on Ramsgate harbour. 8. Lond.
1791. R.I.
Dikes and Embankments.
Smeaton's reports.

Stevini hydrostatica. Reports on the port of London. 2 v. f. 1796.

R. L
fDleisuyck de aggeribus.
Proposed improvements of the port of Lon-
Bourgeois's dike. Mach. A. II. 81.
don. Ph. M. X.
Chamberlayne on a sunk island in the Hum-
Pape's improvement of Rye harbour. S. A.
bei", recovered from the sea. Ph. tr. 1719-
XXII. 245.
XXX. 1014.
Clearing harbours. See Mechanics, Raising
Leup. Th. Suppl.
Euler on dikes. N. C. Petr. IX. 362. Weights.

Merely on the area included by a certain outline. Docks.

Dugdale on embanking, f. Lond.
Gaillon's dock. Mach. A. V. 135.
Hales on fencing banks with furze. Ph. tr.
Tracts on wet docks. 8. Lond. 1797. R. 1.
1761. H. 137.
Bosiut et Viallet sur les digues. Sluices.
Silbersc hiag on the rupture of dikes. A.Berl. Stevin sur les ecluses.
1786. 77. Grandi de castellis.

Lee on inclosing a salt marsh. S. A. VIII. Desbillettes's sluice. A. P. I699. 63. H. 114.
114. Bourgeois's sluice gate. Mach. A. II. 81.
Corbet's embankment, S. A. XII. 249. Leupold Th. Suppl.
Beatson and others on embankments. Board Four new sluices. Mach. A. VI. 105 ..III.
Agr. II. Belidor A r(fh. Hydr. I. ii. 54. Sluices fou

Taylovv on an embankment. Repert. XV. clearing harbours, pi. 35.

3<2.6.
Gugliehnini de fluviis et castellis.

Dudley on gaining land from the sea. Rep. Zacharie's sluice gale. A. P. 1763. II. 140.
XVL45. On the forms of sluices. Roz. X. 153.
Bremontier on fixing the downs near Bay- Boulard on sluices. Roz. XVI. 186.
onne. Boulard Traite des eclures.
Extr. Journ. Polyt. II. v. 61. Solage's sluice. B. Soc. Phil. n. 52.
TOL. 11. Hh
234f CATALOGUE. HYDRAULIC ARCHITECTURE.
Account of the canal of Laiiguedoc. Ph. tr.
Management of Rivers.
1669. IV. 1123.
Belidor Arch. Hydr. II. ii.
pi. 3o, 42. Navi- On the canal of Languedoc, from Froidour.
rivers, p. 14.
gable Ph. tr. 1672. VII. 4080.
Scheibel on means of contracting
tiie rivers.
machine
Perrault's for measuring the inclina-
A. Berl. Deutsch. Abh. 1788. 81. tion of water in a canal. Mach. A. I. 163.
Crfiwley on gaining ground by rivers. S. A. Map of the canal of Languedoc. 1774.
XIII. 140. R.S.
Forfait on the navigation of the Seine. M. Perronet on bringing part of the Yvette to
Inst. I. 120.
Paris. A. P. 1775. 21. H. 1.
Forfait on clearing canals. Mantua.
Frisi de canali navigabili.
Bridges.
Lalandt sur les canaux. M. B.

See Architectuie. Lalande on a canal. Roz. XXIII. 38.

GeofTroy on improving a canal. Roz. XIV.
Mezeray's bridge of ropes. A. P. 1748. H.
140.
120.
Dazay on a proposed canal. Roz. XXII. 36.
Kobertson on the fall of water under bridges.
93.
Ph. tr. 1758. 492.
The breadth of the river in feet being the breadth be-
Fer de la Noverre Science des canaux navi-
I,

tween the piers c, the velocity in a second v, the fall of a gables. 8. Par. 1785.
heavy body in l" a(~l6.08U9), the fall of the river will be
Report on the interior navigation, in Bri-
—2)cy
)
— 1 ).
/4a
— . Thus at London bridge i:z:926, cr: tanny. A. P. 1785. 111.
Eckhardt on a machine for deepening canals.
238, reduced by the piles to 196|, «:=3i; hence the fall
is 4.739 ; by observation 4.75. At Westminster bridge, R.S.
i~994, czzsio, r=2i, and the fall becomes about an On the junction of the Red Sea to the Medi-
inch. terranean. Journ. Phys. XLVI. (III.) 338.
Bridges of boats. See shipbuilding. Enc. Br. Art. Canals.
Phillips's history of inland navigation. 4.

Weres. 1795. R. I.

Fulton on canal navigation. 4. 1796. R. I.

Comm. Bon. II. i. 413. Tatham on inland navigation. R. I.

Baciallo on weres. C. Bon. IV. O. 98. Smeaton's reports.

Lorgna on the discharge of weres. Soc. Ital. Leach on inland navigation. 8.
V. 313. 330.
Vallancey on inland navigation. 4.
Whether open or submerged.
C/iopwanon canal navigation. 4. Lond.1797,
Lorgna's regulator for a were. Soc. Ital. V. R.I.
397. Pitton saving water. Repert. I. 376.
Rowland and Pickering's patent canals with-
Canals.
out locks. Repert. I. 81.
Petit on a proposed canal in the South of Longbotham's patent method of supplying
France. Ph.tr. 1665—6. I. 41. canals with water. Repert. IV. 145.
 CATALOGUE. APPLICATION OF HYDRAULIC FORCES. *235

Green's patent for canals without locks. Rep. Keysell's drains. S. A. X. 123.
V. 11. Higgins on draining ponds by digging. Am.
Telford on canals. Ph. M. XV. 77- tr. tll. 325.

Andreos&if Histoire du canal du Midi. 8. Moore on drains. S. A. XII. 234.

Par. 1800. R. I. Corbet's drains. S. A. XII. 250.

Digging. See mechanics. Elkington on draining. 4.

His method is to cut off the springs.

Locks. Draining. Smeaton's reports.

Wedge on draining land. Repert. III. 405.
Leupold. Til. Suppl. Drains for houses. Repert. VII. 234. XI.
Belidor Arch. Hydr. II. ii.
237. XV. 73.
Enc. Br. Art. Locks.
Moyle on draining a marsh. Repert. XV.
Sineaton's reports. .
321.
Playfair's patent locks, Repert. III. 303. Sir J. Banks on the effect of the equisetum
palustre in choking drains. Board Agr. II.
350.
Conveyances substituted for Locks. Willich's domest. enc. Art. Drains.

Huddlcstone's mode of conveying boats by Fraser's stopper for drains. Am. tr. V. 148.
plungers. Repert. XV. 81. Nich. 8. IV. Repert. ii. III. 214.
3Sfi. The common air trap.

See mechanics. Raising and removing Baylcy on draining. Repert. ii. III. 99.
weights. :" Curwen's drains. S. A. XXII. 47.
Dickson's agriculture.
Drain ploughs and mole See Me-
Aqueducts. Irrigation. ploughs-
chanics.
,

Ploughing.
Belidor Arch. Hydr. II. i. Pi. n. 46.
Perronet on the Yvetle. A. P. 1775. 21.
MODIFICATION, OR APPLICATION OF HY-
H. 1.
DRAULIC FORCES.
Ferrari on the distribution of waters. Soc.
Ital.VII. 157.
Hydrodynamic Measures.
Davies on irrigation. Repert. III.
43, 123. Perrault's machine for
measuring the incli-
Pitt on irrigation. Repert. III. 239. nation of water in a canal. Mach. A. I.
Taf/taw on irrigation. 8. Load. 1801. (33.

Huygens's machine for measuring the farce

of the air. Mach. A. I. 71.
Drains.
Leupold. Th. M. G.t. 59,60.
On draining. Beiidor Arch.
Hydr. II. ii.
Pitot's machine
for
measuring the velocities
Valves for drains. I. ii. P]. 58.
A. P. 1730. 1732. 363. H. 103.
offluids.
Ueparcieux's traps for drains. A. P. I767.
Brouckner's machine for
H. 133. measuring veloci-
ties. A. P. 1750. H.
169.
Turner on draining 8.
bogs. By the revolution of a fly.
236 CATALOGUE. —APPLICATIOV OF HYDRAULrC FORCES, FORCE OF WATER.
Measurement of the depth of a river. Koz. Arderon on a waterwheel. Ph. tr. 1746. 1.
III. 64. With oblique floatboards.

Windgages. E. M. A. VI. 645. E. , M. PL Stgiier exercitationes hydraulicae, 4. Gott.

VII. Hydrostatique. PI. 3. 1747.
JVohmann Theoric des hydrometrischen flu-
A mill turned by counterpressure.

Hamb. 1790. Also in Langsd. Hydr. "^^'ater wheels. BeUdor Aich. Hydr. I. I PL
gels.
n. 19.
p. 631. PL 51.
Tubes Horizontal spoon wheels used in Provence.
for measuring the velocity of water.
Bdidor Aroh. Hydr. I. i. PL n. 22.
Langsd. Hydr. PL 25.
Tide mills. Belidor Arch. Hydr. I. PL
Eytelvvein's experiments with the hydraulic n.
i.

25.
quadrant. Samml. zur Bauk. 1799.
A horizontal acting Belidor. Arch.
Protiij sur le jaugeage des eaux courantes. pump.
4. Par. 1802. R. S. Hydr. II. i. PL n. 33.
Denisard and La Deuille's machine, with im-
Banks's gage. Manch. M. V. 398.
air

See instruments subservient to seamanship, provements. Behdor Arch. Hydr. II. i. PI.
and meteorological instruments. n.37.
Acting pumps, with air vessels.

Buckets raising each other." Belidor Arch.

Force of Water. II. PL n. 38.
Hydr. i.

Parent on the perfection of machines moved Deparcieux on the advantages of a slow mo-
by fluids. A. P. 1704.323. H. 116. tion in overshot wheels. A. P. 1754. 603.

Duquet's mill for ships' pumos. II. 136 H. 134.

Joue's waterwheel. Macn. A. HI. 123, 127. Deparcieux on floatboards inclined to the •

Waterwheels. Leupold. Th. M. G. radius. A.P. 1759-288, 477. H.

123, 223.
Horizontal waterwheel. Leupold Th. M. G. Euler on Segner's hydraulic machine. A.Berl.
t. 64, 65. 1750. 311. 1751.271.
Bead pump as a power. Euler on machines moved by
Leupold Th. Hy- the reaction of
draul. 2. t. 54. water. A. Berl. 1754. 227.

Pitot on the force of machines moved by J. A. Euler enodatio quaestionis de molis.

water. A. P. 1725. 78. H. 80. Gott. 1754.
Pitot on the floatboards of waterwheels. A. J. A. Euler on moving vesseJs without wind.
P. 1729. 253, 385. H. 81. A. Berl. 1764.240.
Martin on the preservation of watermills. A. By oars, vanes, or the reaction of water.

P. 1737. H. 106. Lambert on mills. A. Berl. 1755.

Gensanne's acting pump. Mach. A. VII. Lambert on waterwheels. A. Berl. 1775. 49,

99. 70, 82.

Amy's hollow levers. Mach. A. VII. 277. Veltmann's waterwheel. A. P. 1756. H. 129.
Dubost's spiral wind or watermill. A. P. 1741. A waterwheel for r.iising weights. Emers.
H. 165. Mach.A. VII. S69. mech. f. 192.
Dubost's new watermilL A. P. 1747. H. 127. An overshot spiral waterwheel with a vertical
Maclaurin's fluxions. axis. Emers. mech. f. 306.
 CATALOGUE. APPLICATION Or IJY DKAUJ.IC FORCKS, FOftCE OF WATER. il3f

*Smeaton on the powers of w ind and water. Waring on Barker's mill. Am. tr. HI. 185.
Ph. 1759. 100. Kratft on
tr. tlie
employment of Segner's ma-
Mallet on waterwheels. Ph. tr. 1767. 372. chine in mines. N. A. Petr. 1792. X.
Finds, that at the moment that one of the floatboards is 137.
vertical, their number is indifferent to the effect ; but that *0n the force of wind and water.
Langsdorfs
at other times, the number 6, 9, or 30, has an advan-tage,
hydraulik.
accordingly as the (xisition is more or less remote from a
vertical one.
Waterwheels. Langsdorfs iiydr. PI. 9 . .
13,
53.
*Borda on hydraulic wheels. A. P. 1767.
Euler's machine for rotation from counter-
270. H. 149.
Bossut's general determination of the effect pressure. Langsdorfs hydr. PI. 16.
Kempele's rotatory machine. Langsdorfs
I of wheels. A. P. 17G9. 288, 477. H. 121.
Well's machine for pumping vessels. Am. tr. hydr. PI. 20.
Hbli's acting
I. 353. Roz. I. 228. Repert. V. 38. pumps. Langsdorfs hydr. C.
20. PI. 18,21,22.
With a waterwheel.
Eight of these have been erected at Schcmnitz.
On a machine moved by a counterpressure.
Oblique float boards. Langsdorfs
Roz. V. 73. VI. 166. hydr. PI.
50. f. 286.
Collection des arts et metiers, f. Paris.
Tide Langsdorfs maschinenlehre.
mills described.
Bailey's mach. I. 178.
Gerstner Bohm. Abh.
E. M.
Echhaidt on the advantages of wheels with
A watermili on a boat. E. M. PI. I. Char-
inclined floatboards. f. R. S.
penterie. PI. 19.
Eiselen on undershot wheels. Samml. zur
Trough or spoon pump. E. M. Art. Ara-
bauk. 1798.
toirc.
On waterwheels. Nich. 11. 497, 544.
Westgarlh's statical engine. Bailey's mach.
Leslie's tidewheel.
11.52. S. A.V. 192. Repert. 1. 385.
An acting pump. Bramah's patent Jiydraulic power. Repert.
Fenwickon practical mechanics. VI. 289. Nich. 1. 29.
sur les moulins a eaux. Pr. A. P. Bramah's compound piston
Dransy giving a great
1787. force. Nich. VII. 50.

Kliigel on undershot waterwheels. Commen- Brooks's buoyant machine for

raising weights.
tat. Gott. 1787. IX. M. 26. Repert. VII. 36I.
Quayle's pentrough for equalising the flow of A greasing machine for waterwheels. Repert.
water. S. A. XI. I66.
Repert. III. 343.
vin. 97.
The water running over a float. Luccock's patent hydrostatical machine. Re-

fWaring's theory of watermills. Am. tr. III. pert. XI. 73.

144, 319. Hutton's dictionary. Art. Mills.
An acting pump.

Observes, that the number of floatboards impelled being Sir T. Hanmer's waterwheel. S. A. XVII.
proportional to the velocity of the vf heel, the relative velo- 350. Repert. XIL 176.
city ought for this reason to be half cf the absolute The water turned back on the wheel.
velocity
for the greatest effect. But the time oi action on each float-

board being as much smaller as their luimber is

Buchanan on the
velocity of waterwheele.
greater, this
consideration cannot in any degree afTcct the calculation. Ph. M. X. 278.
238 CATALOGUE. — APPLICATION OF HYDRAULIC FORCES, AIR OR WIND.

The velocity of a cotton mill was found to be as the water Hooke on the sails of mills and ships. Hooke.
expended the effect being as the square of either. Y.
;
Ph.Coll. n. 3, 61.
liuchanau's breast wheel. Ph. M. XI. 79-
Describes a horizontal windmill in which the sails are
West's pump turned by a spiral pipe. Ph. M. moved by machinery during each revolution into the best
XI. 16(). possible condition ; but does not approve it.

Sargeant's machine for raising water by a re-

Lahire on wind mills. A. P. IX. 96.
servoir as a moving power. S. A. XIX. GGO.
fOn the position of the a.tis of a windmill
Ph. M. XII. 14. Nich. 8. II. 60. Repcit. with respect to the wind. A. P. 1701. H.
ii.I. 109. 138.
Besant's undershot waterwheel. S. A. XIX. Mach. A.
Couplet's horizontal mill. I. 105.
274. Ph. M. XIII. 22. Nich. 8. III. 49.
Duquet's horizontal mill. Mach. A. I. 107.
Repert. ii. I. 40. Gilb. XV. 194. Windmills. Leiip.Th.M. G.
Intended for diminishing the resistance of the water in
Self regulating windmilL.Leup. Th. Hydraul.
running off.
2. t. 32.
Johnson's patent for a perpetual motion. Re-
XIV.
GUillbn's horizontal mill. Mach. A. VI. 75.
pert. 73.
By a tide wheel.
Du Bost's horizontal windmill. Mach. A.
Close's apparatus worked by a siphon. Nich. VII. 117.

8. I. 27. Euler on windmills. N. C. Petr. VI. 41.

Makes the best angle about 63° 26', for a moderate ve-
Trevithick's acting pump. Nich 8. I. I6.I.
locity.
Norton's patent watermill. Repert. ii. III.
Euler on windmills. A. Berl. 1756. l65.
327.
A wheel. Belidor Arch. Hydr. II. i. 30.
spiral

On Barker's rotatory mill, on Westgarth's Windmills. Emers. mech, f. 203, 266.

machine, and on horizontal waterwheels. Sailing chariots. Emers. mech. f. 213, 214j
Banks on machines.. 1, 20, 38. 234.
Robison says, that there no limit A horizontal windmill, from Wilkins, of which the sails
is to tlie advantage de-
rived from a slow motion in an overshot wheel. But the unfurl when the wind acts on their concave side.

advantageis in fact
trifling, within any moderate limits. *Smeatoii on the poweis of wind and water.
Waterwheels are sometimes made of cast iron. Ph. tr. 1759. 100.
The Dutch camels are machines for raisinj weights by the Bourrier's horizontal mill. A. P. 1762. II.
buoj-an^ power of water.
Some authors make the force of water as the 190.
quantity and
the iquare of the this is true of the me- Maizi^res's windmill. A. P. I767. H. 185.
velocity conjointly ;

chanical power, which is

proportionate to the product of Maizi^res's horizontal windmill. Roz. Ihtr. I.
the quantity and the height, but not of the immediate force.
306.
In the Mathematical Elements, Art.
sg3, p. 62 of this
Gilpin's horizontal windmill. Am. tr. I. 405.
volume, the word effect is used in too vague a sense the :

whole article must be considered Windmills described. Bailey's mach. I. 180.

only as a part of the fol-
lowing. Verrier's windmill with eight sails.
Bailey's
See hydraulic machines. mach. II. 47.

Four of the sails are turned according to the strength of

Air or Wind. the wind.

Stiiling carriages. Wilkins's mathematical Coulomb on windmills, and the figure of

magic. their sails. A. P. 1781. 65. H. 41.
 CATALOGUE. APDLICATIOJ; OF HYDRAULIC FORCES, SEAMANSHIP. 239

Each pair of the 4 sails of a windmill being 6a feet Fr. of ships. A. P. 1754. .^42. H. 1755.
91.
long from top to top, and fl feet wide, or a little more, and
355, 481. H. 83, 135.
being inclined from 60° to 79° or 84°, the wind blowing
20 feet in 1", Eibout 15 miles E. an hour, looo pounds Fr, *Bouguer Manoeuvre des vaisseaux. M. B.
were raised 218 feet Fr. in a minute : and this, on an ave- Ace. A. P. 1757. H. iGj.
rage, could be performed eight hours in the day. The whole Extract in Bezout Coursde niatheniatiques.
force without impediment would raise the tame weight 253 Clairaut's problems on the manoeuvres of
feet in a minute.
ships. A. P. 1760. 171. H. 141.
Mills. E. M. A. V. Art. Meunier.
Elder Scientia navalis. 4. Pctersb. 1749.
Essay on windmills. 8. R. I.
M. B.
Enc. Br. Art. Stnokejack.
jEw/fz-Theorie de la construction etde la ma-
LangsdorFs hydr. Pi. 14, 15,50. noeuvre des vaisseaux. 8. R. S.
Wiseman's patent sails with horizontal levers.
Euler on the construction of vessels. 8. Lond.
Repert. IV. 12.
1790. R. I.
The sailsofa horizontal windmill changing their position

in different parts.
Bourde de Villelmet Theorie des mouvemens
Maunsel'shorizontal windmill. Repert. VII. 6. du navire.

With moveable wind boards. Ace. A. P. 1765. H. 91.

Gower
'
on the vanes of vertical windmills. Engl. 4. Lond.
•
Ph. M. IV. 174. . Franklin's maritime observations. Am. tr. II.
Recommends an inclination between 80° and ao°.
294. Roz. XXXI. 224.
Beatson on vertical and horizontal windmills. letters on maritime affairs. Roz
-Leroy's
8. Lond. 1798. R. I. XXXII. 209, 288. XXXIIL 136.
Beatson's patent horizontal mills. Repert. ii.
XXXVII. 42.
II. 13. Blondeau Scier^ce du navigateur. 4. R. S.
windmill. Rep.
Brayshay's patent horizontal Juan Examcn maritimo. 2 v. 4. Madr.
ii. I. 1771. French, by Levcque. Paris, 1783.
an advantage that the sails should be short and wide.
It is
E. M. Marine. 3 v. By Blondeau and Vial
The axis is placed obliquely to the horizon, so as to allow
a
du Clairbois.
space between the sails and the lowest part of the mill, both
for convenience, and in order to give the wind room to act Elements of rigging and seamanship. 2 v. 4.
on the sails when near the ground. Lescailler Vocabulaire de marine.
*Jiomme Art de la marine. 4. Paris, 1787.
Extract. Pap. on N. A. II. i. 46.
fVind and Water comhined. Seaman-
Papers on naval architeclure. 2 vol. 8. Lond.
slap in general. R. I.

See astronomy. "*Liierature of shipbuilding, by Captain

Navigation.
Renaud Manoeuvre des vaisseaux. Muller. I.ii. 1.

Groignard. Petty'soutlineof naval philosophy. I. i.SO.

Bernoulli's theory of the manoeuvres of ships. Falconer's marine dictionary. 4. 1789. R. I.

A. P. 1714. H. 107. Ciscdr Maquinas y nianiobras. f.

Madrid,
Pilot Theoric de la manoeuvre des vaisseaux. 1791. B.B.
Ace. A.P. 1731. H. 81. Hutchinson's seamanship and naval archi-
Bouguer's problems relative to the manoeuvres tecture. 4. 1794. II. I.
240 CATALOGUE, APPLICATION OF HYDRAULIC FORCES, SEAMANSHIP.

Robison. Enc. Be. Art. Seamanship. Dalesme on sheathing with lead. A. P. 1716.
Bottcher on ships. Gilb. VI. 448. H. 140.
CAarnocfc's history of marine architecture. 3 v. Mairan's method of gauging ships. A. P.
4. Lond. 1800. J{. I. 1724. 2'27.
Clafkcs history. Boats. Leup. Th. Pontif. t. 1, 2.

Gallon's mode of launching vessels. A. P.

Effects of Wind and AVater. 1731. H. 90.
On the effect of a sail. Emers. mech. f. 200. Dnhamel Architecture navale. 4. Par. 1758.
Euler on the resistance to a ships bows. A. P. R. I.

1778. 597. H. 40. Ace. A. P. 1752. H. 141.

Euler on the swinging of a ship at anchor. Boat. Emers. mech. f. I99.
A. Petr. II. ii. 150. Parts of a ship. Emers. mech. f. 276.

Edgcwortii's remark on bent sails. See re- Bougucr Traite du navire.

sistance of fluids. E.vtr. in B6zout Cours de math.
On the point velique. Pap. on N. A. II. i.
Cay on Cumberland's method of bending
19. planks. Ph.tr. 1775.22.
According to theory, if lines were drawn parallel to the Gordons principles of naval architecture. 8.
directions cf a ship's course, the wind, and the sails respect-
M.
Murray on shipbuilding. 4. B.
ively, so as to form a triangle, a circle being drawn round
Stalkart's naval architecture, f.
the triangle, the ship ought to arrive at any part of the
circle in an equal time. But the fact is far otherwise.
Pallas on wood for shipbuilding. A. Petr.
Robison. III. ii. H. 7.
The lee way is found to remain nearly the Same in various Dumaitz Traite de la construction des vais-
directions of the wind. Robison.
seaux.
When the sails are taken in, the ship is found to have a
to turn her head Robison.
Eleme?its of rigging and seamanship. 2 v. 4.
tendency to the wind.

Greasing a ship's bottom is

supposed to lessen the fric- Boats. E. M. PI. I.
Charpentier. PI. 28, 29.
tion, and the experiments of the society for naval architec- E. M.
Physique. Art. Bateau.
ture show, that a watersoaked plank is more resisted than a
Preservation from worms. E. M. A. VII.'
dry one. Coulomb however found little or no effect from
Art. Sud.
oiling or grcjising wood.
Euler on the construction of vessels, by Wat-
Effect of oars. Sec modes of rowing.
son.

Naval Architecture, and forms of Mackay. Enc. Br. Art. Shipbuilding.

Randall on training oaks for naval purposes.

Ships.
S. A. XIH. 212. Repert.V. 101.
Docks. See hydra'ulic architecture.
*Atwood on the stability of ships. Ph. tr.
Ph. tr. abr. I. viii. 588. VI, viii. 465.
1796. 46. Papers on Naval Arch. II. iii.
fTtVscn'sscheeps bouw en bestier. f. Amsterd.
1. Ph.tr. 1798.201.
1671. M. B.
Considers the inclination of a body when equal to a given
Ace. Ph. tr. 167 1 . VI. 3006.
angle, and not as evanescent ;
siiows
by the example of a
Meibomius de triremium fabrica. 4. Amst. square beam, that the effect of a finite inclination must in

1671. M.B. practice be of consequence ; examines the actual stability

of various forms in different circumstances, and applies the

Acc.Ph.tr. 1671. VI. 5 071.
 CATALOGUE. — APPLICATION OP HVDRAULIC FORCES, SEAMANSHIP. 241
theory to the dimensions of the ship Cuffhellj. Corrects
Masts.
some errors relative to the metacentric curve.

On increasing the velocity of ships. Papers Bouguer. A. P. 1745. 309. Pr. I. viii. II.

on nav. arch. I. iii. l64. A. P. Prix. II. i.

On the forms and properties of ships. Papers Camus. A. P. Prix. II. ii.

on nav. arch. II. i. I. iioOTWJe Ai t de la mature. 1778.

E. M.Pl. V. Marine. PI. 20, 139-
Chapman on finding the centres of gravity
of ships. Papers on nav. arch. II. ii. 85. Pakenham's temporary masts. S. A. X. 214.
Smart's patent for hollow masts.
Chapman on the measurement of ships. Pa- Repert.
XIV.
pers on nav. arch. II. iii. 76. 17.

Donithorne's patent metal for sheathing. Leveque's masts. M. Inst. V. 16.

Ilepert. VI. 308.

A mixture of tin and zinc. Rudders.
Sir. G. Shee on the construction of ships. Ir. Pakenham's temporary rudder. S, A. VII.
tr. VI. 15. Repert. IX. 339. 218.

Bosquet's patent for improving ships. Rep. Pakenham's mode of preserving a rudder. S.
IX. 381. A. XI. 183.
A composition for keeping off rats. Bolton's patent rudder. Repert. XVI. 152.
Charnock's history of marine architecture. Captain T. Hamilton hangs his rudder so that it
may be
tubes for driving copper bolls.
Phillips's S. raised when it strikes, without being unshipped, and fixes

A. XIX. 274. Nich. 8. III. 35. the tiller on the head of the rudder, instead of putting it

into a mortise of the rudder.

To prevent their heads being flattened.

Montuclaand Lalande. IV. 381. Sails.

Penneck's patent for improvements in ship-
Sailmaker's assistant. Lond.
building. Repert. ii. I. 325.

Brindley's patent for securing ship's beams.

Blocks.
Repert. ii. III. 1.

Boswell's patent for triangular framing. Nich. Hopkinson's spring block. Am. tr. III. 331."
IX. 166. To prevent the ship's heeling, from too sudden an im.
pulse of the wind.
Elements and practice of naval architecture.
f. London, 1805.
Cables. See Cordage-
Coulomb recommends, that when ships are launched, oak
should be made to slide on elm, previously well rubbed Mode of securing cables. A. P. I. 287.
with tallow by drawing heavy weights over it ; and that Perrault's machine for the preservation of
care should be taken to avoid loo great a
velocity, which cables. M. A^. I. 45.
melts the tallow and increases the friction.
A man of war of 74 guns requires about SOOO loads of
Anchors.
timbe», of 50 cubic feet each, worth, at L.5 a load, L. 1 5000.
A tree contains about 9 loads, and 3000 loads would cover
J. Bernoulli. A, P. Prix. Ill, iV.
)4 acres. The value of shipping in general is estimated at
L.8 or L.io a ton. Tr^saquet. A. P. Prix. III. v.
It is said that 180 000 pounds of hemp are required for
D. Bernoulli. A. P. Prix. Ill.vi.
the rigging of a first rate man of war. Poleni. A. P. Prix. III. vii.

VOL. 11. I i
 542 CATALOGUE.— APPLICATION OF HYDRAULIC FORCES, SEAMANSHIP.
Duhamel Art de la fabrique des ancres. f. D'Hermand's A. P. 1713.
floating bridge.
Paris. H. 77. Mach. A. III. 17.
Ace. A. P. 1761. H. 152. Dubois's opening bridge of boats. A. P. 1727.
E. M. A. I. Art. Ancres. H. 142. Mach. A. V. 13.
Enc. Br. Art. Anchor. Gallon's floating Mach. A. VI.
bridge. 101.
Smeaton's reports. Guillaiite's
floating bridge. A. P. 1748. H.
Suggests cast iron for anchors. 121.
Stuard's patent anchors. Repert. V. 380.
Pommier's bridge of boats. A. P. 1752. H.
Chapman on anchors. Gilb. VI. 81. 150. Mach. A. VII. 431.
Oars. Flying bridge on a rapid river. E. M. PI. I.

E. M. A. VI. 702. Art. Avirronnier. Charpentier. PI. 17.

Pott's patent oars.
Repert. VI. 160.
Modes of rowing and impelling
Particular kinds of Ships and Boats.
Boats and Ships.
Sir W. Petty's boats. Birch. I. 183.

Duquet's vessel impelled by mechanism. Duquet's revolving oars. Mach. A. I. 173,

Mach. A. III. 41. Chazelies on Duquet's mode of
rowing. A. P.
Drouet's ferry boat. Mach. A. IV. 39. 1702. 98.
Schank's sketch of boats with sliding keels. Duquet and Chazelies on revolving oars. Ph.
R.S. tr. 1721. XXXI. 239.
* Rafts. E. M. A. III. Art. Plottage. Lahire on the force required for
moving
A life boat for frozen rivers. Roz. XXXIX. boats. A. P. 1702. 254. H. 126.

245. Camus's modes of applying oars. Mach. A.

Patterson's improved river boats. Am. tr. IV. II. 45, 47, 49.

298. Martenot's union of several oars. Mach. A.

Wheel II. Q5.
boats. Chapman on canals.
Lukin's patent boats that will not overset. De Saxe's machine for impelling a
galley.

Repert. III. 10.

Mach. A. V. 127.
Miller's patent vessel that cannot founder. Limousin's mode of working the oars of a

Repert. VI. 18. galley. Mach. A. VI. 103.

Thomason's fireship. Repert. X. 399-

Euler on Ja. Bernoulli's mode of impelling
Ice boat. WiUich's dom. enc. Art. Poat. vessels. N. C. P. I. 106.

Boswell's patent vessels. ii. 11.81. Euler on the action of oars. A. Petr. X. 22.
Repert.
Nich. II. 166. A. Berl. 1747. 180.
Greathead's life boat. S. A. XX. 320. Ph. Euler on forcing ships against a fetream by
M. XV. 331. Repert. II. its own force. A. Petr. 1780. IV. i. II9.
ii. 409.
Account of Greathead's hfe boat. Possible, but not advantageous.
8. 1804.
R I.
Masson's revolving oars. Mach. A. VII. 297.
Babut's oars for galleys. A. P. 1762. H. 192.
Bridges of Boats. On the improvement of oars for
galleys. Act.
Camus's floating bridge. Mach. A. III. 13, 15. Helv. V. 205.
 CATALOGUE. APPLICATION OF HYDRAULIC FORCES, SEAMANSAIP. 243

Kratzenstein's mode of propelling boats. N. Blanchart's machine for drawing ships on

C. Petr. 11.214. Mach. A. II. 55, 57.
shore.
Kiafft on the force of a new kind of oars. N. Lahire's modes of raising vessels. A. P. 1703.
C. Petr. XX. 343. 299. Mach. A. II. 69.
Invented by Bernoulli ; to be drawn backwards and for- Ressin's mode of loading and
unloading
wards under water supposed from theory to be very ad-
ships. Mach.A. III. 29.
:

vantageous.
Tremel's machine for floating boats. A, P.
Franklin. Am. tr. II. 294. Roz. XXXI.
1717.
Bache's patent propeller. Repert. VI. 163.
A kind of pump. Goubert's mode of weighing the ship Tajo.
A. P. 1742. H. 135. S. E. II. 501.
Thomason's fire
ship to be rowed by steam.
X. 399- Bonvoux's mode of raising a hulk. S. E. V.
Repert.
With machinery for steering it. 394.

Lorgna on the motions of ships with oars. Barnard on the removal of damaged ships.
Soc. Ital. II. 457. Ph.tr. 1780. 100.
Fussel's machine for boats. By building false bottom! .
moving Repert.
XI.7. Whidbey on the recovery of the Ambuscade.
Ph. tr. 1803. 321.
Symington's steam boat. Journ, R. I., I.

Sepping's mode of suspending ships under

'
repair. S. A. XXII. 276.
Towing.
Lahirc. A. P. 1702. 254. H. 126.
Dalesme's ropes for towing boats. A. P. 1706. Preservation of Ships and their
139.
Crews.
Marlenot's machine. Mach. A. II. 25. Huygens's mode of saving vessels that strike.

Duquet's machine. Mach. A. II. 31. V. 95. Mach. A. I. 73.

Chabert's machine. Mach. A. II. 177. of boats
Figui^res's preservation passing
Drouet's machine. Mach. A. IV. 43. H. Mach.A.
bridges. A. P. 1717. 84. III.

Boulogne's machine. A. P. 1726. H. 72. 119.

Mach. A. IV. 203. Mode of stopping holes. Pap. on N. A. II.
Caron's machine. Mach. A. IV. 213. iii. 51.
Comte de Saxe's machine. Mach. A. VI. 37. On saving lives by shooting a rope. Ph. M.
Duvivier's machine. Mach. A. VI. 195. IV. 247.
Machine for towing. E. M. PI. I. Charpen- On See Meteorology,
sweetening salt water.
,tier. PI. 25, 26. Water.

Modes of raising and removing

Swimming and Diving.
Ships. Borelli and Mersennus on submarine navi-
Redlngues's manner of weighing vessels. gation. Hooke. Ph. coll. n.2. p. 36.
Mach. A. I. 203. Air jackets. Leup. Th. Pontif. t. 1, 2.
Du Me's machine for drawing ships on shore. Backstronis Kunst zu schwiramen. 8. Berl.
Mach. A. II. 9. ,
17'42.
244 CATALOGUE. — APPLICATION OF HYDRAULIC FORCES, SEAMANSHIP.
Bazin on swimming. Hamb. Mag. I, III. Bouguer on the corrections of the pilots. A.
and XXI. P. 1752. 1. H. 125.
Robertson on the specific gravity of men. Ph. Poleni. A. P. Pr. II. viii.

tr. 1757. 30. Smeaton's experiments on measuring a ship's

Gelacy's jacket for supporting men. A. P. way. Ph. tr. 1754. 532.
1757. H. 179. By a revolving plate.

Franklin's works. Letter 55. Hopjiinson's machines. Am.tr. II. 159- III-
Wilkinson on the buoyancy of cork. Ph. tr. 239. Repert. I. 49. Papers on nav. arch.
II. i. 33.
1765. 95.
One by the inclination of an oar, the other by a tube
La Chapelle's scaphander, or swimming dress.
with oil.
A. P. 1765. H. 139.
Cooke's instrument with a spring. Ir. tr. 1789.
Thevaiot Art de nager. Par. 1781.
in. 117. Nich.V. 265. Ph. M. XII. 31 1.

Diving. E. M. A. VI. Art. Plongeur. Art. Gould's patent logs, with wheelwork. Rep.
Nacre.
XIII. 225. XV. 227.
Bernardi Arte ragionata del noto. 2 v. 4.
Hamilton's substitute for a log. Papers on
Napl. 1794. R. S. nav. arch. Repert. ii. I. 355.
Klingert on a new diving machine. Ph. M. A reservoir with an orifice constantly discharging.

III. 59. See hydrodynamic measures.

Spencer's marine spencer. Ph. M. XVI.
172. Sounding.
Lawson on saving lives. Ph. M. XX. 362.
Hooke's sounding instrument. Birch. I. 307.
By means of a common hat tied up in a handkerchief.
III. 397.
With an apparatus for bringing up water.
Instruments subservient to Sea- Cook's machine for sounding the sea. Ph. tr.

manship. 1746. XLIV. 146.

By observing the time of its descent and ascent.

Measuring a Ship's way. Charnock's sea gage. Repert. II. 180.

With a fly and wheelwork.

Hooke's waywiser for a ship. Birch. IV. 230.
Ph. M. XI. 359.
Revolving.
Humbolt has observed that the sea is colder near shallows.
Pourchefs watch. Mach. A. III. 203.

Saumarez's marine surveyor. Ph. tr. 1725. Massey's patent for sounding at sea. Repert.
ii. III. 171.
XXXIII. 411.
With rotatory motion.
A revolving Y fixed to a rope as an axis, and making a
See measuring instruments.
turn in eveiy ten feet.

Saumarez's further account of his marine

Measures of the Wind.
surveyor. Ph. tr, 1729- 45.
Substitutes sometimes a wheel with oblique fioatboards D'ons en Bray's machine for showing the di-
jor the fly or Y. The fly revolved somewhat oftener in a rection of the wind at sen. A. P. 1731. 236.
given space as the motion was more rapid. Bouvet's machine for measuring the force of
Dubuisson's machine. Mach. A. VI. 87. the wind at sea. Mach. A. VI. 153.
Boiiguer's log. A. P. 1747- 6-14. H. 96. See meteorological instruments.
 CATALOGUE. —HYDRAULIC INSTRUMENTS AND MACHINES. 245

Marine Quadrants. Supporting a cone or conoid, which passes through the

orifice, and regulates its magnitude.
E. M. PI. V. Marine. PI. 106.
Preigney's candle, or lamp of Amiens,
oil
Enc. Br. Art. Quadrant.
with a pump. Mach. A. VII. 395.
See astronomical instruments.
Keir's hydrostatic lamp. Repert. VIII. 289.
Nich. III. 467. Gilb. VI. 96.

HYDRAULIC INSTRUMENTS AND MACHINES, Edelcrantz's statical lamp. Nich. 8. V. 93.

FOR PRODUCING MOTION IN FLUIDS. Steevens on equalising the discharge of fluids.
Ph. M. XX. 289.
Regulations of Discharge. See sources of light.
*Hero.
Hero's clepsydra was a siphon supported by a float and
bent over the side of the vessel.
Pipes and Simple Fountains.
Boyle's lamp. Hooke. Ph. Coll. n, 2. p. 33.
Kept full by a supply from an inverted reservoir at a The ancients did not use leaden pipes, because they
distance. thought them unwholesome. Palladius Mens. August.
A lamp by Hooke. Birch. II. 1.55.
Vitruvius.
The second of his Lampas.
Papin's siphon always full. Birch. IV. 350.
Hooke's lampas. 4. Lond. 1677. Lect. Cutl.
Papin found that a siphon stopped after a quarter of an
Proposes a variety of methods for keeping a lamp full.
hour, from the extrication of air. Birch. IV, 400.
1. A moveable vessel with a partition, of half the specific

gravity of oil, balanced so that the surface of the o'l in one Mariotte on the resistance of waterpipes.
of the compartments is
always at the same heigh . 2. A A. P. I. 69.
semicytindrical or hemispherical counterpoise of half the Cassini on the waters and fountains at Mo-
specific gravity of oil, moveable on its axis. 3. A float on a
dena. A. P. I. 93.
hinge at the edge of a moveable vessel. 4. A simple float

within a glass vessel. A Mariotte on the supply of fountains, and on

5. float supporting a lamp at a

distance. 6. 7. A counterpoise acting on a spiral fusee. 8. A the resistance of pipes. A. P. I. 170, 225.
vessel with oil suspended by a counterpoise below a fixed Observation on conduits. A. P. I. 284.
plug which fits it.
Lahire on springs and cisterns. A. P. 1703.
Observes, that an equable discharge from an orifice may
be thus produced, and employed for the measurement of
56. H. 1.

time by the graduation of the counterpoise and that two : Leupold Th. hydrotechn.
such cavities may be made to discharge their fluids into each
Desaguliers on the running of water in pipes.
other, and to be alternately raised and depressed by the pre- Ph. tr. 1726. 77.
ponderance. Found the discharge of a long pipe only ^ of the full
A lamp kept full by water dropping into a and attributed the diHerence to air in the pipe.
quantity,
branch of the vessel. Ph. tr. I698. XX. This may have had some little effect, but Buat's simplest

rule gives only -^ in the case of the experiment.

378.

Varignon's mode of making clepsydra*. A. P. Pitot on the distribution of water. A. P. 1735.

1699- 51. H. 99. 244. H. 70,

Bernoulli on clepsydras, or hourglasses. A. P. Waterpipes and fountains. Belidor Arch.

Pr. I. iv. Hydr. II. i. 265. pi. n. 54, 55.

Perronnier's float regulator. Mach. A. VII. Deparcieux on conduits. A. P. 1750. 39. H.

335. 153.
346 CATALOGUE. HYDRAULIC INSTRUMENTS AND MACHINES,

Euler on fountains. N. C. Petr. VI. 379. feet by the diameter in inches, the thickness must be about
"
1^55 of the product, in inches.
Bossut Hydrodynamiquc.

Pipes and fountains. E. M. A. III. Art. Fon-

tainicr. Appendages to Pipes. Valves,
Finding springs. E. M. A. VII. Art. Sources. Stopcocks, and Filters.
Siphon. E. M. A. VII. Art. Syphon.
Papin's pneumatic filter. Birch. IV. 366.
Pipes. E. M. A. VIII. Art. Tuyanx.
Darwin on an artificial Ph.
'

tr.
Amontons on valves. A. P. 1703. H. 95.
spring.
Amy's filtering machines. A. P. 1745. H.
1785. 1.
82. 1748. H. 121. Mach. A. VII. 280.
Some pipes being fixed so as to pass through a stratum of

clay into a lower stratum, they brought the water above the Desaguliers. Ph. tr. 17'i6. XXXIV.
and discharged 3 or 4 hogsheads in 24 hours. Describes the apparatus for discharging air by tall pipes :
surface,
objects to a valve with cork, supposing that it will not open:
Ferrari on the distribution of waters. Soc, but the orifice may be made very small.
Ital. VII. 157. Valves. Belidor Arch. Hydr. If. i. 122. PI.
On pipes. Leipz. Intelligenz blatt. 1794. 159. n. 8. Valve unequally divided by an axis.
Liingsdorfs Hydr. PI. 4. Pl.n.31.
Grossart on manufacturing elastic gum. Re- Preaux's tap for drawing wine. A. P. 1763.
pert. I. 70, 131. H. 146.
Vulhamy on the means employed to obtain
Deparcieux's trapsfor drains. A. P. 1767. H.
an overflowing well. Ph. tr. 1797. 325. 133.
Nich. 11.276. Repert.X. 181.
Westgarth's valve. S. A. V. 192.
The water rose At first mixed with sand, which hardened Bramah's patent watercock. Repert. 1.361.
and stopped it ; and when this was removed, the same hap-
Bramah's patent apparatus for drawing off
pened again. At last by raising the sand out of the water
was made liquors. Repert. IX. 361.
by means of an iron box, the water to overflow,

so that 40 gallons were discharged in a minute. Hempel's patent filtering vessels. Repert. II.
230.
Venturi on the motion of fluids.

Hornblower's mode of Strong's patent for improved pistons and

laying waterpipes.
valves. Repert. VII. 373.
Repert. X. 251.
T valves and screws.
Wilkinson's patent pipes. Repert. XVI. 92.
Collier's apparatus for filtering. Ph. M. VI.
Wright on preventing the freezing of water 240.
in pipes. Ph. M. XIX. 147.
Peacock's patent for filtering. Repert. XI.
Barber on preventing the freezing of water
221.
in pipes. Ph. M. XX. 209-
By ascent.
The best aperture for a jet is about i^ inch : such a jet Filtering wells. Repert. XVI. 331.
rites 70 feet when the height of the reservoir Cavallo
is,'loo.
Filtering machines. Gilb. XIII. 108.
N. Ph.
At Petersburg
A joint for steam tubes. Nich. 8. IV. 107.
there are two jets 9 inches in diameter
that rise 60 feet. Robison.
Harman's filter. Nich. VIII. 126.
Desaguliers says, that 140 feet of 7 inch lead pipe require Parrot's filter. Nich. IX. 40.
a thickness of | inch. Belidor, that 60 feet Fr. of la inch Sir H. with sand.
Englefield's filter, Nich.
pipe require half an inch. If we multiply the length in IX. 95.
 CATALOGUE. — HYDRAULIC INSTRUMENTS AND MACHINES. 247

The perforation of a valve, as well as the aperture of

an Lahire's hydraulic machine with little fric-
air vessel, might with advantage be trumpet shaped. Ro-
tion. A. P. IX. 161.
bison.
Lahire's application of the epicycloid to

Machines for raising Water. Pwnps pumps. A. P. IX. 284.

Lahire's perpetual pump. A. P. 1716. 322.
of all kinds. Fire Engities, and
Of jets. Mariotte Oeuvres. Traite des mouve-
Fountains not simple.
mens des eaux.
Vitruvius. Mach. A.
Joly's hydraulic invention. I. 75.
Ramelli. Amontons's pump. Mach. A. I. 103.
Sf rarfa Wasserkiinsten. f. Frankf. 1617.M. B. A hj'draulic machine. Mach. A. I. 113.
Cologne, 1623. Francini's hydraulic machine. Mach. A. I.
De Cam Inventions hydrauliques. f. M. B. 145.
Cavalleri's liydracontisteiium
and Prince A fire Mach. A. I. 151.
engine.
Rupert's engine. Birch. 1. 285. Cordamoy's hydraulic machine. Mach. A. L
Both made by one cylinder revolving within another, the
205.
internal one having a sliding valve, like Bramah's patent.
Billettcs's two hydraulic wheels. A. P. 1699.
"t-Moreland's undertaking to raise water. Ph.
184. H. 114.
tr. 1674. IX. 25.
Ph. Gay's hydraulic macliine. Mach. A. II. 13.
Description of a fire engine. tr. I676.
L'heurcux's hydraulic machine. Mach. A. II.
XI. 679.
191.
Conyers's cheap pump. Ph. tr. 1677. XII.
888. Lafaye's hydraulic machine. A. P. 1717-

Made of wood, square and tapering : the bottom 8 inches

67. H. 70.

square.
Joue's hydrauhc wheel. A. P. 1717. H. 84.

fPapin's secret way of raising water, with Mach, A. III. 123, 127.

various conjectures upon it. Ph. tr. Id85. Martenot's hydraulic machine. Mach. A. III.

XV. 1093, 1254, 1274. 157.

A trick, a communication being formed by means of air ; Marchand's artificial fountain. Mach. A. III.
which the author proposes to extend to a great distance.
191.'
Papin's engine for raising water. Ph. tr.
H. 97. Mach.
Auger's pump rods. A. P. 1721.
1GS6. XVI. 2G3. A. IV. 19.
Papin Recueil de pieces touchant quelques Auger's hydraulic* machine. Mach. A. IV.
machines. 8. Cassel, 1695. 181.
Ace. Ph. tr. 1697. XIX. 481. Cabinet de M. de Serviere.
Describes the centrifugal or Hessian pump. Desaguliers's improvement of Haskins's mer-
fllule for judging of the goodness of hy- curial pump. Ph. tr, 1722. XXXII. 5."
draulic machines. A. P. I. 170. The objection is, that the mercury becomes oxidated.
Perrault's new piston for pumps. A. P. I. Ublemann's engine. A. P. 1722.
fire H. 122.
249. Mach. A. I. 9- Mach. A. IV. 35.
Perrault's hydraulic machine. Mach. A. 1. 27. •j-Perpoint's piston moving always in a pa-
Gusset's hydraulic pendulum. A. P. II. 20. rallel direction. A, P. 1722. H. 121. Mach.
Mach. A. I. 95. A. IV. 33.
248 CATALOGUE. HTDRAULIC INSTRUMENTS AND AfACHINES.

Hydraulic machines. Leupold. Theatr. Hy- Pilot on the screw of Archimedes, A. P.

draul. 1736. 173. H. 110.
Tielen en Van der Horst theatrum maclii- Policy theatrum machinarum. Amst. 1737.
narum. BernouUii hydrodynamica.
Screw of Archimedes.
Dufay's pump to be tised as a fire
engine. A.
P. 1725. 35. H. 78. Bernoulli on the spiral pump. N. C. Pelr,
Laesson's pump. Mach. A. IV. 145. XVII. 249.
Mey and Meyer's hydraulic machine. A. P. Camus on the best application of buckets. A.
1726. H. 71. P. 1739. 157. H.49.

Beighlon on the waterworks at London Camus on the best proportions of pumps. A.

bridge. Ph. tr. 1731. XXXVII. 5. P.' 1739. 287. H.49.

They raised about 35 000 hogsheads 120 feet high in a Gensanne's improvements of pumps. A. P.
day.
1741. H. 163.
Denisart and de la Deuiile's hydraulic ma-
Gensanne's fire
engine. Mach. A. VII. 95.
chine. Mach. A. V. 159.
Geflfrier's hydraulic machine. A. P. 1743. H.
Lebrun's hydraulic machine. A. P. 1731. H.
168.
91.
Ledemoust's hydraulic machine. A. P. 1732. Dupuy's pump. Mach. A. VII. 85.
H. 118. Mach. A. VI. 9.
Amy's hydraulic machine. A. P. 1745. H.
82. Mach. A. VII. Q77.
Churchman's engine for raising water. Ph.
Thillay's fire engine. A. P. 1746. H. 120.
tr.1734. XXXVIII. 402.
Worked by horses walking in and on a wheel, harnessed
Bonnet's engine. A. P. 1749. H. 182.
fire

to a fixed point :
disapproves of cranks.
Euler on Demours's mode of raising water bj

Centrifugal pump. Mach. A. VI. 13. centrifugal force. A. Berl. 1751. 305.
Boulogne's hydraulic machine. Mach. A. Euler on pumps. A. Berl. 1752. 149, 185.
VI. 15. Euler on the screw of Archimedes. N. C.

Boulogne's piston without friction. Mach. A. Petr. V. a59.

VI. 85. Preigney's oil candle, with a pump. Mach.

Saulm's hydrauhc machine. Mach. A. VI. A. VII. 395.
19. Jacquet's piston for sucking pumps. A. P.
Gallon's hydraulic machine. Mach. A. VI. 1752. H. 148.
173. B61idor Arch. Hydr. Chain pumps. Li. 360.

Deparcieux's hydraulic machine. A. P. Chain piston pumps and square pumps. PL

1735. H. 101. Mach. A. VII. 29. n. 58. Bucket wheel. PI. n. 39. Chained

Lebrun's new piston A. P. 1735. H. 102. buckets. PI. n. 39, 40. Water shovel. PI.
Drussen's pump. A. P. 1735. H. 102. n. 41. Troughs with a valve. Pi. n. 41.
Renou's hydraulic machine. A. P. 1735. H. Quadrant pump. PI. n. 41. Hand buck-
103. ets. PI. n.42. Zigzag or swinging troughs.
Bertier's hydraulic machine. A. P. 1735. H. PI. n. 43. Swinging bucket wheel. PI. n.
103. 44. System of spiral pipes. PI. n. 44.
Pitot'snew theory of pumps. A. P. 1735. Pumps. II. i. 53. Pistons. 114. Ma-
327. H. 72. 1739. 393. 1740. 511. chines appplied to pumps. 132. Fuc en-
 CATALOGUE. — HYDRAULIC INSTRUMENTS AND MACHINES. 249

gine. 186. Machine at Marly. I98. Ma- *Borda on pumps. A. P. 1768. 418. H. 122.
chine of the Pont Notre Dame. £04. Va- Jars on the machine at Schemnitz. S. E. V.
rious hydraulic machines. 235, 308. Ar- 67.
tificial fountains. 389. Windmills for Quentin's forcing and sucking pump. A. P.
draining and watering. Pi. n. 2 4. . . Ba- 1769. H. 130.
lance pump for treading. Pi. n. 10. lil-
Ferguson's mech.exerc. Machine at Schem-
lipses instead of cranks. PI. n. 13, 14. nitz. 102. Lahire's pump. 109.
Buckets for deep mines. PI. n. 44, 45. On Bertier's machine for raising water by mer
watering, ll. ii. 1.4.
cnry. A. P. 1770. H. II7.
Belidor's piston has too much friction. Robison. Poda Maschinen
Beschreibuug der zu
Darcy on hydraulic machines. A. P. 1754. Schemnitz. Prag. 1771.
679- H. 138. Delius Anieitung zur Bergbaukunst. 4. Vi-
Veltman's hydraulic wheel. A. P. 1756. II.
enna, 1773.
129.
Karsteiis Abhandlung uberdie Feuerspritzen.
,
Emerson's mechanics. Rag pump or chain
Greifsw. 1773.
pump for cleaning foul water, f. '254.
Karstens lehrbegriff der mathematik.
Forcing pump. f. 267.
Lifting pump. f.
Meisteron the machine at Schemnitz. N. C.
268. Archinicdes's screw, f. 272. Fire
Gott. 1773. IV. 169.
engine, f. 273. Waterworks, f. 281.
With apian for
multiplying it.

Pumps with arched beams, called a bob

X/%e/ iiber die Feuerspritzen. Berl. 1774.
gin. f. 296. Horse pump. f. 299-
Whitehurst's account of the machine exe-
Hell's hydraulic siphon. A. P. 176O. H. I60.
cuted at Oulton in Cheshire in 1772, for
Varan's hydraulic machine. A. P. 176O. H.
raising waterby its momentum. Ph. tr.#
162.
1775.277. Repert. VIII. 338.
Limbourg's hydraulic machine. A. P. 176I.
Since called in France the hydraulic ram.
H. 154.
Venel on a new hydraulic machine at Orbe.
Loriot's endless chain for wells. A. P. 1761.
M. Laus. II. 81.
H. 161.
A long chain of small leathern buckets moved by a wa-
Van Zyl Theatr. mach. Amst. I76I.
ter wheel.
Throwing wheels.
Buat Hydraulique.
Wolfe's description of Hero's fountain at
Schemnitz. Ph. tr. 1762. 547.
Fougeroux Art de I'ardoisier.

Wright on watering meadows. 8.

Deparcieux's piston with little friction. A.
P. 1762. 1. H. 182. Dugdale on embanking and draining fens. f.

Turner on draining bogs. 8.

Calvbr voni oberharze. Brunsw. 1763.
B. Martin on pump work. Reprinted Ph.
Nollet's pumps for raising water oji feet. A. P.
M. XX. 223, 291.
1766. H. 150.
With a description of a patent pump ; the pistons
Ziegler on the spiral pump. Gesellsch. zu working in bags, to avoid friction.

Zurich. III. Wiirtz's spiral mach. I. 151.

pump. Bailey's
Mezieres's windmill for drawing water. A. P.
Merryman's plunger pump. Bailey's mach.
1767. H. 185. I. 154.
Jfenwer< surlavisd'Archimede. Berl. 1767. The sails bad.

VOL. II. Kk
250 CATALOGUE. — HVDHAUIIC INSTRUMENTS AND MACHINES.

Blandford's piston. Bailey's mach. I. l63. IVex Machine hydrauliquc. 8. Nantes, 1787-
mach. I. 188. R. S.
Pumps compared. Bailey's
Collier's windmill with a scoop wheel and Dansey's machine for draining ponds. S. A.
ladle. Bailey's mach. II. 37, 43. viii. 191.

hydraulic machine. Bailey's Detrouville's hydraulic machine. Roz.

Westgarth's
mach. II, 52. xxxviii. 299.
Water whimsey. E. M. PI. I. PI. 14. A compound pneumatic apparatus. A similar apparatus

is described in Darwin's phytologia, and in Willich's dom,

Waterworks. E. M. PI. I. PI. 23, 24.
enc. Art. Water.
Some hydraulic machines. E. M. A. III.
Hydraulic wheel. Enc. Br. Art. Moss.
Art. Instrumensde Mathematique.
Centrifugal pump. Enc. Br. PI. 136.
Pumps. E. M. A. VI. Art. Pompes. *Robison. Enc. Br. Art. Pumps, Water-
Chain buckets used at Rochfort. E. M. PI. V.
works.
Marine. PI. 89-
Butler's bucket and machine for raising wa-
Ship pump. E. M. PI. V. Marine. PI. 156.
ter. S. A. XII. 289.
xii.
Russel's bucket for deep water. S. A. Ph. M.
Machine at Marly. E. M. PI. VII. Hy- xviii. 271.
draulique.
Centrifugal pumps. Langsdorfs Hydr. PI. 17,
Hydraulic amusements. E. M. PL VIII. Once supposed to be capable of producing a perpetual
Pieces hydrauliques. motion. A double one. PI. so.

W^atering engine, trough pumps, screw of *Forcing pumps of various kinds and all their
. Archimedes, and forcing pump. E. M. Art. PI. 26 33.
parts. Langsd. Hydr. . .

Aratoire.
*Fire engine. Langsd. Hjdr. PI. 41, 42,45.
Rozier on Vera's rope machine. Roz. XX. Chains of buckets, bead pumps, and cellular
132. PI. 43.
pumps. Langsd. Hydr.
Landriani description d'une machine. 8.
Water screws. Langsd. Hydr. PI. 44, 48.
R. S.
Montgolfier's hydraulic ram, approved by
A rotatory pump.
the Institute. Journ. Phys. XLVI. (III.)
Fahre sur les machines hydrauliques. 4. Par.
143. Bull. Soc.Phil. n. 8. Montuclaand
1783.
Lai. III. 769. Gilb. I. 363.
Hydraulic machines, Perronet Description des Like Whitehurst's and Bolton's.
prqjets des ponts de Neuilly. Par. 1783. Viallon on the hydraulic ram.
Nicander on the spiral pump. Schwed. Abh. With various combinations.
1783, 1784. Extr. Journ. Phys, XLVI. (III.) 288.

Throwing wheels. Busch mathematik zum

'

Skey's patent pump. Repert. II. 301.

niitzen. II. With smoke jack fans.

Bianchi's breast pump. Roz. XXVII, 198. Bramah's rotatory hydraulic machine. Rep.
Ja. Bernoulli on a centrifugal hydraulic ma- II. 73.

chine. N. A. Petr. 1786. IV. 158. Bramah's patent fire

engine. Repert. Ill,
Finds that | of the force is lost. 368.
Descharmes on raising water by centrifugal pump. Lempe Magazin der Berg-
Spiral
force. Roz. XXX. 192. baukunst. xi. Dresd. 1795.
 CATALOGUE. — HYDRAULIC INSTRUMENTS AND MACHINES. 251

Dearborn's pump engine and fire

engine. Am. Goodwyn's barometrical machine. Nich. IV.
Ac. I. 520. Repert. III. II9. IG2. Improved. 342.
Davies on irrigation. Repert. IH. 43, 123. Close's mode of raising water by lateral fric-
Pitt on irrigation. Repert. IH. 239. tion. Nich. IV. 293, 493. Nich. 8. 1. 14.5.
Biisse on fire Karstens. Close's application of the
engines, against siphon. Nich. iV.
Hind. Arch. III. 237. 547. V. 22. Nich. 8. I. 27.
Buchanan's patent pump. Repert. V. 236. A mercurial hydraulic engine. Nich. IV.
Ph. M. X. 192. 326.
Sylvestre on watering gardens. Repert. V. A new rotatory hydraulic engine. Nich. IV.
423. 466.
Wright on drying marshes. Am. tr. IV. 243. Wood's patent hand pump. Repert. X. 321.
Smeaton's reports. Hydraulic machines; a A common pump with a rod in collars.
pump a fire Landen's patent mode of rods.
ship ; engine. moving pump
*Baader Theorie der pumpen. 4. Bayr. Repert. XII. 145.
1797. R.I. Staton's patent apparatus for
raising fluids by
the pressure of XIV.
Harriott's pump capstan. Papers on Nav. air.
Repert. 217.
Arch. II. ii. 93. Berger's marine pump approved. M. Inst.

i-Richmond's patent combination of pumps. IV.

Repert. VI. 22. West's centrifugal pump, turned by a

spiral
Noble's patent pump. Repert. VII. 107. Gilb. pipe. Ph. M. XI. 166.
XV. 71. Eytelwein's handbuch der mechanik und hy-
With two pistons in each chamber, the one perforated. draulik.
Simpkin's patent fire engines. Repert. VII. Chassiron on draining lands. Mem. Soc.
301.
d'agric. du dep. dela Seine.
The valves in chambers.
Account of the machine at Marly, Mon-
Strong's patent lor improved pistons, Rep. tucla and Lalande. III. 744.
VII. 373.
Person's pumps. P. Recueil. PI. 4.
With screws.
On Erskine's centrifugal pump. Banks oq
Clariie'smethod of working ships' pumps.
machines. 41.
Repert. IX. 105.
and rope.
Imison's elements. I. PI. 9. /^^^
By a lever
-/•.>
Good figures.
Boulton's patent apparatus for raising water. (|

Van Marum's portable pumps for fires. Ann;-

Repert. IX. 145. '•*7r;
Whitehurst's improved. Ch. XLVI.3. ". ORhHA
Bramah's patent apparatus for Sarjeant's hydraulic machine. See hydraulic
drawing off
force.
liquors. Repert. IX. 36l.
Trevithick's forcer for a pump. Nich.
Prony's theory oF Detrouville's hydrauHc si- 8. II.
216.
phon. B. Soc. Phil. n. 36. Nich. IV. 283.
On the machine atSchemnitz. Nich. IV. 8.
Bailey on draining. Rep. ii. III. 99.

Rope pump. Cavall. N. Ph. II. 4tl.

Bosweil's improvements of the machine at
With a rope pump, the wheel being 3 feet in diameter,
Schemnitz, and history of the pressure en- the rope half an inch, the depth of the well 95 feet, a la-
gine. Nich. IV. 117. Nich. 8. II. 1. bouring man could produce but 60 revolutions in a minute.
S52 CATALOGUE. —PXEUM ATI C MACHINES.
and could not continue the exertion long: this raised 6 Terral's bellows for foimderies and forges.
gallons in a minute. Much water was raised with 50 turns,
A. P. 1729. H. 92. Mach. A. V. 41,93. VI.
but very little with only 30 turns in a minute. The rope
121.
soon decays, especially if it is not made of hair.

of waste Farel's mode of working bellows. A. P. 173.'!.

Sharpies on raising water by the fall

Water. JSich. VII. 298.

H.99.
Hales on ventilators. 8. 1743. R. I. 2 v. 8.
A hydraulic machine from Servifere's cabinet.
Lond. 1758.
'

Nich. VIII. 35.

Two pinions fitted tight and revolving within abox.
Hales on ventilation. Ph. tr. 1748. XLV.
Dickson's practical agriculture. 410.
Draining.
Halcs's ventilator. Bailey's mach. I. 170.
Harriott's patent pump capstan is preferred to Dodgson's

patent double headed ship pump.

The lever works hori- Ellison the effect of ventilation. Ph.tr. 1751.
motion is
by means of wheelwork, and this
said to
zontally 211.
be less fatiguing to the men, so that they can work for an A ventilator erected in the Hotel des Inva-
hour or more : and a rope may be applied so that any num- lides. Much. A. VII. 379. ^
ber may work together. The friction is said to be dimi-
Pommier's ventilator improved after Hales.
nished to Jj by applying a guide to the pistons.
Mach. A. VII. 413.
pump should have a valve near the moveable piston,
A
and another below the level of the water. Robison. Bellows moved by water. Emers. mech. f.

A bag like a powder puff with valves makes a good sim-

240, 241.
ple pump. Robison.
Smith's bellows. Emers. mech. f. 244.
Quantity of water raised by pumps. See
Blowing wheel. Emers. mech. f. 284.
animal force. The Hessian or centrifugal bellows of Papin.

Gensanne's bellows for ventilating mines. S.

PNEUMATIC MACHINES.
E. IV. 158.
*Heronis spiritalia. Jars on the circulation of air in mines. A. P.
Leupold.Th. M. G. H.
1768. 218. 18.
E. M. PI. VIII. Amusemens de physique. Bellows. Gauger Mecanique du feu.

Munier's winnowing machine. Roz. Introd,

Machines simply Pneumatic. '
n-79.
De Bory on purifying the air of vessels. A.
Bellows, Fans, and other Mecha-
P. 1780. lll.H, 13.
nical Ventilators.
Leroi's simple ventilation by windsails. A. P.
Papin on the Hessian or rotatory bellows. 1780. 598. H. 13.
Ph. tr. 1705. XXIV. 1990. Evers's winnowing machine. Bailey's mach.
Knopperf's fan for corn. A.
P. 1716. H. 78. 1.51.
Mach.A. II. 101, 103.
Fitzgerald's ventilator. Bailey's mach. I. 172.
Barrieres's leathern ventilator. A. P. 1723- Hill's ventilator for mercurial vapours. Bai-
H. 120. Mach. A. IV. 53. mach. II. 70.
ley's
Desagulievs's pump ventilator. Ph. tr. 1727- Wilson's patent for applying vapours. Rep.
XXXV. 353. XII. 1.

Desaguliers on the centrifugal ventilator. Ph.

Elastic tubes.

tr. 1735. XXXIX. 40. Fans. E. M. A. II. Art. Eventaillisle.

Rayncs's bellows. A. P. 1728. H. 108. Wooden bellows. E. M. PI. II. PI. 5.

 CATALOG UK. — PNEUMATIC MACHINES. 2*3

M. A. VIII. Art. Tuyaiix The pistons of large bellows are sometimes fitted witli
Ventilation. E. .^

wool and black lead, but Laurie's hydraulic bellows are

aeriques, Ventilateur. much Robison.
preferable.
Bellows. E. M. M. III. Art. Soufflet. We can draw mercury 2 or 3 inches by the lungs, 25 by
Ventilators for ships. E. M. PI. V. Marine. the mouth ;
we can force it 5 or 6 inches, but not without

PI. 156. n. 2. pain. Robison.

Wooden fan for corn. E. M. Art. Aratoire.'

Hassenfratz's bellows for a blowpipe. Roz. Air Pumps, Condensers, and Air
XXVIII. 345. Guns.
Rozier's apparatus for breathing in cellars.
Roz. XXVin.418. Casp. Schotti mechanicahydraulicopneuma-
Leblond on the blow pipe. Roz. XXX. 92. tica. 4. 1637.

Saint Martin's ventilator. Roz. XXXIH- Boyle's new experiments touching the spring
of the air. 8. Oxf. I66O. Works. I. 1.
l6l.
Acting by lateral friction.
Boyle's continuation of experiments. Oxf.
On antimephilic pumps. Ann. Ch. VI. 86. 1669. Works. III. 1.

Whitehur&t on ventilation. 4. Lond. 1794. Boyle on the rarefaction of air. 4. London,

Robins on ventilation. Am. tr. III. 324. 1671. Works. 111.202.
119. Boyle's second continuation. 8. Lond. 168I.
Repert. I.

Lambert on the theory of bellows. Hind. Works. IV. 96.

Arch. III. 1.
Boyle's general history of the air. 4. Lond,
Blast machine at Carron. SmCalon's reports. 1692. Works. V. 105.
Bobtrt von luftwechsel maschinen. 4. Petersb. Guericke experimenta nova Magdeburgica.
1797. R.S. f. Amsl. 1672.
Salmon's ventilator. Repert. IX. 252. Ace. Ph. tr. 1672. VII. 5103.
Boswell's blast ventilator. Nich. IV. 4. Gilb.
Papin uouvclles experiences du vuide. 4.
V. 304. Par. 1674.
Roebuck on blast furnaces. See economy Papin on shooting by rarefaction. Ph. tr.

of heat. 16«6. XVI. 21.

South's ventilator for corn on shipboard. Gallois on an air gun remaining charged 16
Repert. XI. 397. Ph. M. V. 393. years. A. P. II. 146.

Mushet on an airvault. Ph. M. VI. 362. Varignon on the exhaustion of air

pumps.
Sir G. O. Paul's stoves and windows for ven- A. P. X. 285.
tilating hospitals. S. A. XIX. 330. Rep. Mariotte de la nature de I'air. 12. Par. I699.
ii. II. 268. Oeuvr. I. 148.
Polfreeman's winnowing machine. Willich's SengMfrd de aeris natura. 4. Lond. 1699-
dom. enc. Art. Winnow. Leupolds Beschreibung der luftpumpe. 4.

Bellows. Banks on machines. 9. Leipz. 1707. 1712.

Gardner's patent ventilator. Repert. ii. II. Leupold. Th. Aerostat. _ )

241. Ilauksbee's physicoraechanical experiments.

Dobson's patent zephyr. Repert. ii. II, 404. S'Gravesande's natural philosophy.
Haas's blowpipe. Nich. 8. III. 119. Desaguliers's natural philosophy.
254 CATALOGUE. — PNEUMATIC MACHINES.

Nollet on pneumatic experiments. A. P. Schrader's air pump. Gren. III. 357.

1740. 385, 067. 174). 3,'38. H. 145. On the imperfections of gages. Brook on
Smeaton's air pump. Ph.tr. 1751.415. electricity.
Lozi'iVz liber die eigenschaften derluft. 1754. Lichtenherg's account of Smeaton's air pump.
Emers. mechanics. Air pump. f. 277- Licht in. Erxieb. p. xxxvi.
Leisteiis Beschreibung einer lultpumpe. 4. *Robison. Enc. Br. Art. Pneumatics.
Wolfenb. 1772. Jones's note on
airp^mps. Adams's lectures.
Nairne's experiments on the pear gage, with I. 153.

Smeaton's pump, explained by Cavendish. Prince's air pump. Am. Acad. 1.497.
Ph. tr. 1777. 614. Prince and Cuthbertson's air pump. Nich. I.

There still remained some anomalous experiments, in

119. Gilb. I. 352.
which the pear gage indicated a less complete exhaustion
than the barometrical gage.
Prince's improved air pump. Nich. VI. 235.
Sadler's air pump. Nich. I. 441. Gilb. I.
On Nairne's pneumatic experiments. R02.
.352.
XI. 159.
Van Marum's simple air pump. Gilb. I. 379.
Coulomb on condensing with an air pump With a stopcock turned by external force. Gilbert thinks
of any kind. Roz. XVII. 301. which said to be
it
preferable to Cuthbertson's, is liable to

Oreppin and Billiaux on a condenser. Roz. become clogged by the thickening of the oil.

XIX. 438. Little's air pump. Ir. tr. VI. 319. Nich. II.

Cavallo on Haas and Hurter's pump with a 501. Gilb.V. L

stopcock. Ph. tr. 1783. 435. Mackenzie's air pump. Nich. II. 28.
The pump when in good order rarefied to -j^. On the air pump with metallic valves. Nich.
Cavallo on Nairne's improved air pump. Roz. If. 370.
XXV. 261. Clare's two air pumps. Nich. IV. 261.
With a figure. One of them mercurial.
Cuthbertson's description of an air pump. Smith's air pump vapour bath. Ph. M. XIV.
1783. 293.
Is said to rarefy to
jjjj. Cuthbertson's air pump. Air gun. Rees's cy-
Ingenhousz Vermischte schriften. I97.
clop. II. Plates. Art. Pneum;%tics.
Ingen'housz has proposed to make a vacuum by the ab-
Edelcrantz's mercurial air pump. Nich. VII.
sorption of air into ignited charcoal while acting.

Mode of boiling mercury in a gage. Ph. 188.

tr.
Swedenberg made a mercurial air pump.
1785. 276.

Hiiidenburg de antlia Baaderiana. 4. Leipz.

Pneumatic Machines and Apparatus,
1787.
A mercurial pump.
connected with Hydraulics.
Hindatburg de antlia nova. 4. Leipz. 1789.
Bellows and Gasholders
Goth. Mag. V. ii. 81.
XXXIV. Shower bellows. Belidor. Arch. II.
pump. K02. Hydr. i.
Cazalet's air 334.
A Torricellian vacuum made by means of water. PI. n. 24.

Hervieu's air pump. Roz. XXXV. 60. Bellows and gasholders.

Michel's mercurial air pump. Roz. XXXV. Triewald's water bellows, worked by troughs
209. as a beam. Ph. tr. 1738. XL. 231.
 CAT A LOG UK. -PNEUMATIC MACHINES. 255

Bartlifes on shower bellows. A. P. 1742. H. Hornblower's hydraulic bellows. Nich. 8. I.

132. S. E. III. 378. 219.

Stilling on shower bellows. Ph. tr. 1745. Read's cheap pneumatic apparatus. Nich. 8.

XLUl. 315. III. 55.

Guignon's machine for breathing vapour. On pneumatic apparatus. Nich. 8. IV. 4.

Mach. A. VII. 467. Edelcrantz's mode of extracting air from
Cavendish. Ph.tr. 1766- 141. boilers supplied by siphons. Nich. VII.
Pneumatic apparatus. 81.
Michelotti's gazometer. Journ. Phys. LIII.
Meusnier on the gazometer. A. P. 1782.
284.
466.
Shower bellows. E. M. PI. 11. Fer. ii. PI. 34.
Submarine Apparatus.
Trompes.
VenUiri's inquiry. Prop. 8. Hooke on measuring the depth of the sea.
Boulard's gasholder lor making hydrogen. Ph. tr. 1665 . . 6. I. n. 9- n. 14. n. 24.
Roz. XXIX. 172.
Boyle and Ray on the bladders of fish. Ph.
Sahice on pneumatic apparatus. Mem. Tur. tr. 1675. X. 114,310, 349.

1788. IV. 83. On the pressure of water upon sunk bottles.

Bonati on shower bellows. Soc. Ital. V. 501. Ph. XVII. 504.
tr. 1693.
Tries's gazometer. Roz. XL. 11 6.
Halley's art of living under water. Ph. tr.

Van Marum sur un gazometre. 4. Harl. 1716. XXIX. 492. 1721. XXXI. 177.
1796. Halley was one of five that were 9 or lo fathom under

Van Marum's gazometer. Ann. Ch. XII. water for an hour and a half. Describes a cap for subm»-
rine excursions.
113. XIV.313. Ph. M. 11.85.
Liidicke on Baader's hydraulic bellows. Gilb. Diving Leup. Th. Pontific. t. 26.
bells.

D'Achery on a corked bottle let down 130

I. 1.
fathom. A. P. 1725. H. 6.
Cavallo's poeumatip apparatus. Ph. M. I.
Says, that the water forced into it was much less salt than
305. common sea water.
Robison. Enc. Br. Art. Pneumatics. H ales and Desaguliers's machine for measuring
Seguin's gazometer. B. Soc. Phil. n. 10. the depth of the sea. Ph. 1728. XXXV. tr.

On gazometers. Gilb. II. 185. 559.

Pepys's mercurial gazometer.
Ph. WkV. 154. Letting go a weight at the bottom.

Pepys's apparatus for gases. Ph.

M. XI. 253. Triewald on the diving bell. Ph. tr. 1736.

Pepys's new gasholder. Ph. M. XIII. 153. XXXIX. 377.

Willson's patent for applying vapours. Rep. Wkh a pipe for breathing the cooler part of the air.

XII. 1. Cossigny on an experiment of sinking a cork-

Hindmarsh's stream bellows. Repert. XII. ed bottle. A. P. 1737. H.8.
217. Krafft on a bottle sunk 60 fathom without
Ph. M. VII, effect. A. P. 1745. H. 19.
Clayfield's mercurial air holder.
148. E. M. PI. V. Marine. PI. 159-

Warwick's gasholder. Ph.M. XIII. 256. Enc. Br. Art. Diving Bell, Sea Gage.
256 CATALOGUE. — PNEUMATIC MACHINES, AEROSTATION.

bell. S. A. I. 236. An experiment tried with a boat. Three pairs of wrings

Spalding's diving ,

each worked by a man, impelled a boat as feet long, at the

Bushnell on submarine vessels. Am. tr. IV.
rate of 393 feet in about 2 minutes, about 2-1 miles an hour.
303. Repert. XV. 385. Nich. IV. 229-
Martin's hints on aerostatic globes. 8. Lond.
Like two tortoise shells combined.
1784.
Diving Walker's philosophy. Lect. vi.
bell.
Roherl freres sur les experiences aerostatiques.
Fulton's diving boat. Montuclaand Lalande.
Par. 1784.
III. 782.
L'jirt dc voyager dans les airs. 8. Par. 1734.
Healy on diving bells. Ph. M. XV. 9.
Bertholon sur les
globes aerostatiques. Mont-
Succeeded in supplying the air by a condenser.
pel. 1784.
I^rachute. Bertholon's esssiys.
Aerostation, either hy heated Air, or Kramp Geschichte der aerostatik. 2 Parts.

by Gases. 8. Strasb. 1784. Anhang, 1786.

Hallens Magic. 11.
Lichtenberg suggests the term aerostation.

Lohmekr de artificio navigandi per aerem. Millyon aerostatic experiments. Roz. XXIV.
1676. Repr. 4. R. S. 64, 156.
Lohmeier was of Rinteln. Cavallo's history and practice of aerostation.
Rosnier's mode of flying. Hooke. Ph. Coll. 8. Lond. 1785.
n. 1.
p. 15. Cavallo's N. Ph. IV. 3l6.
Rosnier is said to have descended obliquely over some Southern on aerostatic machines. 8. Birm.
houses.
1785. R. S.
Francesco Lana on exhausted globes after ;
Meusnieron aerostatic machines. Roz. XXV.
Albertus de Saxonia and Wilkins. Hooke.
39.
Ph. Coll. n. 1.
p. 18. Baldwin's aeropaidie. «. Chester, 1786.
imitating the flight of birds.
Roz.
Mdngez on Burja hydroslatik. ix.
II. 140. Henzion sopra le machine aerostatiche. 4.
Euler on the ascent of balloons. A. P. 1781. Flor. 1788. R, S. ,

H.40. Prieur on parachutes. Ann. Ch. XXXI.

This paper was found on his slate after his death.
269.
E. M. A. VIII. Theoriedes a6rostats. E. M. Le Normand on parachutes. Ann. Ch.
Physique. Art. Ballon. XXXVI. 94.
Report of a committee on Montgolfier's ma- O'l the i^^achate. Nich. I. 523.
chine. A. P. 1783. H. 5. Roz. XXIV. Wriiiht on aerostation. Ph. M. XIV. SS7.
81. On Garnerin's voyages. Nich. 8. III. 57.
Saint Fond sur les experiences de Montgol- Gilbert on the ascent of Garnerin, Robert-
fier. 8. R. S.
XVI.
son, and others. Gilb. 1. 164, 257-
UArt de faire les ballons. 8. Amst. 1783.
Hydrogen gas is seldom procured more than 5 or 6 times
Reneaux sur les machines aerottatiques. 4. as rare as common air.

R.S. On the parachute. Gilb. XVI. 156.

Galvez sur un moyen de donner la direction Balloons. Rees's cyclop. III. Plates. Art.
aux machines a^rostatiques. Ph. tr. 1784, Pneumatics.
469. Aerial excursions. Ph. M. XVII. 188.
 CATALOGUE. PNEUMATIC JfACHINES, 257
Ventilation by Heat. Payne's new invention of expanding fluids.
Chimnies and furnaces. See Physics, Eco- Ph. tr. 1741.821.
nomy of Heat. Thinks that much may be saved by making the boilerg
Sutton on from red hot. Makes steam
extracting foul air
in specific
ships. 3. gravity -Jjj.
M. B, Gensanne's steam engine. A. P. 1744. U.
Sutton's ventilator. Ph.tr. 1742. XLII. 42. 60. Mach. i4. VII. 227.
Watson on Sutton's ventilator for
ships. Ph. Blake on steam Ph.
engine cylinders. tr.
tr. 1742. X
LI I. 62.
1751. 197.
Thinks it
preferable to windsails or funnels.
jj^
Smeaton on Ue Moura's
Lomonosow on the currents of air in mines. improvement
of Savery's steam Ph.
N. C. Petr. engine. tr. 1751.
I. 267.
.436.
Euler on the
equilibrium of fluids, with the
effects of heat. N. C. Petr. XI.
fFitzgerald on increasing steam by ventila-
XIII tion. Ph. tr. 1757. 53, 370.
XIV. XV.
Fitzgerald's ventilators worked by steam en-
Steam Engine. gines. Ph. tr. 1758. 727.

Force of steam. Emers. mech. f. 274.

See Physics, Heat.
Marquis of Worcester's Beighton's steam engine. Bossut Hydrody-
century of inventions.
Papin Recueil de pieces. 8. Cassel, 1695. namique.
Morand Art d'exploiter les mines de char-
Acc.Ph.tr. 1697. XIX. 481.
Proposes a mode of employing the force of steam bon. f. Paris, p. 408.
by re-
moving the fire
continually from one part of the machine Cancrins Bergmaschinenkunst.
to another.
Falck on the steam
engine.
Savery's steam engine. Ph. tr. I699. XXI. Lavoisier on the expense of steam en
228.
A. P. 1771. 17. H. 63.
The model was exhibited 10 June 1599.
A. P, 1771.20.
Amontons's mode of employing the force of
fire. A. P. 1699. 112. H. 101. Blackey sur les pompes a feu. 4. Amst. 1774,
Leup. Th. Maillard sur la th^orie des machines mues
M. G. t. 53.
par la force de la vapeur.
Newcomen's patent.
Dated 1705. Robison. He introduced the piston.
E. M.
Math^matique. Art. Hydraulique,
Mey and Meyer's steam engine for pompe a feu.
raising
water. Mach. A. IV. 185. Francois's steam engine without a piston. M.
Laus. I. 51. Repert. IV. 203.
Bosfrand's steam engine. Mach. A. IV. igi,
199. Working the cocks by a tumbler.

Leup'.ld's fire wheel. Th. M. G. t. 50. Langsdorfs Hydr. und pyr. grundl. c. II.
Steam engine. Leup. Th. M. G. Th. Hy- LangsdorPs proposal for a steam engine. L.
draul. 2. Hydr. PI. 19, 20. A tumbler. PI. 40.
Belidor. Arch. Hydr. II. i. 308. Kempel's rotatory eolipile. Langsdorfs Hydr.
Desagiiliers. N. Ph. II. PI. 22. f. 129.

Dupuys's steam engine, with Moura's im- Beighton's and Watt's steam engines. Langsd.
provements. A. P. 1740. 111. Hydr. PI. 23, 24.
TOL. II.
£58 CATALOGUE. — PNEUMATIC MACHINES.
1789. Producing a rotatory motion by diaphragmt.
Cooke's rotatory steam engine. Ir. tr.
Hornblower's beams for engines. Nich. 8.
113. Repert. Ili.401.
11.68.
Driving a wheel with falling flaps.

Gehler's phys. wbrterb. On the boiler. Nich. III. 86.

Boulton's steam engine. W^alker's philoso-
Prony. Arch. hydr.
Burja Grundlehren
der hydrostatik. II. §. 28. phy. Lect. vi.
* Walt's for saving fuel in steam en- Walker's improved steam engine. Walker'i
patent
gines. Repert.
I. 217. philosophy. Lect. vi.

Steam. Steam en- Sadler's patent rotatory steam engine. Rep.

Robison. Enc. Br. Art.
VII. 170.
gine.
Nancarrow on the dimensions of a steam en- Murray's patent steam engine. Repert. XL
gine. Am. tr. IV. 348. Repert. XIV. 329. 309.
Nich. IV. 545. Ph. M. IX.- 300. Giib. A horizontal cylinder and a piston with racks.

XVI. 152. Murray's patent steam engine. Repert. XVI.

On Savery's construction, with a condenser. 298.
Thomson's furnace for steam engines. Rep. steam engines.
Murray's patent rotatory
IV. 316. Repert. ii. IL 175. Repeated. III. 235.
For burning smoke. Keir's improved boiler. Nich. V. 147.
Droz's steam engine without a beam, ap- Nieuwe Verhandelingen van bet Batafsch
B. Soc. Phil. n. 3.
proved by the Institute. Genootschap. I. Rotterd. 1800.
Gilb.XVI.356. On steam engines.
Curr's coal viewer and engine builder. 4. Murdock's patent for manufacturing steam
Sheffield, 1797. R. S. engines.
Nicholson on the steam engine without a Hase's patent improvement in steam engines.
XVI.
Repert. XV. 220.
Nich. I. 44. Gilb. 129.
piston.
With a piston. Nich. II. 228. Gilb. XVI. For saving the heated water.

336. Roberton's patent steam engines. Repert.

On Ciirtwright's patent steam engme. Ph.
XVI. 366.
M. I. 1. Repert. X. 1.
Savery's Newcomen's, and Watt's engines.
After Watt. Retains the water of injection for the boiler,
Imis. elem. I. PI. 10, 11.
without exposing it to the air ; proposes to apply the vapour
Good figures.
of spirits during distillation to the purposes of a steam engine ;
and desoribes a rotatory engine. Woolf's apparatus for employing waste steam.
on steam Nich. 8. II. 203.
Cartwright's patent improvements
XIV. 36l. Woolf on equalising the motion of steam en-
engines. Repert.
For making them more compact. The cylinder is placed gines. Nich. VI. 218.
within the boiler, as in some other engines. Woolf's steam regulator. Nich. VI. 249.
Remarks on Cartwright's piston. Nich. II. A bent lever.
364, 476. Reply. Ph. M. 11. 221. Woolf's boiler consisting of several cylinders.
Hornblower's patent steam engine. Repert. Ph. M. XVII. 40.
IV. .361. Woolf's steam valve. Ph. M. XVII. 164.
Hornblower's patent rotatory steam engine. WoolPs improvements in steam engines.
Repert. IX. 289. Nich. VIIL 262. Ph. M. XIX. 133.
 CATALOGUE.—- PyiUMATIC MACHINES. S59
Account of the explosion of Trevithick's tuated in a cavity near the stern, and in the middle of the

breadth of the boat, so that becomes necessary to have

steam engine. Repert. ii. III. 394. Ph. M, it

two rudders, one on each connected together by rods,

side,
XVI. 372.
which are moved by a winch near the head of the boat, so
Saint's patent steam engines. ii. III.
Repert. that the person who attends the engine may also steer. It

408. has been found most advantageous to have a very small

The flue carried through the boiler.
number of float boards in the water wheel.
On the force of steam engines. Nich. IX. Another material part of the invention consists in the

214. arrangement of stampers, at the head of the boat, for the

Perier on the purpose of breaking the ice on canals, an operation which

employment of the steam en-
often attended with great labour and expense.
is These
gine in coal mines. M. Inst. V. 360.
stampers are raised in succession by means of levers, of
Edelcranz's safety valve for emitting steam which the ends are depressed by the pins of wheels, turned
or admitting air. S. A. XXII. 329. by an axis communicating with the water wheel.
Tn the original form of the steam engine, the
pressure of Mr. Symington calculates, that a boat capable of doing
steam, and not that of the atmosphere, forced down the the work of twelve horses may be built for eight or nine
pis-
ton. Kobison. Enc. Br. hundred pounds. An engine of the kind has been actually
Mr. Watt finds it most advantageous to work his engine constructed at the expense of the proprietors of the Forth
at a high temperature. Robison. Enc. Br. and Clyde navigation, and under the patronage tf the go-
The whole from steam stopped when it
force obtained vernor. LordDundas it was tried in December last, and
:

has filled one fourth of the cylinder, appears from calcula- it drew three vessels, of from flo to 70 tons burden, at the
tion to be twice as great as when usual rate of two miles and a half an hour. Mr. Syming-
it is
continually admitted.
Robison. Enc. Br. But perhaps a ton
greater quantity of heat is at present employed in attempting still further im-
would be required. provements, and when he has completed his invention, it

The boiler should contain about ten times as much steam may, perhaps, ultimately become productive of very exten-
as the cylinder. M.Young. sive utility.

An account of Mr, Symington's new Steam Boat. From

the Journals of the Royal Institution. I. 195.
Steam Air Pump.
Several attempts have been made to apply the force of Carradori on Berretray's steam air pump.
steam to the purpose of propelling boats in canals, and R02. XXXVIII. 150.
there seems to be no reason to think the undertaking
by
any means liable to insuperable difficulties. Mr. Syming-
ton appears already to have had considerable success, and Inflammable Vapours.
the method that he has employed for
making a connexion
between the piston and the water wheel is attended with
Street's patent inflammable vapour force.
many advantages. Repert. I. 154.
By placing the cylinder nearly in a horizontal position, •fBarber's patent for procuring motion by in-
he avoids the introduction of a beam, which has always
flammable air. Repert. VIII. 371.
been a troublesome and expensive part of the common
A stream of ignited air impelling a fly wheel.
steam engines : the piston is
supported in its position by
frictionwheels, and communicates, by means of a joint,
with a crank, connected with a wheel, which gives the water
Gunnery.
wheel, by means of its teeth, a motion somewhat slower
than its own ; the water wheel serving also as a fly. The Theory of Gunnery, and Operation of Powder.
steam engine differs butlittle with respect to the condensation
See Projectiles. Resistance of Fluids.
of the steam, from those of Boulton and Watt now in ge-
Hooke's powder proof. Birch. I. S02. Fig.
neral use ; there is an apparatus for opening and shiitting
the cocks at pleasure, in order to revert the motion of the Greaves on the force of guns. Ph. tr. 1685..
boat whenevei it
may be necessary. The watet wheel is si- XV. lOQO. ,
.
260 CATALOGUE.— PNEUMATIC MACHINES.
A. P. In support of the opinions controverted by the committee,
Blondel on throwing bombs. I. 150,
as allowable approximations. Attributes the whole effect
165.
to fluids permanently elastic.
Mariotte on the recoil of fire arms. A. P. I.
of powder at the
Missiessy on the escape
233. touch hole. A. P. 1748. H. 28.
Perrauh's machine for increasing the effect Dnhamel on the escape of powder at the
of fire arms. A. P. I. 272. Mach. A. I.
touch hole. A. P. 1750. 1. H. 30.
11-
D'Arcy on the theory of artillery. A. P. 1751.
Lahire on projectiles. A. P. IX. 187, 198. 45. H. 1.
1700. 205. H. 147- Essai sur la theorie de I'artilleri^.
D'Arcy
Lahire on the theory of the air in powder. Ace. A. P. 1760. H. 142.
A. P. 1702. H. 9. Montalembert on the rotation of balls. A. P.
Cassini on the recoil. A. P. 1703. H. 98. H. 34.
1755. 463.
Cassini on the effect of different charges. A. A. P.
Montalembert on proving cannon.
P. 1707. H. 3.
1759. 358. H. 227-
Guisnee's Galilean theory,. A. P. 1707. 140. Vandelli on the force of steam in gunpowder.
H. 120.
'
C.Bon. III. 92 IV. 106.
Chevalier on the effect of powder. A. P.
Saluce on the elastic fluids produced from
1707. 526. H. 152.
gunpowder. M. Taur. I. il.
Eessons on throwing bombs. A. P. 1716. Casali on the force of powder. C. Bon. V. ii.

79. 345, 357.

Ressons on the force of powder. A. P. 1719.
Simpson's exercises.
H. 20. 1720. H. 112. R. S.
Euler's gunnery, by Brown. 4.
A. P. 1731.
Maupertuis on throwing bombs. jiiiderson's gunnery.
297. H. 72. Fortification and gunnery. Emers. misc.
B61idor on gunpowder. M. Berl. 1734. IV.
242, 277.
116. Treatise on gunpowder and fire arms. 8.
effects of powder, R. S.
Bigot de Morogue on the Glenie's history of gunnery. 8.

according to the laws of accelerating forces. St. Auban sur les nouveaux sysiemes d'artil-

A. P. 1735. H. 98. lerie. 8. R S.

Leutmann on gunnery. C. Petr. IV. 265. *Boida on projectiles.

A. P. 1769. 247. H.
the mechanism of artil-
Dulacq's theory of 116.
H. 108. Devalliere on the superiority of long
and
lery. A. P. 1740.
H. heavy pieces of cannon. A. P. 1772. ii.
Deidier on throwing bombs. A. P. 1741.
133. 77- H. 44.
Examen de la poudre. 8. 1773. R. I.
Ph.
Report of a committee on gunnery.
tr.
Hutton on the force of fired gunpowder. Ph.
1742. 172.
tr. 1778. 50.
Found that the whole of the powder is not fired, that the
The powder appears to fire almost instantaneously, for
ball is moved before all that is fired takes effect ; and that
" the force is nearly in the direct proportion of the powder,
the longest chamber is the most efficacious.
the velocity in its subduplicate ratio, and in the subdupli-
Mobins's new principles of gunnery, R. I. cate ratio of the ball inversely. The height and the range

Extr.Ph.tr. 1743. 437. a^e therefore at the weight of powder.

 CATALOGUE. — PNEUMATIC MACHINES. £61

Two ounces of powder impelled a ball of 28| oz. with a bore of about f inch. It is surprising that there should be

Telocity of 013 feet in a second : this would carry it to a so much between these experiments and others,
difference

height of 5930 feet, producing an effect equal to the labour that a quadraple weigh; in the one case should have pro-

of a man continued 105 seconds, and 10 hours of such la- duced the same effect with an octuple weight in the other.
bour would produce an effect equal to that of 43 pounds of It may be questionel whether the difference of the squares

powder. This force is therefore not comparatively cheap, of the velocities ought not rather to be taken in making the
lupposing the whole powder to be consumed
effort of the : correction for the recoil. Y.

but it would be almost impossible to find mechanical means Rumford on the force of fired gunpowder.
•o convenient for producing velocity. Air, compressed in Ph.tr. 1797. 222. Nich. I. 439. Gilb. IV.
ah air gun, would never move even into a vacuum with a
1400 much 257, 377.
velocity greater than about feet in a second :

Bernoulli makes the expansive force of gunpowder equal

less could it carry before it the weight of a cannon ball
to 1 000 atmospheres Rumford, from the bursting of a
with a velocity of 2000 feet and a bow or a spring of any
:
;

barrel of iron, so 000, from some more direct experiment!,

kind would have a still greater disadvantage. The great
from 20 000 to 40 000. The utmost that can be justly in-
rarity of the heated elastic fluids disengaged from powder,
ferred from the bunting of the barrel is in reality about
combined with their great elasticity, gives them the faculty
30 000, since the tension could by no means be equal
of imparting so prodigious a velocity. Hydrogen gas, suffi-
would escape with a velocity 3 times as through every part of its substance. The force was, in at-
ciently condensed,
common Hutton thinks the
1 + .4X x
great as air. force equal to
mospheres 1.841 (looox) being the quantity of
1500 or 1600 atmospheres. Y.
powder, the whole capacity of the cavity being unity. In

Ingenliousz. Ph. tr. 1779. some other experiments the multiplier, instead of 1.841, ap-
Robins found the force of gunpowder equal to 1000 at- pears to be 6.37; giving 101021 atmospheres instead of

mospheres, and observed, that a red heat made air expand to 29 178, when X becomes 1. A cubic inch of gunpowder

4 times its bulk; hence he inferred that powder produced contains nearly 11 grains of water of crystallization, and j,

450 times its bulk of air. Hauksbee, Amontons, Belidor, of moisture, which Count Rumford thinks, would be suffi-

and Saluces agree that it yields 322 times its bulk. cient for furnishing the steam. This is however a great
mistake a heat of 1200 would scarcely more than double,
Thompson's e.^periments on gunpowder. Ph.
:

or at most quadruple, the expansive force of a given portion

tr. 1781. '4J29.
of steam, consequently the density of steam at this temper-
Count Rumford observes, that the piece is heated sooner
amre, exerting a pressure of 50 000 atmospheres, ought to be
when fired without than with balls, perhaps because the more than 000 times as great as under the usual pressure,
1

great velocity of the air excites more heat by friction. When that is, probably, almost 4 times as great as the density of
the piece is become warm, a smaller quantity of powder
water. Count Rumford finds that much of the powder it
serves. The operation of ramming increases the force of
discharged unfired.
powder in the ratio of 6 to 5, or more the velocity
: is
nearly
E. M. A. VI. Art. Poudre a canon.
in the subduplicate ratio of the weight of the powder, at

least for musket bullets. The situation of the vent has very Massey on saltpetre. Mauch. M. I. 184. Rep.
little effect ;
the cavity of the piece should have a hemi- I. 248.
pherical terminarion. The Telocity is more accurately de- S. E. XI.
termined by measuring the recoil of the piece when sus- A memoirs on
collection of saltpetre. At first there were
pended than by the motion of a pendulum struck by the 38 unsuccessful attempts ;
in the second instance Thouve-
ball, deducting always that which would be produced 8000
nel gained the first prize of livres, among 28 competi-
without any ball. The velocity was sometimes greater tors. A few of the best memoirs only are printed at large.
than 2000 feet in a second. Robins makes the force
of gunpowder equal to looo atmospheres
Napier on gunpowder. Ir. tr. 1788. II. 97.
; but, upon
own The Rep. II. 276.
his principles, it is equal at least to 1308.

velocity is very nearly in the subtriplicate ratio of the weight

Robison. Enc. Br. Art. Projectiles, Resist-
of the -ball, increased by half that of the powder, inversely. ance.
The force of aurum fulminans appears ts be but one fourth Bullion on saltpetre and gunpowder. Repert.
•f that of gunpowder. The experiments were made with a VI. 49.
262 CATALOGUE. — PNEUMATIC MACHINES.
Howard on a fulminating mercury. Ph. tr. Villon's machines for making gunbarrels and
1800. 204. cannons. A. P. 17 H. 77. Mach. A. III.
16.

On increasing the effects of powder. Journ. 71,73,77,79.

Phys. Repert. VII. 135. Machine for boring cannons. Mach. A. III.
By leaving a vacant space behind the wadding. Thus a 81.
bomb if but partly filled breaks into a larger number of
Deschamps's improvements of guns. A. P.
pieces ; but they are not scattered so far as when it is quite
filled.
1718. H. 74. Mach. A. III. 171, 177, 181,
183.
Regnier's powder proof. Nich. III. 198. Ph.
Rifle muskets and cannons.
M. IV. 394. Gilb. IV. 400.
With a spring. Leutmann on rifle barrels. C. Petr. HI. 156.
fVandelli on the force of gunpowder. Rep. D'Arcy's light cannons. A. P. 1733. H. 70.
X. 286. Raucourt's inventions for
throwing bombs.
Griffith on mixing lime with gunpowder. Mach. A. VI. 157.
Repert. XII. 341. Lacq on the mechanism of artillery. A. P.
Coleman on gunpowder. Ph. M. IX. 355. 1740. H. 108.

Jessop on blasting rocks. Nich. IX. 230. Ladoyreau on cannons of wrought iron. A.
Farey on blasting rocks. Ph. M. XX. 208. P. 1742. H. 141.
The best charge of powder is about i or i of the weight of Reinier's double barrelled A. P. 174S.
gun.
the ball, for battering
|.
A 24 pounder with 16 pounds of
155.
gunpowder at an elevation of 45° ranges 20 S50 feet, about
Fusil tournant a deux coups.
I
of the range that would take place in a vacuum. The
resistance is at first 400 pounds or more, and reduces the Pasde Loup's machine for charging artillery..
velocity in a second from 2000 to laoo feet in the first ISOO A. P. 1742. H. 157.
feet. Cavallo, from Robins.
Maty's gunpowder air gun. Condamine. A.
It has been found, that the velocity of a ball is not mate-
P. 1757. 405. Ingenhousz. Ph. tr. 1779.
rially affccted by increasing the weight or firmness of a
Shot a bullet So paces with the air of 2 ounces, Which
piece of ordnance, beyond'very moderate limits.
served 1 8 times.

Montalembert on priming cannons. A. P.

Particular Constructions of Cum and their
Parts.
1759.358. H. 227.
Challier's gun lock. A. P. 1762. H. 192.
Chaumette's horse pistols.Mach. A. I. 201. Descourtieux's gun barrels. A. P. 1765. H.
Jointed carbine. A. P. 1715. H. 66. Mach. 133.
A. II. 27. Guns loaded at the breech. A. Boullet's gun acting by the circular motion
P. 1715. H. 66. Mach. A. II. 79, 99, 101. of the barrel, A. P. 1767.H. 186.
III. 53. Jointed powder horn. Mach. A. Delaunay's gun easily primed. A. P. 1771.
III. 49. Powder horn with balls. Mach, H. 68.
A. III. 51.
Appendages to locks. Mach. E. M.A. I. Art. Arquebusier. Canons.
A.m. 59. Watts's patent for making small shot.
Rep.
Bedaut's machine for red hot balls. Mach. HI. 313.
A. II. 61. On shot. Nich. I. 260, 380.

fDestau's roUing battery of muskets. Mach. Aitken's patent for loading fire arms. Rep.
A. II. 75. VI. 239.
 CATALOGUE. — HISTORY OF HTDRAULICS AND PNEUMATICS. 263

Many charges introduced at once. HISTORY OF HYDRAULICS AND PNEU-

MATICS.
Wilson's patent fire arms. Repert. VI. 304.
Balloons. See Aerostatics.
Preserved from rust.
Lowther examined inflammable air in 1733.
Marescot on shooting grenades. M. Inst. II.
Ph. tr. 1733.
242. Belidor's history of antient and modern ca-
Dodd's safe gun lock. A. XXII. 296.
S.
nals. Arch. Hydr. II. ii. 343, 357.
Haycraft's patent gun carriage. Repert. XII. R.
Leroy sur les navires des anciens. 8. S.
16.
,
Luckombe's tablet of memory.
Dolomieu on the art of cutting gun flints.
Glenie's history pf gunnery. R. S.
M. Inst. in. 348. Nich. 8. 1. 88.
jKtfp/er Bergm. Journal. 1791.
Prosser'a patent guns and pistols. Repert. Matthesius is said to have mentioned a steam engine in
XV. 224. his Sarepta before 1SS8.

On casting shot. Gilb. VIII. 2,50. of inland navigation. 4. R. I.

Phillips's history
A wheelbarrow for throwing grenades. Per- On the Chinese canal. Staunton's voyage.

son, Recueil. PI. 7. R. I.

Charnock's history of marine architecture. 3
De Poggi's patent ordnance. Repert. ii. I.
V. 4. Lond. 1800.
169.
Webb's A. XX. 247. Nich. Montucla and Lalande. Hist. Mathem.
safe gun lock. S.

8. V. 29. History of shipbuilding. IV. 381.

A Nich. 8. IV. 250. Prieur and Lenonnand on parachutes. Ann.
magazine pistol.
From Lord Camelford, who had " used it in various parts Ch. XXXI. 269. XXXVI. 94. Gilb. XVI.
of the worlJ." 156.
Beckmann on the invention of fire
engines.
Two muskets for quick firing. Nich. 8. V.
Ph. M. XI. 238.
116.
Gilb. XVI. 385.
On a gun for throwing double shot. Nich. Erraan observes, that Aristotle weighed the carbonic acid
VII. 146. gas exhaled from the lungs, when he found that a blown
bladder was heavier than an empty one.

Rockets, and oth^r Fireworks. W^iegleb on the antiquity of gunpowder.

Nich. VI. 71.
Pasdeloup's machine for loading fireworks. Hints towards a steam engine in 1637. Nich.
Mach. A. I. 125. VII. 311.Brunau.
Buffon on rockets. A. P. 1740. H. 105.
Robins on the height of the ascent of rockets. Particular Dates. A. D.
Ph. tr. 1749. 131. The Chinese canal 806 miles long, fi-

A rocket of a pound ascended 45« or 500 yards, in 7" ; a nished by 30 000 men in 43 years 980
roclcet of 4 pounds remained 14". The first canal in England, from the
Ellicott on the height of the ascent of rockets. Trent to the Witham ] 134
Ph. tr. 1750. 578. Windmills invented 1299
Rockets two inches and a half in diameter a proper size.
Canhons invented 1330
A rocket fired at Hackney was seen at Barkway. Some of Gunpowder used according to Lan-
three inches in diameter rose laoo yards. glais 1338
864 CATALOGUE. — ACUSTICS, PROPAGATION OF SOUND.
Battle of Cressy 1346 From the sound of a wheel with teeth,
striking the air
only.
Gunpowder used at Lyons in Brabant.
Haller Elementa physiologiae. V.
Wiegleb 1356
Muskets used at the siege of Arras 1414 *Lagrange on sound. M. Taur. I. II,
i^nVz vomschalle. 4. Berl. 1764.
Shipping improved, and port holes in-
vented by Decliarges Euler. A. Berl. 1765.
1500
Air guns made at Nuremberg
Burdach de vi aeris in sono. 4. Leipz. 1767.
1560
Bombs Halts Doctrina sonorum. 4. Lond. 1778.
invented at Venloo 1588
New River brought to London Funicim de sono et tono. 4. Leipz. 1779.
I6l4
Guericke invented the air pump 1654
Germ, in Leipz. Mag. 178 1.
Jones's physiological disquisitions. 4. Lond.
Hooke finished his air pump 1658
1781.
Savery had erected steam engines I696
Chain shot invented by Dewit I666
M Young on sounds and musical strings. 8.

Balloons invented by Monigolfier Dubl. 1784.

1783
Lunardi ascended in Moorfields Busse kleine beytr'age zur math, und
1784 phys,
131.
The Society for the encouragement of arts still offer pre-
miums to the inventors of new hydraulic machines for irri-
*Chladni Entdeckungen Uberdie theorie de«
gation and other purposes, as well as for the improvement of plauges. 4. Leipz. 1787. R. I.
ventilators. Chladni. Berl. naturf fr.

Chladni promises a general work on acustics.

ACUSTICS. «OBND IN GENERAL. Hind. Arch. IH. 234.

fPerrolle on the vibrations of sounding bo-
•Aristotle.
Bacon Sylva sylvarum.
dies. Roz. XXXV.
423.
*Forktl Allgemeine literatur der musik. 8.
Contains many experiments.
*Mersenne Haimonie universelle. f. Paris, Leipz. 1792.

1636. M.B. Suremain Missery theorie acousticomusicale.

8. Par. 1793.
Mersenni cogitala physicomathematica. 4.
Extr. by Lalande. Roz. XLII. I6I.
Par. 1644. M. B.
*Robison. Enc. Br. Art. Sound. Trumpet.
•Galilei Discorsi mathematichi. 16.98.

Acustics. Ph. tr. Abr. I. v. 457. IV. iv. 346. Suppl. Art. Temperament Trumpet.
X. iv. 160.
T. Young on sound and light. Ph. tr. 1800.
106. Nich. V. 72. I6I.
Bartolide] sono. I68O. M. B.
Terzi del suno. 8. R. S.
Bishop of Ferns on sound. Ph. tr. 1684. XIV".

471.
Perraulton sound. A. P. I. 145. Propagation of Sound.
Carre on the production of sound. A. P. See Longitudinal Vibrations.
1704. H. 88.
Papin's whistle fitted to the mouth of the
Lahire's experiments on sound. A. P. 1716. tube of an air pump. Birch. IV. 379.
26e, 264. H. 66. To show the effect of the air on the force of sound.

On numbering the vibrations of sound. C. Walker on the velocity of sound. Ph. tr. I698.
Bon. L 180. XX. 433.
 CATALOGUE. ACUSTICS, PROPAGATION OF SOUKD. 265
Observed the time occupied in the return of an echo. Zanotti on the intensity of sound in air of
Found the velocity from 1 1 50 to 1526 feet in a second.
different densities. C. Bon. II. Coll.
Hawksbee on sound in condensed and rare-
Ac. X.
fied air. Ph. tr. 1705. XXIV. I902. 1709.
fEulcr on the propagation of pulses. N. C.
XXVI. 367. Petr. I. 67.
A bell was heard at the distance of 30 yards when the air
jE)(/( ri
was in its common state, at 60 with the force of two at- conjectura physica circa propagatio-
at 90 with the force of three the
tliis neni soni et luminis. 4. Berl. 175O.
mospheres, :
beyond Opusc.
intensity did not much increase. A vacuum was made be- Euler on the propagation of sound. A. Berl.
tween two receivers, the bell being within the innermost, 17.0 9.
and the sound was not transmitted.
Euler on the M.
Hawksbee on the of sound propagation of agitations.
propagation
Taur. II. ii. 1.
through water, Ph.tr. 1709- XXVI. S71. Euler on the generation and
*Derhain de soni motu. Ph. tr. 1708. propagation of
sound. A. Berl. 1765. 33.5.
XXVI. 2.
n7«A/erTentamina circa soni celeritatem. 4.
Velocities observed by different persons.
Leipz. 17(33.
Roberts. Ph.tr. n. 209 I'JOO M. Taur. I. II.
Lagrange.
Boyle. Essay on motion 1200 fLamberton the velocity of sound. A. Berl.
,
Walker. Ph.tr. 1338 1768. 70. 1772. 103. Hoz. XVIII. 126.
Mersennus, Balistica 1474 Thinks that the air contains about i of foreign matter.

Flamsteed and Hallcy 1142 Blagden. Ph. tr. 1784. 201.

Florentine academicians 1148 Observes, that many witnesses agreed that they heard the

whizzing of a very distant meteor at the instant of

Cassini and others, Duhamel. H. A. 1 172
its ap-
pearance ; but that this was probably a fallacy.
Derham 1142
PerrolJcon the propagation of sound in
Derham found the effect of the wind, but not of any gases.
changes of weather.
M. Tur. 1786. Ul. Coir. 1. 1790. V. Corr.
Mairan. A. P. 1737. II. 1. 195. Roz, XXIII. 378. Journ.
Phys.
Cassini on the propagation of sound. A. P. XLIX. 382. Nich. I. 411. Gilb. III. 167.
1738. 128. H. 1.
IV. 112.
Makes the velocity feet.
Founl it
very weak in hydrogen gas.
1 107
Cassini. A. P. 1739. W^unsch on tiie velocity of sound in wood.
.Biancoiii delLa diversa velocita del suono. A. Berl. Dciitsch. abii. 17S8. 87.
Sound was conveyed instantaneously through 3fi con-
Venice.
nected laths of 24 feet each, or8S4 feet, if not through 7?.
Bianconi on the velocity of sound. C. Bon.
which was the whole number employed.
II. i. 3G5. Robison. Enc. Br. XVllI. Art,
Trumpet arti-
In summer, the thermometer being at 20°, 76 vibrations
culate.
of the pendulum elapsed while a sound passed over )3
Alleges many facts in favour of the nondivergence of
miles; in winter 79 seconds, the thermometer being at

— sound and waves. He observes, that "all the general co-

1.2°. In a cloud or mist 155" elapsed while the sound
rollaries the. lateral
and repassed. Hence the air should
respecting divergence of waves are
passed expand
little more than sagacious guesses."
^ for 21.2°, or
^^ for \° of the thermometer employed,

probably Reaumur's, which is j^ for l°of Fahrenheit. The fLamarck on the medium of sound. Journ.
mean difference of the temperature of the air was probably Phys. XLIX. 397.
somewhat less than is sup)X)sed, perhaps 17° or 1S°. Thinks it a medium more subtile 'ban air.

VOL. n. M m
t66 CATALOGUE. — ACU8TICS, SOURCES OF SOUND.

Chladni on the propagation of sound. Gilb. Decay of Sound.

III. 159, 177, 182, 184.
The human voice has been heard more than ten miles at
Its velocity in different mediums.
Derham.
Gibraltar.
Chladni infers from the longitudinal vibrations of different

substances, a velocity of 7800 feet in a

second in tin, OSOO

in silver, 12500 in copper, 17500 in glass and iron, 1 lOOO Echos.

to 18000 in wood, and loooo to 12000 in tobacco pipes.
On an echo in Gloucester cathedral. Birch.
His observations are fully confirmed by calculations from
I. 120.
different grounds. According to the elasticity of fir, as
inferred from an experiment of Mr. Leslie, the velocity of Quesnet on an echo. A. P. II. 87- X. 127.
an impulse should be 17300. The velocity may be easily Grandi de sono. Ph. tr. 1709- XXVI. 270.
calculated from the sound of a loose rod if the number of
;
Echo from two towers. A. P. 1710. H. 18.
vibrations of the gravest sound in a second be n, the velocity
Southwell on echos. Ph. tr. 1746. XLIV.
will be .973 — , I being the length, and d the depth in feet.
219.
d
A building vrith projecting wings produced
60 repeti-
From an experiment of this kind, I find the velocity 1 7700
tions.
in crown glass, and 11 800 in brass.
Euler on echos. A. Berl. 1765. 335.
Von Arnim on the propagation of sound.
Guynet on an echo repeating 14 syllables.
Gilb. III. 1G7. IV. 112. A. P. 1770. H. 23.
Gough. Manch. M. V. fias.
Actis on an echo at Girgenti. M. Tur. 1788.
Observes, that sound does not diverge equally.
IV. App. 43.
Englefield and Young
on the effect of sound From the parabolic form of a church.

on the barometer. Journ. R. f ., I. Repert. An echo in Woodstock park repeats 17 syllables by day,
XIV. and 20 by night. An echo on the north side of Shipley
ii. I. HI. Nich. 8. II. 181. Gilb.
church in Sussex repeats 21 syllables. Cavallo, &om Plot
214.
and Harris.
Biot on the effect of heat in thepropagalion
of sound. B.Soc.Phil. n. 63. Journ. Phys.
Sources of Sound.
LV. 173.
It will appear under the article Capacity for Heat, that
more nearly with Biot's
Vibrations of Fluids.
some of Dalton's experiments agree
calculations than his own conclusions from others warrant- Mariotte on the sounds of the trumpet. A.
ed us to suppose. See Journ. R. I., L
P. I. 209.
At might be imagined, that a loud sound
first sight, it

be more accelerated by heat than a weak one ;

Bernoulli on organ pipes. A. P. I762. 431.
ought to

but, on a more accurate examination, we shall find that H. 170.

the law of isochronism of small vibrations will remain un- E.xtr. Hauy Traite de Phys. I. 3l6.
impaired. Euler on the motion of air in pipes. N. C.
Parseval on the propagation of sound in all
Petr. XVI. 281.
directions. To be printed, S. E. Equal and unequal, hyperbolical and conical. All shut

the velocity of sound 110? feet, ones.

Ca»sini makes Meyer pipes are unmusical, except cylindrical

JIGS, Miiller 1109, Pictet about 1130. On the sounds of gases. Nich. III. 43.

See Vibrations of Fluids. Chladni on the tones of an organ pipe in

Sound conveyed by See Hearing. different gases. Ph. M. IV. 275.
pipes.
 CATAtOGiJE.—ACUSTies, SOURCES OF SOUND.
267
The sound of carbonic acid gas, nitrous gas, and
oxygen
gas, agreed with the theory ;
but azote, of which the Vibrations of Solids.
spe-
cific gra»ity was .Q85, common air being unity, gave a note
half a tone lower than common air. Hydrogen gas pro- Chords.
duced a note an octave or a minor tenth
higher.
Delarive on the sounds from Lahire on the A. P, IX.
hydrogen o-as. trumpet Marigni,
Journ. Phys. LV. l65. Nich. 8. IV. 23. Ph. 530.

M. XIV. 24. Taylor de motu nervi tensi. Ph. tr. 1713

Higgins on the sound from hydroj^en
XXVIII. 26.
gas.
Nich. 8. I. 129. Sauveur on the sounds of chords. A P. 1713.
A harmonica. Gilb. XVIJ. 482.
324. H. 68.
A Jo. Bernoulli on
glass tube sounding while hot. vibratins: chords. C Petr
The air in a flute is like a slow river with waves III. 13.
moving
npidly along it.
D. Bernoulli on the curvature of an
extended
Account o/M. Delarive's Memoir on chord. C. Petr. III. 62.
Sounds produced the

by Imrning Hydrogen Gas. Journ. R. I., I. sag.

D. Bernoulli on
vibrating chords. A. Bierl.
It is well known, that when a stream of hydrogen gas 1753. 147, 173.
passes through a small tube, and is inflamed at its orifice, Bernoulli on the vibrations of
if a large tube be held over the flame so as
unequal chords.
partially to in- A. Berl. 1765. 28 J.
close it, an
agreeable sound is frequently produced. The Some may be harmonious
though unequal ; others in-
frequent failure of the experiment, and the impossibility of
harmonious.
producing the same effect with other kinds of
flame, left
Bernoulli on the vibrations of
considerable obscurity with respect to the immediate cause compound
of the sound. M. Delarive appears to have been chords. N. C. Petr. XVI. 257.
very
successful in his attempts to remove these difficulties. He Euler on the vibrations of flexible
and rigid
supposes the continual production and condensation of bodies. C. Petr. VII. pg.
aqueous vapour to cause a brisk vibratory
motion, which Euler on the oscillations of
must be flexible bodies.
able, in order to produce a sound, to harmonize
with the dimensions of the tube, and
C. Petr. XIII. 124. XIV. 182.
is then regulated and
equalised by the regular from the tube, so
reflections as to
On the motion of flexible bodies.
A. Berl
constitute together a clear musical sound he observes 1745.11.54.
:
that
for this purpose there must be a great difference of tempe- Euler on the vibration of
rature in the air and the tube near the flame
chords. A. Berl
; hence the
failure of the
1748.69.
vapour of ether, which produces too slight a
Euler's remarks on Bernoulli. A.
degree of heat, and the difficulty of succeeding in a warm Berl 1753
room, for want of a sufficient supply of cool air. This ex- 196.
planation confirmed by a curious experiment on tubes
is
Euler on the vibrations of a loaded
with bulbs resembling that of a
thread
thermometer, in which a N. C. Petr. IX. 215.
small particle of water or mercury is
exposed to a conside-
rable heat, so as to be wholly converted into
Euler on the vibrations of
vapour, while unequal chords
the upper part of the tube remains cool
; in this case a sound
N. C. Petr. IX. 246.
isproduced somewhat similar to that of hydrogen gas, but Euler on the
propagation of agitations. M.
much fainter. Brugnatdli has obtained a sound from Taur. II. ii. 1 .
Idiosphorus burnt in a tube ; and M. Delarive supposes
Euler on the agitations of
that the phosphorous acid, in the form of a chords. A. Berl.
vapour, pos-
sesses a high degree of
elasticity, and that it is condensed
1765.307,^335.
with sufficient for the production of the Euler on equal and
rapidity sonorous unequal chords. M. Taur.
effects. Y. III. ii. 1, 27.
268 CATALOGUE. — ACUS TICS, SOURCES OF SOUND.

Eulcr on the equilibrium and motion of flex- gure. This doe« not however appear to agree with expe-
riment.
ible and elastic bodies. N. C. Petr. XV.

381.XX.28G.
Vibrations from Elasticity.
Euier on unequal vibrating chords. N. C.
Petr. XVII. 381. A. Petr. 1780. IV. ii. Lateral Vibrations.

99. Birch. II. 475.

EuIer finds, that a chSrd composed of two parts, of which Hooke explained the vibrations of a glass bell by putting
the length sound fiouronit, which moved differently, according to the differ-
is
reciprocally as the thickness, will like a

single one. A chord composed of two parts equal in length,

ence of the sounds.

one four times as heavy as the other will produce sounds Blondel on the sound of a glass full of wa-
related as .30)08 .69501, 1.30408, 1.60501,2.30408, and ter. A. P. I. 209.
will therefore be very discordant.
Carre on the sounds of cj'linders. A. P. 1709.
Euler on the vibrations and revolutions of
47. H. 93.
extended musical chords. N. C. Petr.
-j-Lahire on the extinction of sounds at the
XIX. 340. XX. 304. A.Petr. Ill.ii. 116.
ends of a cylinder. A. P. 1709. H. 96
1782. VI. ii. 148.
Bernoulli on the curvature of an elastic rod.
Observes, that the revolutions may be reduced to com-
vibrations.
C. Petr. III. 62.
pound
Euler on the perturbation of the motion of a Bernoulli on the vibrations of plates. C.Petr.
XIII. 105, 167.
chord from its
weight. A. Petr. 1781.V. i.

The sounds are related as 1, 6.32. 17.63, 34.54, 57. 1,

178.
86.3. The length of a pendulum vibrating with equal fre-
When the chord is horizontal the perturbation vanishes.
quency is to the linear deflection by a given weight at the
Dalembert on the curve of a vibrating chord. end of a rod fixed at the extremity, as 12 times the weight
A. Berl. 1747.214, 220. 1750.355. of the rod to 49 times the deflecting weight ; thus a knitting

Dalembert's remarks on vibrating chords. A. needle weighing 15.5 grains was deflected by a weight of

1000 grains of the length of the second

Berl. 1763. 235. M. Taur. III. ii. 389. -^^L. pendulum :

hence the length of the synchronous pendulum is .1025,

Kiccati on elastic force. C. Bon. I. 523.
and it makes 175 or 178 vibrations in a second, the note
M.Young on sounds and musical strings. was found. The was half the
being G, as it length -j^'i ;

J. Bernoulli on theproblem of vibrating length gave the double octave, the time of vibration be-

chords. Hind. Arch. III. 266. ing always as the square of the length. At the standard

concert pitch the note would be nearly F.

Montucla and Lalande. III. 659.
M. Bernoulli. N. C. Petr. XV. 361.
Voigt on the nodes of chords. Ph. IV.
Euler on the vibrations of rigid bodies. C.
347.
Petr. VH. 99.

Surfaces.
Euler on bells. N. C. Petr. X. 26.
Makes the sounds as l , ^/o, v'20, \/50; considering
Euler on the vibrations of drums. N. C. Petr. the bell as composed of rjpgs.
X. 243. Euler on the vibrations of plates. N. C. Petr.
Riccati on the vibrations of drums. Ac. Pad. '
XVII. 449.
1.419. The progression of sounds as 1.192, 6.9977» I9.638a.
Biot on the vibrations of surfaces. M. Inst. Euler on the vibrations of plates. A. Petr.
IV. 21. III. i. 103.
Extr. B. Soc. Phil. n. 43. The sounds of rings are as the squares of the natural

Says, that the time of vibration depends on the initial fi- numbers.
 CATALOGUE. ACUSTICS, EFFECTS OF SOUXD. &69

Riccati on elastic force. C. Bon. 523.

Effects of Sound.
I.

•Kiccati on ihe sounds of cylinders. Soc. Remarks on the Effect of Sound upon the Ba> omeler. By
Ital. I. 444. Sir Henby C. Englefield, Bart. F. R.S. Journ. R. I.,

With many experiments, and tables for forming the I. 157.

scale. Corrects some material errors of Euler.

During the time I spent at Brussels in the years 1773
Lexell on the vibrations of rings. A. Petr. and 1774, it occurred to me, that the effect of sound on
the barometer had not, to my knowledge, been attended
1781. V.ii. 18.3.
to and that it was by no means certain, whether that in-
Lambert on the sounds of elastic bodies. N. ;

strument was capable of being sensibly affected by those

Act. Helv. I. 42.
elastic vibrations caused in the atmosphere, by the percus-
With experiments. Makes the series 1, 0.267,17.54?,
sion of a sonorous body. I thought the idea worthy of be-
34.38. An approximation only.
ing pursued, and the means of making satisfactory experi-
*Chladni Entdeckungen liber die theorie des ments were most opportunely in my power.

klangcs. The sound of a very large bell appeared to me the most

Finds the vibrations generally agreeing with theory ;

powerful, and, at the same time, to be approached with the
that is, nearly as the squares of the odd numbers in most greatest security and ease to the observer. The explosion
cases ;
in one, as the squares of the natural numbers. The of artillery, besides the very disagreeable smoke and danger
sounds of rings do not agree with either of Euler's supposi- ofthe recoil, might be objected to, on account of the sud-
den production of elastic and heated vapour, which might,,
tions, but are nearly as the squares of the odd numbers.

Acccount of Cliiadni's figures. Journ. Pliys. independent of the sound, instantaneously alter the state of
the atmosphere, and thereby lead the observer into very
XLVII. (IV.) 390. Ph. M. II. ,'315, 3yi.
great and unavoidable errors.
Jo. Bernoulli on the vibrations of rectangular who Low Countries must
Every one has been in the

plates. N. A. Petr. 1787. V. 19.7. know, that very large bells, and immense numbers of them,
Compared with Chladni's experiments. are the pride of theh: churches, and that they are rung quite
PerroUe. M. Tiir. 1790. out, not tolled, on every great festival. The great bell of
1.
App. 209.
the collegiate church of St. Gudula, at Bru.ssels, weighs, as
Voigt on Chladni's figures. Ph. M. HI. 389.
I was told, sixteen thousand pounds, and on this I deter-
Parseval on the complete integration of the
mined to found my experiment.
formulae for the vibrations of plates. To Two objections only could be made to the result of this

be printed in the Mem., des sav.etr. of the trial, the one, that the motion of the bell might cause a vi-

bration in the \\'alls of the building, v.hich would hinder

Institute.
the placing the barometer in a state of repose ; the other,
See page 84.
that the swinging so large a mass with a considerable de-
gree of velocity, might of itself agitate the air so as to cause
Longitudinal Vibrations. vibrations in the mercury, totally independent of sound.

The strength of the walls of the steeple, and manner of

ChlaSni liber die longitudinal schwebungen
hanging the bell, which was contained in a frame of timber,
der stabe. 4.
founded on a strong vault, and totally independent of the
From the transactions of the society at Erfurt.
walls of the steeple, might alone have answered the first of.

On Chladni's longitudinal sound. Ph. M. these objections, but happily a most complete and satisfac-

IV. tory answer to both of them was furnished by the manner

in which the bell was rung.
As the bell was to ting out full in an instant, at a signal
Spiral Vibrations.
given from below ;
it is
necessary to have it in motion some
Chladni on spiral vibrations. Gilb. II. 87. time beforehand ;
and during that time, the clapper is fixed
Ph. M. XII. 259. to one side by a strong stick crossmg the mouth of the bell,

From the memoirs of the Naturf. Fr. These vibrations which, at the signal, is
pulled out by the hand of a person
»re found to be a fifth lower than the longitudinal vibrations. placed for that purpose. If, then, our barometer showed:
 ^70 C'ATAEOGUE. — ACUSTICS, EFFECTS' OP SOtTNlX

no variation during tvU this time-; wo were* absolutely cer- duce a greater agitation of the buiMiof^ than the
preceding
tain, thatwhatever motion wa» perceived afterwards, was alternate motion of the bell itself: but this
explanation
wholly owing to the sound. cannot be called satisfactory. It is certain, that there was
Mr. Pigott, who was then at Brussels, was kind enough neither more nor less air in the tower while the bell waj
to lend me one of his barometers, made by Ramsden, and sounding, than while it was silent ; the mean density of the
his son made the following observations jointly with myself. air could therefore not have been
changed ; and if the al-
At two o'clock in the afternoon of the first of November, ternate motions of the particles of air which constitute
1773, we went into the northwest tower of St. Gudula's sound, had ttken place by equal degrees and with equal
church, and having fixed the barometer firmly in the open- each opposite direction, there is no reason to
velocities in

ing of a window, not above seven feet from the bottom of suppose that the increase of pressure on the surface of the
the bell, we waited quiedy for its ringing. mercury, at one instant, could have tended to raise it, more
The height of the mercury before the bell began to swing, than the decrease of pressure, in the
opposite state of the
as observed by Mr. Pigott, was 29.478 inches. The bell undulation, would have depressed it. But the same conse-
being iri^fuU swing no alteration whatever was perceptible. quence does not follow, if we conceive the motion of the
The instant that the clapper was loosed, the mercury air in advancing to be more rapid, but of shorter continu-
leaped up, and continued that sort of springing motion at ance, than its
retrograde motion. For if the wind blew for
every stroke of the clapper, during the whole time of the one hour with a velocity of four, and the same air returned

ringing of the bell. These were our observations. in the course of two hours with a
velocity of two, an ob-
During the ringing of the bell, Mr. P. 29.409 stacle upon which it had acted in both directions, would not
During the ringing, by myself be found in its original place ; for the action of the
wind
Highest 29.480 upon anobstacle, is as the square of the velocity, and the
Lowest 29.474 time would not compensate for the difference of force. It

Highest 29.482 is therefore easy to suppose, that the law of the bell's vi-
Lowest 29.472 bration was in this
experiment such, that the air advanced
These observations were made with the greatest atten- towards the barometer wiih a greater
velocity than it re-
tion ;
and considering their delicacy and the difBculty of ceded, although for a shorter time, and that hence the
observing, agree very nearly. They appear to give from 6 whole effect was the same as if the mean pressure of the air
to 10 thousandths of an inch for the effect of this sound on had been increased. Such a law might easily result from a
the barometer. It is to be observed, that Mr. Pigott in combination of a more regular principal vibration with one
general, estimated the height of the mercury about five or more subordinate ones, in different relations and simi-
;

thousandths lower than myself, which brings our observa- lar cases
may sometimes be observed in the vibration* of
tions to a very near agreement. The following observations chords.
*
prove this.

On the top of the tower, Mr. P. 29.424 Sympathetic Sounds.

Ditto, by me 29.430
Morhofii stentor hyaloclastes, de scypho vitreo
At the foot of the tower, Mr. P. 29.639
fracto. Kiel, 1662. 1683.
Ditto, by me 29.642
In the court of the English Nuns, by Mr.
Pigott 29.676
Wallis on the paitial sympathetic tremors of
Ditto, by me 29.682 chords. Ph. tr. 1677. XII. 839.
And I should think, that the difference of eyes
may fre- Shown by bits of paper laid on the chords.
quently cause Euch a variation among different observers; Lahire ou a buttress at Rheims that vi-
at least, in delicate observations, it will be always prudent
brates when one of the bells is A.
to make the experiment. rung.
P. II. 87.
Note ly Dr. Young. Probably from being capable of vibrations equally fre-

These observations appear to quent with the swinging of the bell.

agree too well with each
other, to allow us to doubt of their accuracy. It therefore *Ellicotton the mutual influenceof twoclocks.
becomes necessary to inquire after the cause of the differ- Ph. tr. 1739- 126.
ent heights of the barometer. It is indeed barely possible, A curious instance of sympathetic vibration
; the motion
that a sudden stroke of the
clapper of the bell might pro- of one of the clocks put the pendulum of the other in mo-
 CATALOGUE. ACUSTICS, EFFECTS OF SOUND. 271

«ion, even yrhen they stood on a stone pavement near each Haller. Physiol. V.
other : the effects were accelerated when the communication

was more direct. See Timekeepers.

Camper on the hearing of fishes. S. E. VI.
177.
*Hiulcllestone's observations on sound. Nich.
on vision and hearing. 8.
Elliot
8. 1. 329.

Showing the sympathy of chords and even of organ pipes,

Vicq D'Azyr on the ear of birds. A. P. 1778.
materially influencing the frequency of each others vibra-
381. H.5.
tions. Hunter on the organ of hearing in fish. Ph.
tr. 1782.379.
Ear and Hearing. Instruments for
Shows that they hear.

Hearing. Galvani on the ear of birds. C. Bon. VI. O^

Perrault on the organ of hearing. A. P. I. 420.
158. *Scarpa de auditu et olfactu. f. Pav. 1789-

Duverney on hearing. A. P. I. 256. Comparetti de aure interna. 4. Pad. 1789-

Duvtrnejf de I'ouie. 12. M. B. R. S.
Valsalva de aure. 4. Bologn. 1704. M. B. Extr. Roz. XLII. 344.
Acc.byDouglas.Ph.tr. 1705. XXIV. 1978. Brunelli on the hearing of reptiles. C. Boo.
Duquet's hearing trumpet. Much. A. II. VII. O. 301.
119. Lentin on deafness. Commentat. Gott. 17^1.

Duquet's chair for the deaf. Mach. A. II. XI. Ph. 39.
129. Caldani suUa m«mbrana del timpano. 8. Pad».
£lair on the organ of hearing in elephants. 1794. R. S.
Ph. tr. 1718. 885. XXX. Home on the membrana tympani. Ph. 4r.

Mai ran on the ett'ect of sound on the ear. 1800. 1. Nich. V, 93.
A. P. 1737.49. H.97. Cooper on the destruction of the membrana
Leprotti on the perforation of the membrana tympani. Ph. tr. 1800. 151. Nich. 8. I.

tympani. Coil. Acad. X. 518. 102.

On a perforated membrana tympani. C. Bon. Cooper on an operation for deafness. Ph. tr.

I. 350. 1801. 435.

The hearittg unimpaired. Rivinus called his foramen. On hearing by the teeth. B. Soc. Phil. n.41.
it

Martiani's model of the ear. A. P. 1743. H. Nich. IV. 383.

85. Beaumont's hearing instrument approved^.
NoUet on the hearing of fishes. A. P. 1743.
M. Inst. IV.
199.
Gilb. X. 567.
Brocklesby's extract from Klein on the hear- The deaf sometimes hear acute sounds.
ing of fishes. Ph. tr. 1748. 233. the method of judging of the po-
Gough on
Arderon on the hearing of fish. Ph.tr. 1748. sition of sonorous bodies. Manch. M. V..
149.
Thinks that river fish have no hearing observes, that Thinks the bones of the head assist us
:
in forming the judg-
sound is transmitted but faintly through water. A hand
ment. A sound just audible at 240 feet was distinguished,
grenade bursting under Water produced prodigious tremors. as being nearer at 40 feet than at 42. A horizontal angu^
Geoffroy on the hearing of reptile*. S. E. II. lar difference of 8° was perceptible, an elevation of 10°.
164. On the invisible girl. Nich. 8. IIL 56..
272 CATALOGUE. ACUSTICS, THEORY OF MUSIC.
Sound conveyed by which open in a crevice of the
pipes, Sauveur's general system of intervals. A. P.
moulding of a frame.
1701. 299. H. 121.
li. Walker's apparatus for conducting sound.
Sauvcur on the organ. A. P. 1702.
Nieh. 8. IV. 69. Gilb. XIV. 220.
j-Salmon's music reduced to proportions. Ph.
Vieth's acustic observation. Gilb. XVII. II7.
tr. 1705. XXIV. 2069.
Asserts, that there is a point
precisely in the axis of hear-
ing w^here the sound is not audible. Henfling's musical system. M. Berl. I. 265.
Darwin's zoonomia. II. Jlfa/co/m on music. 8. Edinb. 1721. R. I.
487.
" The late blind Justice Fielding walked for the first time RameauTxMX.^ de I'harmonie. 4. Par. 1722.
into my room, when he once visited me, and after speaking M. B.
a few words said, this room is about 22 feet long, 18 wide,
systeme de musique. 4. Par. 1726.
i?a»jf«?«
and 12 high ; all which he guessed by the ear with great
liameau du principe d'harmonic.
accuracy." Darwin.
Ace. A. P. 1750. H. 160.

Theory of Music. Rameau on the principles of music. Mem.

Musicae antiquae Meiboinii. 4. Trev. Aug. I762.
scriptores,
Amst. i632. R. f. Rameau's other musical works. See Forkel.
•CI. Ptolemaei harmonica a Wallis. 4. Oxf. fEukr tcntamen novae theoriae musicae 4.

1682. Op. III. Petersb. 1729. M. B.

Zarlmo Istitutioni harmoniche. f. Ven. 1558. Euler on some discords, and on the charac-

1573. M. B. ter of modern music. A. Berl. 1764. l65,

Salinas de musica.Salamanc. 1577. f. M.B. 175.

*Merstnm harmonica, f. Par. 1635. Euler on the true principles of harmony. N.

*Merserine Harmonie universelle. f. C. Petr. XVIII. 330.
Paris,
1636. Euler's speculum musicum.
*Kircheri musurgia. 2 v. f. Rom. 1660. F COD
M. B. A E B r»
* XtVcAen
phonurgia. f. I673. M.B. C* G« D« Bb.
Cartesn musicae compendium. Utr. 1650. Montvallon on musical intervals. A. P. 1742.
M. B. H. 117.
Dechales mundus mathemAticus. On numbering vibnitions. C. Bon. I. 180.
By the teeth of a wheel striking the air only.
Ph. tr. abr. I. x. 606. IV. vii. 469.
Memoli Musica speculativa. 4. Bologna, Smit/is hannouies. 8. Cambr. 1749. 1759.
1670. R.I.
'

Ace. Ph. tr. 1673. VIII. 6194. Esthie gurrharmonie.

-.Sa//720« on music. 8. London, 1672. M.B. Ace. A. P. 1750. H. l65.
Ace. Ph. tr. 1671. VI. 3095. Est^ve on best system of music,
tlie and on
Wallis on the'division of the monoehord. Pii.
temperament. S. E. II. 113.
tr. 1698. XX. 80. Romieu on grave harmonics. Ac. Montpel.
Wallis on the imperfections of the organ. Ph.
1751.
tr. 1698. XX. 249.
Romieu on tempered sj'stoms ofmusic. A. P.
Wallis's Works, vol. D. f.
Oxford, IG99. i
1758.483.
Ace. Pb. tr. 1699. XXI. 259. Agrees nearly with the progressive temperament
 CATALOGUE. — ACU5TICS, THIOKY OF MUSIC. 273
Avison on musical expression. 12. 1752. Recommends the equal temperament. ,

Dolimbert Elemens tie musique. 8. Paris, Sacchi's theory of music. C. Bon. VIL O,
1752. 139.
fTartiiii delta vera scienza dell' armonia. 4. *Forkel Allgemeine litteratur der musik. 8.
Pad. 1754. M.B. Leipz. 1792,
RoHsseau Dictionnaire de musique, Jones on the musical modes of the Hindoos.
Rousseau's musical dictionary. As. Res. in. 55.

Marpurg Anfangsgrlinde der •theoretischen Suremain Missery Theorie acousticomusi-

musik. 4. Leipz. 1757. cale.
On ratios and temperaments. Patterson's notation of music. Am. tr. III.
Marpurgs versuch iiber die temperatur. 8.
139.
Bresi. 1776.
Young. Ph. tr. 1800.
Jamard sur la theorie de la musique. 8. Par. Additional remarks. Nich. V. 141.
1768.
Young on compound sounds, in answer to
Emerson's miscellanies. 353. 264, HI. 145. IV.
Gough. Kich. 8. II.
*Hulden on a rational system of music. 4.
72.
Lond. 1770. M. B.
Young's harmonic sliders. Journ. R. I. Nich.
*Kirnberger Kunst des reinen satzes. 4. Berl. 8. IV. 101.
1771 ... Robison. Enc. Br. Suppl. Art. Temperament>
Sulzers tlieorie der schonen kiinste. 4 v. 8.
Trumpet.
Leipz. 1772.
Enc. Br. Suppl. II. 650.
Laniheit on musical temperament. A. Berl.
"The perception of harmonious^ound is the sensation pro-
1774. 55. duced by another definite form of the This is
agitation.
Harrison on clockwork and on music. 8. the composition of two other agitations lul it is the com-
;

1775. n.s. pount agitation only that affects the ear, and it is its form
or kind which determines the sensation, making it pleasant
Geduitken iiber Kirnbergers temperatur. 8.
or unpleasant." Robison.
Berl. 1775.
Vandermonde Systeme d'harmonie. 8. R. S. Chladnion finding the velocity of vibrations.

Ace. A. P. 1778. H. 51. Gilb. V. 1.

Bemetzrieder Essai sur I'harmonie. 8. R. S. Proposes to number the vibrations of a long rod, and to

observe the sound of a portion of Suggests Sauveur's

Bemetzrieder Methode de musique.
it.
8. R, S.
last pitch as a new idea.
Bemetzrieder Trait6 de musique. 8. R. S.
5^ee/e's prosodia rationalis. 4. Lond. 1779.
Gough on the theory of compound sounds.

Good theory, but inaccurate declamation.

Manch. M. V. 653. Nich. 8. IV. 152,

Essay on tune. 8. Edinb. 1782. M. B. Defends Smith against Dr. Young, but misunderstands

on music, f. both.
Jones's treatise

E. M. Musique, i vol to Gough on compound sounds and grave har-

Cyt. by Framery
and Ginguene. monics, in reply. Nich. 8. III. 39. IV. 1,

Barca on anew theory of music. A. Pad. L 139.

365. IL329. IV. 71. Mrs. M. Young's patent for teaching music.
Cavalloon temperament. Ph. tr. 1788. 238. Repert. XVI. 9.

VOL. II.
'
N n
27* CATALOGUE. ^-ACUSTICS, MUSICAL INSTR.UME N

Musical Instrumtnts. Wehmann's harpsichord. A. P. 1759. H. 241 ."

Laborde Clavecin electrique. 12. Par. 1761.
Mersenne Harnionie univeiselle. A play thing.
Kircheri musurgia ct pbonurgia.
Legay's keyed instrument with harp strings.
Schotti niechanica hydraulicopneumatica. 4.
A. P. 1762. H. 191.
Wurzb. 16.57.
Berger's organized harpsichord. A. P. 1765.
Carre on musical instruments. A. P. 1702. H. 138.
H. 136.
Vireboy's harpsichord. A. P. 1766. H. I61.
Miller's harmonic gate. Ac. Sienna. II.
Joubert's organized vielle. A. P. 1768. H.
132.
130.
E. M. A. IV. Art. Instrumens demusique.
Gosset's division of the finger board. A. P.
Cavallo. N. Pli. JI. 384,
1769. H. 131.
The note A was found by experiment to consist of 10?
. .

vibrations in a second. Lepine's pianoforte. A. P.'l77'2.'i. H.

The A of the progressive temperament, derived from Sau- A pianoforte. E. M. A. VII. Supplement.
veur's pitch, consists of 106^, which agrees within the pos- M. Young on the harp 6f Eolus. Y. on sound.
sible limits of error.
Nich.IlI.310.

Bagatella regole per la costruzione de' viohni.

Pad. 1786.
Stringed Instruments. A prize essay.
Roberts on the trumpet marine. Ph. tr. 1693. Am.
Hopkinson on quilling a harpsichord.
XVII. 559. tr. II. 185.
Lahire on the trumpet marine. A. P. IX. Perolle on the resonance of musical instru-
330. ments. M.Tur. 1790. V. Corr. 195. Nich.
Molyneuxou the. ancient Ijre. Ph. tr. 1703. I. 411.
XXIII. 1267. Against Maupertuis.
Marius's harpsichords. Mach. A. I. 193. A. Fowke on the Indian lyre. As. Res. I. 295.
P. 1716. H. 77. Mach.A. III. 89.
Marius's pianoforte. Mach. A. III. 83, 85,
Drums.
87.
Cuisinier's harpsicliord. Mach. A. II. 155.
E. M. M. III. Art. Tambour.
Riceati. Ac. Pad. I.
Cuisinier's harpsichord or vielle. A. P. 1734.
H. 105.
Elastic Instruments.
-f-Maupfertuis on the form of musical instru-
ments. A. P. 17'^4. 215. H. 90. Franklin's harmonica. A. P. 1773. H. 8i.
Thevenart's sinj^le stringed harpsichord. A. On the harmonica. Roz. VII. 462.
P. 1727. H. 142. A. Mach. A. V. 11. Golovin on the theory of the harmonica. A.
Bellot's harpsichord. A. P. 1732. H. 118. Petr. 1781. V.ii. 176.
Levoir's harpsichord. A. P. 1742. H. 146. Bells. E. M. A. I. Art. Cloches.
Mach. A. Vn. 183. Dcudon's harmonica. Roz. XXXIK. 183.

Domenjoud's head for viohns. A. P. 1756. Laiande on the weight of bells. Journ. Phys.
II. 130. XLIV.(I.)85.
 CATALOGUE, — ACUSTICS, SPEECH. 275

of glass. A. Godfry's patent banel organs with a tabor

Burja on musical instruments
Berl. 1796 3. i-.
and pipe. Kepert. XV. 36l.

fBeyer on the chord. Journ. Phys.

Cliladiii's euphon. Ph. M, 11. 315, 391. glass
Made of glass cylinders. XLVIII. 408.
Cliludni's clavicylinder. Gilb. IV. 494. On silk strings. Nich. I. 328;
Ludicke's micrometer for wires. Gilb. I. 137.
Becker's patent harps. Repert. XVI. 146.
AVind Instruments..
Making the half notes by a change of tension.

Roberts on the trumpet. Ph.tr. 1693. XVII. Bemetzrieder's patent pianoforte. Repert. ii.

559.
in. 324. .

*Sauveur on the composition of organ pipes. Langguth's Eolian harp. Gilb. XV. 305.
Robison. Enc. Br. Siippl. Art. Pianoforte,
A. P. 1702. 308. H.90.
Miirius's organ, willi bellows to each pipe. Trum})et.
Euler's clavichord produced the twelfth of each string
Mach. A. III. 91.
Aat was it into three parts and had a very
struck, dividing ;

Organ. Emerson's mech. f. 313. sweet tone. Robison.

*Bidos Art du facteur d'orgues. f. Par;

176G 1778.
. . Voice and SpeecK;
Ace. A. P. 1767. H. 180.
C. Organs of the Human Voice.
Meister on the antient hydraulum. iN.

Gott. 1770. II. 152. *Dodart on the human voice. A. P. 1700.

With good figures. 244. H. 17. 1706. 136, 388. 1707. 66. H.
Steele on nmsical instruments from the South 18.
Seas. Ph. tr. 1775. 67. *.Perrein on the human voice. A. P. 1741.

EiisramcUe Tonotechnie. 8. Par. 1775. 409. H. 51.

On hand organs. Vieq d' Azyr on the organs of voice. A. P.
Lambert on flutes. A. Berl. 1775. 13. 1779. 178. H. 5.
Halle Kunst des orgelbaues. 4. Brandenb.
1779. Speech,

Trumpets. E. M. PI. I. Chaudronnier. PI. 4. //oMd?''* elements of speech. 8. Lond. I669.

Organs. ^E. M. PI. III. Luthi^r. Ace. Ph. tr. 1669. IV. 958.
E. M. PI. III. FbssjMS de poematum cantu. 8. Oxf. 1673.
Bagpipes have drones with reed mouth pieces. Ace. Ph. tr. 1673. VIII. 6024.
Pini pantaulo. 8. Milan, 1783. R. S, Amman de loquela.

Fitzgerald's patent signal trumpet. Repert. Lodvvick's universal alphabet. Ph. tr. 1686.
XI. 100. XVI. 126.
For conveying the sound of
Byrom on Lodwick's universal alphabet. Ph.
d, pistol.

Close on the properties of wincT'instruments. tr. 1748. XLV. 401.

Nich. V. 213. Debrosses Formation mecanique des langiies.

Longman's patent barrel organs. Repert. Steele on the melody and measure of speech*
XIV. 367. 4. 1779- K., S.
For a more steady connexion of the parts. Good theory, but bad declamation.
2176
CATALOGUE. — ACUSTICS, SPEECH.

Class 6. Explosive letters consist of a vocal

*Kratzenstein Tentaraen coronatum de voce.
Kratzenstein on the imitation of the
human sound, stopped in its passage.
H. l6. Class 7. Susurrant or whispering letters
voice. A. Petr. 1780. IV. ii.

Made pipes imitating

the vowels. have no vocal sound, but are capable of being
*Kratzenstein on the vowels, Roz. XXI. continued.

358. Class 8. Mute letters have no vocal sound,

Figures of the
different pipes. and are incapable of being sounded alone or
the variety of voices. Manch. M.
Gough on continued.
V.58.
Deduces the variety of tones
from different combinations Class 1. Pure vowels."
of imperfect unisons. E. The tongue and lips
in their most na-
Manch. M.V. 650.
Goiigh on ventriloquism. tural position, without exertion.
Mich. 8.TI. 122. V. 247- A. The tongue drawn backwards, and a
of sound.
Attributes the effect to the reflection the passage
IV. upwards, so as to contract
little
Nicholson on ventriloquism. Nich. 8.
immediately above the larynx.
202. V. 247.
0. The contraction of the mouth greatest
that the effect is in general only a fallacy.
Shows
innnediately under the uvula.
The lips must
N. Ph. I.
Gibbon's life, quoted by Cavallo.
« about two English words be also somewhat contracted.
A rapid orator pronounces
.in

below the
a second." h U.^The contraction continued
whole of the soft palate.

A Description of Articulate Sounds, with Ap- 1. contraction formed by bringing the

The
Characters. the bony pa-
propriate tongue nearly into contact with
late.
Classes of Letters.
From these principal vowels all others may
Class 1. Pure vowels consist of a vocal be deduced by considering them as partaking
sound formed in the larynx, not interrupted
more or less of the nature of each, accordingly
and nor in any
by the tongue lips, passing as theyare situated nearer to them in this
the nose.
degree through scheme.
of a vocal
Class 2. Nasal vowels consist O
sound, passing without interruption through
both the mouth and the nose. a
of a vo-
Class S. Pure semivowels consist
in its passage, yet
cal sound, much impeded
of being not passing V
capable prolonged,

through the nose.

consist of a vo-
Class 4. Nasal semivowels
and passing
cal sound, stopped in the mouth,
the nose.
only through
consist of a
Class S. Mixed semivowels
Class 2. Nasal vowels.
vocal sound, much impeded
in its passage
The nasal vowels are derived from the pure
and passing partly through
through the mouth, so as to
vowels by lowering the soft palate
xbe nose.
 CATALOGUE. ACUSTICS, SPEECH. %n
suffer the sound to pass in part
through the Class 5. Mixed semivowels.
nose they may
: be marked by the same V. The
passage of the mouth is very nearly
characters as denote the pure vowels, with the closed by the approach of the base of the
addition of the grave accent. tongue to the soft palate.

Class 3. Pure semivowels. Class f).

Explosive letters.

L. Tlie point of the tongue is pressed B, D, G. The tongue is

placed as in M,
against the palate, the sound escapes laterally. N, n, respectively.

A. The point of the tongue is brought very Class 7. Susurrant letters.

near to the palate, but the contact is closer a H. The breath is forced through the mouth,
little behind the point, the sound still
escaping which is
every where a little contracted.
further back. F, 0, X, S, 2. Differ from V, A, r, Z, J,
n. The point and middle of the tongue respectively, only in the absence of the vocal
press against the palate, the sound escaping sound.
at the base, but not without Class 8. Mutes.
difficulty.
R. The middle and point of the tongue P, T, K, are distinguished from B, D, G,
strike the palate with a
vibrating motion, the by the absence of the sound formed in the
point being drawn back. larynx.
r. The point of the tongue is drawn back-
ward, and is brought very near to the palate, Examples, with the mode of writing the
but without a distinct vibration. words in these characters.
V. The lower lip presses on the upper a window. E.aE MAN,
I.E.Theman, eye,
teeth. E UiNDE.
EI. Le, repos. Fr. LE, REPO.
A. The tongue presses against the upper
2. A. Father. E. FAAEr.
teeth.
r. The middle of the tongue is
brought 3. a. Ame, femme. Fr. M, FaM. Dank.
nearly into contact with the palate, the point
G. D«nK.
being a little depressed. n.
4. All, not, joy, owl. E. ilL, NiiT>
Z. The point of the tongue is
brought DJii/, aUL.
nearly into contact with the upper teeth, the 5. a. Homme de robe. Fr.aMDERaB
air being forced against the edges of the 6. O. Old. E. OLD. Eaux. Fr.O.
teeth with violence.
7. s. Jeu, oeil, Fr. Je, sIa.
J. The forced with violence against
air is
8. to. Jeux, noeuds. Fr. Jcu. Nw.
the teeth, being first confined between the
9. u. But, shut. E.
BuT,2uT.
tongue and palate immediately behind the 10.U.Toofull.E.TUFUL. Vous, Fr. VU.
upper teeth. 11. y. Lugen. G. LurEN.
Class 4. Nasal semivowels. Une
12. T. laitue. Fr. tN LETt! In
M. The passage of the mouth is closed Norfolk and in Devonshire the English U is

by the lips. sometimes pronounced T.

N. The passage of the mouth is closed by 13. I. Ye see. E. d SI. Ici. Fr. ISI.
the point of the tongue. 14. 1.
Lip. E. L?P. Mit. G. Mj'T. When
n. The passage of the mouth is closed by '
is
lip' lengthened in singing, it does not be-
the middle of the tongue. '
come leap.'
 2/8 CATALOGUE. ACUSTICS, SPEECH.

15. e^ Hate. E, HeT. Nez, eclat. Fr. Ne, 0x0. The Scotch give this sound to gh Ire
'
eKLa. night.'
44. S. Sing. E. Sin. Sage. Fr. SAJ.
]G. c.^Met, pen. E. McT, PcN. Gl^be.
GLcB, PcN, PcR. 45. 2. Shun. E. ^uN. Chou. Fr. 2U.-
peine, pere. Fr.
17. 5). Bleme, seize, mes, mets, mais. Fr.
Mucho. .Sp. MUT2O.
BL^IM, SvjZ, M:,, M,,, M,.
46. P. Pump. E. PuMP. Peur. Fr. PgR.
18. a. An, camp, tems. Fr. a, Ka, Ta. 47. T. Tongue. E. Tun. Tout. Fr. TU.

Mon nom. Fr. Mo N6. 48. K. Call. E. KfiL. Courir. Fr. KURIR.
19. 6.
20. \ Unparf'um, iijeun. Fr. s PaRFE,aj£\ SPECIMEN.
21. u. The Erse term for a calf is ITuE, as

pronounced in llossshire.
HlJcN LaV Lt iJ^MEN STlJPS TE
22. ^. Main, cheniin. M^\ 2EM^\ Fau,
23. L. Love. E. LuV. Loi. Fr. LU^ END FEjNDZ TU LTT AET McN
_24. A. Fille. Fr. FlA. Ciglio It. TslAlO.
_B2Tre?,
25. n. Llangollen. W. HANGiineN. iHUilT TSArM KEN SUA Her
26. R. Rouge. Fr. RUJ. The Scotch
McLENKnLt ?
and Irish give this sound to the Knglish r.

27. r. Round, under. E. rriUND. iHliirT_ArT KEN UEP HEr GiLT

Eue? ?
uNDEr.
28. V. Vow. E. VnU. Vous. Fr. VU. Some would read' in the first line TU,
29. A.
Though. E. aO. The S of the and not TE.
modern Greeks.
30. r. Sagen. G. ZarEN. Gemir. Sp. Teaching the Deqf^
reMIR. Wallis on teaching the deaf to speak. Ph. tr»

31. Z. Zeal. E. ZLL. Oser. Fr. Oze. 1698. XX. 353.

32. J.
Measure, judge. E. McJEr, Amman Surdus loquens.
DJuDJ. Juge. Fr.jTJ. Ernaud on the deaf and dumb. S. E. V. 233.
33. M. Man. E. MAN. Mort. Fr. MaR. Pereire on conversing with the dumb. A. P.
34. N. Nine. E. NEeN. Nonne, Fr. NaN 1749. H..183..S. E. V. 500.
or NaNNE.. Pereire's machine for making the deaf speak..
35. n. Thank. E. 0AnK. Denken. G. A. P. 1750. H. 169.
DcnKEN or DcnKN. E. M. A. V. Art. Muets et Sourds.
36. V.
Regner. Fr. Rcye. *Fox oculis subjecta, with an account of
37. B. Bow. E. BO. Beau. Fr. BO. Braidwood's academy. 8. R. S.
38. D. Dark. E. DArK.Dame. Fr. DaM. Thornton on teaching the dumb to speak.
Am. tr. HI. 2G2.
39. G. Good. E. GUD. Gueux. Fr. Gw.
Sicard Graramaire pour les sourds muets.
40. H. Home. E. HOM. Hameau. Fr.
Paris.
H«MO.
41. F. Fall. E. FiiL.Foi. Fr.FUi,. Pectdiarities
of Speech.
42. 0. Think. E. OinK. Luz. Sp. LU©. .
Jussieu on speech without a tongue. A. P.
43. X. Nach. G. NaX. Ax, ojo. Sp. ax, 1718.6.
 CATALOGUE. — ACUSTICS, HISTORY OF ACUSTICS. 279

. Account of a woman who spoke fluently Vicq d'Azyr on the organs of voice. A. P.
without a vestige of a tongue. Ph. tr. 174'2. 1779. 178. H. 5.

143. Daubenton on the tracheae of birds. A. P.

Parsons's account of IM. Cutting, who had 1781.369. II. 12.

her tongue. Pir.

lost tr. 1747. 621. Ballanti on the organ of voice in animals.

Ph. M. IV. 214. C. Bon. VI. C. 50.

Maunoir and Paul observed, that hydrogen gas inspired Cuvicr on the voice of' birds. B. Soc. Pliil.
made their voices shrill. From Prevost's Journal. Per-
n. 15. Journ. Phys. I. 426.
haps ratlier harsh ftian shrill. Y.
Latham Trans. Linn. Soc.

Speaking Trumpet,
. Kirclier.
Instruments subservient to Music.
Moreland on the speaking trumpet. London, Loulie's sonometer. Mach. A. I. 187, I89.
1671. A monochord.
Ace. Ph. tr. 1671. VI. 3056. Sauveur's echometer. A. P. 1701. 317. H.
Conyers's improved speaking trumpet. Ph. 121.
A tabular instrument.
tr. 1677. XII. 1027.
With an internal tube.
Demotz's mode of writing music. A. P. 1726.
de tubis stentoreis. 4. Leipz. 1719.
J/a<2S2Ms H. 73.
*Lambert on some acustic instruments. A. 0ns en Bray's metrometer. A. P. 1732. 182.
For beating time.
Berl. 1763. 87.
Creed's proposal for a method of
E. M. PI. V. Marine. PI. XIII. writing vo-
luntaries. Ph.tr. 17't7.445.
Hassenfratz on speaking trumpets, Ann. Ch.
Sulzer's instrument for
Nich. IX. 233. writing voluntaries.
Considers the effect as similar to that of a trumpet, or of
A. Berl. 1771.538. Fig.
a reed organ pipe, and thinks that reflection is not con- L'z/gfrs entwurf einer maschine. 4. Brunsw.
cerned.
1774.
For writing voluntaries.
Voices of different Animals.
Burja Beschreibung eines zeitmessers. 8.
Duverney on the voice of the fowls. A. P.
Berl. 1790.
II. 4.
For measuring time.
On the organ of voice of the horse, ass, and Weisskens tactmesser, Leipz. 1790.
mule. Coll. Acad. VIII. App. 24. Montu's sonometer. Ph. M. XII. 187.
Herissant on the organs of voice in quadrupeds
and birds. A. P. 1753. 279. H. 107. His fori/ of Acustics.
Parsons on the windpipes of birds. Ph. tr.
Dodart on antient and modern music. A."]*.
1766. 204.
1706.388.
Bariington on singing birds. Ph. tr. 1773. Pepusch on the genera and species of music
249. the ancients. Ph.tr.
among 1 746. 266.
Camper on the organs of speech of the oran on the modes of the
Styles antients. Ph. tr.
outang. Ph. tr. 1779- 139-
1760. 695,
Observes, after Galen, that it is
impossible for these ani
mals to speak. But had they intellect sufficient, they might Burney on an infiint musician. Ph.tr. 1779.
certainly whisper. 183. ,
 280 CATALOGUE. — OPTICS IN GENERAL.

who " God »ave the King" at the age o^

Crotch, played Lthrgebaude der gaxizen optik. Alt. 1757.
2 years and 3 weeks. Emers. cyclomathesis. VI. Misc. 453.
jBurncy's history of. music. 4 v. 4. R.I. * Lambert Pholomeirla. 8.
Augsb. I76O. R.I.
Hawkins's history of mwsic. 5 v. 4. M.B. and
*Priestley's history present state of disco-
Dalberg on the music of the Hindoos. Ph. veries relating to vision, light, and colours.
M. II. 105.
Germ, by
4. London, 1772. R. I.
Kliigel.
Forkels Geschichte der musiii. 4.
4. Leipz. 1776.
J. Bernoulli on the problem of vibrating Harris's optics. 4. Lond. 1775. R. I.
chords. Hind. Arch. III. 266.
Boscovich opera pertinentia ad opticam et
Montucla and Lalande. IV. 644. astronomiam. 5 v. 4. Bassano, 1785. R.I.
Guide lived 1025; the present notes were introduced
Gothe Beytrage zur optik. 8 Weimar, 1792.
ta34 ; chimes were applied to bells at Alost 1487 ; Frank-
lin invented the harmonica 1760. Luckombe. Traite d'optique par les el^ves de I'^cole po-

lytechnique. 8. Par.
Haliy. Phys. II. 144.
OPTICS IN GENERAL.
Heliodorus de opticis. 4. Par. l657. M. B. Theorij of Dioptrics and Catoptrics.
,
Risneri opticae thesaurus, f. Bas. 1585. M.B. Euclidis optica. Gr. L. 4. Par. 1557.

Faulhaberi descriptio instrumentorum geo- Alhazen et Vitellio. f. Bale, 1572. M. B.

metriae et opticorum. 4. Frankf. I6IO. Kepleri paralipomena ad Viteilionem. 4.
De Dominis de radiis visus et lucis. 4. Vea. Frankf. l604. M. B.
1611. M.B. Xfp/eri dioptrica. 4. Augsb. I6II. M. B.
Rliodi OpUqae.S. I6l2. Descartes dioptrica. Opusc. II.
Eskinard's century of optical problems. I6l5. Barrow lectiones opticae. 4. Lond. I669.
Kircheri ars magna lucis et umbrae, f. Rom. Hugens and Slusius on the problem of Al-
1646. M. B. hazen. Ph. tr. 1673. VIII. 6119. 6140.
Zucchii optica philosophia. 1652. M. B. *Hugenii dioptrica. Op. rel. II.

J. Gregom optica promota. Lond. 1663.M.B. Halley on the foci of optical glasses. Ph. tr^

*Grimaldi physicomathesis de lumine. 4. Bo- I6y3. XVII. 960.

logna, 1665. M.B. Hartsoeker Essai de dioptrique. 4. Par. I694.

Ace. Ph. tr. I67I. VI. 3068. * M. B.
elementa. 8.
Ph. tr. abr. I. iii. 128. IV. ii. 173. Vl.ii. 110. Gregorii catoptrices et dioptrices
VIII. ii. 111. X. ii. 29.
Oxf. 1695. M. B.

*Newton's Lond. 1701. Ace. Ph. tr. 1696. XIX. 214.

optics. 4.

Bouguer Trait6 d'optique. Par. 1729. En- Gregory's elementsof catoptrics and dioptrics.
M. B. 8. 1735.
larged. 17^0.
Newtonianismo per le donne. 4. Picard's fragmentsof dioptrics. A.P. VII. 335.
Napl. 1737.
By Algarotti.
Liihire on the caustic of a circle. A. P. IX.
iSffji^A's optics. 4. Cambr. 1738. R. I. Germ. 294, 303.
by Kastner. 4. Altenb. 1755. L'Hopital on caustics by refraction. A.
P. X.
Courtivron Trait^ d'optique. 260.
Ace. A. P. 1752. H. 131. Carre's rectification of caustics by reflection.

Im Caille lecliones opticae. 4. Vienn. 1757. A. P. 1703. 183. H. 69.

 CATALOG UE. OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. 281

Carre's abridgement of catoptrics. A. P. Lagrange's dioptrical formulae. M. Taur.

1710. 46. H. 112. III. ii. 152. A. Berl. 1778. l62.

Guisnee on the focus of lenses. A. P. 1704. Boscovich on the improvement of dioptrics.

24. H. 76. C. Bon. V. i. O. 169.
RoUe on foci. A. P. 1706.284. .Boscow'cA Dissertationcs dioptricae. 4. R.S.
Ditton theorema catoptricum universale. Ph. Meister on the effect of oil swimming on wa-
tr. 1705. XXIV. 1810. ter. Commentat. Gott. 1781. I. 35.

Krafft on a catoptrical problem. C. Petr. V. KlUgeh analytischedioptrik. 4. Leipz. 1778.

82. Wales's example of a tentative calculation

Krafft on the caustic of the cycloid. C. Petr. in Alhazen's problem. Ph. tr. 1781.472.

VII. 3. Gr. Fontana on refraction. Soc. Ital. III.

Krafft on the image of a point. C. Petr. 498.

XII. 243. Fuss on the caustic of a parabola. N. A.
Krafft on foci. N. C. Petr. II. 39. Petr. 1790. VIII. 182.

Mairan on anaclastics. A. P. 1740. 2. M. Young on Newton's theorem for aberra-

Kaestner on the aberrations of lenses. C. tion. Ir. tr. IV. 171.

Gott. I. 185. II. 183. Mallet on the construction of problems con-
Kaestner on Alhazen's problem. N. C. Gott. cerning refraction. Schw. Abh. XII. 238.
1776. VII. 92. Biirja on lenses not spherical. A. Berl. 1797.
tables of sines and tangents. ii. 3.
Employ!

on refraction. Schw. Abh. BUrja on the track of hght in a prism. A.

Klingeiistierna
Berl. 1798. 3.
1754. 300.
Halistrbm on refraction. Gilb. III. 235. VI.
Klingenstierna on aberration. Schw. Abh.
431.
1760. 79.
On the place of the image of a mirror. Nich.
*Klingenstierna de aberrationibus luminis in
VII. 71.
superficiebus sphaericis. Ph. tr. 1760.
Klingenstierna gives for the lens of least aberration
944. a
— —
_(r+4—
Th — —— —TT> " ^nd
2rrOd-H2rr+r)e
Klingenstierna de aberrationibus luminis. 4. +4— ° the and
7 7~. :; ^ 7~, : being first
(r 2rr)e+(2rr+r)d
y*etersb. 1762. second radii, r the index of refraction, i the focal distance

Redern on A. Berl. 1759, 1760 of incident, and t of refracted rays ; this expression, when
dioptrics.
1761. r=:jand d=<», becomes { when r=:i680, — ,oraplano-
Maskelyne's theorem for spherical aberra-
convex.
tion. Ph.tr. 1761. 17. See Telescopes.
Euler on the confusion of dioptric glasses. A.
Berl. 1761. 1762.
Optical Instruments in general.
Euler on vision through spherical
segments. Lehrgebaiide der ganzen optik. Altona, 1 757,
N. C. Petr. XI. 185. D. de Chaulnes's dioptrical experiments. A.
Euleri^dioptrice. Petersb. 1771. P. 1767. 423. H. 162.
Ace. A. P. 1765. 555. H. 124. Fontana's account of the Grand Duke's ca-
Euler. N. C. Petr. XVIII. binet. Roz. IX. 41. . .

Supersedes his dioptrics. Klugel. E. M. PI. VIII. Amusemens d'optique.

VOL. II.
o o
282 CATALOGUE. — OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS.
Photometers. Catoptric Instruments,
Bouguer Traite d'optique. Account of Vilette's concave, 30 inches in
B'ougueron the measurement of light. A. P. diameter, 3 feet focus. Ph. tr. 1665 — 6. I.

1757. 1 H. 145. 95.

Celsius on the measure of light. A. P. 1735. Vilette's second concave of metal, 34 inches
H.5. in diameter. Ph. tr. 1669.IV. 986.
Confirms Bouguet's estimate of the moon's light as
A speculum 3 Leipzig ells in diameter, of
15^ of 'hat of the sun.
*Lanibert Photometria. 8. R.I. thin copper plate. Ph. tr. I686. XVI.
Nux's mode of determining the magnitude of 352.

the stars. A. P. 1762. H. 135. Not very good.

By viewing them through semitransparent substances of •j-Gray on specula nearly parabolic, Ph, tr,
diflPerent thicknesses.
1697. XIX. 787.
Priestley's o[)tics, vi. §. 7.
In the form of the catenaiia.
Fontaiia on the measurement of light. Soc.
Ital. I. in. Lagarouste on a burning mirror. A. P. I.

276.
Count Humford's photometer. Ph. tr. 1794.
Lahire on the multiplication of images by
67. Rcpert. IV. 255.
Leslie's hotometer. Nich. Ill, 46l, 518. plane glasses. A. P. 1699- 75. H. 86.
i

Glib. V. 286. Leupold Anamorphosis nova. 4. Leipz. 1713.

. A thermometer. Harris and Desaguliers on Vilette's concave,
47 incliesindiameter, 38 inches focus. Ph.
Measurement of Refractive Powers, tr. 1719. XXX. 976.
Clairaut on the measurement of refrangibility,
They say, that it burnt less powerfully when it grew hot.
A. P. 1756.408. Perhaps for the same reason as Herschel's glasses transmitted
Martin's optics. more heat when they were hot, and reflected less,

Euler on the examination of refraction by

Dufay's catoptrical experiments. A, P. 1726.
prisms. A. Berl. 1766. 202. 165. H. 47.
Due de Ch;iulnes. A. P. 1767. 423. H. 162. Obsenes how much culinary heat is intercepted by glass.

v. §. 8. c. 2.
Priestley's optics, Leutinann's anamorphosis. C. Petr. IV. 202.
Venturi on measuring dispersion. Soc. Ital.
Cal. Smith's glass speculums. Ph. tr. 1739-
III. 268. XLI.
Rochon Recueil de m6moires sur la meca- Newton's paper on a reflecting instrument
nique et la physique. Mem. sur la mesure
like Hadley's. Ph. tr. 1742. 155.
de la dispersion et de la refraction.
Speculums. Smith's optics, iii. c. 2.
His diasporometer is a compound prism.
Chateau Blanc's reflecting lamps. A. P. 1744.
*Wollaslon's mode of examining refractive
H, 62. Mach.A.VII. 273.
and dispersive powers. Ph. tr. 1802. 365.
Cassiui on burning mirrors. A. P. 1747. 25.
Nich, 8. IV, 89.
H. 113.

Measurement of Transparency. Courtivron's comparison of plane and spheri-

Murhard on Saussure's diaphanometer, for cal mirrors. A. P. 1747. 449. H. 117.

Ph. Needham on Buffon's mirror, burning at the

measuring the transparency of the air.

M. III. 377. distance of 66 feet Fr. Ph. tr. 1747, 493.

 CATALOGUE. — OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. a 83

Kicolini on Buffon's mirror. Ph. tr. 1747. Miroirs de metal. VI. 742. Reflecting
Composed of 108 plane mirrors each 6 inches square ; lamps.
burning wood at the distance of 1 50 feet ; melting a silver E. M. Physique. Art. Ardent.
plate at 10 feet.
Edwards on metal for speculums. Nautical
BufFon's account of his burning speculum.
almanac. 1787. Nich. HI. 490. Gilb. Xll.
Ph. tr. 1748. 504.
167.
It was 6 feet broad and of the same height ; burnt wood
Sickingen on platina.
at the distance of aoo feet, melted tin and lead at 120, silver
Recommends 6 parts platina, 3 iron, and 1
gold. Lich-
at so'.
tcnb. in Erxleb.
Parsons on the burning instrument of Archi- Rochon on platina. Gilb. IV. 282.
medes. Ph. tr. 1754. 621.
Klaproth on an ancient mirror. A. Berl.
Lievreville's reflecting lamps. A. P. 1759-
1797. 14.
H. 234. Copper 62, tin 32, lead 6.
Zeiheron burning mirrors. N.C. Petr. VII. On Descharmes's art of soldering glass.
237. Journ. Phys. XLIX. 305. Gilb. V. 232.
On mirrors. Abat Amusemens philosophiques. Bernard on the manufactory of looking glasses.
1763. Montucia and Lalande. HI. 554. II. 71. Repert. X. 351.
Journ. Polyt.
Reflecting lamps. Art du Vitrier. Paris,
f. ii.
Beiard's photophorus. Melanges. 1.
224.
Benzetiberg on speculums. Gilb. XII. 496.
Wolfe de speculis Dni. Hoesen. Ph. tr. Herschel on the action of mirrors. Ph. tr.

1769. 4. 1803. 214. Nich. 8. V. 304.

They are made of brass plates, fined on wood of a para- See Radiant Heat.
bolic form ; one 9 Dresden feet 7 inches in diameter, 4 feet
in focus the diameter of the focus being not more than
;
Lenses.
half an inch. Melted in Hoffman's experiments a large
nail in 3', a pistole in 2'. Hoffman used the two opposite
Son's parabolic glasses. Ph. tr. 1665 — 6. I.

each other, as Dufay had done before and Pictet has done 119.
since. They reflected very powerfully the heat of a strongly Smethwick's lenses not spherical. Ph. tr.

heated stove. 2 Sept. 1768. 1668. 111.631.

Lambert on portelumieres. A. Berl. 1770. 51. On grinding glasses on a plane. Ph. tr. 1668.
Cones of tin for directing light. . HI. 837.
On speculum metal. Roz. Introd. I. 433. Wren's mode of grinding hyperbolic glasses.
Alut on looking glasses. Roz. III. 328. Ph. tr. 1669. IV. 1059.
Kaestner on the multiplication of images in Two cylinders revolving in contact across each otherj be-
come hyperbolic cylindroids, and form the glass revolving
looking glasses. Dissert, ii. 8.
below them into a hyperbolic conoid.
Kaestner on the magnitude of images in a
Cheruhin Dioptrique oculaire. f. Paris, 1 67 1 .

spherical mirror. N. C. Gott, 1777. VIII.

Ace. Ph. tr. 1671. VI. 3045.
06.
Butterfield on making glass globules. Ph. tr.
Mudge on the composition and formation of
1677. XII. 1026.
speculums. Ph. tr. 1777- 296. Of pounded on a pin, in the flame of a spirit
glass held
CastiUon on conductors of light. A. Berl.
lamp with a wick of wire.
1777. 42. Borelli on finding the focns of an object glass.
E. M. A. V. Art. Metal blanc. Miroitier. A. P. X. 457.
284 CATALOGUE. — OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS.

Compares the focal image formed by oblique rayj to the On a spherometer for
measuring lenses. Roz.
profile of Saturn with his ring. VII. 484. Fig. VIII. 398.
Lahire on centering lenses. A. P. 1699. 139. Bunows's machine for grinding glass. Bai-
H. 86. ley's mach. I. 142.
Borrichius on burning glasses three or four E. M. A. IV. Art. Lunettier.
feet in diameter. A. P. 1699- II. 90. Water lens. E. M. A. VI. 733.
Tschirnhaus's large lens, of 32 feet focus. A. Canterzani on grinding lenses. C. Bon. VI.
P. 1700. H. 131. O. 382.
Parent on a tool for hyperbolic glasses. A. P. Achard on A. Berl. 1788. 14.
optical glass.
1702. H.92. 1790. 40.
Cassini on centering glasses. A. P. 1710. Enc. Br. Art. Burroughs's machine. Glass po-
223.
lishing, Lens.
Homberg on the ancient burning glasses. A. Diek Anvveisung vergrosserungsgl'aser zu
P. 1711. H. 16. schleifen. Hamb. 1793.
Bianchini and Reaumur's stipport for large Macquer on Repert. VII. 211.
flint glass.

lenses. A. P. Globules for microscopes. Nich. I. 131.

1713.299^
Hertel on grinding lenses. M. Berl. III. On optical glass. Nich. I. 180.
146, On achromatic lenses. Nich. II. 233.
Noilet's machine for grinding lenses. Mach. Benzenbergon the improvement of flint glass.
A. VI. 127. Gilb. XI. 255.

Deparcieux's machine for grinding glasses. Dr. Benzenberg warmly recommends, that the
glass be
A. P. 1736. H. 120. Mach. A. Vil. 50. to cool in the pots without
suflFered
stirring, and that the

Jenkins's machine for mass be then divided in a horizontal direction, so that the
grinding spherical
variation of density be regular, and then, by a
may
lenses. Ph.tr. 1741. XLI. 555. proper
form of the glasses, the errors of refraction may be correct-
A cup and ball both revolving.
ed. The idea is not new, but it does not appear to have
Short's method of working object glasses truly been carried into practice. Dr. Benzenberg considers
Ph. tr. 176y. 507. achromatic telescopes as promising much more than reflect-
spherical.
Delivered sealed 1753. ors, and thinks that they intercept much less
light.
The dishes in which lenses are sometimes ground are of
Zeiher on burning lenses. N. C. Petr. VII.
bell metal ; the emery is
prepared by elutriation. The large
237.
clumps now used for lamps are first formed in hemispheri-
Euler on polishing lenses. N. C. Petr. VIII. cal ladles This mode was proposed by Gessner in 1726.
254.
For preserving the form.

Euler on optical glasses. A. Berl. 1761. 107, Optical Scenery.

147.1762. 117, 195. Hook on forming on a wall. Ph. tr.
pictures
Antheaulme on polishing object glasses. S. E. 1668. III. 741.
VI. 465. Noilet's camera obscura. Mach. A. VI. 125.
Libaudeon making flint glass. S. E. 1773. Euler's improved magic lantern and solar
Cadet and Brisson onTrudaine's lens. A. P.
microscope. N. C. Petr. III. 363,
1774. 62. H. 1.
fStorer's patent delineator, Repert. IV. 239.
Made of plate glass bent, with 1 40 pints of spirit of wine. A camera obscura.
 CATALOGUE. — OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. 285

On the phiintasmagoria. Montucla and La- 323. 1761. 191, 201. 1764. 10.5, ll7. N.
lande. III. 551. C. Petr. XII. 195, 224.
Nicholson on the phantasmagoria. Nich. 5. Wideburg de raicroscopio solari. Erlang.
I. 147. 1755.
PhiHpsthal's patent phantasmagoria. Rep. Widtburg Beschreibung eines sonnenmikro-
XVI. 303. scops. Nuremb. 1758.
R. B.'s perspective instrument. Nich. IX. Aepinus's solar microscope. N. C. Petr. IX.
122. 316.
Panorama. See Vision, Aerial perspective. For opaque objects.

Com- Aepinus on an achromatic microscope. N.

Microscopes, Simple and A. Petr. II. 1784. H. 41.
pound. Aepinus Description des nouveaux micro-
*//ooA:e's Mi crograp hi a. f. Lend. l6G5. R.I.
scopes. 8. Petr.
Ace. Ph. tr. 1665. I. 27. Zeiher's doul)ie solar microscope for opaque
On a microscope of Fabri. Ph. tr. 16G8. [II.
objects. X. 299-
N. C. Petr.
842. Stiles on some microscopes made at Naples.
Leeuwenhoek's microscopes. Ph. tr. 1673.
Ph. tr. 1765. 246.
VIH. 6037.
These globules were made by F&ther Latorre, one of them
on microscopes of water. Ph. tr. 1696.
•f-Gray
XIX.
was ^of an inch in diameter, magnifying 2500 times.
280, 353, 539. Describe!, among many other objects, the globules of the.
Some of the images thus seen are shadows. Y.
blood, as articulated rings.

Huygeus on a microscope. A. P. X. 427.

Baker's report of Latorre's globules. Ph. tr.
Wilson's description of his pocket micro-
1766. 67.
scopes. Ph.tr. 1702.
XXin. 1241.
Found them uselesi.
Adams on microscopes. Ph. tr. 1710.
Baker on microscopes, 2 v. 8. 1785. R. I.
XXVII. 24.
D. de Chaulnes's dioptrical experiments. A.
Globules.
P. 1767.423. H. 162.
Folkes on Leeuwenhoek's microscopes. Ph.tr.
1723. XXXII. n. 380.
Selva's catoptric microscope. A. P. 1769. H..
Baker's catoptric microscope. Ph. tr. 1736. 129-

XXXIX. 442. Dallebarre's microscope. A. P. 1771. H.

Like the Gregorian telescope. Datlebarre Memoire sur le
microscope.
Baker on Leeuwenhoek's microscopes. Ph. R.S.
1r. 1740. XLI. 503. Gltichen vom sonnenmikroscop. 4. Nuremb.
The deepest Jj of an inch focal length. A Wilson's micro- 1781.
scope made by
Cuff for Folkes, had a lens of i^. Account
Beguelin's remark on Aepinus's microtele-
of Lieberkuhn's opaque and solar microscope, p. 518.

anatomical scope. A. Berl. 1784. H. 46.

Lieberkuhn's microscope. A.
Ph. tr. 1785. See Telescopes.
Berl. 1745. 14.
Ramsden applied to his pyrometer a microscope calcu-
Euler's solar microscope. N. C. Petr. III.
lated foran equable enlargement of the image. The mi-
363.
croscopes that he at first applied to Roy'$ theodolite were
Euler on microscopes. A. Berl. 1757. 283, afterwards much improved.
QS6 CATALOGUE. OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS.

Enc. Br. Art. Microscope. Derham on Gascoigne's telescopic sights.

distance's machine for preparing sections Ph. ir. 1717. XXX.603.
of plants for microscopical inspection. Hadley's account of a catadioptric telescope.
Ph. M. HI. 302. Ph. tr. 1723. XXXI1.303.
A Newtonian telescope 5^ feet long, equal to one of Hu-
Adams on the microscope, by Kanmacher.
gens of 123 feet.
4.Lond. 1798.
Pound on Hadley's telescope. Ph. tr. 1723.
Microscopes of varnish. Ferguson's lectures,
XXXII. 382.
by Brewster.
Mairan's jacks for telescopes. Mach. A. V. 31 .
The eyepiece of a telescope makes a good solar micro-
Robison, Smith's optics.
scope.
Caleb Smith on catadioptrical telescopes
with glass speculums. Ph. tr. 1740. XLI.
Telescopes.
326.
Hooke, Auzout, and Campani on telescopes. From theory only.

Ph. tr. 1665—6. I. 2, 55, 56, 63, 68, 74, Le Maire's reflecting telescope. Mach. A.
131, 123, 203. A. P. VII. part. 2. i. VI. 61.
Like Dr. Herschel's.
Newton's new telescope. Ph. tr. 1672. VII.
ConstructioJi d'un telescope par reflexion. 8.
4004, n032. Birch. III. 2, 5.
Newton's remavks on Cassegrain's telescope. Amst. 1741.

Ph. tr. 1672. VII. 4051. Euler on/telescopes and object glasses. A.
Thinks Cassegrain's telescope no improvement on Gre- Berl. 1747.274. 1757.283,323. 1761. 107,

gory's. 147, 181,201,212. 1762. 117, 143, 185,

Hugens's aerial telescope. Ph. tr. 1684, 195, 226, 249. 1764. 200. 1766. 119, 171.
XIV. 668. M. Taur. III. ii. 60, 90. A. Berl. 1767.
Hugens on Newton's telescope. A. P. X. 131. N. C. Petr. XII. 195, 224. XVIII.
351. 377 .. .

telescopic level. A. P. X. 439. Kratzenstein on the

Huygens's management of long
Molineux on the telescope with four glasses. tubes. N. C. Pelr. I. 291.
Ph. tr. 1686. XVI. 169. Kratzenstein and Euler on the iconantidip-
Gray on telescopes. Ph. tr. l697. XIX. tic telescope. A. Petr. III. i. 192, 201.
5S9. Hertel Anweisung telescopia zu verfertigen.
Lahire on colours seen in telescopes. A. P. 8. Halle, 1747.
IX. 390. Kaestner on the aberration of lenses. C.Gott.
Lahire's telescopes without tubes. A. P. See Theory of Dioptrics.
1715. 4. J. Dollond on an improvement of refracting
Borellion large telescopes. A. P. X. 393. telescopes. Ph.tr. 1753. 103.
Cassini on telescopic glasses. A. P. X. 492. Adding a sixth lens.
Perrault's mirror for a telescope. Mach. A. Dollond and Euler on chromatic corrections.
1.35. Ph. tr. 1753. 287.
Sebastian's machine for a telescope of 100 *Dollond on the different
refrangibility of
feet. Mach. A. I. 93. light. Ph. U. 1758. 733.
 CATALOGUE. — OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. 287

KliDgenstierna on refraction. Schw. Abh. Cotes's theorem.

1754. 300. Boscovich on achromatic glasses. C. Bon. V.

ii. 265. Germ. 8. Vienn. 1765.
Clairaut on the improvement of telescopes.
A. P. 17o6. 380. H. 112. 1757. 524. H. Due de Chaulnes on achromatic lenses. A.
153. 1762. 578. H. 160. P. 1767.423. H. 162.
Finds the index of refraction of plate glass from 1.54 to Scherfer on dioptrical telescopes, by Hardy.
1.S6 : of flint 1.5S5 to l.flis ;
the dispersion of water 8. 1768.
equal to that of plate glass : thinks the colours dilTerently
Darquier on the focus of telescopes. S. E. V.
diatributed by different mediutns.
367.
Legentil on the aberration of light passing Zeiher de novis dioptricae 4.
augmentis.
through two lenses. A. P. 1757. 545. VVittenb. I768.
Legentil on binocular telescopes. A. P. 1787. Jeaurat on the refraction and dispersion of
401. Roz. XXXI. 3.
crown glass and flint glass, with tables
Recommending them.
for object glasses. A. P. 1770. 461. H.
"Redern on object glasses. A. Berl. 1759.
103.
89. 1760. 3. 1761. 3. Lambert on achromatic telescopes of one
J. A. Euler on object glasses with water. kind of glass. A. Berl. 1771. 338.
A. Berl. 1761.231. Rochon's achromatic telescope. A. P. 1773.
Beguelin on achromatic prisms. A. Berl. 299. Gilb. IV. 300.
1762. 66. Rochon on Ph. M. II.
reflecting telescopes.
Beguelin on the improvement of telescopes. 19. 170.
A. Berl. 1762.343. Navarre's telescope. A. P. 1778. H. 56.
Beguelin on telescopes. A. Berl. 1769- 1. Ftiss sur les telescopes. Germ, by Klugel. 4.
Beguelin on Aepinus's achromatic micro-
Leipz. 1778.
telescope. A. Berl. 1784. 11. 40.
Telescopic appearances of the stars. Her-
Murdoch on achromatic refraction. Ph. tr.
Ph. tr. 1782. 82.
schel.
1763. 173. Herschel on the magnifying powers of his
Defends Newton.
telescopes. Ph. tr. 1782. 173.
Fougeroux on Campani's object glasses. A.
Herschel on the front view of the reflecting
P. 1764.251. H. 169.
telescope. Ph. tr, 1786. 499.
P. Dollond on achromatic telescopes with
Herschel on the magnitude of the optic pen-
triple object glasses.
Ph. tr. 1765. 54.
cil. Ph. tr. 1786. 500.
D'Alembert on achromatic telescopes. A.
A of an inch was
pencil of j^ sufficient for distinct
P. 1764. 75. H. 175. 1765. 53. H. II9. vision with a high magnifying power. Suspects that the

1767. 43. H. 153. aperture ought to be in a certain ratio to the focal length,

D'Alembert Opuscules, vol. I. A. Berl. 1769. even in a large telescope.

254.
*Herschel on his forty feet telescope. Ph.
Acknowledges some mistakes of his own and of Clairaut. tr. 1795. 347.

Lagrange's dioptrical formulae. M. Taur. Herschel on darkening telescopes. Ph. tr

in. ii. 152. Mich. 8. 1. 224.

Lagrange on the theory of telescopes. A. Herschel on the action of mirrors. Ph. tr.

Berl. 1778. l62. 1803. 214. Nich, 8. V. 304.

288 CATALOGUE. — OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS.
Ilanisden on the eyeglasses of telescopes 4600, of the posterior 5740, the thickness 31 ; the distance
of the lenses 31, their aperture 937.
applied to mathematical instruments. Ph.
tr. 1783. 94. Kiligel Hind. Arch. II. 191.
Kliigel here gives, for the same refractive powers, in
Corrects the chromatic abeiration nearly in the manner
looooths of the focal length of the convex lens, the first
of Ealer and Boscovich, and proposes to remedy the cur-
radius 6943, the second 22712, the thickness
vature of the first image, by placing a planoconvex lens a 250, the
distance of the lenses 100, the focal length of the second
little beyond it, with the flat side towards it.
By complet-
14074, the first radius 14840, the second I8211, the thick-
ing the investigation; it will be found, that in order to pro-
ness 100, the joint focus 32058, the
aperture 321 6; and
duce the greatest effect, the distance of the first image from
this he says is correct at a considerable
the lens should be between a half and the whole of its ra- distance from the
axis,
dius ;
and in this case the centre of curvature of the mean
image formed by the lens will be about the length of the Burja. A. Berl. 1797. ii. 8.
ladiusbeyond Che lens, supposing it to have been at first a Thinks that where much light and a small field is
wanted,
plane. Thus, for an object glass of 2 feet focal lengch, the object glasses not spherical may be employed with advan-
radius of curvature of the mean image being about 9 inches, tage.
if the image be about 2 inches distant from a planoconvex
Burja on achromatic glasses. A. Berl.
lens of 4 inches radius, the effect of the curvature of a

circle of <S inches will be produced, which will make the 1798. 3.
mean image a little concave towards the eyeglass, as it Blair on achromatic Ed.
telescopes. tr. III.
ought to be. The radial focus is little affected by this 3. Nich. II. l.Gilb. VI. 129.
arrangement. Y.
Blair's patent
refracting telescopes. Repert
Adams's auzometer. Roz. XXII. 65. Fig. VII. 15.
For measuring the magnitude of the pencil of rays. *Robison, Enc. Br. Art.
Telescopes.
Oriani on the improvement of telescopes. Says, that Blair's object glass with fluids performs admi-

Soc. Ital. III. 664. rably.

Cassini on the interposition of a resinous Nicholson's iris. Nich. I. 180.

jubstance between the lenses of an object Nicholson's remarks on
Grateloup's object
glass, by Rochon and Grateloup, 1785. glasses. Nich. Gilb. VI. 151.
A. P. 1787. 30. Account of Schrader's 26 feet reflecting tele-

In order to lessen the partial reflection. scope. Ph. M. I. 113.

An Varley on the magnifying powers of

eyeglass with a prism for observations tele-

near the zenith. Ph. tr. 1790. 155. scopes. Ph. M. IV. 87.

Com- Browne's telescope with a

Schrbter on a telescope of Schrader. perforated plane
mentat. Gott. 1791- XI. M. 32.
mirror. Repert. XI. 21.
After Martin.
Kliigel's new double object glass. Commen-
Adams's patent portable tubes.
tat. Gott. 1795. XIII. M.28. telescope
Free from all aberration. Taking the mean refractive Repert. XV. 156.
Cavallo. Nat. Ph.
powers 1.53175 and 1.58121, and the dispersive powers
.00580 and .00937, after Beguelin, the focal distance from Dimensions of two object glasses of Dollond.
Two
the posterior surface being loooo, the focal length of the double convex lenses, with a double concave
interposed,
convex lens is 3123, of the concave 4397, the radius of radii 28, 40, 20.9, 28,
28.4, 28.4 inches,
beginning from
the anterior surface of the first is 2168, of the posterior the object; focal length 40 and 28, 35.5, 21.1, 25.75,
;

7092, its thickness 79 : that of the anterior of the second

26,28; focal length 40.3.
 CATALOGUE.' — OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. Qsg
BiJckmann on tlie colours of sun glasses. In a paper read to the Royal Society, Dec.
1804, Dr.
Herschel shows, that the central part of a mirror
Gilb. X. 359. produces
a greater aberration in the
Mr. Bockmann recommends, image of a fixed star than the
for viewing the sun, an eye-
whole mirror, and the whole mirror a greater aberration
glass composed of four pieces, a light violet, a light green,
than an annular portion remote from the centre and that :
a dark green, and a dark blue.
this is true of all good mirrors.
Hornblower on the eye stop of a telescope.
Nich. VI. 247.
SeeTheory of Optics, Lenses, Micrometers.
On the usual principle.
Micrometers.
Eyepieces for telescopes. Ferguson's lec-
tures by Brewster. See Astronomical Instruments.
A cask filled with sand is one of the best supports for a

telescope. Robison. Auzout and Hook. Ph. tr. 1665 6. I. 123: —

Avslracl of Dr. Herschel's Observation of the Transit of Townley on Gascoigne's micrometers. Ph.
Mercury, with Remarks on the Action of Mirrors. Journ.
tr. 1667. I. 457.
R.I. II. 64. Hook on Gascoigne's screw micrometer. Ph.
The planet appeared, when viewed with Dr. Herschel's tr. 1667. II. .541.
ten feet reflector, and with other telescopes, much darker Lefevre's micrometer. Mach. A. IT. 103.
than any of the solar spots, and perfectly well defined ; no
Kirckius's micrometer. M. Berl. I. 202.
irregularity of form was perceptible at the moment of con-
Cassini's universal micrometer. A. P. 1724.
tact ;
but the observation appears to have been intermitted
at the instant of tie approach of the planet to the sun's 347.
limb. Dr. Herscliel could not perceive the slightest degree
Fouchy's micrometer. Mach. A. VI. 45.
of ellipticity in the form of the planet's disc. Nothing was Smith's optics.
gained by employing a higher magnifying power than 130;
Holimann de micrometre. Ph. tr. 1745.
a circumstance which Dr. Herschel attributes to the effect
of the heat of the sun's rays in distorting the figure of the
XLIII. 239.
Of crape.
speculums, by paitia' alterations of their temperature; and
this supposition he supports by several experiments on the Segner on extending tlie field of a micro-
effects of the neighbourhood of heated bodies on their focal meter. C. Gott. 1751. 1.27.
lengths.
Segner on the parallax of a micrometer.
Dr. Ilcrschel has also found that, in general, " In order
C.Gott. 1752. II. 200.
to see well with telescopes, it is required that the
tempera-
ture of the atmosphere and mirror should be uniform, and' Short on Servington Savery's micrometer, in
the air fraught Thus a frost after a thaw,
with moisture." 1743. Ph. tr. 1753. 165.
or a thaw after a frost, will
impair the perfection of the A double object glass.
focus a telescope brought out of a warm room into a cold
:
Doilond's divided object glass micrometer..
air, or even directed through an aperture of any kind, acts
Ph. tr. 1753. 178. 1754. 551.
but imperfectly :
windy weather is unfavourable to distinct
from a mi.\ture of air of difTerent
Bevis on Gascoigne's micrometer in 1640.
vision, temperatures : an
Kiirora- borealis sometimes aiTects the distinctness of the Ph.tr. 1753. 190.
view, as well as the air ascending from the warm roof'Of a
Aopinuson micrometers. A. Berl. 1756. S6j.
liouse dampness, and the neighbourhood of moisture,
llaskelync on DoUond's micrometer. Ph. tr.
:
fogs,
.

ate very favourable to distinct vision wiih telescopes, ex-

when a fog
1771. 536.
cept is so opaque as totally to intercept it. Dr.
Herschel remarks, that some of these obstacles are insu- Maskelyne's prismatic micron'.ctcr. Ph. tr.
perable ; but that the effect of heat may sometimes be re- 1777.799.
medied by the application of a heated body near the An achromatic prism, sliding along the axis of the tele-
oppo-
site surface of the mirror. Y. Shows the defects of the divided object glass.
scope.
vol.. II.
-299 CATALOGUE. —PHYSICAL OPTICS,
"Wilson on flattening the cross wires of tele-
Physical Optics.
scopes. Ph. tr. 1774. 105.
Boscovich's micrometer. Ph.tr. 1777. 789.
A of rock crystal, divided by a spherical
Sources of Li"ht.
prism of glass, or

surface, and moveable also along the axis of the telescope.

LoOTOwojorc' de origine lucis. 4. Petersb. 175f*.
Ramsden on two new micrometers. Ph. tr.

1779.419.
Finds the divided object glass insufficient. The first
Light from Combustion.
method is speculum of a telescope of
to divide the small

Cassegrain's construction, and to give it a motion round a Hooke Ph. Coll. n. 2.

Boyle's lamp.
point near the centre : the second is to divide the eyeglass.
Hooke's lamp. Birch. II. 155.
The aberration of the telescopes of Cassegrain is about |
of

the aberratien of the Gregorian telescopes : the error of the

Hooke's lampas. Lect. Cutl.
eyeglass has much less effect than that of the object glass A lamp with water dropping in. Ph. tr. IC93.
employed as a micrometer ;
the divided glass is
placed in XX. 378.
the focus of that lens in the eyepiece, which is nearest to
Bouguer's comparison of the light of the sun
the object glass.
and moon with the light of candles. A. P.
Herschel's lamp micrometer. Ph. tr. 1782.
172G. H. 11.
Herschel's improvement of his angulfir mi-
Confirmed by Celsius, in (be ratio of 300000 to i.
crometer. Ph. tr. 1785.46.
Virgile's subaqueous lantern. Mach. A. VI.
Smeaton's equatorial micrometer. Ph. tr.
77.
1787.
Bourgeois de Chateaublanc's reflecting lamp.
Rochon on telescopes with micrometers of A. P. 1744. H. 62.
rock crystal. N. A. Petr. 1788. VI. H. 37.
Preigney's lamp of Amiens. Mach. A. VII.
Nich. 8. IV. no.
395.
Rochon's prismatic micrometer. Recueil de
Lievreville's reflecting lamps. A. P. 1759,
mec.
H. 234.
Rochon's achromatic micrometer. Journ.
Fordyce on light from inflammation. Ph. tr.

Phys. LIII. 169. 1776.504. Roz. XIII. Suppl. 115.

Kdstner on micrometers. Astronomische ab- Thinks that all light from decomposition is
arising blue,
handl. II. 263. and attributes other colours to ignition.

Kastner on terrestrial micrometers. Com- A night lamp. Roz. XI. 56.

mentat. Gott. I7S9. X. M. 1. On A. P. 1781. 409.
lighting theatres.
Cavallo on a micrometer. Ph. tr. I79I. 283. Morgan on the light of bodies in combus-
Made of semitransparent mother of pearl. A table for tion. Ph. tr. 1785. 190.
e*imating distances from apparent magnitudes of a man. Thinks that the more refrangible rays are always first thrown
Perhaps the bricks of a house would afTord a more certain off incombustion but that they are often extinguished
;
by
measure. the surrounding vapour, so that the flame may thus become
Cavallo on a micrometer. 4. Lond. 1793. even at first yellow, green, or even red. Melted brass exhir
*£nc. Br. Art. Micrometer. -bits a fine green vapour. Rotten wood burning exhibits

Rand's patent military telescope. only the orange and red rays.
Repert.
XII. 152. Villiers's lamp for reading at
night. Roz
With a micrometer and a table. XXVIII. 54.
 CATALOGUE. PHYSICAL OPTICS. 291

On illumination. M. Tur. IV. 1788. lix. Finds it nearly proportional to the quantity of tallow
consumed, when the combustion is perfect. Recommends
Wedgwood. Ph. tr. 1792.279- that candles be burnt in an inclined position.
Found that air not luminous made a wire red hot.
Edelcrantz's Statical lamp. Nich. 8. V. 93.
Count UuniCord on the light of luminous
bodies. Ph. tr. 1794. 67.
Paul's lamps with reflectors. Nich. 8. V.
In order to produce a given quantity of light, we must 133.
burn of wax loo, of tallow lol, of oil, in Argand's lamp, On the light of wax candies of different di-
110, in a common lamp 129, of an ill snuffed tallow candle mensions. Nich. 8. V. 219.
22g Flame is
parts by weight. very transparent. !

A small candle gave about J, more light from the same

"
Hassenfratz on the light produced in com- weight than a large one.

bustion. Ann. Ch. XXIV. 78. Boswell's lamp for tallow. Nich. IX. 105.
Differs from Count Rumford in not preferring Argand's
Lambert found, that the light emitted by a shining surface,
lamp. as the sine of the angle of inclination
in any direction is ;

Keir's patent hydrostaticlamp. Repert. VIII, so that the density is equal in every direction. He adds an

289. Nich. III. 467. Gilb. VI. 96. illustration from theory. Photometr. § 81.

lamp. Repert. XIV. 9.

Thiville's patent Lambert thinks, that the moon's light cannot exceed

Smethurst's patent lamp, with lenses. Rep. jjjj^gth of the sun's, from theory ; Leslie makes it much
greater, and thinks, with some of the ancients, that the
XIV. 84.
moon must have the property of a solar phosphorus.
White's patent lamp. Repert. XV. 93.
The solar light has been attributed to an atmosphere by
More easily cleaned than Argand's.
Gascoigne, by the author of Experiments and Observations

Argand's lamp. Montucla and Lai. III. 564. on light and colours. 8. Lond. 1780. p. 162. by King, and.

Thermolamp. Montucla and Lai. III. 565. by Herschel.

Gilb. X. 491.
Thilorier's phloscope. Montucla and Lai.
Light attending Decomposition without sen-^

III. 565. sible Heat.

The flame is led through a tube of glass.

Guyton's report on Garcel's lamp. Ann. Ch. Spontaneous Light.

XXXVIII. 135. Nich. 8. II. 108.
With a pump and a contracted chimney 9 produced a IBartholinus de luce animalium. 1G69. M. B.
Wedgwood, 505.6° cent, or 042° F.
heat of 7°
Beale on the light offish. Ph. tr. 1665—6.
Davy on light produced under water. Journ. I. 226. On the light of flesh. Ph. tr. 1676..

R. I., I. Gilb. VL 109. XI. 599.

Kretschmar's thermolamp. Gilb. XIII. 498. Flesh that had been killed but a day, in February, became

thermolamp. Gilb. XV. 231..

luminous.
B'linger's
Hermstadt on the light of candles. Repert. *Boyle on the light offish, wood, and flesh.

ii. I. 59. Ph. tr. 1667. n. 581, 605. 1672. VIL

Dawson's patent lamp for carriages. Repert. 5107. Works. III. 304.
ii. 11.401. Found that the light was extinguished in a vacuum.

A photophorus. Repert. ii. III. 372. See Marsigli Storia del mare. Histoire de loi

Catoptric Instruments. mer.

E. Walker on the light of candles. Nich. 8. Bourzes on the light in the wake of ships..
III. 272. IV.40. VI. 90. Gilb. XIII. 240. Ph. tr. 1713. 230. XXVm.
292 CATALOGUE. — rHYSICAL OPTICS.

Reaumur on die spontaneous light of some Beckerhielm on the light of glowworms.

fish. A. P. 1723. 198. H. 8. Ann. Ch. IV. 19.
C. Bon. II. i. 248, 274. Tingry on animal light. Journ. Phya.XLVII.
Nollet on luminous insects. A. P. 1750. 54, (iv.) 287.
57. H. 7. Carradori on spontaneous light. Ann. Ch.

Uiitersuchuiigen vommeere. 4. Frankf. 1750. Gilb. I. 205. Nidi. II. 132.

RivLlIe and Leroy on the light of the sea. Carradori on the Ilalica. Ann.
lampyris
S. E. III. Ch. Ph. M. II. 77.
The was
Rigaud on A. P. 1765. restored by moisture a short dryness.
light of the sea.
tlie light after

H. 26. Wasstrom on the light of the sea. Gilb. II.

352.
Fougeroux on aluminous insect of Cayenne.
A. P. 1766. 339. H. 29. *Hulme on spontaneous light. Ph. tr. 1800.
161. 1801. 403. Nich. IV. 421. Nich. 8.
Fougeroux on the light of the sea. A. P.
11.31. Gilb. XII. 129, 224.
1767. 120. H.6,
It is not increased by oxygen gas, but
aux Indes Orientales. I. disappears in a
Legentil voyage vacuum.
685.
On the light of the sea. Montucla and Lai.
Canton on the light of sea water, when pu-
III. 567.
trefying. Ph. tr. 1769. 446.
BlumbofFon the luminous appearance of the
Haller Physiol. V. 446.
sea. Ph. M. VIII. 97.
Priestley's optics.
Mitchill on the luminous
On the light of sea water. Roz. III. IO6. appearance of sea
water. Ph. M. X. 20. Gilb. XII. 161.
Dicquemare on the light of the sea. Roz. From the phosphorescence of animalcules.
VI. 319- XII. 137. Biickmann on wood shining in gases. Ph. M.
Dombey on the light of the sea. Roz. XV. XVI. 18.
212.
Borch on the light of the sea. A. Sienn. Solar Phosphori.
VI. 317. Bodies shining after haying been exposed to
Achard on the light of rotten wood. A. Berl. the light, without
decomposition.
1783. 98.
Baldwin's phosphorus. Ph. tr. 1676. XI.
On the light of the Baltic. Roz. XXIV. 788.
56.
Nitrate of lime. Ph. tr. 174(5.
Forster on physical geography. Germ. Cellio la pietra Bolognese preparata. Rom.
With an account of other authors.
1680. M. B.
Razumowsky on the glowworm. M. Laus. Ace. Ilooke. Ph. Coll. n. 3.
II. 240.
The stone burnt with charcoal in a close furnace.

SpaHanzani. Leipz. Samml. IV. 289.

Marsigli dissertazione del fosforo minerale.
Spallanzani on phosphoric medusae. Soc. 4. Leipz. 1698.
itiii. VII. 271.
Ace. Ph. tr. 1698. XX. 306. A, P. 1. 234.
Goth. Mag. II. iv.
Romberg on the Bolognan stone. A. P, II.
Account of a luminous potatoe. Roz.
12, 133.
XXXVI. 225. Chemical,
 CATALOGUE.' — PHTSICAL OPTICS. 29 J

Wall on the phosphorescence of diamonds. Brugnatdli on the modifications of light.

Ph.tr. 1708. 73. Extr. Ann. Ch. Xll. 188. XXVI. 107-

Bourgues on a phosphorescent stone. A. P. Ph. M. VII. 285.

1724. H. 58. On the phosphorescence of the diamond.

By heat. Journ. Phys. LV. 60.

Nollet on the Bolognan stone. A. P. 1743. Accum on the light from borax. Nich. If.

H. 105. 28.
Ph. M. III. 321.
On the Bolognan stone. C. Bon. I. 184.
Carradori thinks putrescent wood a solar phosphorus.
*jBtfcc«rjde phosphoris. 4. Bologna, 1744.
Dize on heat as ihe cause of
*Extr. by Watson. Ph. tr. 1746. 81. shining. Journ.

Found that was brightest when the surfaces were

tiie light
Phys. XLIX. 177. Gilb. IV. 410.

smooth ones retained no light. This does not look Huime's improvement on Canton's phospho-
rough :

like chemical attraction. rus. Ph. tr. 1801. 426.

Beccari Comm. Bonon. II. ii. 136. iii. 498.

On the liglit of diamonds. Gilb. XII. 259.

V. 106.
Light from friction,
Beccaria on Canton's phosphorus. Ph. tr.
Philonis belopoeica.
1771.212. Mentions the light produced by Ctesibius's air gun.
Emitting only the colour that it receives.
Nollet on the illumination of ice. A. P. 1766.
IVihon and Beccari on phosphori. 4. Lond. H.2.
1773. R. I. See Electricity.
Euler on Wilson's experiments. A. Petr. I. i. Razumowsky on light from friction. M.
H.71. Laus. II. 39.

Canton on a phosphorus. Ph. tr. 1768. 337. *Giobert on the phosphorescence of vitriolat-
Oyster shells burnt. cd tartar. Mem. Tur. 1788. IV. 73. Roz.

Krafft on Canton's phosphorus. A. Petr. I.

XXXVI. 256.
Under water not an electric phenomenon.
H. 77.
;

T. Wedgwood on the production of light by

Grosser on the light of the diamond. Roz.
heal and by attrition. Ph. tr. I792. 28.
XX. 270.
Thinks that light from attrition is
produced by a heat of
Even such phosphori, as emitted red light
only, were about 400° or 6oo° F., since almost all bodies emit some
made to shine most by exposure to blue light.
light at this temperature.

Morgan. Ph.tr. 1785. Severgyne'on the light of stones. N. A. Petr.

An oyster shell emitting green light will emit red light
1793. XI. 12.
when warmed.
Light from an air gun. Ph. M. XIV. S63.
Morozzo on the appearance of the Bolognan Gilb. VIII. 366.
spar in gases. .Soc. Ital. III. 420. Remer could find no ulectricity in the light of an air gun.
Marchetti on solar phosphori. C. Bon. VII. The gun must be highly laden, and, as some say, made of

O. 289. iron.

*T. Wedgwood on the production of Light from electricity. See Electricity.

light by
heat and by attrition. Ph. tr. 1792. 28.
Almost all bodies when powdered emit
Velocity of Light.
heat at a tempe-
rature from 400° to 600° F. An account of the authors who
Romer on the motion of light. A. P. X. 3QQ.

have treated on solar phosphori. Ph. tr. 1677. XII. 893. Journ. des savans.
294 CATALOGUE. PHYSICAL OPTICS.

the force of light. A. P. 1708.

Hpmberg on Interception and partial Reflec-
H. 21.
tion of Light.
Maiian on the velocity of light. A. P. 1738.
See Shadows.
37. H.82.
Gregory on oblique reflection. Birch. III.

79.
Aberration. Bouguer Optique.
The moon reflects about ^ of the light that falls on it,
Bradley on a newly discovered motion of the of the light falling
Bouguer found that water reflected
stars. Ph. tr. 1728. XXXV. 637.
J^

perpendicularly, quicksilver -!|

or .683. At an inclination
Clairaut on the aberration of the stars, of 50° quicksilver reflected only 32 timet as much as water.
planets, and comets. A. P. 1737.
205. H. Kurdwanowski's problems respecting light.
76. 1746. 539. H. 101. Ace. A. P. 1732. H. 95.
Euler on the phenomena aiising from the On the degree of illumination.
XI. Krafft on the reflection of light by a trans-
progressive motion of light. C. Petr.
150. parent medium. C. Petr. X. 183.
Assumes the projectile hypothesis of light for its simpli- fEdwards on reflection. Ph. tr. 1763.229.
city, but observes, that in some cases the phenomena are On the reflection of light by transparent
different on the different suppositions.
mediums. Roz. III. 27. 1 16.

Winthrop and Price on planetary aberra- Dionis du S^jour on the quantity of light
tion. Ph. tr. 1770. 358, 536.
falling on the moon in eclipses, and on
Boscovich on the aberration of light. Op. the faint light of the new moon. A. P.
ined. V. 417. 1776.
fjeaurat on the planetary aberration of light. The faint light is a minimum at 43° elongation, a maxi-

A. P. 1786. 572. mum at 0° and at 69° : at 90° it is about half the greatest

Robison on the motion of refracting medi- quantity.

Count Rumford found that a pane of plate glass stopped
ums. Ed. tr. II. 83.
.1973 parts of the light; another .1869; two together .3184;
some errors of Boscovich.
Corrects apiece of thin window glass stopped .1263. In reflection
Some mistakes appear to have been made respecting this from a glass mirror .35 was lost, .65 being reflected this :

subject :
they may be avoided by attending to one general is but little less than was reflected in Bougucr's experiment

principle ;
that is, when a body moves uniformly forwards, by quicksilver only.
the relative situation of another body, whether quiescent or
times to be such as was at
in motion, appears at all it
really Refractive Powers.
the moment of the emission of the light of the second body:
mo- J. A. Porta de refractione. 4.
in other words, neglecting the changes in the earth's
the light, the apparent place Lahire on the refraction of ice. A. P. IX.
tion, during the passage of
of the sun, or of any star or planet, is its true geocentric 328. X. 172.
place for the instant at which the light was emitted by the Less refractive than water.

star, or reflected by the Y. and water. A.

sun or planet. Lahire on the refraction of oil

P. IX. 382.

Decay of Light. Lowthorp on the refraction of air. Ph. tr.

1699. XXI. 339.

Pb.tr. 1794-.
Cassini on the refraction of air. A. P. 1700.
Light is found to diminish in intensity as the squares of
the distances increase, or a little faster. Rumford. 78. H. 112.

s ;'
 CATALOGUE. — PHYSICAL OPTICS. 295

Hauksbee's experiments. 4. 1709. Fr. by Hooke on the refraction of colours. Birch.

Desmarest. III. 52.

Ace. A. P. 1754. H. 34. Experiments proposed to Newton. Ph. tr.

Hauksbee on the refraction of fluids. Ph. tr. 1072. VII. 4059.

1710. XXVII. 204. Pardies's remarks on Newton's theory of
With the specific gravities.
light. Ph. tr. 1672. Vfl. 4087, 5012, 5018.

DeUsle on the refraction of air. A. P. 1719- Considerations on Newton's doctrine of co-

330. H. 71. lours. Ph. tr. 1673. VIII. 6080.
Euler on the refractive powers of hquids. A. Allowing only yellow and blue.
Berl. 1756'. 235. Answer from Paris to a letter of Newton. Ph.

Euler on refraction. A. Petr. I. i. 174. tr. 1073. VIII. 6112.

J. A. Euler on the refraction of fluids. A. fLinus on the theory of light and colours.
Berl. 1762.279- Ph. tr. 1674. IX. 217- 1675. X. 499.
J. A. Euler on the effects of heat in refrac- Lucas's exceptions to Newton's
experiments.
tion. A. Berl. 1762. 328. Ph. tr. 1676. XI. 692.
The focm of a lens of glass was shortened from l(5| to •f-Mariolte on colours. A. P. I. ISg,
\6 inches or less by an addition of 66° of Reaumur to the
Desaguliers's optical experiments in confir-
temperature : each degree reducing it about 555^ °^ Tiroo"
mation of Newton's theory. Ph. tr. 1716.
The refractive power was changed from 1. 550 to 1.5578.

Jeaurat on the refraction and dispersion of

XXIX. 336,448. 1722. XXXII. 206.
different kinds of glass. A. P. 1770. 461. Desaguliers's experiments on occasion of-

Cadet and Brisson on the refractive powers of

Rizzetti's optics. Ph. tr. 1728. XXXV. 596.
Cas/c/// optica colorum. 1740.
fluids. A. P 1777. 541. H. 9-
In favour of three colours.
In lenses.
Euler on a controversy
•f-Fabroni on the refractive powers of fluids. respecting refraction.
A. Berl. 1753. 294.
Journ. Phys. XLVIII. 215. Gilb. VI. 149.
Euler on the refraction of
*Wo11aston. Ph. tr. 1802. rays of different
colours. N. C. Petr. XII. 16O.
Cavallo's tables. N. Phil. III. 176.
From Newton, Euler on dispersion. A. Petr. I. i. 174.
Euler, Zeiher, Hauksbee, Martin, Ro-
chon, and others. Nqllet's opinion of three colours,
orange,
green, and indico. Lemons de physique.
V. 388.
Dispersion of Colours by Refraction. D'Alembert on three colours.
Opuscules,
*Newton's theory of III. 393.
light and colours, with
various illustrations and explanations. Ph. Jeaurat on the dispersive powers of
glass.
A. P. 1770. 461.
tr. 1671. VI. 3075. 1672. VII. 4059,4091,
LflTw/^fr^s
5004, 5014, *5084. 1673. VIII. 6087, farbcnpyramide. 4. Berl. 1772.
6108. 1674. IX. 217. 1675. X. 500, 503. RocJion Recherche sur la nature de la lu-
iniere des etoiles fixes.
1676. XI. 511, 698. Birch. III. 272, 280,
296.
Rochon Recueil de mecanique.
The experiments were first made in the beginning of Comparclti de luce et coloribus. 4. Pad
^87. R.
1666. S.
29(5 CATALOGUE. — PHYSICAL OPTICS.
Gr'iiber iiberstrahlenbrechung und abpral- Total or internal Reflection.

lung. 4. Diesd. 1787. fBrougham. Ph. tr. 1796. 227. 1797. 352,
•\Marat sur la lumi^re. 8. Par. 1788. R. S. Nich. I. 551.
Extr. Roz, XXXII. 140. *Prevost's remarques d'optique. Ph. tr. 1798.
Marat denies the different refrangibility of light ; attri- 31 Journ. Phys.
1. XLIX. 273. Nich. III.
butes the appearance of colours to inflection by the margin
222. Gilb. V. 129.
of the sun, or by other objects.
In defence of Newton, against Mr. Brougham.

Dree on Marat's experiments. Roz. XVIII. Prevost's further remarks. Journ. Phys.
402. XLIX. Gilb. V. 147.
Achaid on the prismatic composition of
Tables of Refractive and Dispersive Powers*
colours. A. Berl. 1788. 14.

Obbiezzioni alia teoria di Newton intorno a' Principally from WoUaston and from Ca-
colon. Piacenz. 1791. vallo's tables.

Ace. A. Berl. 1792. H. 19- A Chemical Appendix to Physical Optics.

The anonymous he Index of refraction.

author is
probably Mr. Consonni :

maintains, that there are but three colours, but that each is A vacuum - - 1.00000
spread a little over the adjoining one in refraction. air. 1.00036
Atmospheric Lowthorp
Nordmark on dispersion. Sv. Vetensk. N. H. Hawksbee 1.00033
XV. 113. From Bradley 7 „
Blair on the unequal refrangibility of light.
> 1.000276 ^
B.29.6, Th.50°.3
Ed. tr. See Telescopes.
III. 3. Ice, by
^
observation. W. 7 , - .,

AI. Young on the number of colorific rays.

T , 1 ,
•
r 1 , Vi.} J- 1-310
Ice, by calculation tromhalos.
Ir. tr. VII. 1 19- Nich. IV. 385. Water. W. H. >
Makes only red, yellow, and blue rays, and some of each Vitreous humour. \\.y
scattered through the spectrum. Lime water. C. -
(1.334)
Liidicke on showing the composition of white Well water. C. - - 1.336
-
light. Glib. V. 272. Spirit of hartshorn. C. 1.337
*PIerschelon heat and light. Ph. tr. 1800. Solution of caustic ammonia. C. 1.349'
Solution of soda. C. -
Gilb. VII. 137. 1 .352
and - -
fLeslie on light heat. Nich. IV. 344, Ether. VV. 1.358
416. Gilb. X. 88.
-
'

French brandy. C. •^ ^ ,
Putter's invisible rays. Gilb. VII. 527. XII. (.(1.368)
409. Albumen. W. - - I.36
Discovered 22 Feb. 1801. Hawksbee -
(1.351)
Vicktred on Hitter's invisible rays. B. See. Alcohol. W. - -
1.37
Phil. n. 73. Nich. 8. V.255. C. - -
1.371

Englefield on the separation of light and Distilled vinegar. Hawksbee. 1.372

heat by refraction. Journ. R. I., I. Nich. Euler -
(1.344)
8. III. 125. Saturated solution of salt. C. 1.375
*VVollaslon on the division of the spectrum. -
Sahl, water 27. C. -
(1.348)
Ph. tr. 1802. 365. Solution of sal ammoniac 1.382
 CATALOGUE. — PHTSICAL OPTICS. 257

Index of refraction. Index of refraction.

Solution of [)otash. C. - 1.390 Gum arable. C. -

(1.477)
Nitric acid, sp.gr. 1.48. W. 1.410 -Human cuticle. VV.

Nitric acid. C. - 1.412 Dutch plate glass. W. 1.517

Fluor spar. W. - 1.433 Gum lac. W.

'
Sulfuric acid. W. - 1.435 Caoutchouc. W. 1.524
C. - - Nitre. C. - 1.524
(1.426)

Spermaceti, melted. W.
- 1.446 Selenite. W. - - 1.525

Crystalline lens of an ox. W. 1.447 Crown glass, common. W. 1 525

Canada balsam. VV. - 1.528
(to 1.380)
C. (1.463) Centre of the crystalline of fish,

Oil of wax. C. - 1.452 and dry crystalline of an ox. W. 1.530

Alum. VV. - - 1.457 Pitch. W.
C. - - 1.458 Crown glass, sp. gr. 2.52. C. 1.532

Tallow, melted. W. - 1.460 Yellow plate or Venetian glass,

-
sp. gr. 2.52. C. 1.532
Borax. C. - 1.467
Oil of lavender. W. - - 1.467 Brazil pebble, sp. gr. 2.62. C. 1.532
C. (1.469) RadcUffe crown glass. W. 1 533
Oil of peppermint. W. 1.468 Anime. W. - 1.535
Oil of olives. W. - - 1.469 Copal. VV,
- - 1.535
C. -
(1.465) Oil of cloves. W. - 1.535
Oil of almonds. W. White wax, cold. W.
Oil of turpentine, rectified. W. 1.470 Elemi. W.
Oil of turpentine, common. W. 1.476 Mastic. W.
C. (1.482) Arseniate of potash. W.
Essence of lemon. W. - 1.476 Sugar, after fusion. VV.

Butter, coW. W. - - 1.480 Sugar, 1, water 27. C. -

(1.346)
Linseed oil. W. - 1.485 Spermaceti, cold. W.
Camphor. W. - - 1.487 Red sealing wax. VV.
C. - Oil of sassafras. W^. - 1.536
(1.500)
Iceland spar, weakest. W. 1.488 C -
(1.544)
strongest. W. W. -
Bees wax. - 1.542
(1.657)
Taflow, cold. W. - 1.49 Boxwood. VV.

W. Colophony. W.
Sulfate of potash. - 1.495 - 1.543
Oil of nutmeg. W. -
1.497 Glassof St. Gobin. C. - 1.543
French plate glass. W. 1.500 Old plate glass. \V.
- 1.345

English plate glass. W. 1 .504 Rock crystal (double). VV. ,

1.547
Oil of amber. VV. - 1.505 C. C (1.568)
C. - C (1.575)
(1.501)
Balsam of capivi. W. - 1.507 Amber. W. 1.547
Gum Arabic. W. - 1.514 C. (1.556)
VOL. II.
298 CATALOGUE. ?HYSICAt OPTICS.
Index of refraction. ferred that his numbers belong correctly to the extreme
red rays.
Opium. W.
Mica. W.
Table of the order of Dispersive Powers, from
Plate glass, or coach glass, sp. gr.
Wollaston, the Numbers from llochon and
2.76. C. - - 1.573
from Cavallo's table.
Phosphorus. W. - -
1.579
Sulfur. W.
Horn. W. W
Glass, of lead 6, sand 1.

C .583
Glass, of lead 3, flint
1
Flint gliiss.
W. 1. r.2.028. 7.09
C 1.586
Glass, of lead 2, flint 1. r. 1.830. 5.24
Benzoin. W Glass,oflead 1, flint 1. r.1.787. 4.82
- Glass, of lead 3,
Guaiacum. W. - 1.596 flint 4. r. 1 .732. 3.25
Balsam of Tolu. W. - I.60 Glas», tinged by gold, r.l .7 15. 2.90
White flint glass, sp. gr. 3.29- C. 1 .600 Glass, of lead 1, flint 2. r. 1 .724. 2.65

A yellow pseudotopaz. C. 1.643 Glass, of lead I, flint 4. r.1.664. 2.00

Sulfate of barytes (double). W. 1.646 Balsam of Tolu. W.
Iceland spar, strongest. W. 1.657
^
Oil of sassafras. W,
Glass, of lead 1, flint 4. C. 1.664 Muriate of antimony. W.
Gum dragon. W. Guaiacum. W.
Glass, tinged red by gold. C. 1.715 Oil of cloves. W.
Flint glass, r.l. 6. - - 1.80
-Glass, of lead 1, flint 2. C. 1.724
Glass, of lead 3, flint 4. C. 1.732 Flint glass. W.

White sapphire. W. - I.768 Colophony. W.

Glass, of lead 1, flint 1. C. 1.787 Canada balsam. \y.
Muriate of antimony, variable. W. Oil of amber. W.
Arsenic. W. (A good test). 1.811 Jargon. W.
Spinelle ruby. W.
- 1.812 Oil of turpentine. W.
Glass, of lead 2, flint 1. C. 1.830 Copal. W.
Jargon. W. - - 1.95 Balsam of capivi. W.
Glass of antimony. W. -
1.98 Anime. W.
C. -
(1.89)
Iceland spar. W.
Glass, of lead 6, sand 1. W. Doubt- Iceland spar r. 1.562 Cl.69
- - 1.625 12.33
ful. 1.987
Glass, of lead 3, flint 1. C. 2.028 Amber. W.
Native sulfur (double). W. 2.04 Diamond. W.
Diamond, -
Scaly oxid of iron. Y. About 2.1 r.2.755. fl.86

Oxid of lead, by induction. Y. 2.15 Alum., W.

Plumbago. W. Plate glass, r. 1.573 - 1.65 ,

Diamond. Newton. - 2.44 Brazil pebble, r. 1.532. -

1.59
Rochon. - - Nitric acid, r.1.412. - I.54
fi.755
From Dr. WoUaston's mode of obserration, it may be in- Plate glass. Dutch. W.
 CATALOGUE. PlirsiCAL OPTICS. 259
Plate glass, English. W. In water, |nalcohol.

Glass of St. Gobln. r.1.543. 1.49

Green muriate of iron 1.415
Crown W. Muriate of magnesia 1.416
glass.
Essence of lemojx -
Crown glass, r. 1.532. 1-48 1 .430
Solution of sul ammoniac, r.1.382. 1.34 Muriate of lime 1 .425 1 .440
Muriate of zinc 1.425
Ilwby, spinelle. W,
Saturated solution of salt. r. 1.375. 1.22 Balsam of capivi - 1.440
- - Hence it seems to follow, that the dispersion of the nitric
Water. VV. 1.00
acid is a fourth more than that of plate glass a dispropor- :

Sulfuric acid. W. much

tion greater than appears in the numbers of CaTaUo'a
Alcohol. W. table.

Sulfate of barytes. W. With crown glass the nitric acid was diluted to l.3?5,

Selenite. W. and the muriatic from 1.39 to i.sga.

Rock crystal. W.
Rock Ordinary Atmospheric Refraction, Cekstia
crystal. r.l.5fiO. (^1.21
or Terrestrial.
1.5'75. ^ 1.24
See Meteorology, to which this subject partlj
Sulfate of potash. W.
White sapphire. W. belongs.
Refractio solis inoccidui. See Irregular
Fluor spar. W.
of the results of these obsenra-
Refraction.
It is obvious, that many
tions cannot be reconciled; and Cassini on refraction.
it is
probable, that the num- Bologn. 1672.
bers are frequently inaccurate. Ace. Ph. tr. 1672. VII. 500.
Cassini on refractions. A. P. I. 103. 1700.
Wollaston's Table of the Refractive Powers
39. H. 112. 1714. 33. H. 61. 1742. 203.
of solutions equal in Dispersive Powers to
H. 72. 1743. 249. H. 140.
Plate Glass.
Cassini on tlie dip. A. P. VIII. 71. 1707.
In water. In alcohol.
195. H. 89.
Nitroniuriate of gold. 1.364 1.390
Lahireon the atmospheric refraction at Tou-
Nitromuriate of platina. 1.370
lon. A. P. VII. i. 174.
Nitrate of iron. 1.375
fLahire on the path of light in the atmo-
Sulfuret of potash. 1.375
sphere. A. P. 1702. 32. 182. H. 54.
Red muriate of iron. 1.385
Laval on refractions. A. P. 1708. H. 105..
Nitrate of magnesia.
1710. H. 109.
Nitric acid. 1.395
Delisle on the refraction of the air. A. P.
Nitrate of jargon.
1719. 330. H. 71.
Balsam of Tolu 1.400
Acetite of litharge.
Halley on atmospherical refraction, -with
1.400
Newton's table. Ph. tr. 1721. XXXI.
Nitrate of silver.
169.
Nitrate of cop'per.
Taylor Methodus incrementorum.
Oil of sassafras 1.405
Bouguer on refraction in the torrid zone.
Muriate of antimony 1.410 A. P. 1739. 407. H. 45. 1749. 75. H. 152.
Nitrate of lime 1.410 1.422 Mairan on the refraction of the air. A. P.
Nitrate of zinc
1740. 32. H. 89.
300 GATALOGUK. PHYSICAL OPTICS*

Euler on atmospheric refractions at different light in the atmosphere ; upon the optical
teaiperatures. A. Berl. 17.'54. 131. hypothesis of its density. A. P. 1776. 273.
Euler on terrestrial refraction. A. Petr. I. ii.
Maskelyne. Ph. tr. 1777- 7'22.
129. The terrestrial refraction is equal to the angle subtended

La Cailie on refractions. A. P. 1755.547. by about l of the distance of two objects ;

in order to cor-

rect for the joint effect of curvature anJ refraction, we may

H. 111. divide the square of the distance by i of the diameter of the
Thinks that it is
nearly the same throughout the tempe- earth.
rate zones.
Bradley's rule for refraction. Maskelyne.
Lumbert Route de la lumiere par les airs. 8.
Ph. tr. 1787. 156.
Hague, 1758. At 45° 3' 57", correcting for the temperature in the
Lambej-t on the density of the air. A. Berl. ratio of 400 to 350+f^, and for the barometerin the ratio of

1772. lOS. Roz. XVIII. 126. its height to 2g.O inches. But even from some observations
here insetted, this correction for temperature appears to be
Heinsius on northern refraction. N. C. Petr.
too great. At 45°, Maskelyne makes the refraction 56". 5,
VII. 411.
from another comparison of observations 55". 8; Lord Mac-
At Olenek, lat. 73° 4', certainly not greater than in Cas-
clesfield 54". 6, which agrees exactly with Hawkskee's ex-
»ini'i tables, which give 6' 23" at 8° 3o' altitude.
periment ;
La Cailie 06". 0, which is much too great.

*Simpson Math, dissert.

Maskelyne recommends that a table of refractions be made
Lemonnier's proposal for observations on for each instrument by immediate observation.

refraction. A. P. 1766. 6O8. H. 104. Ilerschel. Ph.tr. 1785. 88.

Lemonnier on horizontal refraction at sunset. Found that t, 20, Sagittarii appeared to form a spectrum

A. P. 1773.77. H. 53. measuring 18" g'" vertically, s" 35'' horizontally, the dif-

ference 7" 34'", near the meridian, 4th May 1783.

lemonnier. A. P. 1781. The altitude mUst have been about 4°, and the refractioi*
Found a horizontal refraction of 50' in verycold weather.
34° 27'|.
2l', the declination being

Lagrange on astronomical refractions. A. A. P. 1787. 355.

Berl. 1772. 259. The terrestrial refraction was found equal to ^ of the
A formula like Simpson's. angular distance.
Kastner on refraction. N. C. Gott. 1772. Roy on terrestrial refraction. Ph. tr. 1790.
III. 122. 233 Gilb. III.281.
Cassini on refractions. A. P. 1773. 323. H. 54. Found it vary from
i to
^ of the angular distance. Bou-

Thinks that they are somewhat greater at equal altitude! guer made it
,, Maskelyne -^, Lambert Jj.
A correction

«n the south side of the zenith than on the nortti. for temperature is given in a note by Dr. Maskelyne, but
there is some mistake in it.
in the
Legentil on atmospherical refraction
torrid zone. A. P. 1774. 330. H. 47.
Oriani Ephem. Milan.
Cagnoli on refraction. Soc. Ital. V. 259.
Legentil. A. P. 1789. 224. At Verona J^ less than in Bradley's tables, and agreeing
Fmds the horizontal refraction a'.S less in India than in
with those of Oriani.
France.
Zanotti. C. Bon. VII. O. 1.
Table of refraction for the coast of Coro- Finds the barometrical and thermometrical corrections of
mandel. A. P. 1774. 399- little use.

Dionis du Sejour on the effects of refraction Deluc on refractions. Roz. XLIII. 422.
in eclipses. A. P. 1775. 265. Principally on the correction for temperature.

Attributes a refraction of about 5" to the lunar atmo-

Dalby. Ph.tr. 1795.581. Gilb. III. 281.
sphere. The terrestrial refraction varied from \ to ^, but was ge-
Dignis du Sejour on the curve described by nerally ^ of the arc.
 CATALOGUE. — PHYSICAL OPTICS. 301

M aycr. Op. ined. In October, touching each other vertically.

and on Conti on the elevation of the sea on certain

*Henneit on refraction, its correc-
tions. Hind. Arch II. 1, 12[).
A. P. 1743. H. 40.
coasts.

Gives .ooo7ao» for the logarithmic difference to be em- Minasi sopra la Fata Morgana. 8. Rome,
ployed in tlie calculation. 1773. R. S. Gilb. XII. 20. R.S.
Piazzi's tabic. Bode Jahrb. 1798. Legentil on atmospherical refraction. A. P.
Makes the retraction 57.2" at 4 5°.
1774. 330. H. 47.
Kramp on refractions. Hind. Arch. II. S80, The horizontal refraction at Pondicherry was" usually 2'
499- greater in summer than in winter.
them according to the true constitutloa of the
Calculates Boscovich. Gilb. III. 302.
atmosphere, and finds that they agree with Newton's table,
Biisch trartatus duo optici argumentl. Hamb.
and With Bradley's as far as 90" zenith distance, below this
1788. R.S.
they differ sometimes 30", but agree at the horizon. As-
sumes for the effect of temperature a correction far too great, Gilb. III. 290.
•o as to agree with the Reffactia solis inoccidui. EHicotton terrestrial re''raction. Am. tr. III.

Kramp Analyse des refractions. 4. 179B. 62. Nich. I. 152. Gilb. III. 302.
Kratup. Hind. Arch. HI. 228. Ph.tr. 1795.581.
Mayer's rule agrees in principle with Bradley's. He em- D&lby found a difference of 9' 28" in two measures of
ploys Shuckburgh's expansions instead of Bradley's. the elevation of St. Ann's hill.

Ph. ir. 1797. Another case of irregular refraction was observed where
The was the sun waswarm, and there was much dew.
terrestrial refraction in general ^ of the angle,

in one case \-.

Fata Morgana at Reggio. Nich. I. 298.
Madge. Ph. tr. 1800. 7l6, 724.
Huddart on horizontal refractions. Ph. tr.
Found the terrestrial refraction from J to -j^
of the arc, but
1797. 29. Nich. I. 145.
generally from -j^
to ^.
Attributes them to vapours less dense than the air. The
Laplace Mecanique celeste. IV.
curvature of the rays is
justly delineated, for the simplest
Brandes on terrestrial refraction. Gilb. XVII. cases.

129. Latham on atmospheric refraction. Ph. tr.

Takes ^3£ a. mean.
1798. 357. Ph. M. 11. 232. Nich. II. 417.
Gilb. IV. 147.
Irregular Atmospheric Refraction.
The clifft of France fifty miles ofiT were seen distinctly at
Near the horizon, or some heated surface.
, Hastings, much magnified, and even Dieppe was said to be
visible from 5 to 6 in the afternoon ; in July, the weather
Horizontal Refraction.
hot and no wind.
Hevelius. See Beams of Light. on the mirage in Egypt, Ann. Ch.
Monge
Cassini on two mock suns. A. P. II. 103. XXIX. 207. Ph. M. II. 427. Gilb. III. 302.
and X. 159. Vince on horizontal refraction. Ph. tr. 1799.
January 1093, 34' above and below the sun's centre.
13. Ph. M. VII. 54. Nich. IH. 141. Gilb.
Cassini on a double sun. A. P. VII. 2. P. ii-
IV. 129.
18.
Additional appearances of inverted images.
Supposes reflection and refiaction.
*W(,llaston on double images, Ph.tr. 1800.
Cassini on the irregularities of the A.
dip.
P. 1707. 195. 11. 89. 239- Nich. IV. 298. «Jilb. XI. 1.
Caused by afmospherical refraction. With satisfactory
Malezieux on three suns seen at Sceaux. A.
experiments. Ihe refraction being greatest where the
P. 1722. H. IS.
change of density is the most and less on each side of
rapid,
502 CATALOGUE.— PHrSICAL OPTICS.

this point, the whole effect must be similar to that of a con- riations derived from changes of temperature and moistnre
vex lens. in the atmosphere, are by no means easily calculable ; but

Wollaston on horizontal refraction and on that a practical correction may be dbtained, which, for

1803. III.
nautical uses, may supersede the necessity of such a calcu-
the dip. Ph. tr. 1. Repert. ii.
lation. first observed an image of an oar
Dr. Wollaston
419- Nich. VI.46. at a distance of about a mile, which was evidently caused
Mudge. Ph. tr. 1800. 720.
by refraction, and when he placed his eye near the water,
Looking over Sedgraoor, after a warm day, Glastonbury the lower part of distant objects was hidden, as if by a cur-
tor was depressed 29' 50". vature of the surface. This was at a time when a continu-
DeUic on the apparent elevation of horizontal ation of hot weather had been succeeded by a colder day,
and the water was sensibly warmer than the atmosphere
objects. Ph. M. XII. 148.
above it. He afterwards procured a telescope, with a plans
Horizontal refraction at Youghal. Beauford.
speculum placed obliquely before its object glass, and pro-
Ph. M. XIII. 336. vided with a micrometer, for measuring the angular depres-
Gruber on refraction near a warm surface. sion of the image of a distant oar, or other oblique object ;

Gilb. III. 377, 439. this was sometimes greatest when the object glass was

within an inch or two of the ^vater, and sometimes when at

Woltmann on terrestrhal refraction. Gilb.
the height of a foot or two. The greatest angle observed
III. 397-
was somewhat more than nine minutes, when the air was
Heim on an unusual refraction. Gilb. V. at 50°, and the water at 63" in general the dryness of the
;

370. air lessened the effect, probably by producing evaporation,

but sometimes the refraction was considerable, notwith-
Dangos on a horizontal refraction at Malta.
standing the air was dry. Dr. Wollaston has observed but
Ph. M. XIV. 176.
one instance which appeared to encourage the idea, that
Gorsse on mirage. Ann. Ch. XXXIX. 211. the solution of water in the atmosphere diminish
may it>

Wrede on an atmospherical refraction by the refractive power.

walls of Berhn. Gilb. XI. 421. In order to correct the error, to which nautical observa-
tions may be liable, firom the depression of the
morgana. Gilb. XII.
Giovene on the fata 1; apparent
horizon, in consequence of such a refraction, or from its
Gilb. XVII. 129.
elevation in contrary circumstances, and at the same time
Brandes found the terrestrial refraction diminished when-
to make a proper correction for the dip. Dr. Wollaston re-
ever the air cooled suddenly.
commends, that the whole vertical angle between two op-
Castberg on the fata morgana at Reggio. posite points of the horizon,
be measured by the back ob-
Gilb. XVII. 183. servation, either before or after taking an altitude ; and
Thinks it a shadow. that half its excess above 180° be taken for the dip or if :

It may frequendy happen in a medium gradually vary- there be any doubt respecting the adjustment of the instru-

ing, that a number of difTercnt rays of light may be inflect- ment, that it be reversed, so as to measure the angle below
ed into angles equal to the angles of incidence, and in this the horizon, and that one fourth of the diffisrence of the two

respect the effect resembles reflection rather more than be taken as extremely near to the
re-
angles, thus determined,
fraction. Y. true dip. It is indeed possible, that the refraction may be

somewhat different at different parts of the surface, but Dr.

Abstract of the Bakerian Lecture, by Dr. Wollastok, con- Wollaston is of opinion that this can rarely happen, except

sisting of observations on the quantity of horizontal re- in the neighbourhood of land. Y.

sea.
fraction, and the method of measuring (he dip at
Journ. R. I. Irregular Refraction at various Altitudes.
Dr. Wollaston notice* Mr. Monge's memoir on the 4. Stockh.
" mirage" observed in Egypt, as containing facts, which Kffractio solis inoccidui. 1695.

Engl. 8. London.
fully agree with his own theory formerly published. From
his observations on the degree of refraction produced by the
Ace. Ph. tr. 1697. XIX. Lahire's remarks.

air near the surface of the Thames, it appears that the va- A. P. 1700.37. H. 112.
 CATAIOOUE. — PHVSICAi:, OPTICS. 303
In lat. 96' 45' the sun was three diameters above the ho-
Particular Accounts.
rizon, 14 June at midnisht. The Dutch are said to have
In order of time, with the angles, where they have been
seen it 4° too high in Nova Zembla. At Stockhelm the
measured.
horizontal refraction is sometimes 47'.
Roman parhelia. Descartes meteorol. C. X.
Mairan on
titude.
llie sun apj)eaiing oval at 10°
A. P. 1733. 329. H. 23.
al-
Journal dessavans. 1666. Ph. tr. l665 — 6.1.
""

219.
Elliptic appearance of the sun at a consider- Brown on parhelia in Ph.
Hungary. tr.

ablehcight. A. P. 1741. H. 134. 1669. IV. 953.

Dicquemare on a distorted iris. Roz. X. ISG. Observation of the French academy. Ph. tr.

Probably by irregular refraction. 1670. V. 1065.

A halo 22" 0'.

Petto on parhelia at Sudbury. Ph. tr. I699.

Beams of Light from Atmospherical Refrac-
XXI. 107.
tion or Reflection.
Stephen Gray on parhelia at Canterbury.
Hevelius on a mock sun and a vertical train Ph. ,r. .699. XXI. 126.
X^^fUm^.^
of
26.
light seen in Russia. Ph. tr. IG74. IX. H. 23» O'.
Lahire. A. P. II. 208.
^ " ""
/7
'
— VKKS'TV ,

A red mock sun below the real sun, and a vertical train Lahire. A.P. X. 47.
from the sun upwards. At first the mock sun was at the H. n. 1. 21" 30'. n. a. 23" 20'. n. s. aa" 45'. n. 4.
distance of a few degrees, at last the sun descended and 21° 0'.

united with it. A severe frost followed. Cassini and Grillon. X. 152, I68, 275, 454.
Derham on a pyramidal Ph. A circle 22" above and 23° below the sun, 168.
light. tr. 1707.
2411. A. P. X. 411.

April 7, 1707, after sunset, perpendicular to the horizon,

Chazellesand Feuillee. A. P. I699. H.82.
succeeded by a halo. I have also observed such a beam in St. Gray on a parhelion and halo. Ph. tr.
June. Y.
1700. XXII. 535.
Messier on two vertical cones of light at- Halley. Ph. tr. 1702. XXIfl. 1127.
tached to the moon. A. P. 1771. 434. The arches touching the halo appeared to be portions of

circles their centres near the opposite side ofth«

The moon being covered with thin clouds. having
halo : the upper one was continued across the horizontal
Gilbert on a singular meteor. Giib. III. 360. and at the intersections
circle, were parhelia 31 °i. distant
A perpendicular beam of light above the sun after sunset, from the sun. The sun's altitudewas from 40° to 4S°.
in August.
The clouds were seen to drive under the circles :
they were
Remarks on the zodiacal light. Zach. Mon. therefore formed high in the atmosphere.

corr, VII. A circle at Clermont. A. P. 1708. H. 109.

Cassini.A. P. 1713. H. 67.
Ph. tr. 1721. XXXI. 204.
Halley.
Observations of Parhelia^ or Paraselenes, and The air apparently replete with snowy particles. Ok-
Halos of about 22° or 44°, in general. serves, that an explanation " seems wanting."

Zahn Mundi oeconomia. 2 v. f. M. B. Whistoa. Ph. tr. 1721. XXXI. 212.

An inverted arch not much bent touched the halo. The
chronicon prodigiorum.
Li/coithenis f. Bas.
external tangent arch was without a halo, it seemed 00°
1557. M. B. its centre near the aenith ; sun's altitude 23°i, distance
long:
Fritsck on meteors. of the extctnal arch from the zenith 2o°. The halo became
'J&i CATALOGUE. — PHYSICAL OPTICS,
ovil ;
in horizontal diameter the shorter ;
the parhelia a while the sun's altitude varied i this altitude was Aout

dejree or two beyond it. 1 4°i. N. 4. A train of light ascended from the sun. N. 7.

Maraldi on two meteors. A. P. 1721. 231. Lastcd^l! day, June 17, exactly 23°i radius. N. 8. Ex-

actly 23°i, from the red edge to the centre of the sun, about
H.4.
1' I bioad. N. 9. H. 22°.
The internal tangent arc appeared like two portions hav-

ing their centres in the lateral parhelia. Observes, that Grandjean de Fouchy on a paraselene. A. P.
there are always delicate and almost invisible clouds when 1735.585.
they appear : the wind N. E. or E. and a little frost, suc- The moon in a cross, 20° altitude.

ceeded by a milder air. Some slender melting snow fell

Neve. Ph.tr. 1737. XL. 50.
two dayt after. v
At Petersburg.
Dobbs on a parhelion seen in Ireland. Pli. fr.
Weidler. Ph. Ir. 1737- XL. 54.
1722. XXXll. 89. Sun's altitude 15°1. Ext. H. 45°f Lateral parhelion at
Three parhelia without halos. Two inverted arches
20° exactly.
above.
Foikes on three mock suns. Ph. tr. 1737.
.Whiston. Ph. tr. 1727. XXXV. 257.
The halo was touched by two curves above and by one XL. 51).

below the lateral parhelia were without the halo, but not
: Weidler de parhelils anni 1736. 4. \Vittemb.
in the intersection of either of the tangent arches produced 1738. M. B.
with the horizontal circle there was a small portion of a
:

Ace. by Stack. Ph. tr. 1740. XLI. 459.

secondary halo about one third larger than the primary:
Bad theory.
perhaps belonging to the tangent arch. There were two
Weidler de anthelio. Ph. tr. 1739. XLI.
anthelia, further apart than the parhelia. IVIarch i, Rafter

10. Kensington. The two tangent curves appeared to be in- 209.

This was an appearance in the north, at J p. g. I8 Jan.
dependent of each other, one only appearing at first.

of Bezieres. /. P. 1729- H. 2. 1738, of two arcs crossing at an angle of 00°, with a halo
Academy
2°i horizontally, and i°i vertically in diameter, red within.
June, from 10 to 12. H.'JO° 3l'.
Snow fell soon after. A similar appearance it related by
Musschenbroek. Ph. tr. 1732. XXXVIf.
llevelius de Mercurio in sole viso.
357.
Mills on parhelia seen in Kent. Ph.tr. 1742.
A white horizontal circle above the sun, 58° is' in dia-

meter, crossed by the coloured halo. At 50° 30' from this XLII. 47.
crossing was a parhelion in the horizontal circle. Apr. as, Gostling. Ph. tr. 1742. 60.
from 1
p. 10 to I p. 11. H. 45° 3o', externally. December. From sunrise till noon.
Scliultz. Coll. Acad. VI. 270. Mentzelius.
Halos and parhelia seen once or twice a
301. Others. 445.
week in Hudson's bay. Middleton. Ph.tr.
Trisch on a halo. M. Berl. 1734. IV. 64.
XLIL
1742. 1.57.
Some anomalous arcs passing through the sun.
Lacroix. A. P. 1743. H. 33.
Diifay. A. P. 1735. 87- Says the horizontal band was coloured ;
the tangent are
Chiefly from 27 observations of Musschenbroek in 1734. nearly straight.
The thin clouds forming them are always higher than the
Two suns at VVilna. A. P. 1745. H. 19.
common clouds. N. l.H. 23° li' internally, lunar. N. 2.
Grischow on lunar circles and paraselenae.
H- 23^. A second arc was seen near the zenith, its dia-

meter varying from 24° to 30°, 28°i, and 27°|, being Ph. tr. 1748. XLV. 524.
ai. 1 1
o'clock, in January. The halo changed also The two inverted arches concentric with the zenith.
greatest
from 23° disunce to 19° 50', 19°, and 18° 30". N. 3. Arderon. Pli.tr, 1749 XLV1.203.
More than half the circumference of an inverted arc touch- A halo surrounding the zenith, 1 1 July, s P. M. Appears
ing the first halo, and of the same curvature with it : the from the figure to be about j° or 8° in diameter the sun's
;

circle about the zenith appeared of a constant diameter rays were seen shining through the cloud.
 CATALOGUE. —PHYSICAL OPTICS, 305

Macfait. Ed. ess. I. 29". St. Andrew's cross : A second and third anthelion about

October. halfway between the first and the halo.

Musschenbroek. A. P. 1753.11. 7.5. Reynier. Roz. XXXVII. 308.

A parhelion about 30° from the sun, with arcs crossing 23 Jul. 7 evening.

in it. Ussheron two parhelia, Ir, tr, 1789, III, 143.

Boscovich on a halo. A. P. 1754. H. 32. Parhelia at Caumont. Ph. M. I.
No clouds were visibk, but the sun was obicure. Hall. Ed. tr. IV, 174. Nich. II. 485, Gilb.
NoUet. A. P. 1755. H. 37. III. 257.

Braun's observations in Siberia. N. C. Pctr. A large circle not horizontal. Scheiner's was also
oblique.

VI. 425. X. 375. Wrede on a paraselene. Ph. M. XII. 346.

One March J760, 21° above the sun 25° below Elliptic, the horizontal diameter being about 60°.
it;
another in August, the thermometer 65.6° F. in the *Lowitz. N. A. Petr. 1790. VIII. 384.
shade: thin clouds floating from e o'clock to two. At Petersburg, isJune 1700; the most complicated halos
and parhelia that have been observed.
Pingre. A. P. 1758. H. 23.
Moeren. Coll. Acad. VI. 299. Sargeant on parheha in Cumberland. Nich.
Barker on a halo. Ph. tr. 1761. 3. IV. 178.
. H. 22°i. Vertical diameter of the external halo 45°, A third concentric halo. Ph. M. XII. 373.
with an elliptical curve 4° narrower or wider horizontally, Not very circumstantially described.
coinciding with it at the summit, without parhelia. May Englefield. Journ. R. I. II. 1. Nich. VI. 54.
30, 1737, {before 11, H. 24°, 48°.

Aepinus; N. C, Petr. VIII. 392. Brandes. Gilb. XI. 414.

An ellipsis, including the interior halo, touching it above H. 21° to 22°.

and below ;
another with the horizontal diameter of the See Weigelsgrundriss der cheniie.
ellipsis about 51°, the Yeitical 45°. May 14, IS 04, J before 12 at night, I observed a lunar
halo, the internal limit passed nearly through gamma leonis,
Swinton on an anthelion. Ph, tr, I76I, 94,
but more accurately half way between gamma and Regulus.
July 24, -very cold.
Hence the distance from the middle of the illuminated part
Dunn on a parhelion. Ph. tr. 1763. 351. of the raoon was accurately 21° 20' or 22', without a
proba-
Many days in September and October. bility of an error of more than a few minutes.

•Wales, Ph, tr. 1770. 129- June 16, 1804. I saw a portion of a halo in the evening,

There Hudson's Bay, the sun's

are constant parhelia in the clouds were light and high.

rising being preceded by two streams of light about 20" dis-

Out of 58 of these observations 2 only were in July,
tant from him ; these accompany the sun the whole day 3 in August, 4 in January, 4 in September, s in March,

in the winter, with three parhelia. 5 in June, 6 in February, 6 in October, 6 in 1

December,
in April, and 9 in May.
Saint Amans. Roz. XI. 377,
Atkins. Ph.tr. 1784.59-
Terminating in a field of snow. Theory of Halos and Par/ielia. -

Rozi^res on a paraselene. A, P. 1786. 44.

With a tail. In a halo 7° or 8° in diameter, but not es-
tHugens. Ph. tr. 167O. V. 1065.

sentially connected with it. Hugenius de coronis et parhehis. Op. rel.

II.
Hamilton. Ir. tr. 1787. I. 23.
An obscure light at 00°. Parh. 2e". Mariotte Trait6 des couleurs. Paris, 1 686.
•Baxter on hales seen in North America, Oeuvr. I. 272.
Ph, tr. 1787. 44. Fig. Wood's theory of halos. Manch. M. ill,
Ji. 33° i*'- An anthelion in the boiizontal circle, like a 336.
VOL. U. B t
306 CATALOGUE. —^PHYSICAL OPTICS.
Supposes them produced by vesicles of which the thick- count of a halo seen in May, soon after sunrise, with par-
ness yJ, of the diameter. circumference, which after two or three hours
is helia in its

Brandes on parhelia. Gilb. XI. 414. were more than a degree distant from it. This
appearance
from the coincidence of the sun's rays with the trans-
arises
Supposes vesicles filled with a medium of a certain den-
verse section of the prism when they are nearly horizontal,
producing the halos as the drops ofvrater produce the
sity,

rainbow.
and from their obliquity when the sun is elevated, causing a
greater deviation, and throwing the parhelia outwards, as

MuHotte Phenomenon \i. The great Coronae. may be shown by an experiment on t^vo prisms. There are
also accounts of parhelia above and below the sun, of an-
" Sometimes when the air is
pretty serene, a circle of about thelia, and of a white horizontal circle. I do not undertake

4i° diameter is seen round the sun or moon : the colours are to explain these appearances, because have never seen any
I
not in general very
lively, the blue is without and the red of them, and I have not certain information of the circum-
within, their breadth is
nearly as in the common external stances attending them."
rainbow. Explanation. I take for the cause of this ap-
Rem<ir/cs on helos. See Journ. R. I. II. 4.
pearance small filaments of snow, moderately transparent,
having the form of an equilateral triangular prism. I con- The explanation of the primary and secondary rainbow
jecture that smair flat flakes of snow, which fall during begun by De Dominis, and completed by Descartes and
tl^
a hard frost, and which have the figure of stars, are com- Newton, derives an entire and satisfactory confirmation, from
posed of little filaments like equilateral prisms, particularly the perfect coincidence of the observed
angular magnitudes,
those which are like fern leaves, as with the result of calculations of the etfect of
is
easily seen by the spherical
microscope. I have often looked at the filaments which drops. We know that drops of water, either accurately, or
compose the hoar frost, that appears like little trees or plants very nearly spherical, exist in great abundance in every
in the cold
mornings of spring and autumn and I have ': cloud, and in every shower of rain ; and whatever their di-
found them cutinto three equal facets ; and when viewed in mensions may be, they must necessarily conspire in the
the sunshine they exhibited rainbow colours. Now it is
same general effect, of producing the same rainbow, when-
very probable, that before these ever a spectator is
placed in a proper situation for observing
little figures of trees or
stars are formed, there are floating among the thin vapours it ; conssquently such rainbows are of very frequent occur-
in the air, some Of these separate prisms, which when they rence.
unite form the compound These little stars arc I have attempted to show, that for producing the phe-
figures.

very thin, and very light, and the little filaments, which
nomena of variable halos or coronae, often observable in hot

compose them, are still more so, and may often be sup- climates, it is
only necessary that a considerable part of the
ported a long time ih the air by the winds : hence when the spherules of a cloud or mist, be either accurately, or very
air is rtvoderately filled with them, so as not to be much nearly, of equal magnitude, a condition, of which the pos-
darkened, many of them, whether separate or united, will sibility is
easily admitted from analogy, and the probability is

turn in direction as the air impels favoured by the apparent uniformity of the different parts
ever.-'
them, and will
be disposed to transmit to the eye for some time, a coloured of such mists as we can examine.

light nearly like to that which would be produced by The hypotheses, by which Huygens attempted to explain
equi-
lateral prisms of glass." the production of halos and parhelia, are both arbitrary and
The angles are then calculated, and 16' being deducted improbable. He imagined the existence of particles of hail,
for the semidiameter of the sun, and 3o' for the deviation some globular, others cylindrical, with an opaque part in
of the red rays, there remnins 22° 5o' for the ultimate an- the middle of each, bearing a certain ratio to the whole ;

gular distance of the halo, and he supposed the position of the cylinders to be some-
times vertical, and sometimes inclined to the horizon in a

P. 2?6. Phenomenon 13. Parhelia or moek suns. given angle.

!t has already been objected, that no such particles have
" The most
usual are at the same altitude as the sun. ever been observed to accompany halos ; and it is, besides,
Among the prisms of snow there are often many heavier highly improbable, that such an opaque part should bear
at one end than at the other, and consequently situated in the same projwrtion in all the hailstones, and that the cy-
a vertical direction : these cause a bright parhelion, with a linders should have terminations so peculiar as is
supposed ;

tail, which cannot be above 70° long. I havejcad an ac- and the most incredible circumstance of all that all
is,
 Catalogue. — physical optics. 307
these proportions should be constantly such, as always to For,' all such particles as are directed nearly towards the

produce a halo at the distance of 23" or 24° from the sun spectator, will conspire in transmitting the light much
OF moon. We may explain all these phenomena in a much more copiously than it can arrive from, any other part of the
more simple and natural mariner, by reverting to the theory circle ; but such as are turned more obliquely, will
produce
long ago proposed by Mariotte, but of late years almost en- a greater deviation in the
light, and at the same timo a de-

tirely abandoned and forgotten. flection from the original vertical plane. This be
rr.ay
It is well known, that the crystals of ice and snow tend easily understootl, by looking at along line through aprism
always to form angles of 60"; now a prism of water or ice, held parallel to it : the line appears, instead of a right line,
of Oo", produces a deviation of about 23"i, for rays forming to beQome a curve, the deviation being
greater in those rays
equal angles wiih its surfaces, and the angle of deviation that pass obliquely with
respect to the axis of the prism.j
varies at first very slowly, as the inclination changes, the which are also deflected from the plane in which were, they
variation amounting to less than 3", while the inclination passing.

changes 30°. The line viewed through the prism has no point of con-
Now if such prisms were placed at all possible angles of trary flexure, but if its ordinates were referred to a
centre,
inclination, diffeiing equally from each other, one half of ir would usually assume a form similar to that which has
them would be so situated, as^to be incapable of transmit- often been observed in halos.

ting any by two successive refractions di-

light regularly The form of the flakes of snow, as they
usually fall, is

same way ; and of the remaining two fourths,

rected the indeed more complicated than we have been supposing, but
the one would refract all the light within these three de- their elements in the upper regions of the air are
probably
grees,and the other would disperse the light in a space of more simple. It happens however not uncommonly, that the
between 20° and 30° beyond them. forms of the luminous arches are so
compUcatedasalmostto
In the same manner, wc may imagine an immense num- defy all calculation. The coincidence in the magnitude of
ber of prismatic particles of snow to be disposed in all pos- the observed and computed
angles is so striking, as to be
sible directions, and a considerable proportion of ihem to nearly decisive with respect to the cause of halos, and it is

be so situated, that the plane of their transverse section may not difficult to imagine that many circumstances ex-
may
pass within certain limits of the sun and the spectator. ist,which may cause the axes of the greater number of the
Then half of these only will appear illuminated, and the prisms to assume a position nearly horizontal, which is all

by such thatis required for the

greater part of the light will be transmitted as are explanation of the parhelia with their
situated at an angular distance of 23°i, or within 3° of it curved appendages Perhaps also, the effect
:
may sometimes
the limit being strongly marked internally, but the light be facilitated by the partial melting of the snow into co-
being externally more gradually lost. And this is precisely noidal drops : for it
may be shown, by the light of a candle
the appearance of the most commorv halo. When there is transmitted through a wine glass full of water, that such a
a sufficient quantity of the prismatic particles, a consider- form is accommodated to the production of an inverted
able part of the light must fall, after one refraction, on a arch of light, like that which is
frequently observed to ac-
second particle ;
so that the effect will be doubled :
and, company a parhelion.

in this case, the angle of refraction will become sufficient If the refractive power of ice were precisely es4ual to that
to present a faint appearance of colour, the red being in- of water, the angle of deviation of an equilateral
prism
ternal, as Che least refrangible light, and the external part would be 23° io', but the average of 22 of the most accu-
having a tinge of blue. rate observations gives 22° 29', and that of 20 less accu-
These concentric halos of 23°^ and 47°, are therefore suf- rate ones 22° 16'. Now an angle of 22°i corresponds

ficiently explicable, by particles of snow, situated promis- to a refractive power of 1.32. Lahire found the refrac-

cuously in all possible directions. If the prisms be so shoi't tive power of ice less than that of water, but Krafft in
as to form triangular plates, these plates, in falling through his oration on northern climates makes it greater. It was
the air, will tend to assume a vertical direction, and a much therefore desirable to ascertain its
powers by direct expe-
greater number of them will be in this situation than in riment, and Dr. Wollaston was so good as to try it
by his

any other. The reflection from their flat surfaces will con- excellent method, which showed that the refractive power
sequently produce a horizontal circle of equal height with was in fact no greater than 1.3 1, giving a deviation of 21°
the sun: and their refraction will exhibit a bright parhelion Perhaps a
50'. partial melting of crystals may sometimes
immediately over the sun, with an appearance of wings, or cause a difference in the actual magnitude of the deviation.

homs, diverging upwards from the parhelion. In the lunar halo, which I observed, the angle was certainly
 30S CATALOGUE. — PHYSICAL OPTICS.

not greater than this, and tjiere couM scarcely have been Mr. Cavendish has suggested, with great apparent proba-
any material error in the observation. that the external halo may be produced by the re-
bility,
The situation of the lateral parhelia, without the halo, is fraction of the rectangular termination of the crystals, rather

very satisfactorily explained by Mariotte : and the diversi- than by two successive refractions through the angles of
fied forms of the tangent arches may" probably all be de- different crystals :
which, with the index 1.31. would pro-
duced from the suppositions laid down in the Journals of duce a deviation of 45° 44'. If this supposition is true, the
the Royal Institution. As an instance, we may take the index cannot be greater than 1.31 : for 1.32 would give 47'
ease there described by Sir Henry Englefield, where the 56' : which is more than appears to have ever been assigned.
sun's altitude was about 1 5°. The horizontal prisms will The mean of 4 accurate observations is about 45° 5o', that
then cause an appearance of an arch with a contrary curva- of 4 of the best estimations 46".

ture, exactly as Sir Henry has described it. The lateral anthelia may be produced by the rays refract-
The calculation issomewhat intricate : Its principal steps ed after two internal reflections, which will have a constant
are these, taking the refractive power ^.
deviation 60° greater than those which form the halo : these
Deviation of transverse rays Qs" 37'. anthelia ought therefore to be about 82° from the sun ;
they
For rays inclined 20°, the inclination of the planes of the are however usually represented as much more distant.

raysisag" 32', the deviation 1<J° 12': the altitude being is",
Glories, or coloured Anthelia.
the angle with the horizon is 25° 8' more than the altitude.

For rays inclined 25°, the inclination of the planes is 34°, See Colours from Interference,
the deviation 27° 47': the angle with the horizon 25° 47'
Ulloa's Voyage. I.
more than the altitude 15°.
Mentions several coloured circles of different sizes, and a
For rays inclined 30°, the inclination of the planes is
white one 67° in diameter.
iao°, that is, the rays are in the planes of the surfaces ; the
Macfait. Etl. ess. I. 197.
deviation 39° 56'; the angle with the horizon a° 4' less
Halos with a glory.
than the altitude 15°.

When the altitude increases, the tangent arch descends Mongez on a glory. Roz. XII. 223.
so as to approach considerably to the halo, as in the halos 8 June, by moonshine.
observed by Halley and by Barker. For, calculating upon Haygaith on a glory. Manch. M. III. 46S.
the true refractive power of ice, the angles become these. In a cloud, which was probably icy. The shadow was
For rays inclined 25°, the inclination of the planes 30° surrounded by coloured coronae, next to these were bright
Si', the deviation 25° 4o',=:2l'' 50' -f 3° 5o', the angle with arches, wider than those of a rainbow.
the horizon 50° 24'=:45°-hll° 24'. For altitude 15°, 38°

S7'=:i5»+23°S7'. Simple Rainbows.

It
may also become double, the inferior arch being visi- I)e Dominis de radiis visus et lucis.
ble: thus the angle with the horizon becomes 21° is' or
Primary rainbow.
45° — 23°42', as well as 56° 24'.
Rainbows crossing each other, by the river,
The mode of calculation is this ;
A being the inclination
at Chartres. Ph. tr. 1665—6.1. 219.
within the prism, and r the index. Sec. Bzz '—• for the
fLinus on the rainbow. Ph. tr. 1675. X.
incidence; S.C—r.S.B, D=C— B. As S.C : Sec. A :: S:D: t, 386.

^Ix^ly, 1 —y -.^x:: Had : T. E, 2 E is the mutual incli- Mariotte on the rainbow. A. P. I. isg.
nation of the planes passing through the rays and the axis Lahire on a red iris seen at Angers in I69O.
T—
— A A. P. II. 53.
of the prism, '•
'•: ij: : : Rad S. F; 2 F is the whole de-
Cassini on a rainbow in the twilight. A. P.
T.A
nation: 1- —-—Ixx-^Lxx; z:^-^^^ ': : S. Altitude : S. G, the X. 275.
y + T
elevation of the plane of the incident ray ; G±: 2E=:H the Halley on an iris by reflection. Ph. tr. I698.
T
-^A XX. 193.
dcvatioD of the plane of the emergent ray ; z : : S. '
A very accurate account.
H S. 1, the depression of the Ph. XXII.
emergent
Halley de
:
ray. iride. tr. 1 700. 714.
 CATALOGUE. — PHYSICAL OPTICS. 309

Makes the angles 41° so' and si 55' for the usual rain- Sejour on alunar rainbow, A. P. 1770. H. 22.
bows : the ternary and quaternary would be 40° ao' and 45° White.
»3' from the sun.
Roz. II. 296.
A red rainbow. A. P. I7O8. H. 109. A third iris between the common ones, not concentric
with them. Probably by reflection.
Thoresby on a lunar rainbow. Ph. tr. 1711.
XXVII. S20.
An entire rainbow. Roz. III. 4l6.
With all the colours. A lunar rainbow. Roz. X. 81.

Dicquemare on a distorted iris. Roz. X. 136.

Langwith on a In'perbolic rainbow on the
Probably by refraction.
"ground. Ph. tr. 1721. XXXI. 229- E. M. Physique. Art. Arc-en-ciel.
Sturmii iridis admiranda.
Tunstall on lunar irides. Ph. tr. 1783. 100.
Pemberton's optical porisms. Ph. tr. 1723.
L'Abbe P. sur Tare en ciel. 8. Par. 1788.
XXXir.245.
R.S.
Smith's optics.
A lunar rainbow. -Roz. XXXIV. 60.
Jo. Bernoulli. Op. IV. 197.
Celsius on a rainbow seen in Dalecarlia. A. Hellwag N. Deutsch. Merkur. 1790. ii. 420.
P. 1743. H. 3.5.
Sturges on two rainbows. Ph. tr. 1793. 1.
One by reflection from the sea.
Berthier on a singular rainbow. A. P. 1747.
A lunar rainbow. Ph. M. XI. 96.
H. 52.
Bouvier on a lunar rainbow. Journ. Phy».
On the banks of the Loire.
LVII. 472.
Webb on an inverted iris on the grass. Ph.
Alunar rainbow. Gilb. XI. 480.
tr. 1751. 248. Seen by Professor Seyfferof Gottingen. The red, green,
•Edwards on a rainbow after sunset. Ph. tr. orange, and violet colours were very lively and distinct.

1757. 293. The editor remarks that this phenomenon is not so rare as is

sometimes supposed, for that Mr. Alfeld has collected ac-

Legentil on two singular rainbows. Ph. tr.
counts of 30 lunar rainbows which had been seen before
1757. 39. This observation
1 7 SO. is only of consequence as it tends
Kotelnikow on the iris. N. C.'Petr. Vir.252. to destroy the opinion of the existence of a diflFerence in the

The tertiary iris, after 5 reflections, would be very broad, colours of the lunar and solar rainbows.

and partly covered by the secondary. Theorim. The angular distance of the primary and
secondary rainbow being given, if a unicuspidate and a bi-
Bergmann on the rainbow. Schw. Abh. 1759.
cuspidate epicycloid be described in a circle, touching it in
231.
points at the given angular distance ; the distance of their
Boscovich on the secondary rainbow. S. E. point of intersection from the centre will be to the tacliusat
III. 321. uniiy to the index of refraction. Y.
In order to avoid a difficulty deduced from the imaginary
fits of reflection, is
obliged to suppose the drops imperfectly Double Refraction.
spherical.
Bartholin on Iceland crystal. Ph. tr. I67O.
Boscovich. Hamb. Magaz. X. 531.
V. 2039-
Mallet on the rainbow. Schw. Abh. 1763.
*HugensTraite de la lumifere.
£39.
On Iceland crystal. A. P. I. 186.
Singular rainbows. Coll. Acad. VI. 253, 265, Lahire on Iceland crystal. A. P. 1710.
286, 296, 299, 356, 433. Beccaria on the double refraction of roqfc
On the ground, red, and lunar.
Ph.
crystal. tr. 1762. 486,
 310 CATALOGUE. — PH-YSICAL OPTICS.
The separation appears to be greatest when the rays pass Distinct marks of an atmosphere, or ol inflection, or of
most transversely with respect to the axis hence it
may be '
; both,inthe transitofVenus, 1769.
inferred that this is an unusual refraction.
Legentil on the
apparent magnitude of
Rochon's artificial Goth.
doubling spar. opaque bodies. A. P. 1784. 469.
Mag. I. 184. Observes, that it is diminished 5" or 6" when they are-
Plates of different densities cemented together. viewed on a light from experiments on a parallel-
ground :

fHaiiy on the double refraction of Iceland ogram enlightened half behind and half before: and on two
contiguous images of circles.
crystal. A. P. 1788^ 34.

Haiiy on double refractions. Ann. Ch. XVII. Maskelyne. Ph. tr. 1768. 355.
140. Dunn's figure of the appearances of Venus,
on the sun. Ph. tr. 1770. 60.
Haiiy on the double refraction of sulfur. B.
Soc. Phil. n. 16. Ph. M. I. 221. Lalande 6n the elongation of the disc of Ve-
nus in the transit. A. P. 1770. 406. H.
Haiiy Traite de phys. II. 347.
Thinks that the carbonate of lime, and the sulfate, have 80.
unusual refractions, because they are composed of obliquan- Says, that the aberrations of the rays of light in the te-
gular parallelepipeds: other crystals have only the usual lescope make the sun's diameter appear too large by
refraction, being derived from rectangular forms. about 6".

Haiiy on double refractions, noticed. Ph. M. A. P. 1775. 265.

VI. ISl. Dionis du Sejour attributes an inflection of about 5* to
the refraction of the lunar atmosphere. Observes, that a star
Ph. tr. 1797. 352.
denies the polarity of the particles of light appears to enter on the moon's disc in an occultation.
Brougham
with respect to Iceland crystal.
A. P. 1780. 237.
Dionis da Sejour considers a solar irradiation of 3"i, and
Linck on double refraction. Crell Ann.
a lunar inflection of the same quantity, as absolutely de-
1797. vii. B. B.
monstrable.
Extr. Ann. Ch. XXVIII. 84.
Herschel. Ph. tr. 1783. 4.
Hind. Arch. II. 74.
A
" light circle being viewed, together with a dark one
Kramp attributes the double refraction to reflection from
placed on a light ground, the light circle appears the
the sides of a primitive crystal, and appears to be fully sa-
larger.
tisfied with the explanation.
Irradiation is generally, and perhaps always, an afiicction
*Wo]laston on the oblique refraction of Ice- of vision, but perhaps it may sometimes be occasioned by

land crystal. Ph. tr. 1802. 381. Nich. 8. a deviation of light from a direction perfectly rectilinear,

and its effects are not any time easily distinguished from
IV. 148.
those of diffraction.
Narci on the optical properties of rocTi cry-
See Telescopes.
stal. Ph. M. XIV. 306.

A certain prism cut out of it simply changes right to left,

without displacing the image : this must be from some re- Vision in general.
flection. Y.
Fabriciiis ab Aquapendente de visione. f.

and Irradiation, as Ven. 1600. M. B.

Diffraction af-
De Dominis de radiis visus et lucis.
fecting Astronomical Observations. Scheinerioculas. 4. Rom. 1652. M. B.
See Eclipses. Trarer nervus opticus, f. Vienn. 169O.

Berkeley's theory of vision. &.

Dubl. 1709.
Legentil on the apparent diameter of the sun.
A. P. 1755. 437. H. 93. M.B.
 CATALOGUE. --PHYSIC At, OPXrCS. Sll

Edinb. 1759- This membrane disappears about the end of the 8lh
"Porterfidd on the eye. G v. 8.
month it seems to have been known to Albinus ; and was
:

On vision. C. Bon. V. i. C. 110. described about the same time by Haller and Hunter.
Scarella on vision. C. Bon. V. ii. 446. VI.
Il'dscler liber das menschlicheauge. 8. Ilamb.
O. 344.
1771.
Bonati's theory of vision. Soc. Ital. II. 676.
Scimmering on the foramen of the retina.
Adams envision. 8. Lond. 1792. R- I.
Commentat. Gott. 1795. XIII. Ph. 3.
et ana-
Comparetti observationcs dioptiicae Leveille on the foramen of the retina. B. Soc.
tomicae. 4. Pad. 1798. R. S. Phil. an. 5. n. 54.

Hoine on Sbmmering's orifice in the human

Structure of the Human retina. Ph. tr. 1798. 332.
JEye.
Home denies the existence of the fold which Sommering
Leeuwenhoek on the crystalline lens. Ph. tr.
describes as covering it ; thinks it the entrance of a lym- |

1684. XIV. 780. A. IM. 68. phatic, and that it is too small to produce any inconveni-

A. P. ence in vision.
Duverney on the organ of vision. I.

fChenevix on the analysis of the humours

of
161.
X. the eye. Ph. tr. 1803. Nich. VI. 21. Ph.
Lahire on the eye. A. P. IX. 355. 478.
Describes the obliquity of the lens. M. XVI. 268.
'Zahn oculus artificialis. f. Nuremb. 1702.
A. P. 1704. 26l. H. 12. Comparative Anatomy of the JGye.
M^ry on the iris.

1710. 274. H. 33. Leeuwenhoek on the eyes of insects. Ph. tr.

Winslow on the muscles of the eye, A. P. XX. 169.'

1698.
1721.310. Leeuwenhoek on the eyes of whales and fishes. '

Petit on the chambers of the eye. A. P. 1723. Ph. tr. 1704. XXIV. 1'5'23.

38. H. 19. 1728. 206, 289. H. 17. the cat's pupil. A. P. 26O. X.
M«ry on I.

Petit on the capsule of the crystalline. A. P. 461.

1730. 435. H. 33. the eye of
Mery on the bony circle in thfe

Lecat on the coats of the eye. A. P. 1739. A. P. II. 15.

eagle and the raven.
H.19. Lahire on the cat's eyes. A. P. IX. 406.
Haller disputationes anatomicae selectae. 6 v.
1712.-H. 73.
4. Gott. 1746. . . M. B.
Lahire on the eyes of insects. A. P. X. 429.
"

Demours on the vitreous humour, the cornea,

Poupart on the eyes of the libella. Ph. tr.
and the uvea. A. P. 1741. H. 60, 68. S. XX. 676.
1700.
E. II. 586. the crystalline of a serpent. A. P. 1706.
fOn
Zinn on the external parts of the eye. C.
H.8.
Gott. 1753. III. 115. XXXIII.
Ranby on an ostrich. Ph. tr. 1725.
*Zinnii oculus. 4. 223.
*Albinus on the eye. Mussch. Introd. II. 744. Warren. Ph. tr. 1726. XXXIV. 115.
Portal on the muscles of the eye. A. P. 1770. The ring consists of 15 tones in water fowls, and 14 hi

246. H. 44. jand

fowls.

*Petit on the crystalline lens in different ani-

Wrisbergon the membrana pupillaris. N. C.
Gott. 1770. II. 108. mals. A. P. 1730. 4. H. S3.
312 CATALOGUE. —^PHYSICAL OPTICS.

*Petit on the eye of the turkey. A. P. 1735. Meiy on the principal organ of vision. A. P.
123. 1704.261. H. 12.

*Petit on the eye of the owl. A. P. 173G. Petit on the vision of infants. A. P. 1727.

121. 246. H. 10.

•Petit on the eyes of the frog and the tortoise. *Porterfield on the external and internal mo-
A. P. 1737. 142. tions of the eye. Ediiib. med. essays. III.
Stancari on the eyes of insects. C. Bon. I. IV.
301. Porterfieldon\heeye. 2 v. 8.
Zinn on the comparative anatomy of the eye. Weiibrecht on the motions of the pupil. C.
C. Gott. 1754. IV. 247. Commentat. Gott. Petr. XIII. 349.

1778. 1. App. 47. Leroy on the accommodation of the eye to

Haller on the eyes of some fishes. A. P. 1762. different distances. A. P. 755. 594. 1

75. H. 42. Mayer on the powers of sight. C. Gott. 1754.

Brown. Ph. tr. 1778. 794. IV. 120. Roz. Intr. 1.241.
The cornea of the flying fish is very flat. The minimum .*' for detached objects, ]' for contiguou*
Andre on the eye of the monoculus polyphe- objects in common day light : and in a different degree of
illumination the angle varies as the 6th root of the light.
mus. Ph. tr. 17«2.
Dalembert. A. P. 1765.
Manch. M.
-
III.
Hey on the eye of the seal.
Maintains that the eye is not achromatic.
274.
Shows that the nerve does not enter in the axis.
Darcy on the duration of the sensation of

Bonvicini on the blindness of snails. Soc. sight. A. P. 1765. 439.

Fontana dei moti dell' iride. 4. R. S. Roz.
Ital. VII. 291.
X. 25.
+P. Smith on the eyes of birds. Ph.tr. 1795.
On the changes of the eye. Nich. I. 305.
263.
Olbcrs de oculi mutationibus internis. 4.
Home's Croonian lecture. Ph.tr. 1796. 1.
Gott. 1780. R.S.
LaCep^de on the eyes of the anabieps. M.
Herschel on the magnitude of the optic pen-
Inst. II. 372. B. Soc. Phil. n. 8.
cil. Ph. tr. 1786.500.
A double iris and a divided cornea, but only one lens.
A pencil of j,iyj
of an inch was sufBcient, with a high
Young. Ph. tr. 1801.
magnifier.

Herschel on the powers of the prismatic co-

Immediate Functions of the Eye. lours to heat and illuminate. Ph. tr. 800.
Hooke Animadv. on Hevelius. 255. Ph. M, VII. 311.
Makes the minimum of vision .5'. The greenish yellow rays the most effective.
Mariotte and Pecquet on the insensible Venturi's optical considerations. Soc. Ital.

spot of the retina, and on the seat of vi- III. 268.

sion. Ph. tr. 1668. III.668. 1670. V. 1023. Finds the dispersion of the eye nearly equal to that of

A. P. 1. 68. glass.

Briggson the theory of vision. Ph. tr. l683. Maskelyne on the effect of the different refran-
of light in vision. Ph. tr. 1789. 256.
XIII. 171. Hooke. Ph. coll. n. 6. I67. gibility
Thinks the effect too small to be perceived.
Lahire on vision. A. P. IX. 355.
Young on vision. Ph. tr. 1793- I69.
Tbinki no change of conformation poisibl«>
 CATALOGUE, — PHYSICAL OPTICS. 313

Young on the mechanism of the eye. Ph. tr. Euler on vision through spherical segments,
1801. 23. N. C. Petr. XI. 185.
Home's tacts relative to Hunter's intended fDunn on the horizontal sun and moon. Ph.
Croonian lecture. Ph.tr. 1794. 21. tr. 17G2. 462.
On the muscularity of the crystalline lens of the sepia. Jetze's remarks on the estimation of distance.
Home's Croonian lecture. Ph. tr. 1795. 1.
1783.
•
Leipz. Mag.
Attributes the change of the eye to the cornea.
Gr. Fontana on the apparent brightness of
Home's Croonian lecture. Ph. tr. 179G. 1.
objects. Ac. Sienn. V. 103.
Abandons a part of the effect of the cornea.
After BufTonr
Home's experiments on persons deprived of
Robinson on single vision. Roz. XII. 329.
the crystalline Jens. Ph. tr. 1802. 1.
Rittcnhouse on an optical deception. Am. tr,
Ph. Ir. 1796.
II. 37.
Brougham shows, after Musschenbroek, the effect of the
A true explanation of Gmelin's experiment.
refraction of light by the moisture of the eyelids.
Walter on erect vision. A. Berl. Deutsche
MoUweide on the dispersion of the e^-e. Gilb.
abh, 1788. 3.
XVn. 328.
Wells on single vision with two eyes. 8.
Perception of external Objects. Lond. 1792. R. S.
On the apparent form of the heavens. Des- Atkins on the horizontal moon. 8. Lond. 1793.
cartes, Desaguliers, Rowning, Smith, Lambert on the place of images. Hind. Arch.
Priestley, Ferguson. III. 61.

Hooke on the horizontal moon. Birch. III. Explains some difficulties suggested by Barrow and others.

503, 507.
Ware on a recovery of sight. Ph. tr. 1801.
The true explanation. 382. Nich. 8. I. 57.
Molineux and Wallis on the apparent mag- Nicholson on the horizontal moon. Nich.
nitude of the sun and moon. Ph. tr. IG8G. VII. 236.
XVI. 314,323. fWalker on the horizontal
moon, with re-
Chesselden's account of a person who was marks by C. L. Nich. IX. l64, 235.
couched. Ph. tr. 1728. XXXV. 447. The apparent distance of the horizontal moon is increased

by Its fainmess.
Desaguliers on the horizontal moon. Ph. tr.

1736. XXXIX. 390. .

Shadows.
As Molineux.
Mairan on the apparent curvature of the Picard on shadows. E. P. VII. i. 185.
heavens. A. P. 1740. 47. Lahire on the strength of a penumbra. A. P.
Gmelin de visione fallaci per microscopia. 1711. 157. H. 74.
Ph.tr. 1745. XLIII. 387. Maraldi on shadows. A. P. 1 723. 1 1 1 . H. -90.
The effect was probably owing to the inversion of the
On shadows and penumbras. Lambert Pho-
image by the microscope, causing the lights to fall on the
tometria. §. 1218.
contrary side with respect to external objects, so that the
Monge on shadows and penumbras. S. E.
image appeared convex instead of concave. Y.
IX. 1780. 400.
*Berkelcy on vision.
Mathematical.
A good theory of erect vision, p. 312.
Dutour on single vision. S. E. III. 514. VI. Fourcroy on the shadow of a lattice. A. P.

241. H. 88. 1784. .555.

VOL. II. s s
314 CATALOGUE, — PHYSICAL OPTICS.
The answer to the shades ot a perfect Says, that an electric spark in a Torricellian \acuum with
lights appeared to
when disc was covered a few drops of ether appears green to an eye near and red
shadow, except part of the sun's it,

clouds. Hence the effect must have been owing to the at the distance of a few yards. Probably some imperfection
by
of the focus was concerned.
penumbra. Y.
Jordan on the spectre of the Brocken. Ph. Analytical determination of tints in painting.
M. I. 232. Journ. polyt. I. i I67.
A shadow falling on clouds. Barker's patent panorama. Repert. IV. 165,
Gilb. XVII. 183 Montucla and Lalande. III. 565.
a shadow
Castberg thinks the fata morgana at Reggio
thrown on a mist. Ocular Spectra and coloured shadows.
Colours, as aff'ecting the Ei/e.
Jurin in Smith's optics.
Waller's catalogue of simple and mixed co- Buifon on accidental colours. A. P. 1743.
lours. Ph, tr. 1686. XVI. 24. 147. H. 1.
With specimens annexed, many of which now only serve
want of permanence of the colours employed.
Aepinus's optical observations. N. C. Petv.
as tests of the
X. 282. Roz. XXVI.
Ph. tr. 1716. XXIX. 449,451.
A being viewed with each eye at the
different colour Darcy. A. P. 1765.
same time, the result not a mixed colour, but a contem-
is Beguelin on coloured shadows. A. Berl. 1767.
both. Sometimes the colours appear
poraneous sensation of 27.
to succeed each other alternately. Y.
Beguelin on a deception of sight with respect
Lambert's farbenpyramide. 4. Berl. 1772. to colour. A. Berl. 1771.8.

Dicquemare on the vision of colours. Roz. Franklin's experiments and observations.

VIII. 64. Lond. 1769. 470. Roz. II. 383.
4. Halle, 1782.
Prangens farben lexicon. Mongez on ocular spectra. Roz. VI. 481.
Opoix on colours. Roz. XXIIl. 402,
Mongez on blue shadows. Roz, XII, 127.
Opitzsur les couleurs. MS. R. S. Godard on ocular spectra, Roz. VII. 509.

Mayer de affinitatecolorum. Op. ined. I. 31. VIII. 1, 269, 341. XXV. 219.
Saussure on the light required
for
viewing dif-
Dicquemare on illusions of sight. Roz. XI.
ferent colours. Mem. Tur. 1788. IV. 441. 403.

Legentil
on objects viewed through coloured Observations sur les ombres color^es.' 8. Par.

glasses.
Ann. Ch.X. 225. 1782,
Herschel on the illumination of different and Aepinus on accidental colours.
Scherffer
colours. Ph. tr. 1800. 255. Roz. XXVI. 175,273,291.
The greenish yellow rays
the brightest.
*R. W. Darwin on ocular spectra. Ph. tr.

Aerial Perspective, and management of colours. 1786. 313.

Explains some phenomena very satisfactorily fiora the
Lambert on photometry, as subservient to
contrast of sensations ;
but others might be better understood

painting.
A. Berl. 1768. 80. from the analogy of coloured shadows, especially Ihe direct

Lambert on aerial perspective. A. Berl. 1774. spectra. Darwin thinks, that the stimulus of light accord-
ingly as its intensity becomes greater, produces, first simple
74.
spasmodic action ; 2, intermittrng spasmodic action ; 3,
uber das mischen der farben.
Pfannenschmid opposite spasmodic action ; 4, various successive actions;

S.Hann. 1781. 5, fixed spasmodic action ; 6, paralysis. Mentions the

Prangens schule der mahlung. 8. Halle, 1782. effect of light coming, through the eyelifls, and a mode of
observing the circulation of the blood in the eye.
Morgan.Ph.tr, 1785.
 CATALOGUE. —PHYSICAL OPTICS, 315

On accidental colours. Roz. XXX. 407. Aepinus on the apparent diameter of a small
Marat sur la lumi^re. hole. N. C. Petr. VII. 303.

Monge on coloured shadows. Ann. Ch. III. Telescopic appearances of stars. Herschel.
131. Ph. tr. 1782.
Rumford on coloured shadows. Ph. tr. 1794. Stack on improving defective sight. Ir. trans.

107. Nich. I. 101. 1788. II. 27.

Shows that they are mere fallacies. Supposes myopia to depend on aberration.
Irradiation. See diffraction, as
Hassenfratz on coloured shadows. Journ. affecting
VI. 282. VII. astronomical observations.
polyt. IV. xi. 272. Nich.
23..
Squinting.

Impirfectiom of sight. Buffon. A. P. 1743. 231. H. 68.

Dutour. S. E. VI. 470.
Defects of focal distance.
Darwin. Ph. tr. 1778. 86.
i-Myopibus juvamen. R. H. Hooke. Ph. coll. Arnim on a case of double vision. Gilb. III.
n. 3. p.5!j.
249.
Lahire on the use of spectacles. A. P. IX.
366.417. Confusion ofcolours.
Desaguliers on telescopes for myopic per- Ph.tr. 1738.
sons. Ph. tr. 1719. XXX. 1017. All objects appeared red to some persons who had eaten
On the effect of glasses upon the flexibility henbane roots.

of sight. A. P. 1770. H.50.

Huddart on persons who could not distin-
Spectacles. E. M. A. IV. Art. Lunettier.
guish colours. Ph. tr. 1777. 260.
Henry on a person becoming short sighted Harris, a shoemaker, could only tell black from white ;
in advanced age. Manch. M. III. 182. had two brothers equally defective one of them mistook
:

At 50, probably from reading a small print frequently orange for green.

without much light.

»
Scott's imperfection of sight. Ph. tr. 1778.
Richardson's patent spectacles. Repert. X. 613.
145. Full reds and full greens appeared alike ; but yellows and
With additional glasses, which raay be turned back at dark blues were very nicely distinguished.

pleasure. Roz. XIII, 86.

Woliaston's improved periscopic spectacles. Monge. Ann. Chim. III. 13I.
Nich. VII. 143, 241. Ph. M. XVII. 327. Dalton on some facts relating to the vision
XVIII. 165. of colours. Manch. M. V. 28.
Meniscus lenses. His own case, agreeing with those of several other persons.

Jones on Woliaston's spectacles. Nich. VII. He cannot distinguish blue from pink by daylight, but by

candlelight the pink appears red in the solar spectrum

192. VIII. 38. Ph. M. XVIII. 6.5, 273.
;

the red is
scarcely visible, the rest appears to consist of two
i-E. Walker on spectacles. Nich. VII. 291. and blue, or of yellow, blue, and
colours, yellow purple.
He thinks it probable that the vitreous humour is of a deep
blue tinge but this has never been observed
Imperfection of focus.
:
by anatomists,
and it ismuch more simple to suppose the absence or para-
Lahire on the obliquity of the crystalline of those fibres of the retina, which are calculated to
lysis
lens. A. P. IX. 399.
perceive red ; this supposition explains all the
phenomena.
316 CATALOGUE. — PHYSICAL OPTICS.
except that greens appe»» to become bluish when viewed Daval on an extraordinary rainbow. Ph. tr,
but in this circumstance there is perhaps no
by candlelight ;
1749. XLVI. 193.
great singularity. " Within the
Confirming Langwith's account. purple
of the common rainbow there were arches of the following
colours. 1. Yellowish green, darker green, purple, a.
Debility of sight.
Green, purple. 3. Green, purple." These colours were
Taper tubes assisting weak sight. Ph. tr.
not visible near the horizon, although the bow was very
1G68. ill. 727, 765. bright there.

Biiggs's case of indistinct vision

at night. Ph. Boscovich on a halo near the sun. A. P.
tr. 1684. IV. 539. 1754. H. S.2.

Dale on a blindness at night. Ph. tr. 1694. Mazeas on the colours produced by friction.
XVIII. 158. A. Berl. 1752. 248. S. E. II. 26.
Euler on the colours of thin plates. A. Berl.
Cataract. 1752. 262.

the extraction of the cataract. Due de Chaulnes on some experiments of

Young on
Ed. ess. II. 324.
Newton. Book 2, part 4. A. P. 1755. 136.
H. 130.
Gives an explanation, which is confuted by his ovm sug-
Employment for the Blind.
gestion, that the same eflect ought to be expected from a
Cheese's musical machine for the blind. lens as from a mirror.

S. A .V. 125. N. C. Petr. VI. 420.

Manch. saw in 1741 three supernumerary rainbows

Bew on employment in blindness. Biilfinger
within the primary one, the first red, the second blue,
M. I. 159. There are also
green, and red, the third dark and red.
Berard's palpable mathematics for the blind. three other similar observations.
B. Melanges, 1 83.
Dutour on coloured rings and on diffraction.
Some books have been printed in Paris in palpable cha-
racters.
S.E. IV. 285. V. 635. VI. 19.
Dutour on the phenomena of thin plates,
flaws, and thick plates. Roz. I. 368. II. 1 1,
Production of Colo'urs in Double
349. V. 120, 230. VII. 330, 341.
Lights. Dutour on fringes of colours. Roz. VI. 135,
412.
See diffraction.
Delaval on the colours produced by metak.
Hooke on the colours of a bubble. Bircli.
Ph.tr. 1765. 10.
III. 29.
Benvenuti de lumine. 4. Vienn. 1766.
Newton on the colours of thin plates. Birch.
Boscovich's theory.
III. 247, 278.
Diequemaie. lloz. VIL 300.
Lahire on the iris round candles. A. P. IX.
Observed a third irisbeyond the second, as much weaker
364. than the second as the second was than the first, and at

Langwith Pemberton on supernume-

and the distance of its breadth, or at 1 of the distance of the
the red was internal, as in the secon-
rary rainbows. Ph. tr. 1723. XXXII. first from the second :

dary rainbow-
241, 245.
Cockin on an extraordinary appearance in
Mairan on diffraction. A. P. 1738. 53. H.
amist.Ph.tr. 1780. 157.
82.
 CATALOGUE. PHYSICAl- OPTICS. 317
An oblong shadow, surrounded by two luminous and tle or nothing was added to the account that Newton gave
coloured arches : the centre being dark, yellow next, then of them, until some attempts were lately made to explain
dark, then a rainbow. Quotes Priestley and others for three them, and to build at the same time on the explanation, the

parallel cases. principal arguments in favour of a new system of light and

Barker. Ph. tr. 1783. 245. 1787. 370. colours. The phenomena themselves were very little

Some coronae. known, except from Newton's had hap-

description ;
it

pened but to few to observe them and they had never been
:

Stratico on the diffraction of light. Ac. Pad.

made conspicuous to a public audience in a form
equally
II. 185. *
beautiful and interesting.

Hopkinson and Rittenhouse on inflection It appeared, however, that there would be little
difficulty

through cloth. Am. tr. II. 201. Nich. 1. in applying the

apparatus for representing opaque objects in
the solar microscope, to the exhibition of these colours on a
13.
large scale : but several precautions were necessary, in order
Comparetti de luce inflexa et coloritus. 4. to obtain the most advantageous representation ; and, these
Pad. 1787. R.S. precautions having been completely successful, it may beof
Contains some curious experiments, but generally in very some a detached account of them.
utility to give
complicated circumstances. The colours of thin substances must often have been
Brougham on inflection and colours. Ph. tr. seen in bubbles of water or of other fluids, and in the filin

1796. 227. 1797. 352. Nich. 11. 147. produced by a drop of oil spreading on water ; they were
more particularly observed in the plates of talc, or of selenite,
Jordan's observations on light and colours, 8.
into which those substances readily divide. Sir Isaac
Lond. 1799. 1800. R. I.
Newton made his experiments principally on the colours of
Ace. Nich. IV. 78. soap bubbles, and on those which are produced by the con-
Colours produced by distant glasses. Nich. tact of two lenses. For inspecting the colours of
soapy
II. 312. water, the most convenient method is that of Mr. Jordan.

He dips a wine glass into a weak solution of soap, and thea

Probably from a slight difference in the thickness of the
holds in a horizontal position against an
it
upright substance,
glasses, the rays twice reflected within the first glass only, in-
for example, a window shutter ; the filrn
covering the glars
terfering with the rays twice reflected in the second only.
The analogy with being in a vertical position, the of the fluid tends to
gravity
the colours of thin plates is
wholly make thicker at the lower part,
it and it becomes every
foreign to the subject.
where gradually thinner and thinner, till at lengtii it bursts
Colours of steel. Nich. IV. 127. at the uppermost point. The colours assume, in this case,
Young on some cases of the production of the form of hcrizontal stripes, similar to the
rings which
colours. Ph. tr. 1802. 387- Nich. 8. TV. are to be more particularly described.

It has been observed by Newton, that the colours thus

180.
reflected from a plate of a denser medium, are more vivid
Young on the colours of thin plates shown by than when a plate of a rarer medium is
interposed between
the solar microscope. Journ. R. I., 1.241. two denser meiiiums. But the cause of this apparent dif-

Nich. 8. III. 283. ference is, probably, the quantity of foreign light that is
ge-
nerally present in the experiment, reflected as well
Young on physical optics. Ph. tr. 1804. 1. from
the upper surface of the superior medium as frcm-the
Nich. IX. 63.
1 Jwcr surface of the inferior, both these surfaces
being often
Messier on a lunar corona. M. Inst. V. 130.
nearly parallel to the surface;; in contact. It becomes
Anthelia. See Glories, Parhelia. therefore desirable to remove this foreign light this
:
may
be done efTectually, by employing one glass in the form of
a prism, and coiituig the lower surface of the other with
Description of Dr. Young's Apparatus for exhiliting the
black sealing wax
the light reflected by the oblique surfacc
:

Colours of thin Plates, by means

of the Solar Micro- ofthe thus thrown into another direction; and the.
first is
.
scope. Journ, R, 7. I. 241.
reflection of the inferior surface of the second is either
The colours of thin plates were observed
by Boyle and destroyed or rendered imperceptible. And, with these.pre-
Hooke, and more aecurately analysed by Newton but lit-
cautions, the rings of colours, produced in the reflectediight.
:
318 CATALOGUE. — PHySICAl OPTICS.

may be rendered a verjr beautiful object by means of the rated and placed parallel to each other, on account of th«

solar microscope. different refrangibility of the light of which they consist.

The most perfectly plane glasses
are those which are used Thus the broken line of the eiueme red, which consists of

for : one of these may be ground in the the longest portions, is least refracted ; the other reds fol- '

Hadlcy's quadrants
direction of the diagonal of its transverse section, so as to low, and are placed in contact with the first, and with each
make wedge or prism ; and the surface of the lens
a thin other, but, on account of the different magnitude of the

employed must be a portion of a sphere of from

five to ten portions, somewhat obliquely. The dark spaces also are in

feet radius. The two glasses must be retained in their po- contact, and form a separation between each portion of
soon as the pressure In the same manner, the green follows the red,
sition by means of three screws ; for, as light.

isremoTcd, they repel each other with considerable force ; with little or no visible yellow. The blue and violet are ,

and, for this reason, neither of them ought to be very thin,

somewhat mixed : for these two colours are much less

otherwise they will bend before they are sufficiently near. widely separated by thin plates than by the prism : for this

For adjusting the glasses of the microscope, it is conve- reason, each portion of light formed by the contiguous lines
nient to fix them in a cylinder of sufficient to project size of the different colours is bounded not by straight but by
the and their screws, in order that they may curved lines.
beyond glasses
be readily turned so as to reflect the light coming from the It is evident, that, by drawing a line across this compound
axis of the microscope at we may learn the
speculum, into the direction of the spectrum any part, component
:
parts

it is obvious, that in this case, they must be somewhat in- of the light constituting the rings at that part ;
for the prism
clined to the light, so that the focus of the whole image only spreads the colours in a direction transverse to this
will never be equally perfect ; and, instead of being circular, spectrum : and it may be observed, that after tlie eighth or

like the rings themselves, their images on the screen will tenth alternation, the light transmitted at each point is so

be oval. In this manner, eight or ten alternations of co- mixed, that we may easily understand how it
appears white.
lours may easily be observed ; but their order and sequence The colours of thin plates, as seen by transmission, are
is too complicated to be easily understood ; for they are also easily exhibited in the solar microscope ; but, since it

infinite number of series of rings of is

utterly impossible to exclude the very great proportion of
really composed of an
being formed by each of the the light which does not appear to be concerned in their
different magnitude, each series

gradations of light in the prismatic spectram, which, near formation, they are never so brilliant as the colours seefi by
the centre, are sufficiently separate to form distinct appear- reflection.

ances, either alone or in combination ; but, after eight or

ten alternations, are lost in the common effect of white Account of Dr. Young's Experiments and Calculations

For, when the glasses are illuminated by homoge- relative to Physical Optics. From the Journals of the
light.

neous from the rest by the refraction Royal Institution, II.

light only, separated
of a prism, or otherwise, the rings of each colour occupy, Dr. Young divides this paper into six sections. 1 . Ex-
together with the dark spaces, the whole visible surface, perimental demonstration of the general law of the inter-
their number being only limited by the power of the eye ference of light. 2. Comparison of measures, deduced from
,in perceiving objects so minute as the external ones be- various experiments. 3. Application to the supernumerary

come, in consequence of the rapid increase of the thick- rainbows. 4. Argumentative inference respecting the na-
ness of the plate of air near the edges of the curved surface. ture of light. 5. Remarks on the colours of natiual bodies,

This circumstance being once understood, it is also capable 6. Experiment on the dark rays of Ritter.
of being illustrated in a manner still more elegant, by The object of the first section is to demonstrate in a sim-

placing a prism a few feet from

the microscope, leaving ple and elementary manner, by the direct evidence of the

only a narrow line of its surface exposed to the incident rays, senses, the truth of the genera! principle, which appears to
and then throwing the rings of colours on it, in such a direc- connect an extensive class of phenomena by a clear analogy.

tion, that this line shall pass through their centre. Care This principle is, that where two portions of light arrive at

being taken to exclude from the prismatic spectrum thus any point by different routes very nearly in the same di-
formed all extraneous light, it exhibits a most interesting rection, they sometimes destroy and sometimes corroborate

analysis of these colours ; for the line consists of portions each other, according to the different lengths of their re-
of the rings of all possible gradations of colour, each form- spective paths. This is proved by placing a slip of card in

ing a broken line, but not of the same dimensions ; and, a sun beam admitted through a small aperture, its shadow
by tjie prismatic refraction, all these broken lines are sepa- being divided by alternate lines of light and shade w^ep
 CATALOGUE. — NATURE OF LIGHT. 319
the light is atlowcd to pass by both of its parallel edges : but which consists in the succession of motions in contrary di-

when the light on either side is intercepted, the fringes dis- rections, at intervals which are also in arithmetical progres-

appear. The crested fringes observed by Grimaldi within sion, that we can scarcely avoid concluding that the nature
the rectangular termination of a shadow, are also shown to of sound and of light must have a very
strong resemblance.

depend on the mixture of the two portions of light inflected It was conjectured by Newton that the colours of all
atthe two edges of the object, which form the angle. natural bodies are similar tosome of the series of colours
In the second section, the appropriate interval for the produced by thin plates. In this case, as Dr. Young has ob-
is calculated from experiments of Newton, served in a former paper, they ought to be divided into two,
brightest light
and from others which are new, and made under a variety three, ormore portions, by prismatic refraction, as the colours

of circumstances ;
and the measure deduced from each ob- of thin plates necessarily are ; and he has pointe<l out an
servation agrees with the mean without an error of more instance of the kind in the blue light of a candle, which
than a fourth or a fifth : if the principle had been erroneous, consists, as Dr. Wollaston discovered, of five separate por-
there is no reason why this distance should not have varied tions. He now describes the effect of the prism on the
at least as much as the measures of the fringes, which were light transmitted by the blue glass sold in the shops, which
changedinthe ratio of 7 to i, or even in a much greater ratio. appears to be divided in a similar manner into seven por-
There is still, however, some doubt with respect to the cause tions. But he confesses that the analogy suspected by
of the slight difference observed, the measure of the interval Newton is imperfect in more than one respect.

being always a little larger in these experiments than in In the last section an experiment is related by which the
the observations of Newton on thin plates ;
and the error is effects of thin plates and the general laws of interference
the greater as the of the light the more are shown to extend to the dark
tracis is rectilinear. rays discovered by Ritter,
The proportions of the intervals for the different colours are and hitherto only known by their effects on metallic oxids.
also shown to be the same here as in the colours of thin The spectram of rings, which has been repeatedly exhi-
plates : and it is observed that the form of Grimaldi's crested bited in the theatre of the
Royal Institution, was thrown on
fringes, ought according to the calculation to be that of an a paper dipped in a solution of the nitrate of silver, and the

equilateral hyperbola. blackening effect was distinctly observable in the portions of

The law, being thus established, is in the third place ap- three rings, which were marked on the paper, nearly of the
plied to the
supernumerary rainbows observed by Dr. Lang- same dimensions as the violet rings, but apparently a little

with and others, which Dr. Pemberton has attempted to smaller. The same mode of analysis, Dr. Young observes,
explain by a comparison with the colours of thin plates. might be extended with great advantage to the rays of invi-
The advantage which Dr. Young's explanation possesses
sible heat discovered
by Dr. Herschel, if we had thermo-
is this, that he refers the colours to the light regularly re- meters of suflBcient delicacy to assist us in its application.
flected, and Dr. Pemberton employs the light irregulariy
dissipated, of which the effect must be perhaps some hun-
dred times weaker.
Nature of Light, and Causes of
Comparing the two portions of light
of which the extreme terminations constitute the common Colours.
rainbow, he finds that they must cause, by their interfe-
rence at other parts, rings of colours, agreeing
perfectly with
Arjstoteles tie anima. L. xi. c. 7-
those which were observed in a particular instance Zucchii optica philosophia. 1652.
by Dr.
Langwith, if the drops of rain concerned were all between Maintains the colours are exhibited by transmission
only :

j^ and^Lj of an inch in diameter.

Kepler showed the same by experiments. Wells.
Hitherto, Dr. Young observes in the fourth section, he
Ilooke's miciographla.
has advanced in this Paper no general hypothesis ; and he
attempts to infer, by a chain of experimental arguments,
Ilooke's considerations on Birch. Ill,
light.
that refraction is not produced by an attractive force since : 10.
from the smaller length of the appropriate intervals of in-
Hooke's opinion of light. Bircii. III. I94.
terference in a denser medium, it may be concluded that Newton's hypothesis of light. Birch. III. 247,
light moves more slowly as the medium has a greater re-
fractive density. He remarks that the existence of the
278. See Refraction.
in-
tervals of interference in
an arithmetical progression, agrees Mariotte de la nature descouleurs. Oeuvres,
so well with the nature aad
properties of a musical sound, I. 195.
S2G CATALOGUE. — NATUKE OF LIGHT.
Halley's queries respecting the nature of light. Euler on the colours of thin plates. A. Berl.
Ph. tr. ms. XVII. 998. 1752.262.
Follows Huygens, but with some misconceptions. Ob- Euler on the nature of colours, and the re-
Serves, that the ether is generally supposed to penetrate all A. Berl. 1754.
frangibility of different rays.
bodies with full liberty.
200.
Huygens's system of light. A. P. I. 184. Euler on the refraction of different rays. N.
*Huyi5ens Trait6 4e la lumi^re. 4. Leyd. C. Petr. XII. 166.
1690. Euler on refraction and dispersion. A. Petr.
Duclos on the properties and extension of I. i. 174.

light. A. P. IV. 27. Melvil on the refrangibility of light. Ph. tr.

!Malehranche on light and colours. A. P. 1753. 261.

1699.22. H. 17. ,
Supposing a difference of velocity.

Lahire's remarks on some colours. A. P. 17 1 1 .

Melvil on light and colours. Ed. ess. II. 12.

Itsnature, tenuity, and different velocity.

78.
Short on the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites.
Mairan on colours and sound, on the figure
Ph. tr. 1753. 268.
and rotation of the particles of light, and
Proving the velocities of all kinds of light equal.
on their different refrangibility. A. P. 1720.
On the effects of light. C. Bon. IV. C. 76.
H. 11. 17.37. 22. H. 97. 1738. 8. H. 82.
Changes of colour and of texture.
'

Itizzetti de luminis aftisctionibus. Trevis.

Boscovich's difficulty respecting the second-
1727. R. S.
ary rainbow. S. E. III. 321.
Remarks. Ph. tr. 1728. XXXV. Boscovich theoria philosophiae naturalis.
Explains refraction and total refraction as Euler andothers.
Eberhard liber die natur der farben. 8. Halle,
J. Bernoulli on the propagation of light. A.
1762.
P. Pr. in. iii.
Eberhard on the colour of the air. Roz.
Clairaut on the Cartesian and Newtonian
Introd. I. 618.
theory of refraction. A. P. 1739. 259-
Wtatfeld liber die erzeugung der farben. 8.
Clairaut on Courtivron's calculation of the
Gott. 1767.
velocity of light. Ph. tr. 1754. 776.
Horsley on difficulties respecting light. Ph.
Making the required difference greater than Melvil.
tr. 1770.417. 1771. 547.
Clairaut on the hypothesis of different velo-
Beguelin's proposal for experiments on the
cities of different colours. A. P. 1756.422.
propagation of light. A. Berl. 1772. 152.
Segner de raritate luminis. 4. Getting. 1740. Roz. XIII. 38.
Kruger on ocular music. M. Berl, 1743. VII. Inclines to the Huygcnian theory.
345. Objections to Beguelin's proposal. Allgem.
On light and colours. A. Berl. 1745. H. 13. Deutsche bibl. XXIV. 18.
Euler on the propagation of light. A. Berl. On ocular music. Mendelsohn's briefe. ii.

1746. 141. Saboureux on ocular music. Roz. II. 78.

Euleri novatheorialucis et colorum.

Opusc. On the immediate cause of refraction. Roz.
I. 179.
11.271.
Euleri conjectura physica circa propagationem Delaval on changes of colour. A. Berl. 1774.
soai et luminis. 4. Berl. 1750. Opusc. 154.
 CATALOGUE. NATURE OF LIGHT. 321

Delavalon the colours of opaque bodies. 4. Bonnet on the effects of light upon colours.
R. S. Roz. XIII. 462.
Delaval on the permanent colours of opaque Wilson's proposed experiment on the aberra-
bodies. Manch. M. II. 131. tion of the fixed stars. Ph. tr. 1783. 38.

Maintains, that all light is reflected by white particles, and Fontana on light. Soc. Ital. I. 104. Crell.
coloured in its transmission. No transparent coloured me- Chem. ann. 1784.
dium reflects any light when examined within a blackened Fontana on the path of light during refrac-
bottle; this isthown by experimenls on Q8 kinds of fluids
tion. Soc. Ital. III. 498.
and on many kinds of glasses. Vegetable extracts also appear-
ed black, earth being the only reflective substance in vege-
Marat sur la lumi^re.

tables. Fibrous animal substances are while, the extractive Marivetz on the propagation of light in an
juices black. Supposes that coloured metals consist of elastic medium. Roz. XXIII. 340. XXIV.
ycHow transparent matter mixed nyith white reflective par-
40, 230, 275. In answer to Senebier. Roz.
ticles. Glass tinged mth a little arsenic is yellow or orange

and blue by reflected light, like the atmo-

XXVI. 140."
by transmitted,

sphere : for this, and for the colours of the sea Mr. Delaval
Remarks on Marivetz. Roz. XXIII. 380.
proposes a very improbable theory. It appears that bodies Ph. tr. 1784. 35.
acquire this property as they lose their transparency : thus Michel observes, that the attraction of large stars should
glass tinged.with gold and rendered opaque by heat transmits produce a difference in the velocity of light.
violet light, and appears by reflection brown. Infusions of
fBowdoin on the nature and waste of light.
woods, used in dying red, transmit yellow or red light ac-
Am. Ac. I. 187,208.
cording to their thickness. Sap green digested in alcohol
Supposes a solid orb to surround the whole universe and
transmits green light when thin, dull yellow and then bright
to preserve the light emitted from the sun and stars.
red when thicker : other vegetable greens have the same

property, and the aqueous infusion in some degree. Infu- Experiments and observations on light and
sion of litmus appears to be blue when thin, then purple, colours. 8. Lond. 1786.
and when still thicker, bright red. Mr. Delaval supposes
Suggests, that light constitutes a scale of rays extending
that these colours are produced by inflection the colours
considerably on each side of the spectrum, the rq^ddle part
:

of thin plates, he says, are produced by the reflection of but forms no conjecture respecting
only being visible to us :

light from their posterior surfaces. the nature of the extremes.

Berthollet on the influence of Roz.

Higgins on hght. 8. Lond. 177(i. R. I. light.

On colours. Roz. X. 66. XXIX, 81.

Arena Physicae quaestiones. 4. Rom. 1777,. Chaptal on the effect of light in crystalliza-
tion. Roz. XXXIII. 297.
Sentbier sur I'influence de la lumicrc solaire

pour modifier les etres des trois regnes de . Deluc on light and heat. Roz. XXXVII.
la nature. 3 v. 8. Gcnev. 1782. 54, 116.

Senebier on light, in answer to Marivetz. Comparetti de luceet coloribus.

Roz. XXV. 74.
Saussure on the chemical effects of light.
"
M.
Sentbier on the effect of light in Tur. 1788. IV. 441.
bleaching Finds the effect increased on a high mountain.
wax. M. Laus. III. 362.
Dorthes on the effects of light. Ann. Ch. II.
Senebier on the effect of
light in bleaching.
92.
Roz. XXXVin. 56.
Robison on the motion of refracting mediums,
Answer to Senebier's remarks on Roz.
light. Ed. tr. II. 83.
XIII. Suppl. 281. Corrects the errors of Boscovich.

^ VOi. II. T t
 322 CATALOGUE. — NATURE OF LIGHT.

Vassalli's comparison of solar light with the On Parr's theory of light and heat. Nrch. II.
•
light of fire. M. Tur. 1790. VI. 186, 287. 547.
Producing the same chemical effects.
Laplace on the attraction of bodies to light.
Gehlers physic, worterb. Art. Licht. Zach. Ephem. IV. 1.

Wedgwood. Ph. tr. 1792. 270. A star, 250 times as great in diameter as the sun, ought
Air not visible made a wire red hot. to overcome the velocity of light and draw it back ; such a
star would therefore be invisible.
Ph.tr. 1792.81.
Bennet could discover no momentum in light by a very T. Young on sound and light. Ph. tr. 1800.
delicate test. 106. Nich. V. 72, 161.

Burja on colours. A. Berl. 1792. 23. Young on the theory of light and colours.
Franklin on light and heat. Am. tr. IIF. 5. Ph. tr. 1802. 12. Nich. 8. II. 78.
The Huygenian theory. Young on the production of colours. Ph. tr.

1802.
Bancroft on the philosophy of permanent
colours. 8. Lond. 1794. R.S. Young on physical optics. Ph. tr. 1804. 1.

On dying. Herschel on light and heat. Ph. tr. 1800.

Huttons dissertation on light, heat, and fire. 255.
8. Edinb. Messier on the effect of light on the evapora-
Ace. Ed.tr. IV. H. 7. tion of mercury. M. Inst. II. 473. Gilb.
Calls radiant heat obscure light. XII. 96.
Tingry on the efi'ect 'of
light on oils. Journ. Le Sage on the chemical effects of light,
Phys. XLVI.(III.)l6l. Gilb. IL 273.
Dize on the matter of heat and light. Journ. fBrugnatelli on the forms of the matter of
Phys. XLIX. 177. Gilb. IV, 410. light. Gilb. IV. 438.

Brougham on inflection, reflection, and co- Hermst'adt on the colours of natural bodies.
lours*. Ph.tr. 1796- 227. 1797. 352. Nich. A. Berl. 1801. 83. Ph. M. XVIII. 201.
I. 551. II. 147- See double Refraction. Ritter on the blackening rays. Gilb. VII. 527.
Engelon light. A. Berl. 1796. ii. 194. Xir. 409. Journ. Phys. LVII. 409- Nich,
Thinks it an element, but not tangible matter. VIII. 214.
Prevost Remarques d'optique. Ph.tr. 1798. Ocular music. Montucla and Lalande. III.

311. Nich. III. 222. 566.

*Prevost on the reflexibility of the rays of Montucla and Lalande. III. 604.
Journ. Phys. XLIX. 273. Gilb. V. Lalande concludes with Dalembert " La lumiere se
light. pro-

129, 147. page suivant une ligne droite d'une maniere qui nous esc

In answer to Mr. Brougham's two papers. inconnue."

Prevost on the impulse of light, with objec- Von Charpentier on the evaporation of mer-

• tions. Ph.M. 1.421. cury. Gilb. XII. 365. See Heat, Evapo-

Rumford on the chemical ration.

properties attri-
buted to Ph. tr. 1798. 449- Gilb. II. flleron on the nature of light. Ph.M. VUI.
light.
161.
273.
Attributes them to an intense heat, excited in a small fPownall on light. Ph. M. XII. 42.

space, but without any satisfactory

evidence. Makes only one colour.

.f*
 CATALOGUE. NATURE OF LIGHT. S25

•]-Regner on the propagation of light. Zacli. Derham on Gascoigne's invention of tele-

Mon. coiT. VI. 348. scopic sights. Ph. tr. 1717. 603. XXX.
Scheele's experiments on the chemical efi'ects Lahire on the invention of and of
telescopes
of light. Ph. M. XIII. 42. the micrometer. A. P. 1717. 78.

Englefield onlhe separation of light and heat Priestley's history of optics.

refraction. Journ.R. Nich.8.111. Meister on the optical
by I., I.
knowledge of the an-
125. cients. N. C. Gott. 1774. V, 141. 1775.
Wollaston on some chemical effects of light. VI. 129.
Nich. VIII. 293. Particularly in painting.

Found that invisible heat deoxidated as well as the red Pringle on the invention of the reflecting te-
xays. lescope. 4. Lond. 1778.
Wollaston. Ph. tr. 1804. 428. Account of discoveries relating to solar phos-
Observes, that the crystals of palladium, and some tour-
phori. T. Wedgwood. Ph. tr. 1792.
malins, are of a deep red when viewed in the direction of
Hind. Arch. III. gs.
theaxis,andofayellowish green when viewed in a transverse
Pfleiderer attempts to show, that Descartes did not bor-
direction. Some crystals are greenish
in the first direction,
row his law of refraction from Snellius.
and reddish in the second.
Rochon on achromatic glasses. Gilb. IV.
Effects of light on vegetation. See Vegeta-
300.
ble Physiology.
Besides the salts of silver and the
On Hall's achromatic glasses. Ph. M. II.
gums, the martial flow-
ers of sal ammoniac are much affected by
177.
light.

See Double Refraction, Telescopes.

*0n the invention of the
telescope and other
When a ball strikes a ball r so as to be reflected at
1 an optical instruments. Ph. M. XVIII. 245.
equal angle with respect to a given surface, the ball r is XIX. 6G, 176,232, 344. XX. 14.
propelled in such a direction that s.al : s.aR : : r : 1. The
, .

velocity of
^
l
.

is —s.(I— R)
,..„, ;
^ ^
that of r,
2cos.(I— R)
i
-.
,
I and^
Dates.
s.(l+RJ r+l
R. Bacon's magic lantern - 1252
R being the angles of incidence and of refraction. Y.
Spina invented spectacles at Pisa 1299
Armati at Florence before - 1300
History of Optics.
Looking glasses made only at Venice 1300
Ph. M. XVIII. 245.
Recorde, in 1551, mentions a wonderful glass of Roger
Telescopes discovered by Jansen 1590
Bacon, agreeing to the description of a telescope, and pro- A reflecting telescope mentioned by
fesses to understand its construction. Eskinard - -
l6l5
M. Snellius discovered the laws of refrac-
Digges's pantometria. Lond. 1571. Ph.
XVm. 245. tion. Died - - -
1626
Contains some hints of a telescope. Descartes published on refraction 1629
Borellus de vero telescopii inventore. 4. Hall invented achromatic glasses 1729
Hague, 1635. Ritter discovered the 1801
blackening rays
324 CATALOGUE. — PHTSICS, ASTRONOMT.

PHYSICS.
Gilbert Philosophianovademundo. 4. Amst. Tychonis de Brahe astronomiae instauratae
1631. progymnasmatu. 4. Prag. l603.
IV. pt. 2. TijchoAe Brahe de mundi aetherei phaeno-
Abr. 1.
Physics. Ph. tr. II. i. 1. i.

VIII. pt. £. i. 377. X. pt. 2.

i. 269- menis. 4. Prag. l6lO.
Miscellanea cur'iosa. 3 v. Q. 1716. de Brahe epistolae astronomicae. 4.
Tychotiis
Keil Tentamina physicomedica. 8. 1718. 1610. M. B.
M. B. Tychonis de Brahe historia coelestis. f.

Jiaclcstrow's miscellaneous observations. 8.

Augsb. 1666. M. B.
Load. 1748. Gahlaei dialogus desystematemundi.4. l635.
Kant Allgemeine 8. Ko- Francf.
naturgeschichte. Kepleri epitome astronomiae. 8.

nigsb. 1755. 1635. M. B.

TrembUy Instructions d'un p^re a ses enfans. Riccio^j almagestum novum, f. 1651. M. B.
3 V. 8. R. I.
fRiccioli astronomia reformata. f.
Bologn.
Bonnet Gontemplatioa de la nature, 2 v. 8. 1665.
Amst. 1764. R. I. Extr. Ph. tr. 1665—6. 1. 394.
Buffon Histoiie naturelle. 4. 2l6. IV.
A.stronomy. Ph. tr. abr. I. iv. iii.
-

Deluc Lettres physiques. 206. VI. iii. 147. VIII. iii. 132. X. iii. 33.
Dakar's description of the universe. 4. R. S. Hevelii machina coelestis. f. Dantz. 1673.
Darwin's botanic garden. Notes. 1679. M.B.
Philibert Histoire naturelle. 8. D. Gregorii elementa astronomiae. f. Oxf.
Barruel on general physics. Journ. Polyt. I. i.
1702. M.B.
120. ii. 128.iii.337.ii. 623. Flamsteedii historia coelestis. 3 v. f. Lond.
Hassenfratz on general physics. Journ. Polyt. 1725.
II. vi. 372. Ace. Ph. tr. 1725. XXXIII. 350.
Gren's account of authors on physics. Gilb. De/js/c surl'astronomie. 4. Petersb. 1738.
I. 167. Baxter's matho. 2 v. 12. 1740. M.B.
Cassini Elemens d'astronomie. 2 v. A. P.
ASTRONOMY.
cum Theone. 1740. Suite. 4 v. 4. Par. 1742.
Ptolcmati magna syntaxis, f.
Weidleri historia astronomiae. 4. W^ittemb.
Basle, 1538.1551. R.I.
R. S. 1741. R. I.
Ptolemy, by Bode. 8. Berl. 1795.
*Keirs introduction to astronomy. 8. 1769.
Manilius a Piugr^. 2 v. 8. Par. 1786. R.S.
R.I.
Copernicus de revolutionibus
orbium coeles-
Clairaut on the system of the world. A. P.
tium. f. 1543. M. B. Basle, 1566. 1543.
1745. 329-
M. B.
La Caille Legons d'astronomie. 8. Par. 1746.
reformata. 4. Amst.
Copernici astronomia
1755. R.I. Par Lalande. 1780.
1617.
 CATALOGUE.— ASTRONOMY, FIXED STARS. 3S5
La Caille's elements of astronomy, by Ro- Boscovich opera inedita. 5 v. 4. Bassano,
bertson. 1785. Notice abregee de I'astronomie. V.
Wright's theory of the universe. 4. London, 270.
1750. Bonnycastle's introduction to astronomv. 8.
Derham's astrotheology. 8. London, 1758. 1803. R. L
R. L CoM5?M Astronomie physique. 4. Par. 1787.'
DzV^enc^s schopfnng und schopfer. R.S.
Emerson's cyclomathesis. VIIL IX. Extr. Roz. XXXL 25.
Lambert Cosmologische briefe. 8. Schroters beytrage zur
Augsb. erweiterung der stern-
1761. kunde. 8. Getting. R. S.
Lambert Systeme du monde. 8. Bouillon, Several parts.

1770. Bode Erlaliterung der sternkunde. 8. Berl-

Lalande Exposition du calcul astronomique. 1793.

8. Par. 1762. Bode Sammlung astroiiomischer abhandlun-
Ace. A. P. 1762. H. 136. gen. 8. Berl. 1795. R. S.
* Lalande Astronomie. 3 v. 4. *Robison. Enc. Br. Art. Precession.
Paris, 1792. Suppl.
R. L Art. Astronomy.
Ace. A. P. 1771. H. 86. Journ. *Robison's elements.
Phys.
XLIV. (I.) 126. Melanderhjelm Astronomie. 2 v. Stockh. 1795.
Lalande Astronomie des dames, 8. 2 ed. Par. R.S.
Vince's astronomy. 3 v. 4.
1795. Cambridge, 1797.
*Lalande 4. Vince's introduction to astronomy, in Pinker-
Bibliographic astronomique.
Par. 1805. R. L ton's geography.
Longs astronomy. 2 v. 4. R. I. Von Zachs geographische ephemeriden. 4 v.
8. Monatliche
JVrgiwon's introduction to astronomy. 8. R.S. correspondenz. 8. Weimar,
Ferguson's astronomy. 8. R. T. 1798 . . . B. B.

Jloi/Einleitungin die astronomische wissen- **Laplace Exposition du systeme du monde.

schaften. 8. Greifsw. 1768. 1779. 4. Par. an. 7- R. I.

J. Bernoulli Ephemerides astronomicae. 8. **Laplace Mecanique celeste. 4 v. 4. Par.

R.S. an. 7—13. R. L

J. Bernoidli Recueil pour les astronomes. 8. ii/asse/j/ra/z Physique celeste. 8. Par. 1803.

Berl. 1771... R.S. R.S.

J. Bernoulli Lettres astronomiques. 8. Berl. Ace. Ann. Ch. XLIV. 285.

1771. R. S.
A commentary on Laplace.
O. Gregory $ astronomy. 8. Cambr.
iSchmid von den weltkiJrpern. 8.Leipz. 1772.
Kaestner Astronomische Ace. Ph.M. Xn. 87.
abhandlungen. 8.
Gott. 1772—4. 2 p.
See History of Astronomy.

Sfgwfr Astronomische vorlesungen. 4. Halle,

1775—6. Fixed Stars in General.
HeUmuih Sternwissenschaft. 8. Brunsw.1776. Baieri uranometria. Augsb. 1603. M. B.
Frisii cosmographia. Bernard on the places of the principal fixed
E. M. Physique. Art. Astronomie. stars. Ph. tr. 1684. XIV. 567.
326 CATALOGUE. — ASTRONOMY, FIXED STARS.
Zimmermans coniglobium. 8. 1692. Hamb. Herschel on the brightness of stars, with a
1770. catalogue. Ph. tr. 1796. 166.
FlamsteeJi historia coelestis. M. B. Compared with the neighbouring stars.

Herschcl finds that 1 1 1 stars are inserted without obser- Herschel's second catalogue of the brightness
vations, andsor 600 observed are omitted, rh.tr.1797.293.
of stars. Ph. tr. 1796.452.
Flamsteed Atlas coelestis. Lond.
Herschel's third catalogue of the brightness
Doppehnauri atlas coelestis. Nuremb. 1742.
of stars. Ph.tr. 1797- 293.
Barker. Ph. tr. I76O. ricnchers catalogue of stars omitted by Flam-
Arcturus, Aldebaran, Pollux, Antares, and Orion's shoul-
der have always been reddish.
steed, f. 1798. R. 1.

Herschel's fourth catalogue of the

Futikem kenntniss der gestirne vermittelst brightness
of stars. Ph. tr. 1799- 121. /t; mi
zweener stenikegel. 8. Leipz. 1770.
Ou Herschel's numbers of the stars..^>€roth.
Hellmuth's gestirn beschrelbung. 8. Brunsvv.
M.V.ii. 171. :', :.,rhU^.<.n , \i. V
1774.
Bode Vorstellung der Deguignes's Chinese planispheres. Fig. S.
gestirne auf 34 kupfer- E. 1785. X. App. .<
.

tafeln. Berl. 1782.

*^'Fo//as<OM's astronomical
Bode Anleitung catalogue, in zones.
zur kenntniss des gestirnten
f. R. S.
himmels. 8. Berl. 1788. R. 1.
Lalande's 8000 stars. A. P. ^789. 187. 1790.
Bode Beschreibungeinerhimmelscharte. Berl.
345.
1786. R. I.
Lemonnier on the Arsacides. A. P. 1790. 1.
Bode Friedrichs sternendenkmal. 4. Berl.
Burja on the constellations. A. Berl. 1792.
1787. R. S.
337.
Bode on the distribution of the stars. A. Berl.
*Piazzi Stellarum inerrantium positiones. f.
1794. 179.
Palermo, 1803. R. S.
*Bo<7e Uranographia. f. Berl. 1801. R.I.
Contains above stars.
Ph. M. XI. 361.
1 7000
Valentin Beschrelbung der sternbilder. 8. Comparative brighmess of the stars ascertained
by Hum-
boldt, by means of diaphragms, in Herschel's manner,
Kiel, 1785.
Sirius 1. Canopus .98, « Centauri .96, Achernar, .94,
Herschel on the construction of the heavens. a Tndi .50, a Toucan .70, a Phoenicis .65. a Pavo-
fl .47,
Ph. tr. 1785. nis .78.« Gruis ,81, ^ .75, y .58.
 CATALOGUE. ASTRONOMY, FIXED STARS. 327

STARS VISIBLE IN LONDON,

(t
*
•) INCLUBING ALL
OF THE FIRST AND SECOND MAGNITUDE.
328 CATALOGUE. —ASTROXOiAIY, SYSTEMS OF STARS.

When a spherical on a plane,

Systems of Stars, Nebulae, and
surface has been projected

it has been usual to consider it as viewed from a particular

point, either infinitely remote, as in the orthographical

Double Stars.
surface of the sphere,
projection, or situated in the opposite BuUialdi monita duo.
as in the sterecgraphical. The latter method produces
Ace. Ph. tr. 1665—6. 1. 387.
the least distortion, and is the most commonly used, but
On the nebulosa Andromedae.
even here, at the extremities of the hemisphere, the scale is

twice as great as in the middle. Sometimes, another prin-

Account of nebulae lately observed. Ph. tr,

ciple is employed, and the hemisphere is divided into seg- 1716. XXIX. 390.
ments, by omitting portions in the directions of their radii'
Halley. Ph. tr. 1720. XXXI. '22.
as if the paper were intended to be fixed on a globe ; and in would be hard to place 13 points on a sphere
Says, that it

the same form as if a spherical surface were cut in the di- at the distance of the radius.
rection of its meridians, and spread on a plane. If the
Kaestner shows, that it would be impossible. Dissertat.
number of these divisions be increased without limit, the Math.
result will be the projection, which is employed in the cir-
Derham on nebulous stars. Ph. tr. 1733.
cular part of this diagram, and in the same manner the zone
on each side the equinoctial, being cut open by innumera-
XXXVIII. 70.

ble divisions, so as to be spread on a plane, will coincide Wright's theory of the universe.
with the two remaining portions. By these means the Kants Allgemeine naturgeschichte.
distortion becomes inconsiderable. In the common stereo-
Lambert Photometria. §. 1139. 1140.
graphical projection indeed, the distortion would be of no
Thinks the milky way as it were the ecliptic of the fixed
consequence, ifit represented always those stars only,
stars. That the greater stars belong to the solar nebula,
which are at once above the horizon of a given place, for
the other nebulae being confused together in the milky way.
we actually imagine the stars in the zenith to be much nearer

together, than when they are nearer the horizon, and the Figure of the nebula in Orion, by Messier.
picture would appear to agree very well with the original : A. P. 1771. 458.
but their positions being continually changing, -the inconve- A figure of the nebula in Orion, supposed to
nience remains.
be changed. Roz. XXII.34.
It is not. however necessary, in projections of the stars, to
refer them in any instance to a spherical surface. Among I'igotton a nebula, and on double stars. Ph.
Doppelmayer's charts, published at Nuremberg, there are tr. 1781. 82, 84.
six, which represent the sides of a cube, on which the va- Herschel's catalogue of double stars. Ph. tr.

rious parts of the constellations are represented : the eye

1782. 112.
being probably supposed to be situated in the centre.
Herschel on the construction of the heavens.
Funck and others have represented the stars as projected

on the inside of two flat cones. But the most convenient Ph. tr. 1784. 437. 1785. 213. 1802. 477.
and which would approach very
representation of this kind, Nich. 8. V. 75. Magnified figures of ne-
near to the projection here employed, would be to con- bulae. 1784. 1785.
sider the eye as placed 4n the centre of a hollow cylinder, the projection of our
Conjectures, that the milky way is

so proportioned that all the circumpolar stars should be re-

nebula, and that the sun has a motion towards its node,
presented on one of its flat ends, and all those which rise
near Cepheijs, and Cassiopeia, 1784. In acircle of is' dia-
and set on its concave surface or if it were desired to have
;
meter 588 stars were counted ; if these wen; at equal dis-
a division without referring to any particular latitude, the must have beea
tances in a cone, the length of the cone
circular part might extend to the limits of the zodiac, and From calculations of this kind a
497 times their distance.
the parallelogram, into which the cylinder unfolds, might
figure of the nebula is drawn, showing a section passing
comprehend all the stars to which the planets approach.
through its poles at right angles to the line of the nodes.
The horizon, and other great circles, would form lines of
The right ascension of the pole is 166°, its polar distance
:<;'arious and contrary curvatures.
i8°; 1785.
 CATALOGUE. ASTRONOMY, STARS. 329

out of the double of which he has ascertained

Iterschel's second catalogue of double
stars. fifty stars,

the revolutions. The first example is Castor, or alpha

Ph. tr. 1783. 40. Geminorum : here Dr. Herschel stops to show how accu-
Herschel's 1000 new nebulae. Ph. tr. 178G. a viewed witli a con-
rately the apparent diameter of star,

457. stant magnifying power, may be assumed as a measure of

Herschel's second thousand of new nebulae. small angular distances ;

he found that ten different mir-

rors, of seven feet focal length, exhibited no perceptible dif-

Ph.tr. 1789. 212.
ference in this respect. In the case of Castor no change of
Herschelon nebulous stars. Ph.tr. 1791-71.
the distance of the stars has been observed, but their angular
Stars surrounded by a faint light, which Dr. Herschcl
situation appears to have varied somewhat more than 4:)°
thinks must be a shining fluid.
was observed by Dr. Bradley, in 175Q ; and they
since it

Herschel. Ph.tr. 17<)5.46. have been found by Dr. Herschel in intermediate positions
Found 600 stars in a circle 15' in diameter. This state-
at intermediate times. Dr. Herschel allows that it is
barely
ment has been much mistaken by some authors. possible that a separate proper motion, in each of the stars
Herschel's 500 new nebulae. Ph.tr. 1802. and in the sun, may have caused such a change in the re-

lative situation, but that the probability is

very decidedly
477.
in favour of the existence of a revolution. Its period must
Herschel on the changes of double stars. Ph.
be a little more than 342 years, and its plane nearly per-
tr. 1803. 339. 1804. 353. Nich. VII. 210.
pendicular to the direction of the sun. The revolution of
Cassini's verification of Herschel's double supposed to be in a plane considerably
leonis
gamma is

stars. A. P. 1784. 33 i. inclined to the line in which we view it, and to be per-

Differs a from Herschel formed in about 1200 years. Both these revolutions are re-
Asks if they are satellites. little

of the stars. thatofcpsilon Bootis is direct, and is

supposed to
respecting the colour trograde ;

occupy 1081 years, the orbit being in an oblique position with

Michell. Ph. tr. 1784. 35.
respect to the sun. In zeta Herculis Dr. Herschel ob-
Conjectures that some stars revolve round others.
served, in 1802, the appearance of an occultation of the
Lenionnier on the nebula in cancer. A. P.
small st.-ir by the larger one : in 1782 he had seen them
1789.610. separate ;
the plane of the revolution must therefore pass
A catalogue of the stars. The double star zeta lyrae some-
nearly through the sun ;
and this is all that can at present
times appears accompanied by several little stars.
The of delta serpentis
be determined respecting it. stars

appear to perform a retrograde revolution in about 375

Account of Dr. Herschel's paper on llie changes thai : their ajiparent distance is invariable, as well as that
years
have happened, during the last twenty five years, in the of the two stars which constitute gamma virginis, the last
fetative situation of double stars ; tcith an investigation double star which Dr. Herschel mentions in this paper, and
of the cause to which they are owing. From the Juur- to which he attributes a periodical revolution of about 708
'

vals of the Royal Institution. II.

Y.
years.

Dr. Herschel devotes this paper principally to the con-

sideration of the second class of the systems into which he

Distance and magnitude of the
has divided the sidereal world. After cursorily remarking,

with respect to the solar system, as a specimen of the first Stars.

class, which, among the insulated stars, comprehends the
sun, that the affections of the newly discovered celestial See Practical Astronomy.
bodies extend our knowledge Of the construction of this
insulated system, which is best known to us ;
he proceeds
Gregory on the annual parallax of the stars.
to support, by the evidence of observation, the opinion, Birch, in. 225.
which he has before advanced, of the existence of binary
Suggests the observation of the distance of two neigh-
sidereal combinations, revolving round the conimon centre
bouring stars.
of gravity. Dr. Herschel first considers the apparent effect
Roberts ou the distance of the fixed stars,
of the motion of either of the three bodies concerned, the
two stars, and the sun with its attendant planets ;
and then after Hugens. Ph. l694.XVni.
tr. 101.

states the arguments respecting the motions of a few only Flamstead. Ph. tr. 1701. XXII. 815.
VOL. II. I' u
 330 CATALOGUE. — ASTRONOMV, STARS.

Faneied he had foundan annual parallax of 40" or 45" ; Some stars, if as remote from each other as Sirius is from
tlie polar distance being greatest in June.
the sun, should be 42000 times as far off as Sirius. At this

distance Sirius would scarcely be

magnitude and distance of
visible.
Cassini on the
the fixed stars. A. P. 17 17^ 256. H. 62. Herschel on the power of penetrating into

Halley. Pli.tr. 1720. 1. space by telescopes. Ph. tr. 1 800. 49- Nich.
Says, that the apparent diameter of Sirius cannot be seve- IV. 496.
ral seconds, as Cassini makes it.
A cluster of 5000 stars barely visible as a mass, by the 4»
must be above 11 millions of millions of miU
Halley on the infinity of the sphere of fixed feet telescope,

lions of miles off.

stars. Ph. tr. 1720. XXXI. 22.
Asserts that the equilibrium could not be maintained

without an infinite number.

XXXV. Proper motion of the Star^.
Bradley. Ph. tr. 1728. 637.
Tliinks he would have perceived an annual parallax if it Bernard's chronology of the places of the
had amounted to 1".
stars. Ph. tr. 1684. XIV. 567.
Clairaut on the hest determination of the
Delisle on the proper motion of the stars; A,
parallax of the stars. A. P. 1739. 3o8. P. 1727. 19-
H. 42. Cassini on the proper motion of the stars-.

Maskelyneon finding the annual parallax of A. P. 1738. 273. H. 70.

Sirius. Ph. tr. 1760.889.
Hornsby on the proper motion of Arcturus.
Conjectures, from La Caille's observations, that it
may
Ph.tr. 1773.93.
be 8" or 0".

Lambert's Photometria. Mayer de motu fixarura proprio. Op. ined.

of the Kght that falls on him, I. 175.
Supposing Saturn to reflect i
'
and to be equal in brightness to a star as large as the sun, Herschel on the motion of the sun and solar
the distance of the star will be 425100 times as great as
system. Ph. tr. 1783. 247.
that of the sun, and its apparent diameter 0"' 16"". Hence
Supposes the motion, not slower thaathat of the earth iiv

we may assume the distance about 500000.

its orbit.

Michell on the probable parallax of the

stars. Ph. tr. I767. 234.
From their light.
Changeable Stars and new Stars.
jVlichellon the distance and magnitude of
Hevelius's new star in theswan. Ph.tr. l665i
the fixed stars. Ph. tr. 1784. 35.
I. 372. A second of the third magni-
Observes, that a star of 500 times the diameter of the sun
ought to recall the particles of light from an infinite distance, tude. Ph. tr. 1670. V. 2087. Further
and thinks that a sensible eflect might be produced by a accounts Ph. tr. I67I. VI. 2197,2198.
star 22 times as large in diameter as the sun tlie attraction
:

BuUialdi ad astronomos monita duo.

of the sun ought to retard it
-xi^r,^
in an infinite distance.

The light of a stsr of the sixth magnitude is to that of the

Acc.Ph.tr. 1665-6. I. 381.
sun as one to 100 billions.
A new star in the whale.

Anthelme's new star in the swan. Ph. tr»

Herschel on the parallax of the fixed stars.
1670. V. 2092. A. P. I. 87.
Ph. tr. 1782. 82.
Cassini on the changeable star in the whale's
With figures of their telescopic appearances. Makes Lyra
subtend 3553". neck. A. P. I. 87. X. 422.
Herschel on the sua and fixed stars. Ph. tr. Kirchiiis de Stella nova in collo
cygni. Misc.
1795. 46. Berl.Ph.tr. 1715.226.
 CATALOGUE. ASTROVOSir, STARS. 331

History of ^new stars observed wilbin 150 Pigott on the changes of two stars. Ph. tr.

years. Ph. tr. 1715. XXIX. 354. 1797. 193.

Maraldi on the changeable star in the whale. In Sobiesky's shield^ and in the northern crown.
A. P. 1719-94. H.eei. Huber on the star Algol. N. Act. Helv. I.

Maupertuis on the changesofstars.Ph.tr. 307.

1732. XXXVII. 240. A. P. 1732. H. 85. Lalande on the star Algol. A. P. 1788. 240,
Barker on the mutations of stars. Ph. tr, Assigns 2d. 20h. 49' 2" as its
period.

1760. Wurmon Algol. Zach. Ephem. II. 210.

Its period 2d. 20h. 48'. 58".? from 15 yeai^ observation.
Produces 5 authorities to show that Sirius was formerly

leddish, and even redder than Mars, and proves that it is

now white.

Herschel on the periodical star in the whale's •Twinkling of the Stars.

neck. Ph.tr. 1780. 338.
Garcin on the twinkling of the stars. A. P.
The change was before obserred to happen about seven
times in six years.
1743. H. 28.
Observes, that at Bender Abassi in Asia, where the air is
Herschel on changeable stars. Ph. tr. 1792.
very pure and dry, the stars have a light absolutely fixed.
24.
Michell. Ph. tr. 1767. 234.
Herschel on the changes of stars. Ph. tr. Attributes the twinkling to the
irregularity of the emis-
1795. 166. sion of light.

Herschel on the changes of alpha Herculis,

and on the rotation of stars. Ph. tr. 1796.
Sun.
452.
Its period flo i days. Joh. Fabricius de maculis in sole observatis.
Goodricke on the variation and period of the Wittemb. I6II. M.B.
light of Algol. Ph. tr. 1783. 474. 1784. The discoverer.

287. Epistolae ad Velserum de solis maculis. 4.

The period 2d. 20h. 4S' S6".
Augsb. 1612.
Goodricke on the changes of beta lyrae. Ph. Sc/ieineri rosa ursina. f. l6S0. M. B.
tr. 1785. 153. Cassini on the sun's motion. Boloirna.
Varies from the 3d magnitude to the 4th or 5th : the
Ace. Ph. tr. 1672. VII. 5001.
period isd.ioh.
'' i

Derham on the solar spots. Ph. tr. 171I.

Goodricke on the changes of delta Cephei.
XXVII. 270.
Ph. tr. 1786. 48.
Thinks them the clouds of volcanos, afterwards becom-
It vurici from 31 to 41 or the sth magnitude. The pe-
ing faculae.
riod 5d. 8h. 37'|. The variation of Algol is not always
Crabtrie, in 1840, calls them e-^halations like clouds.
equal in degree.
281.
Englefield, Palitch, and Bruhl on the star
Jiauseft Theoria motus solis. 4.
Leipz. 1726.
Algol. Ph. tr. 1784. 1,4,5.
Krafftde distantia inacularuma soIq. Comm.
Pigott on the changes of eta Antinoi. Ph.
Petr. VII. 279.
tr. 1785. 127.
From. the third or fourth to the fourth or fifth
A. Elder de motu solis determinando. C. N. P.
magnitude :

period 7d. 4h. as'. XII. 273.

Pigott on changeable stars in general. Ph. f Horsley on the sun's atmosphere. Ph. tr.

tr. 1786. 189. 1767. 398.

332 CATALOGUE. — ASTRONOMY, PLANETS.
Kaestner formulae ad motum solis. C. N. Von Hahn on the sun and its
light. Bode.
Gott. I. 1 10. Jabrb. Ph. M. XI. 39-

Spots. A, P. Index. Art. Soleil.

JVoodward on the substance of the sun. 8.

A. Wilson on the solar spots. Ph. tr. Washington. 1801. R.S.

Dr. Herschel thinks,' that the motion of the sun is
1774. 1. 1783. 144. proba-
bly directed towards a point, of which the right ascension
Maintains, that they are excavations, against Lalande.
is 243° 52' so", and the north polar distance 40° 22', 1805.
Marshall on the solar spots. Ph. tr. 1774.
194.
Solar Atmosphere, or zodiacal
Wollaston on the solar spots. Ph. tr. 1774.
329. Light.
Lalande on the sun. Brugnatelli Bibliot. Cassini. A. P. VII. II9. VIII. 193-
fisic. I. 55. Derham on a glade of light. Ph. tr. I706,
Lalande's answer to Wilson. Ph. tr. 1776. XXV. 2220.
Bode Anicitung. Sect. 6l6. March 20. Moving with the heavens.

Mayer on the sun's motion. Ac. Palat. IV. Mairan Traite de 1' aurore boreale. 1731. A,
Herschel on the sun's motion. Ph. tr. 1783. P. 1747. 371. H. 32.
247. Lemonnier. A. P. 1757. 88.
Herschel on the sun and fixed stars. Ph. tr. Lalande. Astronom. Sect. 845.
1795. 4f). Nich. I. 8. Ph. M. V. Dicquemare on a zodiacal light. Roz. III.
Thinks the sun an opaque body, possibly inhabited, 330.
covered with an atmosphere in which clouds of a luminous
Murhard on the atmospheres of the sun and
matter are floating, and the spots interruptions of these
clouds ; of these clouds he thinks there are two strata, of planets. Ph. M. VI. 166.
which the upper only is luminous, and the under stratum Melanderhielm on solar and planetary at-
he supposes to protect the body of the sun from their heat. mospheres. Gilb. HI. 96.
Herschel on the nature of the sun. Ph. tr. f Regnier on the zodiacal light. Zach. Mon.
1801. 265, 354. corr. VI. 14.
Endeavours to show that the variation of heat of diflerent

years owing to the more or less copious supply of

is fuel in
Planets, in general.
the sun, which constitutes his spots.

Pi'evost on the motion of the whole solar Kepleri astronomia nova. f.

Prag. I609.
Lays down his great laws.
system. A. Berl. 1781. 418.
Towards the corona The was Cassini on the atmospheres of the
borealis. idea first sug- heavenly
gested by Mayer. bodies. A. P. VIII. 193.

King's morsels of criticism. 4. Lond. 1736. Maupertuis on the figures of planets. Ph. tr.
R. S. 1732. XXXVII. 240. A. P. 1732. H.
On the sun, as surrounded by luminous matter. 85.
Schroter liber die sonne. 4. Erf. 1789. Euler on the contraction of the orbits of the
Fischer on the sun's Bode.. Jahib.
spots. planets. Ph. tr. 1749. 203. 1750. 357.
1791. Maintains that such a contraction has taken place, attri-
Wurm on the degree of
certainty of the sun's
butes it to resistance, hence argues, that the world has had

motion. Bode. Jabrb. 1795. a beginning, and must have an end.

lichtenberg. Erxleb. naturl. Lemonnier on the planetary atmospheres.

Appears to doubt of the sun's motion. A. P. 1757.88.
 CATALOGUE. ASTRONOMY, PLANETS, 333

Herschel on the rotation of the planets. Ph. Ace. Ph. tr. 1729 XXXVI. 158.
Makes the period of diurnal rotation 25 days.
tr.1781. 115.
Ducaila on the rings of the planets. Roz. Lurcher Memoire sur Venus. 8. R. S.
XIX. 386. Maskelyne. Ph. tr. 1768. 355.
Ximenes on the Distinct marks of an atmosphere, or of inflection, or of both.
density of the planets. Soc.
Ital. III. 278. Wallot. Ph. tr. 1784.312.
Attributes to Venas a horizontal refraction of
Sclnoter on the planetary atmosphere^.
.205", equi-
valent to 8" or o" in time.
Bode Jahrb. 1793. Getting. Anz. 1792. n.
Schrbter on the atmosphere of Venus. Ph. tr.
86.
1792.309. Ph. M.I V.
*Murhard on the planetary atmospheres. Ph. Venus has a twilight of more than 4°
Asserts, that ; and
M.VI. 166. mountains 4 or 5 times as high as ours.

Melanderhielm on planetary atmospheres. Schroter iiberdie Venus. 4. Erfurt. 1793.

Gilb. m.96. Schrbter's further observations on Venus. Ph.
fVoigt on the rotation of the planets. Gilb. tr. 1795. 117.
VII. 232. Seems to have made very numerous observations ; per-
sists in the rotation of 23h. 2i' says, that the mountains are
tOnOphion.Gilb. XI. 482.
;

generally obscured by the atmosphere.

Supposes that the comet of 1759 may be considered as a
Schruters Aphroditographische fragmenten.
planet beyond the Georgian planet.

Benzenberg on a law of planetary dis- 4. Helmst. 1796. R. S.

tances, Gilb. XV. 169. Schrbter's plate of the height of the moun-
On the progressive distances of the planets. tains in the earth, the moon, and Venus.
Zach. Mon. corr. VII. 74. Journ. Phys. XLVIII. 459-
Herschel's observations on Venus. Ph. tr.

Particular Planets. 1793. 201.

Denies the existence of high mountains, and the accuracy

Mercury. of Schroter's observations on this planet in general. Al-

lows that Venus revolves, and not slowly that its atmo.
passage deMercure. Ph.tr.
;
Wallot sur le
sphere must be considerable, from the excess of its cusps
1784. 312. above a semicircle, which Schroter first observed ; but re-
Attributes a horizontal refraction of .276" to Mercury,
marks, that Schroter, in considering it, has neglected the
equivalent to 2fl".4 in time. effect of the sun's penumbra. Thinks Venus a little larger
Gibers on Schrbter's observations of Mercury. than the earth : her disc appears brightest at the margin.

Zach. Mon. corr. I. 574. Lalande on the motion of Venus. M. Inst.

Schrotet thinks it revolves in 24h. or 24h. 5'.
,V. 350.
Lalande on the motion of Mercury. M. Inst.

V. 442. The Earth, in its relations to the Celestial

In the transit of Nov. 1802, Mr. Bugge could find no Bodies.
traces of an atmosphere. Journ. R. I., I.

Von Zach says, that the mean apparent diameter of

Figure of the earth See Geograph v. .

Mercury is not so much as 7", probably little more than 5". Precession of the equinoxes.' See Laws of

Gravity.
Venus.
Gregory on the controversy of A ngelis and
Bianchini Hesperi phaenomena. f. Ro:ti. Riccioli, respecting the motion of the
1728. earth Ph. tr. 1668. III. 693.
334 CATALOGUE. — ASTROJTOMy, PXANETS.

Bernard's history of the obliquity of the Mars.

ecliptic.
Ph. tr. 1684. XIV. 721. Herschel. Ph. tr. 1781. 115.
Louville on the change of place ,#f the eclip- Siderial rotation of Mars 21 h.39' 22".

tic. A. P. 1716.1-1. 48. Act. Lips. 1719. Herschel on Mars. Ph. tr. 1784. 223.
•281. Juno.
of some
Halley on the change of latitude Harding's Juno is supposed to be somewhat nearer to the
stars. Ph. tr. 1718. XXX. 736. sun than Ceres. Dr. Herschel finds that neither this body
Most stars indicate a change of about 20' since the time nor either Ceres or Pallas^ subtends any measurable angle-
of Hipparchus. Dec. 1804. It was discovered i
Sept. 1S04.

Godin on the diminution of the obliquity of

Pallas.
theechptic, A. P. 1734. 491-
Olbers's planet, discovered 28.
March 1802.
of the ecliptic. A.
Legentil on the obliquity Ph. M. XII. 287.
P. 1743. 67. H. 121. 1757. 180.
Lalande on Olbers's planet. Journ. Phys.
Lemonnier on the nutation of the earth's
LV. 65. Ph. M. XIII. 279- Nich. VIII,
axis. A. P. 1745. 512. H. 58.
222.
Bradley's discovery.
Burckhardt's parabolic orbit of Pallas. Ph.
Bradley on an apparent motion of the stars.

Ph. tr. 1748. XLV. 1.

M. XII. 371.
The nutation of the earth's axis. Burckhardt's elements of Pallas. Ph. M.
XIV.
'

Euler on the approach of the earth to the 186.

5un.Ph.tr. 1749. XLVI. 203. On Olbers's Pallas. Nich. 8. II. 20. Journ.
Euler. Ph. tr. 1750. XLVI. 357. R. I., L93.
Queries if the earth's rotation is uniform :
says, that the See Ceres.
action of Jupiter accelerates its motion in its orbit, and
Ceres.
infers, that its rotation must probably also be accelerated.

. Lalande on the change of latitude of the On a new planet. Zach. ^Jon. corresp. IV. 53.
Discovered Jan. 1801.
stars. A. P. 1758.339- H. 87.
1

Lalande on the obliquity of the ecliptic. A. On the planet Piazzi. .Tourn. Phys. LIV.
P. 1762. 267. H. 130. 1780. 285. 165, 469.

Diminishing about 66" in a century-.

On the nature of Ceres and Pallas. Zach.
Lalande. Pli. M. IX. II. Mon. corn VI. 290.
Makes the secular change 36", 38", or 4l", the obliquity Olbers thinks they may be fragments of some larger planet.
1 Jan. 1800, 23° 27' 58". Von Zach on Ceres. JNich. 8. II. 213. Ph. M.
Smeaton and Maskelyne on the menstrual XVI. 49.
parallax. Ph.tr. 1768. 154.
Accounts of Piazzi's Ceres. Nich.,8. I. 72,

Maskelyne on the nutation of the earth's 193, 284, 317. I|,48.'Ph, M. X^I. 62.
axis. Astron. obscrv. 1776. Bode on Piazzi. A. Bqrl., 1801. M. 132.

Ilornsby on the obliquity of the ecliptic.

Herschel on the two lately discovered celes-
Ph. tr. 1773. 93. tial bodies. Ph. tr. 180.'. 213. Nich. 8. IV.

Dimmishing about 58" in acetitury. 126.

K'asiner on the obliquity of the Lalandc's orbits of the new
ecliptic. planets. Nich.
Astron. abh. iii. VIII. 222.
JVallot sur i'oDliquite de I'e.liptique. 4. R. S. Journ. R. 1., I. 69, 93.
 eATALOGUE.- ASTRONOMY, PLANETS.
/

Jupiter, Robison. Enc. Br.

Observes, that the inner edge of the ring of Saturn should
Cassini on Jupiter's rotation. Ph. tr. 1665-6.
revolve in iih. 16', the outer in I7h. lo'.
I. 143. Schroeter doubts the rotation of the
ring.
Period 9h. 58'.

Maclaurin on the changes of Jupiter. Ed, Georgian Planet.

ess. I. 184. Herschel's account of a
planet. Ph. tr. 1781.
Herschel. Ph. tr. 1781. 492.
Schroteron Jupiter. Beytrage. I. Herschel on the magnitude of the
Georgian
Schroter on the rotation of Jupiter. Roz. planet. Ph. tr. 1783.
'

XXXII. 108. Apparent diameter 4".

Herschel on the Georgian planet and its

Saturn. satellites. Ph. tr. 1788. 364.

Boscovich on the new planet. Soc. Ital. 1.55.

Pound.Ph.tr. 1718.773.
Bode von dem peu entdeckten planelen. 8.
Observed that the ring was double.
Berl. 1784.
Maupertuis. Ph. tr, 1732. 240.
Derives Saturn's ring from the tails of cornels. Lexell Recherches sur la nouvelle planete".

Heinsius de annuio Saturni. 4. Leipz. 1745. Petersb.

Varelaz on the disposition of Saturn's ring. Wurm, Geschichte des neuen planeten. 8.

Ph. tr. 1774. 113. Gotha, 1791.

The west end appeared always the more luminous : some
bright points were seen at the extremities.
Secondary Planets.
Messier's observation of points in the ring of
Saturn. A. P. 1774. 49> H. 55.
Supposed SattMite of Venm,
On the ring of Saturn. Roz. XI. 77. 38 f.
Short.Ph.tr. 1741. 646.
Bugge on the node of Saturn. Ph. tr. 1787. A.P. 1741. H. 124. '

37.
Mairan. A. P. 1762. l6l.
Laplace on Saturn's ring. A. P. 1787- 249. '
Lambert. Ac. Berl. 1773. "^22.
A figure of Saturn with his ring. Herschel.
Bode Jahrbuch. 1777, 1778.
Ph.tr. 1790. 1.
Chambers's Cyclopaedia, by Rees,
Herschel on the rotation of Saturn's ring.
Ph.tr. 1790. 427.
Moon.
Herschelon the ring of Saturn. Ph. tr. 1792. 1 .

Lunar atmosphere. Sec eclipses.

A good figure of the ring with its division.
Hooke's miciographia. Ch. 70.
Herschel on a quintuple belt of Saturn. Ph.
Hevelii selenographia. f. Dantz. 1667. R. I;
tr. 194. 28. Fig.
Cassjiii Carte de la lune. Paris. R. S.
Herschel on the rotation of Saturn. Ph. tr.
Is 19 inches in diameter. Remained long unpublished.
1794. 48.
Louville on a lunar atmosphere. A. P. 1715.-
In lOh. 16' o". 4.
89. Cassini. 137. H. 54. Delisle. 147. H. 47.
Herschel. Ph.tr. 1805.
Makes the an
Liesmann Bresl. Samml. 1722. Goth. Mag..
figure of Saturn not elliptic spheroid; but a
little inclined to a cylindrical form. I. i. 189.
Dciuc on the ring of Saturn, Roz. XL. 101, On a perforation.
336 CATALOGUE. ASTRONOMY, PIANETS.
Looking like a coal coreted wiih a thin coat of ashes :
Fouchy. A. P. 1734. H. 68.
one of them 3 miles in diam::ter. The inequalities-of (he
Fouchj de atmosphaera limaii. Ph. tr.
moon are easily visible by the light reflected from the earth.
1739. XLI. 261.
Herschel. Ph. tr. 1792. 27.
Thinks that there is not enough to produce a refraction of
Luminous points in the moon seen in an eclipse.
l"ot2".
Herschel. Ph. tr. 1794. 39.
Lcniarinier Seleiiographie. Few or no signs of a lunar atmosphere in an eclipse.
Ace. A. P. 17^5. H. 65.
Beccaria on Ulloa's eclipse. Roz. XVH. 447.
Weidler. Ph. tr. 1739. XLI. 228. Thinks the spot volcanic : himself observed a spot in
•Observed lightning in a lunar eclipse. After Halley. 1772.
Gediinken uber die atmosphare des
Ml/lilts Aepinus on volcanos in the moon. N. A.
nioudes. 4. 1746. Petr. 1784. II. H. 50. Goth. mag. I. iv.

Mayers cosmographische nachrichten. 1748. 155.

379- Quotes Hooke.

On the lunar rotation and atmosphere. Girtanner on Herschel's lunar volcanos.

Mayer von den Niirnbergischen moudkugeln. Roz. XXX. 472.

4. 1750. Nuremb. Schrtiters Beytrage. 8. Berl. 1788.

Mayer's map of the Op. moon. ined. I.

Schroter on a in the moon. Roz.
spot
Euler on the moon's atmosphere. Ac. Berl. XXXIII. 313.
1748. 103. Schroters Selenotopographische fragmenteu.
Dunthorne on the acceleration of the moon's 2. V. 4, Gott. 1791. 1802. R. S.
motion. Ph. tr. 1749. XLVI. l62. Schroter on the lunar atmosphere. Ph. tr.
About 10" in 100 years.
1792.309.
Short on a gap in the mountains surround- Observed a very faint appearance of twilight.

ing the lunar spot Phito.

Ph. tr. 1751. Schroter on the mountains of the moon.
164. Roz. XLVIII. 459. Fig. Ph. M. IV. 393.
Boscovich de lunae atmosphaera. 4. Rom. Schroter. Ph. M. XV.
1753. Vienn. 1766. Finds lunar mountains 4000 toises, or nearly 5 miles

Dunn on a lunar atmosphere. Ph. tr. 1762. high, and such a twilight as indicates an atmosphere 300
toises high.
578.
Infers an atmosphere from a haziness, seen about Saturn Bode on a luminous point in the dark part
emerging from behind the moon. of the moon. A. Berl. 1788. 204.
Rlurdocli's comparison of the sun and moon. On lunar Bode Jahrbuch, 1792.
volcanos.
Ph. tr. 1768. 24. Lichtenberg on the lunar spots. Goth. Mag.
Attributes great density to the moon.
I. i.

Uiloa on a perforation in the moon. Ph. Kant on the lunar spots. Berl. Monathschr.
tr. 1779. 105. Rozier 1780. See eclipses,
Marz, 1793.
Herschel on the mountains in the moon.
*Russers globe of the moon. Lond. R. I.

Ph. tr. 1780. 507.

Maskelyne on Wilkins and Stretton's obser-
Makes the highest only a mile and three quarters.
vations of a light in the dark part of the
Herschel on lunar volcanos and other
moon. Ph. tr. 1794. 429.
changes. Bode Jahrbuch, 1782, 1789- Stretton might have seen only Aldebaran, which was
Herschel on three volcanos in the moon. eclipsed by the moon at the time ; Wilkins could scarcely
•
Ph.tr. 1787. 229. have been so much mistaken.
 CATALOGUE. — ASTRONOMY, COSIETS. 337

K'astner. Hind. Arch. II. 8. Herschel on four additional satellites of the

Averroes and Bacon thought of the moon, as Euler did of
Georgian planet. Ph. tr. 1798. 47.
»U opaque bodies, that its substance was made luminous by
the sun's rays.
Comets.
Mr. Leslie has lately advanced the same opinion.

*xVlurhard. Ph. M. VI. l66. Senecae quaestiones naturales. vii.

Rather inclines to suppose a very rare lunar atmosphere. Bartholinm de cometis. 4. Copenh. 1665.
Laplace and Delambre have found from the latest calcu-
M. B.
lations that the moon's mass is of the earth. Zach. Lubinietz Theatrum cometicutn. f. Anist.
OS. 5

Mon. corr. Lapl. Mec. eel. 1668. M.B.

The moon's distance varies from 54 to 7 8 semidiameters. Jiew/u cometographia. f. Dantz. 1668. M.B.
Hooke's lectures and collections. 4. lG78.
Satellites of Jupiter. Cometa. Figures, p. 2, 3.
Galilei nuntius sidereus. Op. II. i. Halleii astronomiae cometicae synopsis. Ph.
Mrtm niundus Jovialis. 4. Niiremb. 1614. tr. 1705. XXIV. 1882.
Herschel on the magnitude and rotation of Lord Paisley on the comet of 1723, with fi-

1797. 332. gures. Ph. tr. 1724. XXXni.50.

satellites. Pli. tr.
Jupiter's
The third is by much the largest, the first and fourth
Hein&iuinher den comelen. 4. Petersb. 1744,
equal, the second a little smaller. They all present the
Mairan on the tails of comets. A. P. 1747-
same face to Jupiter throughout their revolutions.
411.
Dunthorne against the identity of the comets
Satellites of Saturn.
of 1106 and l680. Ph. tr. 1751. 281.
For the ring, see Saturn,
Winthrop on the tails of comets. Ph. tr.

Hugenii systema Saturninum. 4- Hague, 1767. 132.

1659..
Wiedeburg Ubcr den cometen. Jeua, 1769.
Cassini's discovery of two of Saturn's sateUites.
Williamson on comets. Am. tr. I. 133.
Ph.tr. 1673. VI II. 5073.
Oliver on comets. 8. Salem, 1772.
Pound on the satellites of Saturn. Ph. tr. 1718.
Laplace on the orbits of comets. S. E. 1773.
XXX. 768. 503.
A sixth satellite announced. Herschel. Ph.
Dionis du Sejour sur les cometes. A. P. 1774.
tr. 1789.
H. 78.
Herschel on a sixth and seventh satellite of
Dionis du Sejour Essai sur les cometes. Par.
Saturn. Ph.tr. 1790.1.
1775. R. S.
-Herschel on Saturn's satellites and ring. Ph.
Euler on the effects of comets. N. C. Petr.
tr. 1790.427.
XIX. 499.
Herschel on the rotation of Saturn's fifth sa-
Lexell on the comet of 1770. A. P. 1776.
telHte. Ph.tr. 1792. 1.
638. Ph. tr. 1779- 68.
I'resents always the same face to Saturn. in an
Calculates that it moves, as Prosperia supposed,
elliptic orbit,
its period about 5i years, its aphelion a little

.», Satellites of the Georgian Planet. beyond the orbit of Jupiter.

vol. Par.
Herschel on two of the Georgian
satellites *Pingre cometographie. 2 1783.

Ph. tr. 1787. 125. 1788. S64. R. L

planet.
VOL. 11.
X X
338 CATALOGUE. — ASTRONOMT, LAWS OF GRAVITY.

Deguignes. S. E. X. 1785. App. 39. Maupertuis on the law of attraction. A. P.

Enumerates two or three hundred comets mentioned by- 1732. 343. H. 112.
Chinese authors. Plu
Sigorgne on the impossibility of vortices.
Maskelyne on the comet expected in 1788.
tr. 1740. XLI. 409. •

Ph. U-. 1786. 426. Boscovich on attraction to a centre, C. Bon.

Hallcy admitted doubts lespecting this comet in hif se-
II. iii. 262.
cond edition.

Bode. Ac. Bcrl. 1786. 1787. Euler de resistentia aetheris. Opusc. I. 295.
Euleron perturbations. A. Berl. 1763. 141.
Borfe on comets, with a map. 8. 1791. R-I-
Elder on the problem of three bodies. A.
Bode's Jahrbuch. 1795.
Berl. 1763. 194.
Bode's plate reduced. Rees's cyclop. I. Art.
Euler on the motion of three bodies in aright
Astronomy.
hne. N. A. Petr. 1785. III. 126.
K'dstner's gedichte. Vermischte Schriften.
Clairaut on the system of the world accord-
69.
Miss Herschel and Dr. Herschel on a new ing to gravitation. A. P. 1745. 329.
Clairaut on the law of attraction, in answer
comet. Ph. tr. 1787- 1, 4.
to Buffbn. A. P. 1745. 529, 578, 583,
Miss Herschel on a comet. Ph. tr. 1794. I.
Buffon on the law of attraction. A. P. 1745.
Olbers on the comet expected in 1788. Leipz.
493,551,580.
Mag. 1787. iv. 430.
Von Zach on the expected comet. Goth. A. P. 1745. 557.
Clairaut fancied, from the motion of the moon's apogee,,
gel. zeit. 1788. xiii.
that a part of the force of gravitation varied inversely as the
Delucon comets. Journ. Phys. LIV. 25?.
fourth power of the distance. BufTon endeavoured to con-
Rudigeron the tails of comets. Gilb. II. 99. fute the opinion. Clairaut afterwards found his mistake, by
O. Gregory's astronomy, c. 21. a more accurate calculation.
The comet of 1680 had a tail at least lOO milKons of
miles long. Kratzenstein's spring steelyard, for measur-

ing the force of gravity. N. C. Petr. II.

Laws of Gravity in GeneraL 210.
Lalande Exposition du calcul astronomique^
See Centra] Forces. 8. Par. 1762.
Hooke on gravity in wells. Birch. II. 70^. Ace. A. P. 1762. H. 136.
**Newtoni piincipia. Simpson's miscellanies.
Keill de legibus virium centripetarum. Ph. Dalembert Opuscufes.
tr. 1708. XXVI. 174. BossiU sur la resistance de I'ether. 4. Char-
De maximis et minimis in motibus coelesti- leville, 1766.
bus, secundum Demoivre. Ph. tr. 1719- Condorcet on the motions of three attractive
XXX. 952. bodies. A. P. 1767. H. 93.
Cassini on vortices. A. P. 1/20. Frisi on the laws of gravity. C. Bon. V,
Biilfinger on bodies moving in a vortex. C. i. ii.

Petr. I. 245. Frisi de gravitate universali. 4. R. S.

Moli^res on the resistance of ether. A. P. Lambert on the problem of three bodies. A.
1731. H. 66. Berl. 1767.353.
 CATALOGUE. —•ASTRONOMY, LAWS OF GRAyiTT. 339

Laplace on the system of the world. A. P. Canterzano on the attraction of a sphere. C.

1772. ii. 267. H. 87. 1775. 75. H. 39. Bon.V. ii. 66.

Berthier's opinions. Roz. Intr. I. 658. IV. Laplace on the equilibrium of a gravitating
310., 433, and elsewhere. His retraction. fluid in rotation. S. E. 1773. 524.
Roz. IX. 460. La|ilace on the attraciion of spheroids and
On gravitation. Roz. I. 245. the figures of the
planets. A. P. 1782.
113. H. 43.
Mayeri opera inedita. R. S.
Lexell on Lambert's theorem respecting cen- Lagrange on spheroids. A. Berl. 1773. 121.

tral force. N. A. Petr. 1783. I. 140. 1775. 273. 1792. 258.

Ximenes on the de'nsity of the planets. Soc. Hutton's determination of the point of
great-
Ital. III. 278. est attraction of a solid. PIi.tr. 1780. 1.

Melanderhielui on the diminution of the sun Lcgendre on the figure of the planets. A. P.
and the resistance of ether. N. Act. Helv. 1784. 370.

1.98. Legendre on the attraction of homogeneous

Supposes that they compensate each other. spheroids on a distant point. S. E. X.
Hellins on a problem in physical astronomy, 1785.411.
wuh an appendix. Ph. tr. 1798. 527. Legendre's example of the attraction of a
On perturbations. spheroid. A. P. 1788. 463.
Hellins's second appendix. Ph. tr. 1800.86. Legendre on the figure of the planets. A. P.
Benzenberg on falling bodies. Gilb. XI. I69, 1789. 372.
470. XIV. 222. XVII. 476. Krafft upon Lagrange's researches on elliptic
Found that 144 feet, Fr. were described in 116'". 85, in- N. A. Petr. 1784. II. 148.
spheroids.
stead of 1 86'".86.
Euler on the
centrifugal force of the earth.
Woodhouse on problems in physical astro-
N.A. Petr. 1784. II. 121.
nomy. Ph. tr. 1804.219. Says, that if the whole earth were fluid it could not re-
€ee Primary Planets. main at rest without intestine motion. But would there
not then be friction, and must it not be retarded?

ATaring on infinite series. Pli. tr. 1791. 146.

Equilibrium and Figure of Gra- Examples of the attraction of circles and spheroidj.
Gtrlach on the figure of the earth, and oa
vitating Bodies.
the motion of its axis. 8. R. S.
Maupertuis sur les figures des astres. 8. Par.
Trembley on the attraction of spheroids. A.
1732.
Berl. 1799. 68.
Clairaut Traite de la figure de la terre. 8.
Pasquich on the effect of ellipticity on pen-
Paris. M. B.
dulums. Zach. Mon. corr. II. 3. '

Ace. A. P. 1742. H.86.

See also Geography.
Clairaut's explanation in answer to Frisi.

Ph. tr. 1753. 77. Orbits of the

Primary Planets.
St. Jatjues de Silvabelle on the solid of the direct mode of
Ilalley's determining the pla-
greatest attraction. S. E. I. 175.
netary orbits. Ph. tr. I676. XI. 683.
D'Arcy on the attraction of spheroids. A. P. Varignon on the central forces of the planets.
1758.318. A. P. 1700. 224. H. 78.
540 CATALOGUE.' —ASTRONOMV, LAWS OF GRAVITV.

Gregory de orbita Cassiniana. Ph. tr. 1704. Fuss on finding the true N. A.
anomaly.
XXIV. 1704. Petr. 1783. III. 302,
Keill problematis Kepleriani solutio. Ph. tr. Robison on the orbit of the Georgian planet.
1713. XXVIII. 1. Ed. tr. I. 305.
Cassini on the reconciliation of vortices with Duscjour on Kepler's problem. A, P. 1 790,
the Keplerian laws. A. P. 1720. 401.
Machin's solution oi' Kepler's problem. Ph. Schubert on the obliquity of the N.
ecliptic.
tr. XL. 205.
1738. A. Petr. 1792. X. 433.
Eukri theoria motuum planetarum. 4. Beil. Schubert finds the mean obliquity of the ecliptic 24° 1 1';

its limits 20" 34', and 27° 48': thatitwill continue to di-
1744.
minish for 4900 years, and will then be 22° 53' ; but he
Dalembert on the planetary orbits. A. P.
observes that some little
inaccuracy has been introduced
1743. 365. into the calculation, the mass of Venus having been made
Determination of the apsidal angle. Ph. tr. too great.

1748. XLV. 333. Wurm on the perturbations of Mars. Zach.

Silvabelle on the nodes and inclinations of Mon. corr. VI. 549.

the planetary orbits. Ph. tr. 1734. 383. Ivory on Kepler's problem. Ed. tr. V. 203.
•f-Maclaurin on the variation of the obliquity Brinkley's series for the Kejilerian problem.
of the ecliptic. Ed. ess. I. 173. Ir. tr. VI. 349.

Walmesley on perturbations. Ph. tr. 1736. Brinkley on the Keplerian problem. Ir. tr.

700. 1761. 273. IX. 83.

Stewart's solution of Kepler's problem. Ed.
A new mode of calculation, and a comparison of all
former methods.
ess. II. 105.
Robison thinks, that Laplace's data are determined
to*
J. A. Euler on the planetary perturbations. in his calculations
arbitrarily, respecting the Georgian
A.Berl. 1739.338. planet.

Jeaurat's directdetermination of the place of

a planet. S. E. IV. 601. Orbits of the Secondary Planets.
liagrange on Kepler's problem. A. Berl. Ciairaut on the lunar orbit. A. P. 1743.
17.
1764. 204.
H. 123. 1748. 421.
Lagrange on the secular variations of the nodes C/azVfltt^Theorie de la lune. 4. Petersb.
1752.
and inclinations. A. P. 1774. 97. H^ 39.
M. B.
The obliquity of the ecliptic has diminished for i2000
and will diminish for at least 2000 more, reckoning
Dunthorne on the moon's motion. Ph. tr.
years,
from 17 CO. .
1747. 412.
A correction for the sun's
Laplace on the secular equations of the pla- anomaly.

nets. A. P. 1772. i. 343. H. 67. 1784. 1. Walmesley on the effect of ellipticity on a

1787. 267. satellite. Ph. tr. 1758. 8O9.
The distance of the sun deduced from the
Laplace on the theory of Jupiter and Saturn.
A. P. 1785. 33.1788.201. theory of gravity, Edinb. 1763.
JBy
Lalande on the diminution of the obliquity Stewart.

of the ecliptic. A. P. 1780, 285. H. 38. Euler on. the lunar motions. A. Berl. 1 7^3.
M»ket it
f^" annuaUj. 180,221.
 CATALOGUE.' —ASTRONOMY, LAWS OF GRAVITT. 341

Euler on the satellites of Saturn. A. Berl. Dalembert Opuscules. II.

1763. 311. Boscovich on the orbits of comets, S. E. VI.

Jlioycr Theoria lunae. 4. Lend, 1767. R. S. 198,401.

Eukri iheoria motuum lunae. 4. R. S. Laplace on the orbits of comets. S. E. 1773.
J. A. Euler on the variation of the moon. A. 503. A. P. 1780. 13. H.41.
Berl. 1766. 334. Fuss on the perturbations of comets. S. E.
Lunar motions. Emerson's miscellanies. 139- X. 1785. 1.
Pemberton on the computation of the lunat Lagrange on the perturbations of comets. S.
paralia-Y. Ph. tr. 1771. 437.
E. X. 1785. 65.

Lagrange's prize memoir on the secular equa- Sir II. Eiiglejield on the orbits of comets. 4.
tion of the moon. S. E. 1773. 1. Lond. 1793. R. S.
Rather doubts the fact ;
thinks an ether would explain it)

if it existed. Laplace suspects a small irregularity in the

Projectiles from the Moon.
action of gravity, p. 37.
Biot on the velocity of bodies falling from
Laplace on the secular equations of the
the moon. B. Soc. Phil. n. 68.
planets and satellites. A. P. 1784. 1. 1783.
Poisson on the velocity of a body thrown
Enata page. 1786. 235.
Shows the true cause, 1785. from the moon. B. Soc. Phil. Giib. XV.
Laplace on the satellites of Jupiter. A. P. 329.

1788.249.1789.1,237.
Laplace on the lunar motions. Zach. Mon. Rotation of the Earth and Planets.
IL 157- IV. 113.
corr. VL 272.
Wallis on the possible change of the meri-
Ph. M. IX. 7.
dian. Ph.tr. 1699. XXI. 285.
Laplace has deduced a nutation of the lunar orbit, from
the oUate figure of the earth, amounting to 6" or 7 *, and an -f-Parent on the direction of rotation to the

inequality of 6" depending on the longitude of the node. left. A. P. 1703. H. 14.
Note of Laplace's two lunar equations of 180 Euler on the precession of the equinoxes. A.
years. Ph. M. XIL 278. Berl. I. 749, 289.
Kraftt on Eukr's lunar tables. N. A. Petr. Euler on the rotation of the heavenly bodies.
1787. V. 289. A. Berl. 1759- 265.
Biirg on the lunar motions. Zach. Mon. corr. St.Jacques de Silvabelle on the precession of
IV. 275. the equinoxes. Ph.tr. 1754.385.
The sun's place difTers about 9" at the moon's quadra-
Dalembert on the effects of a dissimilitude of
tures.
meridians. A. P. 1754. 413. H. II6. 1768.

1.332. H. 95.
Orbits of Comets.
Dalembert on the motion of heavy bodies,
Halleii astronomiae cometicae synopsis. Ph. combined with the rotation of the earth.
tr. 1705. XXIV. 1882. A. P. 1771. H. 10.

Bouguer. A. P. 1733. 331. H. 71. Dalembert sur la precession des

equinoxes,
Clairaut Th^orie du mouvement des cometei. Walmesley on precession. Ph.tr. 1756.700.
Clairaut on the planetary perturbations of Walmesley on the effect of the tides on the
comets. A. P. 1760. H. 128. earth's rotation. Ph. tr, 1758, 809.
 342 CATALOGUE.—-ASTaONOMY, TIDES.

Simpson on the horary displacement of the
earth's equator. Ph. tr.
Correcting Silvabelle and Walmesley.
Lalande on the change of hilitude of the
Vou Zach on the precession of the equinoxes.
1757. 486. Zach. Mon. corr. IL 500.
The lunisolar precession so'.aagg, the real observed
pre-
cession 50".o5i or rather 50".0982.

stars. A. P. 1758. 339- H. 87- Robison doubts the accommodation of the period of the
moon's rotation to that of her revolution, and principally
Darcy on the precession of the equinoxes. because her axis is not perpendicular to her orbit. Ele-
A. P. 1759. 420.
ments, 518.
J. A. Euler on perturbations from want of

sphericity. A. Berh 1765. 414. Theory of the Tides.

Murdoch's comparison of the sun and moon. Aerial Tides. See Meteorology.
Ph. tr. 1768. 24. For the particular phenomen;-., see Practical
Makes the moon very dense. Astronomy.
Precession of the equinoxes. Emerson's Hydrology. Ph. tr. abr. IL IV. VI. VIII. X.
miscellanies. 180. fWallis on the tides. Ph. tr. 1665-6. I.

Gerlach on the figure of the earth, and on 263,297. 1668. III. 652.

the motion of its axis. 8. R. S. Deducing the tides from the earth's centrifugal force, in

revolving round the common centre of gravity of the earth

Laplace on the precession of the equinoxes, and moon.
A. P. 1777.329
Wallis's answer to Childrey. Ph. tr. 1670. V,
Laplace on the rotation of the heavenly bo- 2068.
dies. M. Inst. L 301.
Philips. Ph.tr. 1668. III. 656.
Laplace on the fall of a body from a great Observes, that the monthly variations of the tides are is
height. B. Soc. Phil. n. 75. See Practi- the versed sines of the times.

cal astronomy.
Childrey 's remarks on Wallis's theory. Ph.
Milner on the precession of the equinoxes. tr. 1670. V. 2061.

Ph. tr. 1779- 505. Hooke. Birch. II. 475.

Finds it
by a simple method 2l" fl"' for the effijct of Illustrated the ascent of a tide in a narrow channel by the
ttie sun. There seems to be some confusion respecting agitation of mercury in a triangular vessel.

compound rotation.
Newtoni Principia.
Heniiert et Frisius de uniformitate motus Halley's Newtonian theory of the tides. Ph.
diurni terrae. 4. Petersb. R. S. tr. 1697. XIX. 445.
Ace. N. A. Petr. 1783. L 132. Observes, that great variations in the time of the tides

Vince on the precession of the equinoxes. may be produced by shoals.

Prize essays on the tides, by Cavalleri, Ber-
Ph. tr. 1787.363.
The solar portion 2i" 6'", supposing the earth of uni- noulli, Maclaurin, and Euler. A. P. Prix.
form density, and the ellipticity ^J^ ; but in reality about IV. vi. . . ix.
The la«t three are also in Le Seur's Newtoo.
Bode on the displacement of the earth's axis. Elder on a new kind of oscillations. C. Petr.
A. Berl. 1797. 100. Ph. M. XL 310. XI. 128.

Trembley on tlie precession of the equinoxes. Euler on the equilibrium of the sea. A. Petr.
A. Berl. 1799. 131. 1780. IV. i. 132.
M. Young on Uie precession of the equinoxes. Wargentin on the tides. Schw. abh. 1753.
Iv. tr. Vn. 3. 165, 249. 1754. 83.
 CATALOGUE. — ASTRONOMY, TIDES. 343

own vibrations
Waltnesley on the effect of the tides upon tre, which is itself performing its ;
the midtjl*

of the sea, or lake, remaining nearly at rest.

the earth's rotation. Ph. tr. 175S. 8O9.
Lalande on the tides. A. P. 1772. i. !297.
Now it may easily be shown, that a pendulum suspended
from a centre, which performs regular small vibrations of
H. 1.
its own, may vibrate in the same time with the centre,,

Lalande Trait6 du flux et reflux. Printed vibrations be to that of the

provided that the extent of its

in the Astronomy. Note. Ph. M. VII[. vibrations of the centre, as the length of the thread carrying

134. the centre is to the difference of the lengths of the two

threads for, in this case, the situation of the thread of tha
Lalande Astronomic. ;.

pendulum will be always the same as that of a simple pen-

Laplace on the tides. A. P. 1775.73. 1776.
dulum of the length of the thread carrying the centre.
1790. 45. Mecan. celeste. When this thread is the longer, the vibrations will agreo

Laplace on some high tides. Nich. VL 239. in direction, but, when shorter, their directions must be

Agreeing with the theory. contrary to each other ; and, it appears to be in the latter

fSaint Pierre Etudes de la nature. case only, that the pendulum will always tend to acquire

Deduces the tides from the melting of the circumpolar such a state of permanent vibration, wi.atever may have
ice.
been its original situation, although it
may sometimes ap-
proach rapidly to it, even when the thread of the pendulum,
Suremain's remarks on St. Pierre. Roz. XLT.
is the shorter. If the breadth of a lake, or sea, from east ta
239- west in miles, be and time required for
depth
I, its d, the

Villelerque on St. Pierre's hypothesis. Journ. its complete oscillation, or the time, in which a wave might
b
Phys.XLIV.(L)99. pass over twice its breadth, will be in hours, and the
Chiminelli's researches on the tides. A. Pad.
lengths of the synchronous pendulums being as the squares
IL 204.
of the times, the extent of the oscillations of the lake will
Robison. Enc. Br. Art. Tides. be to the extent of those of the temporary horizon, as the
Observes, that the smallest solar retardation of the tides
square of half a lunar or solar day, to the difference be-
is

»o the greatest, as the difference of the solar and lunar influ- tween that time, and the time required for. the oscillation of .

ence is to their sum : that is,from Dr. Maskelyne's obser- the lake the motions either agreeing or differing in direc-
;

vations at St. Helena, as 37 to 87 ; and the sun's effect is would occupy,

tion, accordingly as tiie oscillation of the lake
therefore to that of the moon as 2 to 4.96. more or less time than half a day. Supposing the luminaiy
Woods on St. Pierre's hypothesis. Ph. M. vertical, the extent of the oscillation of the temporary sphe-
VIIL 134. roid will be, for the lunar tide 5 s.c, c being half the breadth

of the lake in degrees ;

and for the solar tide, 2 s.c ; whentc.
A Simple Tlieory ofihe Tides. Y. .the height of the tides at the eastern and western shores will

It has been sufficiently demonstrated by different authors,

be 3 s.c
3030000rf
3030000ci— /'i
-— ,

,and2s.c —
283000Ud—
2830000;/
; —respectively,
bb
'
. ,

that the form which the sea would assume, in consequence of

the moon's attranion, if the earth were at rest,is thatof anob- These become infinite, when i=:i7-!0v'<'. and lfi82v'(/,

and magnitude of the tides would be

in these cases, the
longellipticspheroid.ofwhichtheaxiswouldexceedtheequa-
diameter by :ibout 10 feet, the whole height of the tides
torial only limited by the resistances; this must hajipcn, ifrfzrl,

but when the effects of the earth's rotation are when bzzi 1740, or 2 5° for the lunar tide ; if dzzg, when
being 5 feet ;

much more ir:5220, and if

d^, or 100 fathoms, when i:=s8^, or
considered, the investigation becomes difficult.

The spheroid of equilibrium, revolving continually, causes betweerr %° and g°. If d were 1> and i 6000, the lunar
tide would be about ,48 feet, and if b were 8216, or go' of
the position of the horizon of any place to vary
periodically,
so as to perform, in the course of a lunar day, two the equator, it would be ,42,
complete
oscillations, resemLling those of aeycloidal pendulum; and At the eastern and western shores of a sea or lake, 90" irt-

the surfac* of any detached portion of the sea, so inclosed diameter, the ascent and descent of the water would be pre-
by perpendicular and parallel shores, as to be capable of cisely the same as in every par< of an open ocean, of the
permanent oscillations, is drawn after this variable horizon, same depth ; and the tides of such an ocean may, th '.refore,

in the same manner, as a pendulum suspended from a cen- be calculated, by making 6^8216, and the height, A wijt
3-ii CATALOGUE. ASTRONOMY, CELESTIAL APPEARANCES.
303ii id id 13A meiit apparens des corps celestes. 2 v. 4.
be
3U3(/ —3953 d — 13'"'(i— 14 ;
whence d zz
Par. 1786. . R. S, .

I4A
andif rf is less than 13, h being negative, the Euler on the degrees of light of the heavenly
j—^;
place of low water itiust be immediately below the lumi- bodies. A.Berl. 1750.280.
, . \3h 14/1 Makes the light of the sun equal to that of 6560 candles
nary. and d:z or
h+3 fe+a at 1 foot distance, liiat of the moon to a candle at 71 feet, of
The same conclusion may be obtained by very different Venus, to a candle at 421 feet, and of Jupiter to a candle at

means ; considering the tide, in comparison with the sur- 1620 feet :
partly from Bouguer's experiments. Hence the
face of the spheroid ot equilibrium, as a wave, which is 10 sun would appear like Jupiter, if removed to 131 000 times
produce by its propagation, a sufficient velocity of ascent his present distance.

and descent, for the actual motion of the tide upon a sphere.
d were 52, the height of the tide would be 6= feet,
Thus, if
Appearances of the Stars.
that is li feet above the spheroid ;
and such a wave being
Twinkling. See Fixed Stars.
naturally propagated with a velocity twice as great as that
of the tide, the water would ascend or descend, with a velo- Bradley on a newly discovered motion of the
city sufficient for
its propagation with a velocity twice as fixed stars. Ph. tr. 1728. XXV. 637.
great as the velocity of rotation, and, since
it is
actually ex- The aberration. It was observed by Flamstead, but not
posed to the same force, for a time twice as great, a qua-
understood.
druple velocity will be generated, which will be equal to the Lalande on the change of latitude of the
relocity of ascent, or descent, required for the tide of 6| feet,
stars. A. P. 1758. 339- H. 87-
which is four times as much elevated as the supposed wave.

It appears, therefore, that for any given magnitude of the Lagrange on the variations of the earth's or-
elevation h, there are two values of rf, accordingly as we sup- bit. A. P. 1774.97. H. 39.

pose the time of high water, or of low water to coincide with On the changes of latitude and longitude of the stars,
p.
that of the moon's southing thus, if /i^a, d must be either
: 164. The change of obliquity affects the right ascension
gl or 3i ;
and it is difficult to determine for the open ocean a little, but not the declination.
whether the time of high or of low water, is nearest to
the transit of the luminary. For a sea 4000 miles broad,
Appearances of the Sun.
the depth must exceed S miles, in order that the time of
high water may coincide with that of the greatest elevation Seasons, Day and Night, Twilight.
of the horizon ; and, if it be less than this, the time of high
water must be that of the greatest depression, that on the
La on the length of twilight at the
Caille
is,

eastern shore, about 5 hours after the moon's southing ;

on Cape. A. P. 1751. 544. H. 158.
the western, about 7 ; and, if the sea were narrower, these
Bergmann on twilight. Schw. Abh. 1760.
times might vary from the fifth to the third, and from the
237. Opusc. V. 331. VL 1.
seventh to the ninth hours, respectively. The effects of re-
Lambert Photomelria. §. 987.
sistance will also accelerate the tides of the latter kind, and
The limit of visible twilight is when the sun is a"i belovr
in this manner, tlie theory may be perfectly reconciled with
the horizon. In order to find the time when the twilight is
observation.
shortest, as Rad : Sin. X.at : ; S. 6° is" : S. Sun's declina-

tion, south.
Celestial Appearances in general,
with reference to the Earth. Appearances of the Primary
Planets.
Baxter's matho.

Hugeuii cosiiiotheoios, 4. Hag. I69B. Halley on the appearance of Venus in the

Foiitaielle sur la pluralite des mondes. 12. daytime. Ph.tr. 1716. XXIX. 466.
1686. ParLalande. 1800. Godin on the apparent motions of the planets
Diunh du SejourTTa'iic analiiiqiie des motive- in
epicycloids. A. P. 1733. 285. H. 67.
 CATALOGUE. — ASTEOXOMV, CELESTIAL APPEARAXCES. 345

Kieson the greatest brightness of Venus. Plantade and Clapiers on a lunar eclipse
A. Berl. 1750. 218. from the earth's penumbra. A. P. 1702.
Ubsher on the disappearance of Saturn's H. 73.

ring. Ir. tr. 1789. III. 135. PIi. tr. 1706. XXV. 2240.
In a total eclipse ol the sun, 12 a streak of
Bode on the disappearance of Saturn^s ring. May, 1706,
was observed 0" or 7" belbre the sun's disc hence
M. XV. light :

Ph. 219.
Flamsfead infers a lunar atmosphere jJjth of the moon's
Calkoen ou the disappearance of Saturn's diameter in height : but this might have been from oblique
ring. Ph. M. XV. 222. reflection.

Duillier on a total eclipse of the sun. Ph. tr.

Appearances of the Secondary 1706. XXV. 2241.

Planets. A whiteness was seen round the moon, one twelfth of
her diameter in extent ;
and a white halo 4 or 5 degrees
Moon. in diameter beyond it : this vanished soon after the sun re-
Cassini on the libration of the moon. A. P. appeared : hence he hifers a lunar atmosphere of 130 geo-

1721. 168. H.53. graphical miles in height, and deduces the halo from the

Lalande on the lunar Ubration. A. P. 1764. Many stars were seen during the eclipse.
solar atmosphere.

555. H. 112. Halley on a total eclipse of the sun seen in

Dionis du Sejour on the faint light of the London. Ph. tr. 1715. XXIX. 245.
A ring of light surrounded the moon, onesixth of her dia-
new moon. A. P. 1776.
meter in extent, which seemed to proceed rather from a
This light is a minimum at 43" elongation, a maximum
lunar than from a solar atmosphere : and a line of light was
at 0° and at 69° ;
at 90° about half the greatest quantity.
seen lingering behind. Some lightning too was seen.
Kastner on the phases of the moon. Com-
Lahire on the ring seen in total eclipses
mentat Goit. 1780. III. M. I.
of the sun. A. P. 1715. 161.H.47.
Harvest moon. O. Gregory's astronomy,
C. .\vi. Cavallo. IV. 143.
Delisle's experiment on a ring of light like
that which appears in eclipses. A. P. 1715.
H. 47.
Appearances of the Sun and pri-
166.
' Delisle and Lahire produced an appearance nearly of th
mary Planets jointly. same kind, by interposing an opaque substance, as a ball of
stone, between the eye and the sun : but here it
might be
Transits.
objected, that the earth's atmosphere supplied the light.
See Practical Astronomy. Louville's geometrical mode of calculating
eclipses. A. P. 1724. 63. H. 74.
Appearances of the fixed Stars
Gersten methodus calculi eclipsium. Ph. tr.
and Moon.
1744. XLIII. 22.
Occultations, Vince's Astronomy. O.Gre- Ph. tr. 1748. XLIV. 490. C. Bon, I. 267.
gory's Astronomy. A brown light was seen beyond the sun's casps, in an
eclipse nearly annular.

Appearances of the Sun and Moon Lalande on the effect of ellipticity in

jointly. eclipses. A. P. 1756. 364. H. 96. 1763.

413.
Eclipses.
Lalande on a kinar eclipse. A. P. 1783. 89.
Flamstead's method of calculating
eclipses. Adds 36" to the earth's shadow for the effect of tl?e at-
Moore's system of Mathematics. I. mosphere.
VOL. II. Y y
346 CATALOGUE. — TRACTICAL ASTRONOMY,

Boscovich de solis ct lunae defectibus. 4. The nodes coincide with the syzygies in 6890 lunations,

witii an angular error of only s' \ in pooo years. Cavallo,

1760. R. I.
from Gregory.
Jeaural on the projection of ecli|)ses.
S. E,
The nodes and apsides return to the same position, after
IV. 818. about 83 revolutions of the nodes.

Witchell on the shadow of a spheroid. Ph.

tr. 1767. 28. Appearances of the primary and
Dionis du Sejour. A. P, 1775.
secondary Planets conjointly.
Attributes a refraction of about i" to the lunar at-

mosphere.
Eclipses of Jupiter's Satellites.
Dionis du Sejour on the quantity of light Short. Ph. ir. 1753. 268.
fallingon the moon in eclipses. A. P. Lalandeon the effect ofellipticily in
eclipses.
1776. A. P. 1756. 364. H. 96. 1763, 413.
Lemonnier on the eclipse of 24 June 1778.
A. P. 1778. 62. H. 34.
With a good figure of UUoa's spot, and of the yfhole lu-
Appearances of Comets.
minous appearance. Euler on the effects to be apprehended from
a comet. N. C. Petr. XIX. 499.
Lemonnier on total eclipses of the sun, and
Lambert on the apparent orbit of comets.
on the lunar atmosphere. A. P. 1781. 243.
A. Berl. 1771. 35'i.
H. 47.
Finds a refraction of 24" i.

Marcorelle on the heat of the sun in an Flanetary Worlds, Appearances with

echpse. Roz. XIV. 352. respect to different Planets.
Ulloa on a total eclipse of the sun. Ph. tr.
Buffon and others on the heat of the celes-
1779. 105. tial bodies. Roz. IX. 7.
There was a great appearance of light round the moon,
Ducarla on the rings of planets. Roz. XIX.
which seemed to be agitated, and emitted rays to the dis-
tance of a diameter ;
it was reddish next the moon, then 386.

yellowish. Stars of the first and second magnitude were

seen, those of the first for about 4 minutes. A minute and Practical Astronomy, in general.
a quarter before the emersion, a small point was visible
near the disc of the moon. From the ruddy colour of the Cassini on the precautions necessary in astro-

light, the ring is

moon's atmosphere the
referred to the :
nomical observations. A. P. 1736. 203.
spot to a fissure in the moon's substance. Such a fissure
Simpson's calculation of the advantage of a
must have been above 40 miles in depth.
mean of several observations. Ph. tr. 1755.
Herschel on an eclipse of thesun.Ph.tr. 82.
1794. 39.
Geography. Emerson's cyclomathesis. IX.
Schroter on the solar eclipse. Ph. tr. 1794. Lalande on the use of interpolations in prac-
262. tical astronomy. A. P. 1761. 125. H.ga.
Goudin sur les eclipses du soleil. 4. Par. Lalandt Exposition du calcul astronomique,
1800. 8. Paris, 1762.
On calculating eclipses. Vince's Astronomy. Ace. A. P. 1762. H. 136.
Irradiation and diffraction in eclipses. See
Rosters handbuch der practischen astrono-
Physical Optics. niie.
 CATAtOGJJE. — PRACTICAL ASTRONO^T. 347

Obscrvatorin.
Lagrange on taking the mean
of observa-
tions. M. Taur. 1770. 3. V. ii. 167.

Lagrange on the simplest mode of express- Godin's convenient observatory. Mach. A.

ing a given number of facts.
A. P. 1772. VI. 49.
i. 513. H. S3.. Bouin's trap door for an observatory. A. P.
Euler on Lagrange's mode of taking a mean 1763. H. 148.
of observations. N. A. Petr. 1785. III. Barker's account of tlie
observatory at Be-
289. nares. Ph. tr. 1777.598.
Bergmann on interpolations in astronomy. Schulze on the situation of an observatory.
Opusc. VI. I. A. Berl. 1777- 223.

Principi di geografia astronomico- Williams's particulars of the observatory at

Lcrgiia
K. S. Benares. Ph.tr. 1793.45.
geonietrica. Verona, 1789-
Vince's practical astronomy. 4. Lond. 1790. Ussher on the observatory in Dublin. Ir. tr.

R. S. 1787.1.3.
Treinbley on taking a mean of observations. *Piazzi della specola astronomica de'regi
A. Berl. 1801. M. '29- studi di Palermo, f. Palermo, 1792. 4-

R. S.

Ace. Hind. Arch. I. 257.

Astronomical Apparatus, in gene-
ral.
Time.
See Geometricallnstruments.
Htvelii organographia astronomica. f. Ghent, Equation of time.
1G73.
Lalande on the equation of time. A. P. 1762-
Acc.Ph.tr. 1673. 6150.
131. H. 120.
Hooke's animadversions on Hevelius's ma-
Maskelyne on the equation of time. Ph. tr.
china coelestis. 4. London, 1674. Lect.
1764. 336.
Cutl.
Pemberton. Ph. tr. 1772. 434.
Maskelyne's remarks. Ph. tr. 1764. 348. A problem relative to the calculation.

Due de Chaulnes on the improvement of K'astner on reductions of time, A. Gott. D.

astronomical instruments. A. P. 1765. Schr. 101, 194.
411. H. 65,

Magellan Trait^ sur dcs in&trumens d'astro-

mie.
Equation Clocks, for Solar Time.
E. M. PI. Vn. Astronomic. PI. 15.
Ludlam on Bird's method of dividing. 4. Lahire's clock, showing true ti.ne. A P.
Lond. 1717-238.
Montucla and Lalande. IV. 334. Leroy's solar clock. A. P. 1717. H. 85,

Troughton on some astronomical instru- Mach. A. III. 151. A. P. 1728. H. 110.

ments. Zach. Mon. corr. II. 907 Mach. A, V. 63,
348 CATAT.OGUE. -PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY.

Williamson's claim to the invention of equa- responding distances. Zach. Mon. corr. IV.
ted elocks. Ph. tr. 1719. 1080. XXX. 93.
Made one in 1693 or 1694 ;
another with an elliptic

roller raising the pendulum, which went 400 days this is :

Dialling, or Gnomonics.
still in the palace at Hampton Court. Made one by cora-
Account of dials in the garden at Whitehall.
jiarison of the
sun's motion with another clock ;
this of

course included a general equation for temperature.

4. Lond. 1624.
By Guntcr.
Lebon's solar clock. A. P. 1722. H. IIQ.
Hooke's instrument for making dials. Birch..
Mach. A. Ilf. 21. A. P. 1726. H. 70.
II. 155.
Mach. A. IV. 45.
Piciird on dialling. A. P. VII. i. 183.
Meynier's solar clock. A. P. 1723. H. 122. Lahire on dialling. A. P. X. 444.
Mach. A. IV. 59.
Parent's instrnment for
P. 1724. H. 93. shewing tbt true
Thiout's solar clock. A.
shadow. A. P. 170). H. II6.
Mach. A. IV. 67, 69, 173.
Clapies on the angles of dials. A. P. 1707.,
Dufay's machine for showing true time. A.
569.
P. 1725.67.
Delisle's gnomon for the sun's transit. A, I*".

Kriegseisen's equation clock.

A. P. 1726. H.
1719.54.
69. Mach. A. IV. 155. A. P. 1732. H. 117.
Gnomonic instruments. Leup. Th. M. G.
Mach. A. IV. 149.
St. Cyr's solar clock.
t. 10, 11.
Duchesne's equation clock. Mach. A. IV.
Mean's compound dial.A. P. 1731. H. 92.
153.
Gensanne's transit instrument and dial. A. P.
Leroy's equation applied to a striking part. 1736. H. 120. Mach. A. Vil. 55.
Mach. A. V. 67, 71,73. Krafft on dialling. C. Petr. XIII. 'Zo5.
Duterew's equation watch. A. P. 1742. H.
Leraonnier's obelise for shewing the time of
163. Mach. A. VII. 153.
noon. A. P. 1743. 36l. H. 142. 1762..
Berthoud's equa tion clock. A. P. 1752. H.
263.
147. 1754. H. 140. Mach. A. VII. 425,
Emerson's cj'clomathesis. IX.
473. Wenz's dial. Ace. Helv. V[. 167.
Going 13 months.
La Condamine's gnomonical cane. A. P.
Biesta's equation clock. A. P. 1757. H.
1770. H. 114.
179.
Bertier's globes serving for dials. A. P.
Biesta's equation by a moveable dial plate.
1770. H. 117.
A. P. 1770. H. 115.
Ferguson's mechanical exercises. 95.
Ferguson's astronomical and equation clock.
Lalande on a vertical linear gnomon, A. P.
Ferg. inech. ex. 11.
1757.483.
Schulze on an equation clock. A. Berl. 1782.
322. Ferguson on dials. Ph. tr. 1767. 389,
E. M. PI. V. Marine. I.
E. M. PI. VIII. Amusemens degnomonique.
Observations of Time, in general.
Carayon's sun dial with wheelwork. Roz.
Bernoulli on finding the time at sea. A. P. XXIV. 312.
Prix. VI. i.
Mignon on Carayon's dial. Roz. XXV. 377.
Delambre oa finding the time from cor- Castillon on gnomonics. A. Berl. 1784. 259.
 CATALOGUE. — PRACTICAL ASTRONO-MY. 349

Wollastnn on a universal meridian dial, 4. An epoch from the precession of the equinoxes,
Gilchrist on the hours of the Hindoos.
Lond. 1793. R. S.
Montucla and Hutlon's recreations, As. res, V, 81.
Wurm on the new French calendar. Hind,'
Lefrangois on dialling. Journ. polyt, IV. xi,
Arch. II. 15.
261.
See Transit Instruments. Gauss on the computation of easier. Zacm
Mon. corr. II. 121.

ChronologVj and Calendar. Winter on the solar year. Nich. VII. 1 16.

Cassini on the calendar. A. P, II. 198, X. Robison's Elements,

The Egyptians reckoned by years of 365 days: Hippar-
433, 520. 1701. 367. 11. 105.
chus and Ptolemy employ the same method. In A. D.
Eichaud on the calendar of the Siamese.
040, the first day of the Egyptian year, was the first of Janu-
A. P. VII. part. 2. iii. 154.* ary ;
another Egyptian year began 31 December. In the
Wallis on altering the calendar. Ph. tr. I699. new stile, lO days were omitted in 1 582 ; before this time, .

each century contained 36525 days. Robison.

XXI. 343. ,
^ To
Prefers the Julian reckoning. find the prime number, sometimes called the solar
Lord Burleigh and Greaves on the calendar. cycle, add g and divide by 28 ;
the indiclion, add 3 and

Ph. tr. 1699. XXI. 355, 356,

divideby is. Add i to the year and divide by 19, the rs-
mainder is the golden number, take 1 from the golden num-
Observations on the calendar. A. P. 1700.
ber, multiply by 11, and divide by 30, the remainder is the
H. 127. 1703. H. 91. epact, or the moon's age on the first of January. Lalande,
Jackman on the rule for finding, easier. In astronomical language, ] Jan. 1805, o'clock A. M.
Ph. tr. 1704. XXIV. 2123. is 1804, Dec. 3ld. 18h. Lichtenbcrg,

Newton on a French publication of his chro-

nological index. Ph. tr. 1725. XXXIII..

315. Tnstrumentsfor Observatian:

Halley's defence of Newton's chronolog\', .

Ph. tr. 1726. XXXIV. 205. 1727. Simple Astronomical Quadrants,; See Geo--
metrical
XXXV. 296. Instruments.
Now seldom used. .

Sauveiir's perpetual calendar. A. P. 1732.

H.94. Buot's azimuthal instrument. Mach. A. I.

*Lor<l Macclesfield on the solar and lunar 67.

Lahire's universal astrolabe. A. P. 1701. 257.
years. Ph. tr. 1750. 417.
Emerson's cyclomatliesis. X. H. 97.

Horsefall;on a chronological question. Ph. Parent on the astrolabe. A. P. 1702. H. -

tr. 1768. 100. 70.

Marsden on Louville's instrument for right ascensions.

tlie
Hejeru. Ph. tr. 1788. 414. .

The years of the Hcjera are lunar, commencing 1 6 July, A. P. 1719. 188.
622.
Meynier's instrument for solar altitudes-. A.
Marsden on the chronology of the Hindoos. P. 1724. H. 93. Mach. A. IV. 71.
Ph.tr. 1790.560.
Monligny's instrument for marine oteerva-
Lalande on epacts. A. P. 1789. 95. tions. Mach. A. V. 57.
Lam^therie on the division of time, and on An instrument for marine observations,-.
a general epoch. Roz. XLIII. 236, 315. Mach. A. V. 97.
350 CATALOGUE.—1PBACTICAL ASTIXOKOliy. .

Godin's mural quadrant. A. P. 1731. 194. Ph. tr. 1734. 442.

Godfrey seems to have made a reflecting quadmnt before
1733. 36.
Pli. Hadley,
Elton's instrument for taking altitudes.
On a reflecting instrument in the observa-
tr. 1732. XXXVfl. 273.
Berl. 1749- 370.
tory at Berlin. A.
By the sun's imase.
looke.
was made by Whitehead, and ser.t over by
I
It
Quereineufs instrument for marine ohscrva- sector. N. C. Petr.
Segner's catadio])tric
viiiion. A. P. 1732. H. liy. Mach. A. VI..
VI. 399.
117. on Hadley's quadrant.
Ewing's improvement
Lecarlier's universal instrument for altitudes
Am. tr. 1. 126.
and time. Mach. A. VI. 187.
Dollond's addition to Hadley's quadrant for
Condauiine on an instrument for determin-
maritime use. Ph. tr. 1772. 95.
ing a parallel circle. A. P. 1733. 294. H.
*Maskelyne's remarks on Hadley's quadrant.
53.
Ph. tr. 1772. 99.
on Davis's
Logan on Godfrey's improvement Inverts the instrument, in order to find the correction
for

quadrant. Ph. tr. 1734. XXXVIII. 441. the back observation on shore.

Catching the sun's image on an arch. Carre's im|)rovcment of octants. A. P. 1777.

for manag-
Grandjean de Fouchy's'machine Magellan Description dcs
octans et sextans
a A. P. 1740. 468. Mach. A.
Anglais. 4. R.
ing quadrant. S.
VII. 47. MaccUan sur les instrumens circulaires de
A witli a reflecting telescope. A. P. R. S.
quadrant reflexion. 4.
1746. H. 121. Account of Magellan's nautical instrument.
Gersten quadrantis muralis idea nova. Ph. N. A. Petr. 1783. I. H. 141.
tr. 1747. XLIV. 507- Atvvood's general theory of the inclination
of
Art pour diviser les instrumens. f. Paris, Ph. tr.
direct and twice reflected rays.
into an azi-
pouchy on making a quadrant 1781.395.
muthal instrument. A. P. 1781. 254. Proposes two new arrangements of the specula, for .parti-

XV. cular purposes: they give a greater extent of arc

than Had-
E. M- PI. V. Marine.
ley's method,
but require a nicer adjustment.
Cesaris de quadrante murali Mediolanensi
Lexell on Burdett's optical compass. N. A.
Ramsdeni. 8. R. S.
Petr. 1783. I. H. 111.
Enc. Br. Art. Astronomy. Quadrants.
A sextant with points.
A mural Cavallo, N. Ph.
quadrant.
IV.
Cassini. A. P. 1788. 706.
4.
pi. 29. fig- The angles are multiplied.
On Synesius's
astrolabe. M. Inst. V. 34.
Borda's circle true within l"i, or at most 4'f

Cassini on Borda's circle. A. P. 1790. 6l7.

for Angles.
Reflecting Instruments Account of Borda's circle. Conn, des terns,
Hooke's reflecting quadrant. Animadv. on 1798.
Hevelius. 4. Lend. 1674. Ludlam on Hadley's quadrant. 8.

Newton's paper on a reflecting instrument Coutit Briihl on the investigation of astrono-

like Hadley's. Ph. tr. 1742. 153. mical circles. 8. Lond. 1794. R. S. Germ,
*Hadley's instrument for taking angles. Ph. with additions by Zach. Hind, Arch. I.

tr. 1731. 147. 1732. 32. 257.

 CATALOGUE. PRACTICAL ASTROIfOMy. 351

Von Zacli on the circles of Borda and Le- Lahire's universal micrometer for eclipses.

noir Hind. Arch. I. 450. A. P. 1717.57.

Peacock's reflecting instrument for measur- Halley on observations with cross hairs in a
ing distances. Repert.
I. l63. telescope. Ph. tr. 1720. XXXI. 1 13.
Cassini invented an oblique hair, to estimate the dilfc-
Containing a base.
rence of declination, by the diiference of the times of
Pitt's dendrometer, with and without reflec-
crossing it.
tion. Repert. II. 238. j •
j
/- j-
or< .
.

^ , r .1
,• J P„..
.
lor .
wodin s mode usmgb long
1

o telescopes,
1
k ^ and
Patterson sadjustment of the quadrant
long tubes of telescopes. Mach. A. VI. 53,
the back observation. Am. tr. IV. 154
~ 57.
Repert. XV. 266.
Rios's improved reflecting circle. fHadley's proposition respecting telescopes.
Jlendozay
Ph. tr. 1736. XXXIX. 185.
Ph. tr. 1801. 363. Nich. 8. I. 4.

For multiple measurements. Troughton's circles only Bouguer's hehometer. A. P. 1745. 11. H. 87.
multiply the readings : which in some cases must be the Zanotti on a micrometer. C. Bon. II. ii. 347.
best method. Passemenl's reflecting telescope applied to
Steinhauser's catoptric instrument for mea- the quadrant, with a new mode of dividing
suring angles. Gilb. XV. 377. Mach. A. VII. 341.
it.

Fallon's reflecting engymeter. Zach. Mon. Nux's mode of determining the magnitude
corr. VI. 246. of the stars. A. P. 1762. H. 135.
Wolkiston on the dip. Ph. tr. By the interposition of semitransparent substances of dif-

to the sextant, for aro- ferent thicknesses.

Lomet's addition
static uses. Journ. polyt. IV. xi. 252. Charni^res's megameter. A. P. 1767. H. 129.
Novarrc's Gregorian telescope for astrono-
E.Walker's improved quadrant. Nich. 8. IV.
mical observations. A. P. I769. H. 130.
218. VI. 219-
Ward on correcting the sextant for the back Bradley on the use of the micrometer. Ph.
observation. Ph. M. XVIII. 123. tr. 1772. 46.
Bernoulli on the rhomboid reticle. A. Berl.

Astronomical Telescopes, and. Telescopic 1773. 193.

Sights, Micrometers,
and Photometers. Jeaurat's iconantidiptic telescope. Ph. tr.

See Optics. 1779. ISO.

Representing one erect and one inverted image, coincid-
pouchy on telescopic sights, invented by moment
ing at the that the object passes theaxis.
Morin, 1631. A. P. 1787. 385. Jeaurat on diplantidian telescopes. A. P.
Hooke in favour of telescopic sights. Ani-
1779.23. II. 33.
madv. on Hevelius. 4. Lond. 1674.
Jeaurat on iconantidiptic telescopes. A. P.
Hookc's helioscopes. 1676. Lect. Cutl.
1786. 562.
Using frequent reflections.
Kastneron the wires of a micrometer. Com-
Lahire on the places of stars, measured
mentat. Gott. 1779. II. M. 1.
by the micrometer. A. P. 1701. 101. II.
Herschel's micrometer for the angle of po-
91.
sition. Ph. tr. 1781. 500.
Lahire's wire micrometer for eclipses. A. P.
Hcrsfhel's telescopes. See Telescopes, Fixed
1701. 119. H. 92.
Stars.
352 CATALOG UK. — PIIACTICAL ASTBON'OMY.

Ilerschel's lamp micrometer. Ph. tr. 1782. Ramsden's improved theodolite. Ph.tr. 1795,

163. 457.
For ascertaining an^lar situations, by comparison with A small theodolite of Ramsden. Pli.tr. 1797.
,two lamps viewed by the other eye, one of them
moveable
507.
everyway. Makes Lyra subtend .35 J3".
Theodolites. Enc. Br. Art. Geometry.
Herschers dark and lucid disc aud peri|)hery
Ofvcrbom's theodolite. Zach. Mon. corr.
micrometers. Ph. tr. 1783. 4.
IV. 334. Fig.
A light circle being compared with a darlc one on aliglit

ground, the light one appears the larger. Bohnenbergeron acircle of Baumaun. Zach.
Ussher on telescopes for stars in the Mon. coiT. VI. 465.
viewing
day. Ir. tr. 1788. 37.
The highest magnifiers the best.
Fixed InstrumtiUs.
'

Englefield on Bradley's rhomboid microme- Transit Instruments,

ter. 4. Bath. Derham's transit instrument. Ph. tr. 1704.
Pigott on the comparative magnitudes of XXIV. 1578.
the stars. Ph. tr. 1785. 135. Roemer's simple transit instrument. M." Ber-!.
Suggests, that they may be measured by ascertaining how 1727. 111.276.
much light, thrown into the telescope, will efface them.
Gensanne's transit instrument A. P. 1736.
Wollaston on a system of wires. Ph. tr.
II. 120. Mach. A. VII. 55.
1785. 346.
Ussher on illuminating the wires of a transit
A rhombus instead of a rhomboid, for ascertaining right
ascensions and declinations. instrument. Ir. tr. 1788. II. 13.
Am. tr. II. 181. Nich. 8. 1.319. Wollaston on atransitcircle.Ph.tr. 1793. 133.
Rittenhouse uses spiders' webs instead of wires, for mi- A transit instrument
by Ramsden. Ph. tr.
crometers.
1795.419.
.Cavallo on a micrometer. See Optical In- Cjmierer and Pasquich on the errois of a
struments. transit instrument. Zach. Mon. corr. VI.
E. -Walker on Bradley's mode of observing
34, 176,481.
transits. Nich. 8. H. 22. A transit instrament. Cavallo. N. Ph. IV.
Astronomical micrometers and photometers. PI. 29. f. 0.
Zach. Eph. III. 318.
Burckhardt on a quadrangular system of Mural Quadrants.
wires. Zach. Mon. corr. I, 120. See Quadrants.
Burckhardt on micrometers. M. Inst. To be
Zenith Sectors.
printed in the S. £.
*A zenith sector by Ramsden and Berge.
Theodolites. Mudge. Ph. tr. 1803. 383.

Theodolites with verniers. Leup. Th. Ar. t, Account of a Zenith Sector, described by Major Mmdgz.
From the Jowrnah of ike Royal Inslitulion. II.
37 . . 42.
Circles. E. M. Pi. V. Marine. IV. The external frame of the instrument is of
mahogany,
constituting a truncated pyramid, on a base of six feet
*iloy's account of the great theodolite, with
square, tapering to a vertex of three. The internal frame,
its
microscopes and microiueters. Ph. tr. which immediately supports the sector, revolves on a ver-
1790. 135. tical axis, terminating below in a cone, which rests in x
 CATALOGUE. — PRACTICAL ASTUONOMY. 353

conoidal convex to the axis, and above in a cy-

cavity,
Equatorial Instruments.
linder, passing through an octagonal aperture in the upper
ftame. As it turns, its motion is indicated by an azimuth
Short on an equatorial instruments Eh. tr.

circle attached to the lower part of the external frame, 1749. XLVI. 241.
and it
may be brought into the direction of the meridian Nairne's equatorial, or portable observatory.
by a telescope fixed in the plane of the arch. The telescope Ph.tr. 1771. 107.
of the sector is
eight feet, long, and its aperture four inches :

Si Ibersch lag's uranometer. A. Berl. 1778. H.

the axis is like that of a transit instrument, the plumb line

two and is adjusted, by

3S.
passes through perforations in it,

means of a screw with a jointed handle, and a long bent Smeaton on observations out of the meridian
microscope with specula, so as to bisect a point marked on with an equatorial micrometer. Ph. tr.
a plate of mother of pearl, precisely in the axis of the in-
1787.318.
strument ; this plate is properly illuminated by the same
lamp that serves for the micrometer wires of the telescope, Haupoin's equatorial instrument. Roz. XLII.
its light being reflected downwards upon the wires from an 286.
oblique surface covered vf ith plaster of Paris. *ShuckburgIi on the equatorial instrument.
The pivots of the sector's axis are of bell metal, they rest Ph. tr. 1793. 67.
in Y's, firmly attached to the frame, their sliding horizon-

tally is prevented by a fixed friction wheel on one side, and Levels, Mechanical or Hydrostatical.
a spring supporting a friction wheel on the other : four cy-

employed to fix the telescope firmly

lindrical braces are
On levels. Hooke Anim. on Hevelius. Wa-
; and the bending of the axis is still further ob-
to the axis ter levels.
viated by levers with counterpoises, acting by means of Perrault. Mach. A. I. 63.
friction wheels, close to the tube of the telescope, so as to Picard. A. P. VII. i. 51, 235.
leave so much of the w^eight only to be supported by the

pivots, as is necessary to keep the instrument steady. The Couplet. A. P. 1699. 127. H. 112.

telescope is moved by strings and puUies, and is retained in Veijus. Mach. A. II. 83.

any given situation by weights. A long spirit level is era- Lahire. A. P. 1704. 251. H. 99-
ployed for bringing the axis into a position truly horizontal. Leu;;old. Th. Horizontost. Th. Hy'drot#chn.
The arch is divided into portions of five minutes each, Th. Suppl.
marked by points, on golden pins, let in at each division.
A fine line was struck when the telescope was properly
Grandjean de Pouchy. Mach. A. VI. 113.
supported on the pivots : the instrument being then removed, Hadley's spirit level to be fixed to a quad-
the diameter of the circle, of which this arc was a part, was rant. Ph. tr. 1733. XXXVIII. 167.

ascertained, and one sixteenth of this, being taken as ex- The spirit to vibrate through a stop cock till it settle.
tremely near to the chord of 7° 10', was laid off on each Soumille. A. P. H.
1737. 109. Mach. A.
side zero ; and this arc was verified
by comparison with
vii. 71.
another, obtained, by means of continual bisections, from
With an index enlarging the scale by means of a lever.
an arc of 60°. The micrometer screw carries a head divi-

ded into 59 parts, nearly corresponding to seconds ;

the Leigh's water level fixed to Davis's quadrant.
half of the arc on one side zero was found to contain only a
Ph.tr. 1738. XL. 413.
single second mare than the other portion.
Leigh's mercurial level for a quadrant. Ph.
The greatest error that could ever be observed from a
tr. 1738. XL. 417.
difference of temperature in different parts of the
observatory, True to a'.
was found to be little more than half a second for an arc of
Gensanne. A. P. 1741. H. 164. Mach. A.
five degrees. The observations of the zenith distances of
the various stars employed were completed in October VII. 109.
IS02 ; and the instrument was brought back to London Reflecting.

without having sustained the least perceptible injury. Mathieu. A. P. 1746. H. IQl.
VOL. 11. z z
S54 CATALOGUE. — PKACTICAL ASTRONOMY.

Deparcieux. A. P. 1748. 313. H. Il6. Modes of fixing Instruments.

Shorten Serson'stop. Ph. tr. 1751. 352. Hooke on Animadv. on
fixing instruments.
Remained 1 5' perfecdy horizontal. Hevelius. IjCCt. Cutl.
Chezy. S. E. V. 254. Nich. III. 396.
Gray on finding a meridian from the pole
Ratenfay. A. P. 1772. i.
star. Ph. tr. 1701. XXII. 815.
•

Ferguson. Mech. exerc. 115. Derham. Ph. tr. XXIV. 1578.

Meister on the spirit level. N. C. Gott. 1776. Mentions " the thill horse" of the wain as coming te
VII. 142. the meridian at the same time with the pole star and the

Deluc. Roz. IX. 204. bright star in Cassiopeia's thigh.

Carayon's water level. Roz. XI. 368. Rittenhouse's mode of fixing a meridian. Am,
A circular spirit level. Dollond. Ph. tr. 1779.
tr. II. 181.

332. Patterson on a meridian line. Am. tr. II.

Inochodsoff. A. Petr. III. i. 188. Roz. XXVI. 251.
461, Schubert on fixing a meridian. N. A, Petr.
Fouchy on a level not requiring adjustment.
1788. VI. 301.
A. P. 178 J. 82. H. 44. Kastner on observations of the pole star.
The surfaces of the liquid in different branches of a tube
Commentat. Gott. 1791. XI. M.L
are viewed through a telescope at the same time with the
object. Henry on adjusting a transit instrument,
Ducaila Expression des nivellemens. 1782. Zach. Mon, corr. III. 344.

By drawing horizontal lines on a map. On drawing a meridian line. Zach, IV^on.

Jonville's instrument for
measuring the incli- corr. III. 419.

nation of strata. Roz. XXX. 100. On a meridian drawn at Gottingen by ob-

Keith's mercurial levels. Ed. tr. II. 14. IV. servations on glass globes. Zach. Mon,
H. 17. Repertory. III. 338. IX. 49. corr. VII. 553.
With sights. The pole is situated where the line drawn through the
Ph. pointers meets the line drawn from the last horse of the
tr. 1793. 67.
The level of wain to the pole star.
Shuckburgh's equatorial instrument moves
'
of an inch for each second.

Enc. Br. Art. Levels.

Observations in general.
Correctiom.
Nicholson. Nich. I. 131.
Refraction.
Anderson's instrument for levelling. Repert.
Refraction. See Physical Optics.
11,317.
Walker on the line and Kastner on corrections for refraction, N. C.
plumb spirit level.
'^ Gott. 1772. III. 122.
Nich. 8. I. 309.
Cassini on observations of refraction. A, Berl,
Little's artificial horizon. Ir. tr. VIII. 77.
ii. II. 183.
1773,251,
Repert.
With a weight. Dollond's apparatus for correcting refraction.

Gould's patent artificial horizon. Repert. ii.

Ph.tr. 1779.332.
Two lenses sliding on each other, placed before the object
1.98.
Churchman on glass. Why better than a table .'

levelling. S. A. XXII. 224.

Smeaton's mode of correcting for refraction.
After Ducaila.
Ph, tr, 1787. 318.
 CATALOGUE. PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. 355

Numerous observations of the transit of 6 June Annual Parallax.

1761. Pii.tr. 1761.
Hooke's attempt to prove the motion of the
Zanotti. C. Bon. VII. 0. 1.
earth. 4. 1679- Lect. Cutl.
Montucia and Lalande. IV. 126.
Ace. Ph. tr. 1679. IX. 12. Cassini's ap-
Wollaston on corrections for horizontal re-
probation. 90.
fraction. Ph. tr. 1803. 1.
Wallis's proposal respecting the annual pa-
rallax. Ph. tr. 1693. XVII. 844.
Aberration of Light. See Physical Optics.
Suggests an observation on two neighbouring stars, as the
second horse of the wain, and its rider.
Parallax in general.
Halley on Cassini's proposal to find the pa-
Mackay. Enc. Br. Art. Parallax.
rallax of Sirius. Ph. tr. 1720. XXII. 1.

Dip.
Places of the Stars.
Huddart on the dip. Ph. tr. Nich. I. 145.
Gilb. III. 257. Lahire on finding the difference of declina-
Wollaston on the dip. Ph. tr. 1803. 1. tion. A. P. 1701. 101. H. 91.
E. Walker on the dip. Nich. VII. 62. Maraldi on finding declinations without re-

fraction. A. P. 1736. 43. H. 85.

Azimuths and Altitudes in general.
Maupertuis on finding the declination of the
BernoulH on three observations of altitudes. stars. A. P. 1736. 375.

C. Petr. IV. 89. Wollaston on describing the positions of the

•
Mayer on observations of altitudes. C. Petr. fixed stars. Ph. tr. 1784. 181.
V. 33. By drawing little maps from estimation.

Lax on observations of two altitudes. Ph. tr.

Altitudes of the Stars.
1799. 74,
An artificial horizon of mercury covered
vfith Mairan on finding the latitude without re-
gauze. Burrows. As. Res. I.
fraction. A. P. 1736. 147. H. 87.
Aubert on equal altitudes. Ph. tr. 1776. 92.
Observations of the Stars.
Of a star near the pole.

See Astronomical Telescopes and Micro- K'astner on observations of the pole star.

meters. Commentat. Gott. 1791- XXI. M. 1.

Smeaton on observing by comparison with

two stars. Ph. tr. 1768. 170. Observations of the Sun.

Corrections. Parallax, and Modes of determining it.

Aberration. For Irradiation and Refraction see Physical

Bradley on a newly discovered motion of the Optics.
stars. Ph. tr. 1728. 637. Halley de parallaxi solis ope Veneris deter-
Clairaut on the aberration of the stars. A. P. minanda. Ph. tr. 1716. XXIX. 454.
1737. 205. H. 76. Boscovich on the approaching transit of Ve-
Winsheim on aberration. N. C. Petr. I. 446. nus. Ph. tr. 1760. 865.
 356 CATALOGUE. PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY,

Short's comparison of observations of the At the time 9".28.

transit. Ph. tr. 1762. 611. Maskelyne on the transit of Venus 1769. Ph.
Parallax at the time 8".52, mean parallax 8".65. Sun's tr. 1768. 555.
greatest apparent diameter 32' 33", least 3i' 28", mean Distinct marks of an atmosphere, or of inflection, or of

82' o".5. both.

Short's further investigation of the solar pa- Hirst on the phenomena of the transit. Ph.
rallax. Ph. tr. 1763. 300. tr. 1769. 228.
At the time 8". 56, which he thinks true within ^ th ;
On the transit of Venus. N.C.Petr. XIV. ii.i.
hence we have 8".69 for the mean.
f Price on the aberration of light as retarding
^
Duval on the sun's distance from the earth. the tratisit. Ph.tr. 1770. 536.
Ph.tr. 1763. 1. On he makes the retardation
Winthrop's principles

Ferguson's scheme of the transit of 1769. 18' 16" of time : the true retardation is
only about 9' 20".

Ph. See Optics.

tr. 1763. 30.
Lalande on the solar parallax. A. P. 1771.
Hornsby on the sol.ir
parallax. Ph. tr. 1763.
467. 776. H. 83.
At the time e".732. Mean 8".62, polar 8".58.

Hornsby on the transit in 1769. Ph. tr. 1765. Smith on the sun's parallax. Am. tr. I. 162.
326. Euler on the sun's parallax, computed by
Hornsby on the sun's parallax. Ph. tr. 1771. Lexell. Ph. tr. 1772. 69.
574. Makes it 8".55.
Makes it 8".72. A. P. Index. Art. Soleil. Venus.
The distance of the sun deduced from the Ph. M. X. 181.
theory of gravity. Edinb. 1763. Laplace makes the parallax 8".e from the moon's motion.

Pingre's supplement on the transit. Ph. tr.

Observations of the Solstice.
1764. 152.

Pingre on the solar parallax. A. P. 1772. i. Halley, Ph.tr. 1695. XIX. 12.

398. H. 71. A problem applicable to this subject. Pem-

Mean 8".8. berton. Ph.tr. 1772.434.
Mallet on parallax. Ph.tr. 1766.244.
Observations of Solar Altitude.
Horsley on the sun's distance deduced from
the lunar motions by Stewart's method. f R. Graham's globular instrument for alti-

Ph.tr. 1767. 179. tudes. Ph. tr. 1734. XXXVIII. 430.

Parallax 6" 52"'.4. Cassini de Thury on the variation of solsti-
Horsley's remark on Stewart's method. Ph. tial altitudes. A. P. 1748. 257- H. 91.
tr. 1769. 153. Bouguer on observations of altitudes at sea.
Landen's animadversions on Stewart's com- A. P. Pr. II. iv.

putation. R, S. Lalande on the observation of meridian and

SJohl von den durchg'angen den Venus. 8. corresponding altitudes. A, A. 1757.516.
Greifswald, 1768. Pemberton on two observations for the lati-
Smeaton and Maskelyne on menstrual tude. Ph. tr. 1760. 910.
pa-
rallax. Ph. tr. 1768. 154.

Planman on the solar parallax. Ph, tr. 1768. Observations of the Planets.

107. Aberration. See Optics.

 CATALOGUE. — PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY. 357

Observations of the places of the Planets. The natural cosine of the true distance is 2 (cos a). {cos 7').

(sec.cj. (seed). (cos. «). (cos/)

— cos.g ;
a being half the sum
Halley on determining the places of the of the observed altitudes and the distance, b half the differ-

planets by the fixed stars. Ph. tr. 17'il.

'
ence between the sum of the altitudes and the distance, c and d
XXXI. 209. the observed altitudes, e and /the corrected altitudes, and g'
their sum. This is the simple trigonometrical solution.

Observations of the secondary Planets.

Krafft on correcting lunar observations, with
Lunar Observations. a table. A. Petr. VI. ii. 351. I789. VII.

Halley on finding the longitude by lunar ob- Not very simple.

servations. Ph. tr. 1731. 185. .\^
An approximate construction. Kelly^g-
!
Thinks he can determine the moon's place within a'.

spherics.
Mayer on lunar observations. C. Gott. 1753.
Draws two lines including an angle equal to the observed
III. 375.
distance, sets off the sines of the observed altitudes from the
Maskelyne's lunar observations and compu- angular point, erects perpendiculars at the points thus found,
tations. Ph. tr. 1762. 558. and the distance of their intersection from the lunar line is
the correction, which is subtractive when it lies on the same
Pigott on the transit of the moon's limb. Ph.
side with the solar line, and additive when on the opposite
tr. 1780. 416.
side. This correction is measured on the line of chords,
Burrow on lunar observations. As. Res. I.
calling each degree a minute j it is then reduced by multi-
433. plying it by the horizontal parallax, and dividing by 62 when
Recommends that the internal contact of the limbs be it is subtractive, but by 53 when additive. This includes
observed, in order to avoid the effects of irradiation. the effects of refraction, very nearly.

Elliot on correcting lunar observations. Ed.

Corrections. Refraction, and Parallax.
tr. I. 191.
Grischow on the lunar parallax. N. C. Petr.
Burrow on the lunar parallax. As. Res. I_
IV. 451.
320.
On the lunar parallax. Ed. ess. II. 91-
Garrard's tables for reducing lunar observa-
Lalande on the elliptical parallax of azimuth.
tions. 4. Chelsea, 1800.
A. P. 1756. 373. H. 96.
A short method, for finding the longitude within half a
Maskelyne's concise rules for calculating re- degree.
fraction and parallax in lunar observations.
Mendoza's tables. 4. Lond. 1801.
Ph. tr. 1764. 261. Contain a simple method. The author has also lately

Pingre on parallax, allowing for ellipticity_ published some tables for a still more expeditious mode of
A. P. 1764. 362. calculation.

Tables to be used with the nautical almanac. Leveque. M. Inst. IV. 467.
Lexell on correcting lunar observations. A. Lowe on finding the longitude by land from
Petr. I. the moon's transit. Ph. M. XV. 97."

Euler on the parallax of a spheroid. A. Petr. Andrews's mode of correcting lunar distances.
III. i. 241. Nich. 8. IV. 43.
Euler on the calculation of lunar observa- A direct solution, deduced from plane trigonometry, em-

tions. A. Petr. 1780. IV. ii. 301. ploying the squares of the sines.
Richer and some others have invented mechanical me-
Fuss on the corrections of lunar observations.
thods of correction.
A. Petr. III. J. 310.
358 CATALOGUE. PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY, GEOGRAPHY.

Moon's appearance. Birch. Hist. R. S. I. 133.

Eisenschmidius de figura telluris. Strasb. I69I.
Grandjean de Fouchy on deducing the longi-
tude from the appearance of the lunar
4. M. B.

mountains, A. P, 1733. H. 76.

Cassini on Snellius's measurement. A. P.
1702. 60. H. 82.
Observatioiu of the Earth's Motion. Amst.
Cassini de la figure de la terre. 12.

Hooke and Newton on a falling stone. Birch. 1723.

III. 516, 519. Cassini on the figure of the earth.
A. P. 1735.
Hooke observes that should fall south eastwards.
it
255. 1736. 64. H. 80.
Newton's letters. Commercium epistolicum. Cassini's measurement of an arc. A. P. 1740.
Hooke on the motion of the earth. Nich. II. Suite.
84. A. P. 1718. Suite.
Proposal for experiments on a diurnal titu- Mairan on the diminution of degrees. A. P.
bation of the earth. A. P. 1742. H. 104. H.65.
1720. 231.
Poleni de pendulorum perturbatione. Ph.tr. Ph.
Desaguliers on the figure of the earth.
1743. 299. tr. 1725. XXXIII. 201, 239, 277.
Thinks there should be a difference according to the di-
Shows the insufficiency of Cassini's measures : observes
rection of the vibration. that a revolution round a larger axis must be unstable.
Gulielmini's experiments. Nich. II. 84. Musschenbroek. Diss. Phys. 355.
Saladini on the declination of falling bodies. earth. Ph.
Maupertuis on the figure of the
Ac. Sienn. VII. 55. 1736. 302. A. P. 1737- 389. H.
tr. 1733.
Benzenberg. Ph. M. XV.
90.
Found in a height of 235 feet Fr. a declination of a falling
Maupertuis on the figures of
the heavenly
body 4 lines eastwards and inline southwards.
bodies. A. P. 1734.55. H. 88.
Laplace on the fall of a body from a great
Soc. Phil. n. 75. Maupertuis Figure de la terre determinee. 12.
height. B.
Amst. 1738,
Makes the deviation 3.9 lines eastwards at Hamburg for
to Peru. A. P.
235 feet: attributes the 1.5 lines southwards observed by Maupertuis on the voyage
Benzenberg to some accidental or meteorological cause. 1744. 249. H. 35.

La Condamine on an instrument for deter-

mining a parallel circle.

A. P. 1733. 294.
Geography. H.53. "

the Earth. La Condamine's extract of the operations

Figure and Magnitude of
near the equator. A. P. 1746. 6 18,
See Laws of Gravity. La Condamine Journal du voyage a I'equa-
Picart on the measurement of the earth. A. teur. 4. Par. 1751. M. B.
P. VII. i. 46.
LaCondamineMesurede trois premiers degr«s.
Acc.Ph.tr. 1675. X. 261. 4. Par. 1751. M. B.
Account of Norwood's measurement. Ph.tr. Clairaut's inferences from the perpendicular
1676. XI. 636. to the meridian. A. P. 1733. 406. H. 59-
Norwood was " a reader of the mathematics" in London.
new mode of determi-
Clairaut on Cassini's
He measured principally by chains, observing the angles,
nation, A. P. 1735. 117. H. 51.
and partly also by paces.
1
 CATALOGUE. PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY, GEOGRAPHY. 359

Clairaut on the measurement of the earth by Frisii disquis tio de figura et magnitudine
several arcs. A. P. 1736. Il6. telluris. Milan, 175(2.

*Clairaut de tcrrae figura. Pli. tr. 1737- 19- Short's remiirks ou Frisi. Ph. tr. 1753. 5.

*Clairaut on the figul-e of planets of unequal Eukr on spheroidical trigonometry. A. Beri.

density. Ph.tr. 1738.

XL. 277- 1753. 258.
The earth probably denser at the centre, as Newton hint-
Darcy on the attraction of spheroids. A. P.
ed : but Newton made a little mistake respecting its eflfccl
1758. 318.
Clairaut sur Ja figure de la terre. 8. Paris, Reflections on the figure of the earth. A. P.
1743. 1755. H. 47.
Ace. A. P. 1742. H. 86. *Grischow's experiments on the length of
of pendulums by
Bradley on observations the pendulum. N. C. Petr. VII. 445.
Graham and Campbell. Ph. tr. 1734. Prefers a simple pendulum, corrected for temperature, to a
XXXVlIl. 302. compensation.

Maraldi on the verification of the figure of Maskelyne on the going of a clock at St.

the earth by the^iunar parallax. A. P- Helena. Ph. tr. 1762. 434.

1734. l.H. 59. Maskelyne. Ph. tr. 1777. 722.

the supposed figures Corrects for curvature and refraction together, by dividing
Bouguer's comparison of the square of the distance by J of the diameter of the earth.
of the earth. A. P. 1734. 21. H.,83.
•f'Michell on measuring degrees of longitude.
A.
Bouguer on the measurement
ot degrees.
Ph.tr. 1766. 119.
P. 1736. 302, 443.
Lambert on the figure of the ocean. A. Berl.
Bouguer on the direction of the plumb
line.
1767. 20.
A. P. 1754. 250. H. 1.
of the earth, and the Liesganig's measurement of 3° in the meri-
Stirling on the figure
dian of Vienna. Ph. tr. 1768. 15.
variation of gravity. Ph.tr. 1735. XXXIX. South of Vienna the degree was 186 loises less than north-
98. wards towards Brunn, but at Warasdin 300 toises greater
Krafft on the figure of the earth. C. Petr. than at Vienna : this is attributed to the attraction of moun-
tains near Graz.
VIII. 220.
Delisle on a measurement in Russia. Ph. tr.
Mason and Dixon's measurement of a de-

1737. XL. 27. gree in Pennsylvania. Ph. tr. 1768. 270.

Lat. 39° Cavendish calculates, that the degree may
12'.
Celsius de figura telluris. 4. Upsal, 1738.
have been diminished 60 or 100 toises from the situation of
Ace. by Eames. Ph. tr. 1740. 371. the Atlantic and the eflfect of the Allegany mountains; similw
Alexander on a plan for measurement in causes may have operated in Italy and at the Cape.

New York. Ph. tr. 1740.383. Mason and Dixon on the going of a clock
Examen des ouvrages faites pour determiner in Pennsylvania. Ph. tr. I768. 329-
la figure de la terre. 8. Amst. 1741. M. B. Dalembert on the change of axis from a dif-
Wargentin on the figure of the earth. Schw. ference of meridians. A. P. 1768. 1. H.
Abb. 1749. 243. 1750. S, 83. 95, 332.
Lacaille on the true length of the degrees in On the length of the pendulum. N. C. Petr.
France. A. P. 1751. 425. H. 158. XIV. ii. Snmm. 14.

Lacaille on the precision of the measures of Mallet's observations in Lapland. Ph.tr. 1770,
1740. A. P. 1755. 53. 363.
360 CATALOGUE. PRACTICAL ASTPONOMV, GEOGRAPHV.
Mallet's mathematical description of the The correct longitude of Paris 2° 20' 4''.o
according to
Newton's or 9' ao".4 in time
R. S.
eaitli. ellipsis, ; according to another,
Ruinovski on the length of the pendulum. dividing the errors, 9' 19". 7. Maskelyne from astronomi-
cal observations gives 9' 50*.
N. C. Petr. XVI. 567.
Account of a survey by Williams, Mudge,
Roj's remarks on the figure of the earth. Ph.
and Dalby. Ph. tr. 1*95.414.
tr. 1777. 766.
The base on Hounslow heath was measured again with a
*Roy's account of the measurement of a base chain, and found 27404.3155 feet: the former measure-
on Hounslow heath. Ph. tr. 1785. 385. ment, with some corrections which had been omitted,
A base from Hampton pooihouse to Crantord bridge was 27404.0843 ; a mean between both 27404.2 ; the base in
measured as a foundation for the comparison of the situa- Romney marsh corrected was found 28534^ f.
agreeing
tions of London and Dover : the measurement was in a di- thus with the base on Hounslow heath, and within an inch
rection a little inclined to the horizon, but the reduction or two, with another of 36574.4 feet measured on Salisbury
was only half an inch ; the length was found 27404.7 feet plain.

by the glass rods.

Williams, Mudge, and Dalby on the conti-
*Roy on the mode of determining the rela- nuation of the survey. Ph.tr. 1797. 432.
tive situations of Greenwich and Paris.
Mudge's continuation of the trigonometrical
Ph.tr. 1787. 188.
survey. Ph. tr. 1800. 539.
Comparison of the French observations. Proposes a base Measurement of a base on Sedgmoor, of 27680 feet.
of verification in Romney marsh. Table of degrees in va-

rious directions according to Bouguer's hypothesis, 2-28 ;

Mudge on the measurement of an arc from
corrections, 465. Dunnose to Clifton. Ph.tr. 180,3. 383.
A new base of verification measured with the chain at
Roy on the meridians of Greenwich and Pa-
the extreme point of the survey.
ris. Ph.tr. 1790. 111.
The French committee consisted of Cassini, M^chain, Laplace on the figure of the earth. S. E.
and Legendre. Abase of verification of 28532.92 feet was
1773. 503. A. P. 1783. 17.
measured in Romney marsh with the steel chain :
differing
Laplace Exposition du systcme du monde.
only 9 inches from the calculation of the triangles founded
Mecanique celeste.
on the base in Hounslow heath : the chain appears to de-

serve equal confidence with the glass rods : it was length- Dionis du Sejour on geodetic calculation.
ened .023 inch in 100 feet by 6 weeks wear. The white A. P. 1778.73. H. 28.
were found the best objects for nocturnal observa-
lights Hubius de figura telluris. 4. Gott.
tions. The measurements on the different sides of the
Gerlach Bestimmung dergestalt dererde. 8.
channel agreed within 7 feet in 39800. The longitude of
Paris 2° 19' 42", or o' 18".8 in time E.of Greenwich. Vienna, 1782. R.S.
Achard Schriften. 197.
Roy on spherical and spheroidical triangles.
Ph. tr. 1790. 168, 192. De Luc Lettres physiques et morales, xlv,
Lalande on the of the earth. A. P.
Prontfs translation of Roy's memoir on the ellipticity

measurement of a base. 4. Paris, 1787. 1785. 1. Bode's Jahrbuch. 1791-

Lalande on Fernel's measurement of the earth
Legendre on trigonometrical operations. A.
P. 1787. 352. published in 1528. A. P. 1787. 216.
Makes it 57070 toises, only a toise more than the later
Legendre Operations pour la junction des ob-
measures. In Ph. tr. X. it is called 56746.
servatoires. 4. Paris. R. S.
Klostermann's remarks on diflFerent mea-
Dalby on the longitudes of Dunkirk and Pa-
ris. Ph.tr. 1791.236. surements. Gott. anz. 1785. 1786. 1789.
 CATALOGUE. — PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY, GEOGRAPHY. 361

Asserts, that from a comparison of the different angles of The error of the three angles of go of the triangles was
the triangles employed, it
appears that none of the mea- between l" and 2". The bases were measured
by rods of
sureracnls can be considered as sufficiently accurate to au- platina, their ends being placed near each other, and the
thorise us to attribute irregularity to the earth's figure. distances measured by a micrometer.
any They also served as
Roy thinks his observations of little importance. parts of metalline thermometers for correcting the errors of

expansion. The degrees were found to diminish all the

Klostermann sur le degre du meridien. 4. Pe-
way from Dunkirk to Montjouy.in a distanccof 9.673 7 9722°;'
tersb. 1789. R. S.
but they decreased at first slowly, then more rapi.lly, and
Meister on Mayer's scale for reducing angles then slowly again.
to the horizon. Commentat. Gott. 1785.
Dclamhre Arc du meridien. 4. Par. 1798. R. I.
Vlll. 75.
Williams on the earth's diameters. 4. Lond. Clay on the figure of the earth. Am. tr. V.
312.
1786. 1788. R. S.
in Bode's Jahrbuch. Burja on the length of the pendulum at Ber-
Klugel 1787. 1788.
lin. A. Berl. 1799. M. 3.
On the magnitude of the zones. 1790.
Lambton's mode of geographical survey. As.
Goth. Mag. Ill.ii. 148.
Res. VII. 312.
Krafft on the length of the penduhun in dif-
With the measurement of a degree in the Mysore country.
ferent latitudes. N. A. Petr. 1789. VII.
Melanderhielni on the measurement of a
215.
Pictet's proposal for a measurement near degree in the north. Zach Mon. corr. I.

372.
Geneva. Ph. tr. 1791. 10(5.
Melanderhielm and Svanberg on geographi-
Topping's measurement of a base in the East
cal measurements. Zach Mon. corr. II.
Indies. Ph. tr. 1792. 99-
Suremain on the 250, 257.
figure of the earth. Roz.
Melanderhielm on the degree measured in
XLI. 239.
Lapland by Svanberg and Ofverbom. Zach
Cagnoli on determining the figure of the
Mon. corr. VII. 56l. Journ. Phys. LVI.
earth. Soc. Ital. VI. 227.
400.
By observing the lunar parallax, and its effect in an oc-
cultation : a differenc* of about o" ought to be found in Pasquich on the use of the French geogra-
phical measurements. Zach Mon. corr. I.
some cases.

Henry on the length of the pendulum at Pe- 435.

tersburg. N. A. Petr. 1793. XI. 524. Pasquich on the effect of elliplicity on pen-
K'dstners mathematische geographic. 8. Gott. dulums. Zach Mon. corr. II. 3.

1795. Knogler on the measurement of a degree

Ace. Hind. Arch. II. 100. in China. Zach Mon. corr. I. 589.

Prony's formulae for the axes of the earth. Note on the earth's ellipticity deduced from
B. Soc. Phil. n. 1. lunar observations. Ph. M. VII, 186.

*Report from the committee of weights and Nonet's degree measured in Egypt. Ph. M..
"
measures, on the new measurement of the XII. 208.
meridian. M. Inst. II. 23. B. Soc. Phil. n. Play fair on the figure of the earth. Ed. tr.

28. Journ. Phys. XLIX.98, l6l. V. 3. Nich. VII. 102.

VOL. IT. 3 A
36^ CATALOGUE, — PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY, GEOGRAPHY.

P, P. on the figure of the earth, and on sphe- gonometrical survey, which has hitherto been conducteil
on so extensive a scale. Y.
roidal triangles. Nich. VIII. 12, 151.
Rcmatks on Playfaii.
Tabular comparison of Observations.
Spheroidal triangles. See Navigation.
Length of a degree, on the Level of the Sea.

Account o/Major Mudge's paper on the Measurement of

Fathoms
an Arc of the Meridian, extending from Dunnose, in Latitude. Toises. according
to Roy.
the Isle of mght, latitude 50° 37' 8", to Clifton, in

Yorkshire, latitude 53° 27' 3l", in courseof the opera- 66° 20' N. (57422 61194.3 Maupertuis, 1736 7.) —
on for the Trigonometrical Survey of Eng-
tions carried 66° 20'l2' ;8 Melanderhielm and Svan-

land, in the years 1800, 1801, and 1802. From berg, 1802.
the

Journals of the Royal Institution. II. (52° 46' 57419 Norwood, published 1036.)
50° 41' 0C840 Roy. 1790. The degree
In the course of these operations, a new base had been
perpendicular to the
measured on Mistcrton Carr, and from its length, compared
meridian 61182.3, fa-
with the former trigonometrical measurements. Major
thoms. Ph.tr. 1795.
Mudge was enabled to calculate the magnitude of a degree
50° 9 27" 60826.6
of the meridian, with well grounded hopes of very great ac-
49° 23' 5707* Maupertuis and Cassini,
curacy. The result, however, of these calculations indicates
1739 — 40.
an irregularity, which could not possibly have been foreseen, Picart.
49° 7' 57064.5
it has happened in a still greater degree in some
although 4a'' 3' 60833.0 Mean of Maupertuis and
former measurements. The northern part of the arc,
Cassini and Liesganig.
which, upon the supposition of the ellipticity of the terres- 48° 43'
trial spheroid, ought to be less curved than the southern,

and to exhibit the length of the degree greater in the same

proportion, appeared from the observations to be more
curved, the mean of the whole arc giving the degree 42
fathoms smaller than the arc between Dunnose and Arbury
Hill. Major Mudge thinks it improbable that the error of
observation can be one tenth as great as this difference im-

plies, and he conjectures that the plurab line must have been
deflected at Clifton as much as 8" or lo" southwards, by the
This opinion was
irregularity of the terrestrial attraction.

confirmed, by a comparison of his observations with those

which had been made at Blenheim, giving 60884 fathoms

for the length of the degree in latitude 51° 13', deduced

from the meridional distance of Blenheim from Dunnose.

The arc from Dunnose to Clifton gives 60820, in latitude

Hi" 2* 20"; from Dunnose to Arbury Hill, 60865, in lati-

tude 51° 35' 18". By comparing the latitudes and distance

of Clifton and Barcelona, we have 60795 "for the degree in

latitude 4J° 24', thewhole arc being somewhat more than

twelve degrees; and at the middle point between the parallel
of Clifton and Paris, the degree appears to be 60825 fa-

thoms, in latitude 51° 9'. Major Mudge promises to give

to the Royal Society, at a future time, an account of the

further prosecution of his optrations for continuing the tri-

 CATALOGUE.— PRACTICAL ASTRONOJIV, GEOGRAPHY. 363
'
Fathoms (s. lat.) for the length in inches. Robison makes the va-
Latitude. Toises. according riation of the pendulum ^5, or .00555, and the ellipticity ji,.
to Roy.

38" 18' S. 57037 Klostermann.

56740 I^ Caillc, 1752.

Fernclius.N
Ellipticity, or excess of the equator above the
57070
(or 55021 Snellius. / axis.

In Egypt. 56880 Nouet. Ph. M.Xn. 208.

If the earth's density were uniform, the

The excess of Ihe degrees of the meridian in an elliptic
ellipticity would be Newton.
spheroid is very nearly in the ratio of the square of the
If infinite at the centre and evanescent
sine of the latitude : and the length of the degree at any
is to the length at the elsewhere, it would be Laplace.
point, equator, accurately, as the
In the actual circumstances of a den-
cube of a line drawn parallel to the plumb line from a point
in the axis equidistant from the centre with the sity greater towards the centre than at the
equator,
and terminating in a point of the plane of the equator, to circumferences, the polar increase of gra-

the cube of the line drawn from this point to the true
pole :
vity being
— , it must be
114.2 r
Laplace after
Clairaut,
Or, if e be the ellipticity, and x the sine of the the latitude,

length ofthedegree will vary, as (1 +(2e+ee)T.r}|.

f Roy's first elliptic spheroid deduced
from observations on the pendulum only,
without regard to Clairaut's theory 1
_
178
Roy's second spheroid, from a compa-
Length of the Pendulum,
rison of the six best results of measure
ments,
For 100 000 vibrations at Paris, g8770 were made by the 191-5
same pendulum at the side of the river of
Amazons, 98740 Rsy's third spheroid, from the degrees
at Quito, 98720 on Pichincha. Condamine and Bouguer. of the equator and the old measurement
The length of the pendulum at the equator was found by of the polar circle,

Bouguer 38,0949 English inches ; at Spitzbergen 39,1978

Roy's fourth ellipticspheroid, approach-
;

the acceleration being 156" from the

equator to London, —
ing the nearest to Bouguer's theory,
and 68".5 from London to 2
Spitzbergen. Roy. Ph. tr.
fifth is Newton's.
Roy's
1787'.
Roy's sixth spheroid, from the degrees
The length of the pendulum at St. Helena, lat. 15° 55'S.
at the equator and in latitude 45°
is to that at Greenwich, as to 10.0246.
1
Maskelyne. Ph. Roy's seventh spheroid, having the
tr. 1762. 434.
least possible ellipticity,

The pendulum at Paris is 1.5 line longer than at the

Roy's eighth spheroid is not elliptic, the
equator: at Petersburg .45 longer than at Paris, and at excesses of the degrees varying as the
Ponoi, lat. 67° .65 longer. In proportion to the square
4',
squares of the sines of the latitude ; this,
of the sine of the latitude should be 8 longer at Peters-
it .4 however, nearly resembles the fourth.
burg than at Paris. Mallet. Ph. tr. 1770. 365.
Roy's ninth spheroid is formed upon
According to the observations of the calculated
pendulum Bouguer's theory of the excesses of the
by Roy, as well as some appears that the length degrees varying as the fourth power of the
others, it

of the pendulum is about 39 inches at the equator, and sines. This falls within the and
ellipsis,
elsewhere 39 + -221 (s. lat.) % or 1 + .00567 (s. lat.)
«
according to Roy, agrees best with obser-
Instead of .00567 Dr. Maskelyne's observations he finds the power 3.42 nearer
give .0046 vation ;

for a multiplier: the observations mentioned by Mallet the truth than 3 yj which Bouguer men-
.00523 the earth's ellipticity being supposed
:
the mul- tions as more accurate than the fourth
j^j, ;
1 ,

tiplierbecomes, on Clairaut's principles .00547, or, if

^, the eccentricity is made
178.4
.0053S. Perhaps ".0055 is a good mean, and 39 + .215
 364 CATALOGUE. — PRACTICAL ASTEONOMY, GEOGRAPHT.
It was, however, found in the course
Maskelyne's observations made on SchehaU
of the survey, that the degree perpendicu-
lion. Ph.tr. 1775.501.
lar to the meridian in latitude 50°4l was
<ill83.3 fathoms, which is 88 fathoms The sum of the two deflections 11". 8 : on a rough com-
less than on Bouguer's hypothesis nor putation, the mean density of the earth appears to be at
did this measure agree witli least twice as great as that of the which seems to be
any elliptic hill,

spheroid. From the coraparison of this an entire rock.

degree with that of the meridian, the on the of

Pringie attraction mountains.
ellipticity appeared to be .008751, or -1— ph. tr. 1795.
148 4. London, 1775. Ph. tr. 1775.
Laplace thinks that different meridians
Hutton's calculations for
«re diffeiently curved, but that in determining the
the ellipticity ofthe osculating spheroid
Europe
is
—— mean density of the earth. Ph. tr. 1778.
From the measurements in America 689.
«nd Finds the specific
at the equator, the
ellipticity appears gravity | of that of Schehallion, an*
lobe L_ concludes that it is about *\.
493
From the greatest number of European Cavendish on the density of the earth.
1
mtasurements, Ph. tr. 1798. 469. Nich. 11. 446. Gilb.
178
From the new measurements in France ir. 1.
compared with the equatorial degree ~
334
A horizontal arm with two balls was suspended by a wire,
From the variation of the pendulum, so as to vibrate 4 or 8 times in an hour two leaden
:

'
taking .00567 as its limit, weights, applied near to the balls, produced a deflection of
(32 about inches in the and about 3
7 first case, in the second t

From the lunar motioni from a mean of many such experiments, the earth's density
Laplace.
is found by calculation 5.48, without a chance of an error
From the new measurement
in Lap-

land, compared with the Peruvian degree

'
* —313~ Melander-
hielm.
of ^, confirming Newton's conjecture of 51.
the place of the weights produced no effect.
Magnets ia

A minimum of errors in Lapland,

France, and Pferu, gives
I
Cavallo. N. Ph. K. 11.
3'2g.4
Lambton's measurement, which was The deepest mine is not more than 2400 feet deep.
1 Nich. to the investigations detailed in Robison's El«-
not extremely accurate, gives According
300 Vin. 12. be calculated,
The variation of
ments, it
may that, supposing the decrease
gravity being ^Lj,
of gravity yi;;,
the ellipticity is such as would be assumed
the ellipticity becomes _2_ Robison.
319 by a coat of water surrounding a sphere of the density i.O

Dalby makes the earth's equatorial radius 3 j 80932 or as if i of the attractive force of the spheroid were collected

fathoms, its semiaxis 3473056. Ph. tr. 1791. in its centre.

Subsequent measurements 3491420 and 3408007 , or

7935 and 7882 miles. Ph. tr. 1795.

Observations for finding the Situation of

the Earth. Places.
Density of

Bertrand sur hi structure interieure de la

Grischow on latitudes and longitudes. N. C.
terre. 8. M. Petr. V. 417.
Zurich, 1752. B.
Maskelyne's proposal for measuring tlie at- Alcala sobre las observationes di latitud y
traction of a hill, read 1772. Ph. tr. 1775. longitud en el mar. 4. Madr. 1796.
495. R.y.
 CATALOGUE.-— PRACTICAL ASTRONOMT, GEOGRAPHY. 365

Latitudes. Van Swinden over het bepaalen der lengte.

Amst. 1 789.
See Observations of Azimuths and Altitudes.
Barrow on
observing the longitude by
•^Parent's observation of latitude by the rising
chronometers. As. Res. IE. 473.
or setting of two stars. A. P. 1703. H.
Lexell on finding the latitude from the alti-
Mackay on finding the longitude. 8. Lond.
1793. R. S.
tude and velocity of motion. A. Petr.
Wales on finding the longitude by time-
III. i. 300.
keepers. 8. Lond. 1794. 1800. R. S.
Krafft on finding the latitude at sea. N. A.
Hamilton on finding the longitude from
Petr. 1791. 353. XL transits. Ir. tr. VI. 193.
uilcala Galiano sobre el calculo de la latitud.
Lowe on finding the longitude by land. Ph.
4. Madr. 1795. R. S.
M. XV. 97.
From the moon's transit.
Longitudes.
E. Walker on observing the longitude at sea.
See Lunar Observations, and Navigation.
JSich. VIII. 65.
Lynn on determining longitudes by falling
stars. Ph. tr. 1727. XXXV. 351. Particular Geography.
Supposes them ao or 30 miles high, and therefore visible
Sec Figure of the Earth.
in distant places.

Halley on finding the longitude by lunar ob- On the general resemblance of the continents.
servations. Ph. tr. 1731. [. 185. XXXVI Bacon. Nov. Org. Op. II. 8.

Riccioli geographia et hydrographia refor-

Pouchy on deducing the longitude from the
appearance of the lunar mountains. A. P. mata. f. Bologn. 1660. M. B.
1733. H. 76. Ph. tr. abr. I. vii. 546. IV. vi. 449. VI. vii.

La Condamine on an instrument for deter- 363. VIII. vii. 324. X. vi. 250.

mining a A. P. 1733. 294. Varenii geographia generalis. 8. Cambr.

parallel circle.
H. 53. 1672.
La Condamine's mode of finding the longi- Petty on the magnitude of London and Pa-
tude of neighbouring places. A. P. 1735. 1. ris. Ph. tr. 1686. XVI. 151.

On the discovery of the longitude by the On the Pike of TenerifF. Hooke. Lect. Cutl.
variation. A. P. 1741, H. 131. SeeMa?- 42.
netism. Correct map of France. Ph. tr. l6&7. XIX.
Pingre Voyage pour verifier 1' utilite des 443.
methodes servant a determiner la latitude Gouye's physical and mathematical observa-
et la longitude. 2 v, 11. S. tions. A. P. VII. Part 1. iij. 1. Part. 2. iii.

Ace. A. P. 1770. H 97. 129.

Emerson's Miscellanies. 204. Marsigli Histoire de la mer. Ainst. 1725,

Leroy sur les

longitudes en mer. 4. R. S. M. B.
Roy on terrestrial observations of longitude. Ace. A. P. 1710. H. 23.
Ph. tr. 1787.212. Grew on
'
the number of acres inBritain. Ph.
Bjr the pole star. tr. 1711.265.
366 CATALOGUE. — PRACTlCAt ASTROKOMV, GEOOnAPHY.

la Holland million.
In South Britain iQ 800 coo.
BergmannPhysikbeskrifning afwer Jordklo.
1

Liehknecht Elemeina geographiae. 8. Frankf. ten. 8. 1766. Germ, by Rohl. 4.

Ups.
1712. Greifsw. 1780.
on the magukiids jdF cities. A. P.
Delisle Derbage on the islands of St. John and Cape
i

1725. 48. i! vififrii- Breton. Ph. tr. 1768. 46.

Delisle Astronomic et g^ographie. physique. BufTon Histoire naturelle, supplement.
'

4. Petersb. 173S. Latitudes and longitudes of places. A. P.

Martiniere Dictionnaiie geographique. 10 Index. Art. Pole. Longitude. 11.385.
vol. f. Ven. 1737. R.I. Funk Anfangsgriinde der mathematischen
Maupertuis Elemensde g^ographie. 8. Paris,
geographic. 8. Leips. 1771.
1742. Oeuvr. III. 1. Due dc Croy Hemisphere australe. 1773.
Danville's atlas, f. Paris. R. I. Due de Croy on a northern passage. R02.
T. Heberdenonthepil^eof Teneriffe. Ph. tr. XXI. 249.

1751. 353. GaWfrerAbriss der geographic. 8. Gott. 1775.

Do;w<« storia deir Adriatico. 4. Ven. 1750. Saussure on the physical geography of Italy.

M. B. Roz. VII. 19.

Saussure Voyages dans les Alpcs. 4. R. I.
Lulofs Beschouwinge des Aardklotes. 4.

K'astner. 4. Gott. Cotte's table of elevations. Roz. VII. 291.

Leyd. 1750. Germ, by
1755. Wiedeburgs einleitung in die kosmologie.

*Buache on physical geography. A. P. 175C. 8. Gotha. 1776,

399. Rochebiave on the heights of the Pyrenees.
On submarine mountains. Roz. XVII. 359.
Buache's comparison of rivers. A. P. 1753. Guthrie's system of geography. 4. Lond. ] 782.
586. E. M. Geographic. 3 vol. Geographic an-
Buache on antarctic lands. A. P. 1755. 17. cienne. 3 vol. Geographic physique. 1 vol.
1757. 190. H. 143. E. M. Atlas. 2 vol. Par Bonne,
6 v. 4.
Busching's system of geography. WilkinsotCs atlas. R. §.
Redern's considerations on the globe. Ac.
Cassiiii Description geometrique de laFrance.
Berl. 1755. 1. 1757. 1. 1765. 1.
4. Par. 1783. R. S.
Redern Hemisphere septentrional et meri-
Pasumot on the heights of mountains. Roz.
dional. Bed. 1762. Maps. XXIII. 193. Fig.
Brookes's geographical dictionary. 2 v. f.
Bode's two maps on the horizon of Berlin.
Pekin. Ph. tr. 1758. 704. Berl. 1783. Beschreibung. 8.
IX.
Geography. Emerson's cyclomathesis. BorfeAnleitung zur kenntniss der erdkugel. 8.
Brice's geogra;phical dictionary. 2 v. f. Exeter. Bed. 1786.
Petersb. 1 759. Krafft on the surface of Russia.
Kraschennicqf'sKaxntchatka.A:. N. A. Pelr.
Ace. by Dumaresque. Ph. tr. 176O. 477. 1783. L S89.
Lekmanni specimen chorographiae. 4. Pe- Makes it 330 506 square leagues, 18041290 wersts, or

tersb. 1762. jij

of the hemisphere.

E. Short. Ph. tr. I763. 158. Forsler's remarks on physical geography.

Longitude of the observatory

at Paris. 9' 16". Germ. 8. Beri. 1783.
 CATALOGUE. PHACTICAL ASTRONOMY, GEOORAPHT. 367

Morse's American geography. 8. On the isthmusof Suez. Zach Ephem. II. 97.
Jfo/jno's natural history of Chili. Germ. 8. Small maps of the Mediterranean, and of
the Red Sea. Zach Epheni. II. 392, 505.
Leips. 1786.
*Rennel on the Ganges and Burrampooter. Gu6rin on heights in the Alps. Journ. Phys.

Ph. tr. 1781. 87. LIII. 290.

Rennelonthe geography of northern Africa, Smith's English Atlas. 1801.

J^ich. II. 253. *Pinkerton's geography 2 v. 4. Lond. 1802.

Cassini and Maskelyne on the situation of Heights of mountains. Button's Recreations.
Greenwich and Paris. Ph.tr. 1787. 151. IV. 166.
Maskelyne makes the latitude of Paris 48" 50' 14", of A table from Zach's journal.
Greenwich 51° 23' 40", the difference of longitude g' 20". Area and population of England. Ph. M.
Cassini on the junction of Paris and Green- XIX. 197.
wich. A. P. 1788. 706. From Smith. England and Wales contain 37 33* 400

Legendre questions the accuracy of some of Roy's calcu- acres, 8 873 coo inhabitants. Scotland has i 6oo ooo, and
lations. Ireland about 4 2 50 000 inhabitants. England and Wales
have 152 inhabitants for each square mile, Scotland 55,
Observations faites dans les Pyrenees. 2 v.
and Ireland 146.
Paris, 1789.
England contains about 73 J millions of acres: itsrentsare
Marsden's history of Sumatra. rated at about 29 millions, but about 50.
are, in reality,
Trailer Hcihen der berge des cantons Bern. The stock on the land is estimated at 145 millions, the
in the country 50 the shipping igo; merchandise
8. Bern, 1790. R. S. money ;

and manufactures SO of the land 13 millions of acres are

Mitterpachter Physii<alische erdbeschrei- ;

inclosed, ii arable ; 6J waste in England, ii in Wales, I4i

bung. 8. Vienna, 1790. in Scotland. For eight millions of inhabitants, the country
Reboul on heights in the Pyrenees. Ann. produces 1 1 ounces of wheat and 7j of meat per day.
Ch. XIII. 225. Luckombe in 1793.

Briihl on the longitude of Paris and Green-

Table of Heights.
wich. N. A. Petr. 1791. IX. 363.
Makes it -J' in time different from Maskelyne's determina- Measured by Deluc, Shuckburgh,Roy, Bon-
tion.
guer, and others. In English feet, from
Otto des meeres. 2 v. the level of tiie sea.
Naturgeschichte
Berl. 1792, 1794. The Caspian Sea, lower by - 306
The Thames at Hampton, Roy
Plants handbuch einer erdbeschreibung.. 8. 14i
The Tiber at Rome 33
Leipz. 1793. The Seine at Paris, mean height 36',

Bugge on the geography of Denmark. The Thames, at Buckingham Stairs, isi feet be-

Ph. tr. 1794. 143. low the pavement in the left hand arcade - 43

Whitelaw on ascertaining the areas of coun- By barometrical comparison with the Seine and
the Mediterranean, but this height is
probably
tries. Ir. tr. VI. 65.
too great. Roy supposes the low water of the'
Swan on the lakes of America. Nich.II. 315.
spring tides at Isleworth to be only one foot above
Humboldc's letters from South America. the mean surface of the ocean. He allows 7 feet
the low water at the Nore and
Journ.Phys.XLIX. Ph. M. XV[. XVIII. for the difference of

and at Isleworth, taking 1 9 feet for the height of the

Zach Geoi^raphische Ephemcriden.
spring tide, adds one th rl of this for ihe mean
Ellicott ou the western parts of
Pensylvania. height of the sea. At Hamiton the Thames is
13^
Nich. III. 539. feet above low water mark at Islewo th.
568 CATALOGUE. — PRACTICAL ASTRONOMY, TIDES.
The pagoJ» in K.cw gardens, from the ground 118J Monte llosa, Alps - 15084
The west end of the Tarpeian rock - 151 Summit of Mont Blanc - 1566»
The Palatine hill - - lOa Pichincha - -
15570
The Claudian aqueduct, bottom of the canal 208 Antisana - -
19290
The Janiculum - - 293 - -
Chimbora9ao 19595
The cross at St. Paul's, from the ground 340 It may be observed with respect to General Roy's calcu-
St. Peter's, summit of the cross - 53* lation of the mean height of the sea, that it does not appear
From the ground 471 that in rivers, or even in narrow seas, we ought to add one
Arthur's scat, from Leith pier head, 80S third of the height of the tides only to that of low water,
Lake of Geneva - - - 230
1 in order to find the level ;
for it is
probable that even the
Its greatest depth S93 original tides may often resemble those of lakes, where, for

Mount Vesuvius, base of the cone - 2021 want of breadths, the effects of a spheroidical tide cannot take
'
Saddleback .
- - 3048 and the elevation and depression are very nearly
place,
Ben Lomond

...
- - - 3180 equal.
Skiddaw - - - 3-270

Malvellyn 3324 Observations of the Tides.

floor of the inn -
Chamouny, ground 33^7
The tides are mentioned by I lomer, Aristotle, Herodotus,
Cross fell - - - 3390
Diodorus Siculus, Plutarch, and other ancient authors.
Pendle - - - 341 1

- - 3454 Hydrology. Ph. tr. abr. II. ii. 257. IV. pt. 2. ii.
Table Mount, Cape
Schehallion - - - 3481 183. VI.pt. ii. 163. VIII. pt. 2. ii. 641.
BenGloe - -
3472 X. pt. 2.ii. 567.
Snowdon - - 3555
Moray on the tides in the Hebrides. Ph. tr.
BenMuir - -
3723
1665-6. I. 53.
Ben Lawers - - 3858
- *Moray on observing the tides. Ph. tr. 1665-6.

...
- 3930
Pennygant
Mount mouth of the crater - 3938
Vesuvius, I. 298.
Ingleborough 3937 Pioposes a pump barrel with a small hole in it, and a
Whernside - - 4050 float, for measuring the height independently of the waves.
Ben Nevis - - 4350 Specimens of tide tables.
- - 4S87
Hecla the tides about the Orcades. Ph.
- -
Moray on
Pic Ruivo, Madeira 5141
tr. 1673. vni. 6139.
Summit of Mount Jura - 5523
- - fWalhs on the tides. Ph. tr. 1665-6. 1. 0,63,
Summit of the Mole 6113
Mont Cents, k la poste - - 6261 297.
Pic de los Reyes, Pyrenees - 7620 Deducing the tides from the earth's centrifugal force in

Monte Velino, Apennines

- - 8307 revolving round the common centre of gravity of the earth
- 8440 and moon.
City of Gondar, Abyssinia
Canigou, Pyrenees
- - 8544 Wallis on the tides. 1668. HI. 652. Answer
Summit of Mount Cenis - 0212
to Childrey. 1670. v. 2063.
Pic du Midi, Pyrenees - - 9300
- -
Wallis on the junction of tides in the chan-
Quito . 9377
Monte Viso - - nel. Ph.tr. 1701. XXnr. 1022.
9997.
Glaciere de Buet - - 10124 The southern tide extends as far as the Dogger Bant.
Etna - . - - 10954 Norwood's account of the tides at Bermu-
Pike of Teneriffe, Borda - - 11022 das. Ph. tr. 1667. H. 565.
Pike of - 15084
TeneriflFe, old estimate
Colepresse's observations at Plymouth, Ph.
Pic d'Ossano, Pyrenees - - 11 700
- 13402
tr. 1668. ni. 632.
Aiguille d'Argentiere

Ophir in Sumatra, Marsden - - 13842 Philips on the tides. Ph. tr. 1668. HI. 656.
 CATALOGUE. —ASTRONOMY, TIDES. 369
Observes, that the monthly variations are as the versed At Lambeth the spring tide rises 10 feel, and runs 3 feet
sines of the times. in 1" at 2 hours 30 minutes of the flood: it is
highest at
Stafford on the titles at the Bermudas. Ph. 3h 15', and lowest at 8h i'; it runs back for sh 4o'. At

tr. lC68. III. 792. Shadwell, Jones observed a difference of 20 f.

5^i. in the

height.
Sturmy on the tides near Bristol. Ph. tr.

1668. III. 813. Jones on a high tide. Ph.tr. 1736. XXXIX.

Babin on the Euripus. Ph. tr. 1671. VI. 2 153. 198.
It was 6| i.
higher than before.
Found a variation of a foot.

Plamstcad's tide table. Ph. tr. 1683. XIII. Mackenzie on the tides in Orkney. Ph. tr.

10. 1684. XIV. 458,821. 1749. XLVI. 149.

Continued in the following volumes. The spring tides rise from
8 to 15 feet ; the neap tides

Heathcote on the tides in Guinea. Ph. tr.

from 2 running sometimes 9 milei in an hour.
to 3i;

There are sometimes whirlpools with a cavity 2 or 3 feet

1684. XVI. 578.
deep, which swallow up small boats, but may be broken
On the 24 November, 1 683, it was high water at Cabocors
and filled up by throwing in an oar.
or Cape Coast, at half past 3 p. m. By Flamstead's tide

table was high water at London bridge, the same day, at to

it
Wright on an irregular tide in the Forth.
minutes after 2, whence we may take 3h. 3om. as the time Ph.tr. 1750. XLVI. 412.
of high water at the full moon. A "
r
leaky," which is a temporary ebb interrupting the

*Davenport on the
tide.
tides at Tonqueen. Ph. flowing

tr. l68t. XIV. 677. La Caille on the tides at the Cape. A. P.

Halley's theory of the tides at Tonqueen. 1751. -456. H. 158.
Ph. tr. 1684. XIV. 685. *Belidor. Arch. hydr. II. ii. 1. Tides in the
Molineux on the tides at Dublin. Ph. tr. Mediterranean. 16. Table for different
1686. XVI. 191.
ports. 24.
Times of high water on the coast of France.
VVargentin on the tides. Schw. Abh. 1753.
Ph.tr. 1686. XVI. 220.
165, 249. 1754. 83.
Newton de mundi systemate. Adanson on the tides at Goree. S. E. IL
Richer on the tides at Cayenne. A. P. I. 605.
116. VII. 1 ii. 88.
part. More on the tides in the
straights. Ph. tr.
Richaud on the tides in Siam. A. P. VII. 1762. 447.
2 iii. l6i.
part.
Maskelyne on the tides at St. Helena. Ph.
Cassini on tides. A. P. VIII. 171. 1710. tr. 1762. 586.
318, 366. H. 4. 1712. 86. H. 1. 1713. 14. Tucker on a tide at Bristol. Ph.tr. 1704. 83.
H. 1. * Robertson's
navigation.
On manner of observing the
the tides. A. P. Cook on the tides in the South Sea. Ph. tr.
1701. H. 12. 1772. 357.
Gouye on the tides at Calais,
rising during Observes, that the flood comes from the South or South
the ebb. A. P. 1712. H. 23. East.

Hauterlve on the tides at Martinique. A. P. Cook. Ph. tr. 1776. 447.

1724. II. 17. In Lat. 15" 2(5' S. oflF New Holland, 10 June, 1770,
the erening tide was the higher by two feet and remained so
*Jones and Saumarez on the tides in the
for three successive at was
spring tides : the neaps there
Thames. Ph.tr. 1726. XXXIV. 68. no difference.
VOL. II.
3 B
370 CATALOGUE. —ASTRONOMY, NAVIGATION,

Lalande on the tides. A. P. 1772. i. 297.

Navigation.
H. 1.
See Seamanship, Tides, Situations of Places,
Lalande on the tides Ut Brest. A. P. 1789.
Currents, Winds.
183.
Nunnez de arte navigandi. 1573>
Lalande Traite du flux et reflux. Astr. ed. 1.
Ca- Norwood's seaman's practice. Lond. 1636.
Fourcioy de llamecourt on the tides at

lais. A. P. 1772. i.319. M. B.

Flan- Contains an account of his measurement of a degree.
Fourcroy de Raniecourt on the tides in

ders. S.E. Vin. 1780.577. Ph. tr. abr. I. vii. 546. IV. vi. 449. VI. vii-

Legentil. A. P. 1773. 243. H. 3. 3C)3. Vin. vii. 324. X. vi. 250.

The tides about Madagascar scareely rise more than Mercator's problems in navigation. Ph. tr.
3 feet.
1665-6.1.215.
Legentil on the tides of Normandy. A. P. Instructions for the use of pendulum watches
1782. 345. H. 15.
at sea. Ph.tr. I669. IV. 937.
Finds them greatest at the equinoxes.
Cassini on the use of astronomy in naviga-
Toaldo tabulae bnronietri aestusque maris. tion. A. P. VIII. 1.

4.Pav. 1773. Duillier's navigation improved. 1728.

Toaldo on the tides in the Adriatic. Ph.tr.
Maupcrtuis on a loxodromic circle on the
1777. 144. surface of the sea. A. P. 1744. 462.
At Venice the rise is from i^f. to 2j.
Maupirtuis Astronomic nautique.
Deshndes Flux et reflux de la mer. Douwes Haarl. Verb. 1754. I.
Brnnelli on an inundation in South America. Bernoulli on finding the time at sea. A. P.
Roz. Iir. 436. Prix. VI. i.
Blagden. Ph. tr. 1793. 168.
Bouguer Trait^ de navigation, par Lacaille.
A tide cf a foot at Naples.
JVI.B.
Baussard on the tides at Tenerifte. M. Inst. Emerson's cyclomathesis. IX.
in. H. 33. Journ. Phys. XLVI. (III.) Emerson's navigation. 12.
351. Lemotinitr Astronomic nautique. 8. Par.
Robison. Enc. Br. Art. Tides. 1771.
Coquebert on the tides in high latitudes. Aoc. A. P. 1773. H. 95.
B.Soc. Phil. u. 21. Lemonnier Questions dans la navigation. 8.

Spallanzani on Scylla and Charybdis.

Nich. Par. 1772.
II. 12. Gi'ib. V. 98. *Jua)i Examen mariiimo. 2 v. 4. Madr. 1771.
Liiwenorn on the tides on the northern French, Par. 1783.
coasts. Zach. Ephem. III. 121. Bezout Coursde math^matiques.
Balfour on the diurnal tides at Calcutta. As.
Ltveque Guide du navigateur.
Res. Ph. M. Vlf.
Rodin^ Wbrterbuch der marine.
There are seven tides at once in the river of Amazons.
Borda on the operations on board the Flora.
Robison recommends a float with a rod for observing the
A. P. 1773. 258. H. 64.
tides. It observes that the flood comes into the Severn in

a head ten feet high. Pezenas Astronomic des marins.

 CATALOGUK. — ASTRONOMY, NAVIGATION, 371

Murdoch's Mercatoi's sailing. 4. Cooke's instrument for calculations in navi-

*Robertson's elements of navigation, by gation. Ir. tr. Repert. IV. 38.
Wales. 2 vols. 8. Lond. R. 1. Instruments for navigation. Montucla and
Lai. IV. 509.
Maskelyne's British mariner's guide.
'Nautical sAmanac, with appendices. §. Lond.
Tables to be used with the nautical almanac.
Collections of Observations and
8. Lond. 1802. B. B. Tables.
Bode Jahrbijcher. Lalande on the use of interpolations in prac-
Schubert on tlie loxodromic curve. N. A. tical
astronomy. A. P. I76I. 125. H. 92.
Petr. 1786. IV. H. 95.
Lagrange on forming tables from observa-
Betteswoith's naval mathematics. 8. tion only. A. P. 1772. i. 613. H. 83.
*KeUy's spherics and nautical astronomy. Observations made in Cook's voyage.
Lond. 4. Lond. 1782. R. S.
Moore's seaman's daily assistant, 8. 1785. 4 Co-
Bugge Observationes astronomicae.
R. L penh. 1784. R. S.
Moore's practical navigator. 8. 1796. R- L *
2 Oxf.
Bradley's observations. vols. f.

Nichoho7i's navigator's assistant. 8.

1798, 1805. R. S.
Mendoza y Rios Tratado de la navegacion.
Corrections,
2 V. 4. Madr. 1787. B. B,
Mendoza y Rios sur les principaux problemes Tables for correcting refraction and pa-
de I'astronomie nautique. Ph. tr. 1797. rallax. 4. R. 1.

43.
Elements and Epoilm.
Mendoza y Rios's tables for nautical calcu-

lations. 4. Lond. 1801, B,B. See fixed Stars.

Mendoza' s nevf iahhs. 4. Lond. 1805. Mercator on Cassini's determination of the

Caluso on navigation upon a spheroid. M. apogee. Ph.tr. I67O. V. IIG8.

Taur. 1788. IV. 325. 1790.V. 100. Messier. A. P. 1774. 93.
Saturn's ring 3 leagues thick or less : exterior diameter
Schubert on navigation upon a spheroid.
66737 leagues : breadth 9534.
N. A. Petr. 1790. VII L 140.
Burckhardt's elements of Pallas. Ph. M,
Lalande Abrege de navigation. 4. Par. 1793.
XIII. 91.
Ace. Roz. XLIII. 218. Distance 21 to 35. That of Ceres 27 to 28.

Mackay, Enc. Br. Art. Navigation. Sun. Short makes the sun's apparent diameter 3l'28"

Mackai/s navigation. 2 v. 8. Lond. to 32' 33": mean Si'f.

South's marine atlas, f. M. S. R. I. The radius of a sphere equal to the earth is 636937*
metres. Laplace. That
69658OO yards, the "diameter.
is
Rochon on nautical astronomy. Journ. Phys, "
Lalande says, 3268159 toiscs, that Is
' 7915.69 miles.
XLVII. (IV.) 85. 6966338 yards, which is the radius at 52" J latitude.
372 CATALOGUE. — AS'fROJiOMV, SOLAR SYSTEM.

ELEMENTS OF THE SOLAH. SYSTEM.

The tun, Q, revolves on his axis in 25d. loh. The inclinition of his equator is 7° so'. The place of its ascendinf
node, J3, 2s 18°, or 78° from the equinoctial point Aries. His diameter is 883,000 English miles, and his density, to

that of the earth, as .255 to 1. His mean apparent diameter is 3l' 57" ; his mean parallax 8". 75.

Mercury g Venus J Earth Q Mars ^ Juno fl Pallas ^ Ceres P Jupiter Tl Saturn ^ Georgia*
1801, Jan. 1. 1805. Jan. I. isoi. Jan. 1. planet ^
-^ "A r-
-J< , ,
A ^

INCLINATION OF THE ORBIT.

7O 3° 44' l°5l'l 13° 4' 34° 38' 1° lo' 2° 30' 40'
I I 1 10°38'1 I I

PLACE or THE ASCENDIHG NODE.

IS 15° 58' I
2S14°58' | I
IS 18° 2' I
5S21° 4'
I
5S22°3l' |
2S 21° 7' |
3S 8° 25' 3S21°57' 2sl2°4l'
MEAN DISTANCE.
r 3871 I
7238 I
10000 I
15237 I
26640 | 27650 | 27070 |
5202S 95497 lgl83C
J ECCENTRICITY.
C 794 I
50 I
168 1
1418 1 6770 |
6800 [ 2170 2*01 5364 -8956
]

MEAN DISTANCE IN MILLIONS OF MILES.

37 I
«8 I
05 I
1^4 1
253 I
263 263 490 900 1800
| |

PLACE OF THE APHELION.

8S 14° 22' 1
lOS 8° 37' I
OS 9°30'|5S 2° 25' |
7s 23° 11' |
lOS 1° 3'| 108 22° l6sll° 9' 8S 29° 5' llsl7°2l'
MEAN PLACE OF THE PLANET.
5S11°54'|0S 9°S7'|SS 9°40'|2S S° 51' is 12° 33' 18° 13' I I |
IS 0°12'|3S22° 9' 4S15° 18' 5S27°47'

1°12'|
MOTION OF THE NODE IB LONGITUDE
52' I I 47' I

MOTION OF THE APHELION IN LONOITUDE IK 100 YEARS.

II IN 100 YEAKS.

I
1° SS' 26'

l034'l l°ai'| l0 44'| l"'52'| I I I

1°35' l°i28'

TROPICAL SEVOIIITION.
87d 23h I
224d ish I
ly 5h I
ly 32ld I
4y 128d 1
4y 2l9d
'
I
4y 22ld |
lly 3l5d ]
29y I6id I
83y 294d
14' 33" I
41' 27" I
48' 48" ]
22h 18'.5 | I I I
l*h39' j
19hl6' |
8h 39'
SIDEREAL REVOLUTION.
87d 23h I
224d 16h I
ly 6h I
ly32ld I
lly 3i7d I
29y i74d I
84y agd
15'44" I
49' 11" I
9' 8" I
23h30'.6 I I I 1 I4h27' I
ih 5i' I
29'

DIAMETER IN MILES.
3180 I 7600 I
7916 I
4120 j | |
86000 I
79000 I
34200
DIURNAL ROTATION.
1
23h 31' I S3h56'4"|24h39'2l"| | [
gh 5i' I
loh 16' I

PROPORTION OF DIAMETERS.
] I
300:301 I
15:16 | | |
12:13 I
10:11 I

7nis» I Tihzs I iste I II

MASS, THAT OF THE SUN BEING UNITY.

DENSITY.
I Ton I Tib I ttJw

I I
1000 I I I I
258 I
104 I
220
MEAN APPARENT DIAMETER.
le; I
s" I I I
40" I
18" I
4"
 CATALOGUE. —ASTROXOMY, TABLES. 373

The cbiiquily of the earth's equator to the ecliptic h Pound's tables of Jupiter's satellites. Ph. ti.

23" 28' ;
its secular diminution 5o"; its periodical change
1718. XXX. 776. 1719. XXX. 1021.
in a revolution of the moon's nodes, 6" each way ; the an-

nual precession of the equinoxes is 50.23"; the greatest Wargentin tabulae satellitium Jovis. Act.
apparent change of place of the stars from the aberration of Upsal, 1741. 27.
light, 20" each way.
The mean inclination of the orbit of the
M.iyer's solar and lunar tables. C. Gott. 1752.
moon, 5, is

the ascending node the

n. 383.
5° o'; the place of 13° 56';

mein distance 240000 miles ;

the eccentricity 13700 *Mai/cr tabulae niotuum solis et lunae. 4.
miles the place of the apogee 2s 26° the moon's
; 7' ;
London, 1770. R.S.
place as 15° 2'; the diurnal motion of the node 3' 10", its

4h Maker's lunar tables. 4. Lond. 1787. R. S. •

tropical revolution I8y 228d 52' 52", its sidereal revolu-

tion I8y223d7h 13' 17"; the tropical revolution of the Ephcmerides astromonicae. 8. Vienna, 1 757. . .

apoge* 9y and 8h 34' 57" ; its sidereal revolution 8y 31 2d

llh 11' the moon's tropical revolution 27d 7h 43' 5"
Lacaille tabulae solares. 4. Paris, 1758.
; ;

her synodical revolution with respect to Q, 29d 12h 44' By Hell. 8. Vienn. I763.

3"; her diameter 2163 miles; her mass ^ of the earth's ;

Elements of new tables of Jupiter's satellites.
her density .742 ;
her apparent diameter 29' 22" to 33'S4";
Ph. tr. 1761. 105.
her horizontal parallai 53' 46" to 61' 26"; at the mean
distance 57' 1". 1 Jan. I801, 7JfZ/ tabulae lunares. 8. Vienn. 1763.
The sidereal periods of the satellites, and their distances
' Euleri novae tabulae lunarcs. 8. Petersb.
In semidiameters of the planets are, Jupiter's \. id 1 8h 27
33". D. 5.67. n. 3d I3h 13' 42". D. p. III. 7d3h 42' 33". R.S.
D. 14.3S. IV. I6d ish. 32' 8". D. 25.3. The third, which A. P. Index. Art. Tables.
is the largest, is about the size of the moon. Saturn's Ring
*Nautical almanac. 8. Lond.
loh 32' 15". D. 2.33. I. or VII. 22h 37' 23". D. 3.7. II.

or VI. Id 8h 53' 8". D. 4.2. III. or I. id 2lh 18'26". D. Bailly on the satellites of Jupiter. Ph. tr.

4.9. IV. or If. 2d I7h 44' 5i". D. 6.3. V. or III. 4d I2h 1775. 185.
95' n" V. 8.75. VL or IV. I5d 22h 4l' Ifl". D. 20.3. Bode Astronomisches Jahrbuch. 8. Berlin,
VII. or V. 79d 7h 53' 43". D. 59.15. The longitude of
1776... R.S.
the nodes of the ring 5s 17° 13', retreating about 35° in a
Recueil de tables 8. Berlin.
century. The Georgian planet's I. sd. D. 12.7. II. 8d. astronomiques.
D. 16.5. III. lod. D. 19.5. IV. 13. 5d. D. 22. V. 38d. D. R.S.
44. VI. 108d. D. 88. of the expected comet.
Englefield's tables
4. Lond. 1788. R. S.
Tables of places of the Heavenly Bodies.
Laplace et Delambre Tables de Jupiter et de
Kepleri tabuljj,e Rudolphinae. f. Ulm, 1^27. Saturne. 4. Paris, 1789. R. S.
*Connaissance des temps. 8. Paris. I679. .. Zach Tabulae moluum solis. 4. Goth. 1792.
Flamsteed's circle for finding the place of Supplementa, 1794...
Jupiter's satellites. Ph. tr. 1685. XV. Von Zach on the place of Ceres. Ph. M.
1262. XII. 360.
Lahire Tabulae astronomicae. 4. Paris.
Report on Burg's lunar tables. Ph. M.
Ace. Ph. XVII. 443. tr. 1686. XIIL 183.
Wood's ahnanac. Hooke Ph. coll. ii. 26. Greatest error about 12".

Halley on Albategtji's tables. Ph. tr. IG93. Ephemeris of the new planets for 1803. Ph.
XVII. 913. M. XV. J 90.
374. CATArOGUE. ASTRONOMY, ILLUSTRATIONS.
Brouckner's globe of copper. A. P. 1725.
Projections, Charts, Globes, Orreries,
H. 103. Mach. A. IV. 143.
and other Instruments, illustrative
Outhier's celestial automaton. A. P. 1727.
of Astronomy and Geography. H. Mach. A. 15, 19, 21.
143.

See Asuonomiciil Instruments, Navigation. Mauny's sphere. Mach. A. VI. 89.

Graham's globular instrument for comput-
*Hugenii descriptio automati planetarii.
lel. II. 175. ing latitudes. Ph. tr. 1734. XXXVIII,
Opp.
Wallis on the construction of sea charts. 450.

Ph.tr. 1685. XV. Colson on spherical maps, or segments of

1193.
Also on the figure of secants. globes. Ph. tr. 1736. XXXIX. 204.
Latham and Senex on making the poles of
Ilalley on the meridional parts, or the
the celestial globe revolve. Ph. 1738.
sum of the secants. Ph. tr. XIX. 1696.
tr.

XL. 201. 1741. XLI. 730.

202.
Roemer's planisphere. Mach. A. T. 81.
Harris's improvement on the terestrial globe.

Ph. tr. 1740. XLI. 321.

Roemer's planisphere for eclipses. Mach.
Placing the horary circle under the meridian.
A. I. 85.
Segneri machina ad eclipses repraesentandas.
Roemer's wheel unequal motion. Mach.
for
Ph. tr. 1741. XLI. 781.
A. L 89. Mich. IV. 404.
Maclaurin on the meridional parts of a sphe-
Cassini's planisphere. Mach. A. I 133.
roid. Ph. tr. 1741. XLI. 808.
Cassini's globe to show the precession of the
Richmann on maps. C. Petr. XIII. 300.
equinoxes. A. P. 1708. H. 93.
Maupertuis on a loxodromic circle on the
Allemand's celestial globe. Mach. A. I. 157.
surface of the sea. A. P. 1744. 462.
Chazelles on hydrographical charts. A. P.
Ferguson's orrery for the phenomena of
1702. 150. H. 86. Venus. Ph.tr. 1746. XLIV. 127.
Lagny on reduced maps. A. P. 1703. Q5.
Ferguson's improvement of the globe. Ph.
H. 92. tr. 1747. XLIV. 535.

Chevalier on taking a map by amplitudes. By msuksi for the sun and moon.
A. P. 1707. H. 113. Ferguson's mechanical illustration of eclipses.
Perks on the meridional line. Ph. tr. 1715. Ph. tr. 1751.520.
XXIX. 331. Ferguson's orreries. Mach. exerc. 72.
lladus de projectionibus sphaerarum. 4. Sur la construction des grands globes, f.

Leipz. 1717. Nuremberg, 1746.

Meynier's sphere of paper. A. P. 1723. H. Mrs. Senex on Senex's globes for showinc;
121.Mach. A. IV. 55. the precession. Ph. tr. 1749. XLVI. 290.
showing the solar motion. Passement's moving A. P. 1749. H.
ileynier's clock, sfjhere.
A. P. 1723. H. 122. Mach. A. IV. 59- 183.

Meyer's planisphere. Mach. A. IV. 61. Lowitz sur les grands globes. 4. Naremb.
Desagulier's experiment illustrative of the 1749, 1753.
form of the earth. Ph. tr. 1725. XXXIII. Robertson's explanation of Hallcy on the
344. analogy of the logarithmic tangents and
 CATALOGUE. — ASTRONOMY, ILLUSTRATIONS. 975

the meridional line. Ph.tr. 1750. XLVI. Ducuila Expression des nivellemens. 1782.

559. Ace. Zach. Mon. corr. 11. 148.

By marking out horizontal lines at different heights on a
Murdoch on the best form of maps. Ph. tr.

map.
1758. 553.
Fuss on the stereographic projection. A.
Mountaine on maps and charts. Ph. tr.
Petr. 1782. VI. ii. 170.
1738. 563. Shows that the projections of all circles are circlet.
Dunn and Mountaiue's defence of Mercator
Harrison on the Globes. 8. 1783. R. I.

against West. Pii. tr. 176'j. 66, 69. Grenet's new spheres. Roz. XXIV. 319.
Chabert on forming charts. A. P. 1759. 484. Schubert on the projection of a sphere on -a.

H. 127. 1766, .'384. cone. N. A. Petr. 1784. II. 84.

Projections of the sphere. Emers. cyclom.VIT.

Schubert on the projection of a spheroid. N.
A. Petr. 1787. V. 130. 1788. VI. 123,
King's electrical orrery. Ferg. Mech. exerc.
132.
1789. VII. 149.

Castel's A. P. 1766. H. Mackay. Enc. Br. Art. Projection.

moving sphere.
162. Cannebier'sgeocyclic machine. Roz.XXVII.
on slereographical N. 192.
K'astner projections.
C. Gott. 1769- 1. 138. Diss. phys. 88. Kiugcl Geometriscbe entwickelung der ste-

Lowitz and K'astner on covering globes. reographischen projection. 8. Berl. I788.

Smeaton's improvement in the quadrant of
Commentat. Gott. 1778. 1. M. 1.
Append.
altitude. Ph. tr. 1789. 1.
The common way.
Made more solid and accurate.
K'astner on celestial maps. Zach. Eph. II.
Lorgna on maps. Soc. Ital. V. 8.
401.
Lorgna proposes that circles be drawn with their radii
Bertier's globes serving for dials. A. P. 1770. equal to the chords, from a given point, so that the artas
H. 117. may every where be true. B. Soc. Phil. n. 29.

Rittenhouse's orrery. Am.tr. I. 1.

ilfflyer liber charten und kugeln. 18. Erlang.
Euleron projections for maps. A. Petr. 1. i. 1794.
107. Ace. Hind. Arch. I. 236.
Elder on covering globes. A. Petr. Ii. i. 3. Pearson's satellitian instrument. Nich. II.

By 12 pentagons inscribed in a circle having its radius 122.

.5l96lr, with segments of circles, of which the radius
Forster's instrument for placing globes
is 3.4841 r.
by
the sun. Ph. M. XII. 83.
Jeaurat's asterometer, for showing the rising
Alison's globe timepiece. Am. tr. V. 82.
and setting of a given object. A. P. 1779.
Alison's pendent planetarium. Am. tr. V. 87.
502. H.37.
Repert. ii. III. 331.
Castillon on a moving globe. A. Berl. 1779-
The balls hanging by threads.
301.
Pattrick on an improved armillary sphere,
Van Swinden's planetarium. Roz. XVI. 456.
and on the patent nautical angle. Nich.
Globes. E. M. A. III. Art. Globes. 8. V. 143.

Slereographical projection. E. M. PI. V, Delambre on the stereographic projection.

Marine 27. M. Inst. V. 393.
1
 376 CATALOGUE. HISTORY OF ASTBONOMY.

Shows, that all the circles intersect each other in the

same angles
Raper and Lalande on Norwood's measure-
as those which they represent. After Ptolemy.
ment. Ph. tr. 1761.366, 369.
A planisphere. R. I.
Hassencamp Gescliichte der bemiihungendie
Equation clocks. See Astronomical Time.
Mr. Arrowsmith generally employs for his maps a glo- nieereslange zu finden. 8. Rinteln. 1774.
bular projection, in which the meridians and parallels are Liilande on Herschel's planet. A. P. I779.
portions of circles, cutting the circumference and diameters H. 31.
520. /

of the projection at equal distances; they appear also Legentil on the origin of the zodiac. A. P.
to cut each other into equal portions, so that the dis-
1782. 368. H. 51.
tortion principally arises from their not being perpendi-
cular to each other near the
poles, besides the inequality of
Legentil on the antiquity of the constella-
tions. A. P. 1789. 506.
the scale in different parts, which is
perhaps nearly as small ^
as possible. Herschel on his Georgium sidus. Ph. tr.

1783. I.

History ofAstronomy and Geography. V/all on astronomical symbols. Manch. M.

Ph. tr. \m5-Q. I, 3.
I. 243.
Derives if from the caduceus,
Hooke found in 1864 that Jupiter revolved in about 8 J from the sistrum, ^
from the shield and spear,
hours. i; from Jr, ^ from the sickle.
Frisch deduces 11 from
Cassini on the rotation of Venus. A. P. lightning with the eagle.
X.
Blair's of geography. 12. Lond.
324. history
Observed in ifla?. 1784.
Ph. tr. 1725. Otto on the discovery of America. An>. tr. IL
Newton thinks that the constellations were arranged
by 263. Nich. L 73.
Chiron when the solstitial and equinoctial points were in Zach on Harriot's observations of the solar
the middle of the respective constellations.
spots. Bode Jahrb. 1788.
Mairan. A. P. 1727. 63. H. 117.
Alexandre and Baliani thought the earth turned round
On the knowledge of the earth's motion.

the moon, Eberhard Neue vermischte schriften. 8.

Molieres on vortices. A P. 1729. 235. H. 87. Halle, 1788. 67.
Against Newton. Playfair on the astronomy of the Brahmins.
Frisch on astronomical characters. M. Berl. Ed.tr. H. 135.
1729. Supposes some observations 5000 years old.

Latham on the antient sphere. Ph. tr. 1741.

Davison the astronomy of the Hindoos. As.
XLI. 730. 1742. XLII. 221. res. n. 225.

Costard on the Chinese Davis on the Indian cycle of 60

chronology and years. As.
XLIV. res. III. 209.
astronomy. Ph. tr. 1747- 476.
Against its antiquity. Jones on the Indian zodiac. As. res, II.
Costard's history of astronomy. 4. 1767. 289.
R.I. Jones on the lunar year of the Hindoos. As.
JBaiUy Histoire de I'astronomie. 4 v. 4. Par. res. III. 257.
1781. R. I. Cavendish on the civil year of the Hindoos.
Ace. A. P. 1775. H.44. Ph. tr. 1792. 383.
Bailly Traite de rastronomie Indienne. 4. Lalande's history of astronomy for 1795 and
Par. 1787. R. I. 1796. Journ. Phys, XLV. (II,; 325.
4
 CATALOGUE. PROT>ERTIES OF MATTEU. 377

Lalande Histoire celeste. Newtoni Principia. L. 2.

Modern Greek tetrastich on Lalande. Zach. On a vacuum.

III. Newton's Optics.

Eph.
Queries at the end.
Bentley on the antiquity of the Hindoo as-
Desaguliers's experiment to prove a vacuum,
tronomy. As. res. VI. 537.
Makes the principal tables, the Surya Siddhanta, about
Ph.tr. 1717. XXX. 717.

731 years old. Woodward's natural history of the earth.

Piazzi's planet. Ph. M. X. 285. Mazieres on the vortices of the subtle mat-
Note on the antiquity of the earth. Ph. M. ter. A. P. Pr. I. vi.

XI. 280. Iloldsworth and Aldridge's short hand.

Piazzi on the new star. Ph. M. XII. 54. Contains a hypothesis resembling that of Le Sage.

Musschenbroek Elem. Phys. 61, 83, 383.

Dehic on the zodiacs found in Egypt. Ph. §.

M. XIII. 371. Musschenbroek Introductio. I. iii.

Dendera. Ph. M. Of a vacuum.

V
Henley on the zodiac at

XIV. 107.
On the cause of gravity. M. Berl. 1743.
VII. 360.
History of astronomy, geography, and navi-
gation. Montucl. and Lai. IV. Maupertuis on laws of nature supposed in-

*Smatrs history of the discoveries of Kepler. compatible. A. P. 1744. 417. H. 53.

On Fermat and Leibnitz's minimum.
1803. R. I.
On atoms. A. Berl. 1745. H. 28.
Account of Gail's memoir onSynesius's astro-
Eller on elements. A. Berl. 1746. 1, 25.
labe. M. Inst. V. 34.
600 A. C. 1748. 3.
Maps are attributed to Anaxiirander,

According to Plutarch, Heraclides and Ecphantus attri- Keill's introduction to natural philosophy.
buted to the earth a diurnal motion only. Lect. viii.

Astronomy was introduced into Spain by the Moors, Cadwallader Golden on the primary cause
1201.
The Mexicans, when discovered by the Spaniards, had acting on matter. 1745. M, B.
Euler de resistentia aetheris. Opuscul. I.
years of 365 days, and added is days at the end of 52

years. Robison. 245.

Euler on the origin of forces. A. Berl. 1750.
PROPERTIES OF MATTER IN GENERAL. 418.

The Knight on attraction and repulsion. 4. Lon-

opinions of the ancients are found in Aristotle and
Plato. don, 1748. R. I.
Descartes Princ. phil. II. x. Bossut sur la resistance de I'ether. 4. Charle-
On a vacuum. ville, 1766.

Boyle on the principles of natural bodies. Chambers's cyclopaedia. Art. Element.

*Hooke's lectures of spring. L. C. 1678. Hiotzeberg on the cause of attraction. R02.
A curious theory of vibrations. Jntr. 1. 527.

Bernoulh de gravitate aetheris. 12. Amst. On union. Roz. II. 173.

1683. Op. I. 4.5. Comus on motion, and on the elements of
Bernoulli Nouvelle physique celeste. A. P. matter. Roz. VI. 420. VII. l62.
Prix. III. i. Higgins on light.

vot. II. 3 c^
378 CATALOGUE. — DIVISIBILITY OF MATTER.

Lam6tlierie on the elements. Roz. XVIII. In gilding buttons 5 grains of gold are allotted by act
of parliament to 144 buKons ; but they may be tolerably
224. -

giltby half the quantity. The thickness in this case would

Lametherie on the Kantian system of forces. be about jyiora °f ^" inch.
.Tourn. Fhys. XLVII. (IV.) 383. Ph. M. Musschenbroek says, that a workman of Augsburg drew
a grain of gold into a wire 500 feet long. Its diameter
, II. 277.
must have been only j^ of an inch. Of a silkworm's
Le Sage Lucr^ce Newtonien. A. Berl. 1782.
thread 360 feet weigh a grain ; of a spider's web only ^ as
404.
much, consequently 12800 feet weigh only a grain.
In favour of the impulse of atoms. In drawing gilt wire, 4 5 marcs or 22l pounds of silver are

L'huilier Exposition des principes des cal- covered to the thickness of j|o of an inch with 6 ounces of

gold : but one ounce is sufficient for the purpose : this is

culs. 4. Berl. 1786. 1«7.
drawn into a wire 06 leagues long, and when flattened it
DeUic Idees sur la meteorologie.
becomes 1 1 leagues the gold is then j^^^ of an inch
:

Wall on attraction and repulsion. Manch. thick; if one ounce only has been used, and pro-
j^jfedoj

M. II. 439. bably in some parts jjcfe^ : this may still be flattened

In most cases considers apparent repulsion as elective again and reduced to the thickness of —515535 of an inch in
attraction, all parts, and in some to still less, not exceeding one ten

Ilutton's mathematical dictionary. Art. Ele- raillionth. Montucla and Hutton. A sphere of this thick-
ness would contain about one two thousand million million
ment.
millionth of an inch.
Selle on elements. A. Berl. 1796. ii. 42.
Gilbert on attraction. Gilb. II. 63.
Les causes materielles do ['attraction devoilees.
Repulsion, or Impenetrability.
12. Lond. 1801.
Cavallo's natural philosophy. See Collision.
Hooke on the compression of glass. Birch.
I. 129.
Divisibility of Matter. Hooke's Lectures of spring. L. C. 1678.
With fundamental experiments.
Boyle on effluvia.

Halley on the thickness of gold on wire.

On the compressibility of water. A. P. I.

Ph.tr. 1G93. XVII. 540. 139.

Calculates that it is i of an inch.
Varignon on hardness A. P. II. 70. X. 49.
Reaumur on ductility. A. P. 1713. 199. Romberg on the change of volume of li-
H.9. quids in a vacuum. A. P. II. 183.

Keill de materiae divisibilitate infinita. Ph. Hauksbee on the degree of contact of a body
tr. 1714. XXIX. 82. immersed in a fluid. Ph. tr. 1709- XXVI.
Keill's natural philosophy. 306.
Bohault's physics. Finds that it is very intimate.

S'Gravesande's natural philosophy. Euleron pneumatics. C. Petr. II. 347.

Musschenbroek Introductio.
•
Euler on the nature of the air. A. Petr. III.

Hutton's recreations. IV. 80. i. 162.

Supposes molecules of air to revolve within vesicles of
Nicholson. Ph. tr. 1789. 286.
water more rapidly as the temperature is higher.
Gold leaf

Ph. M. IX. Euler. A. Petr. 1779- i.

 CATALOGUE. REPULSIOX, INERTIA, CRAVITATIOX. 379

Desaguliers on the cause of elasticity.

Pii. Inertia.
tr. 1739. XLl. 175.
Hansen programmata de reactione.
Moli^reson elasticity. A. P. 1726. 7. II. 53.
Euler. Ac. Berl. 1750. 428.
Hausen programmata de reactione. Leipz. Kratzemtein amolitio vis inertiae et vis repul-

1740, 1741. sivae. 8. Hanov. 1770.

Lomonosow on the elasticity of the air. N. Franklin's miscellanies. 4. Lond. 1779. 479.
C. Petr. I. 230, 305. Kaestner Anfangsgriinde. I. xxi. II [. 125,
Derives it from heat or gyration only.
129. Diss. math. x. 75.
Richmann on the force of water in freezing.

N. C. Petr. I. 276.
Remarks on Hales's experiments, in which air is said to
Nature of Gravitation.
have been reduced to
J,, of its bulk. Richmann doubts
the accuracy of the estimate, but the force of the ice must
See Properties of Matterin general.
have been equal to 1435 atmospheres, if not to 2871.
On the space described by falling bodies.
NoUet on a glass vessel appearing to be
A. P. I. 49.
filled
by its pores. A. P. 1749. 460.
Varignon on weight. A. P. I. 63. II. 45.
H. 15.

Zanotti on elasticity. C. Bon. IV. O. 233.

Huygens on the cause of gravity. Op. rel,

1.93.
Cossigny on the supposed penetration of Keill de legibus attractionis. Ph. tr. 1708.
by water.
glass S. E. III. 1.
XXVI. 97.
Hollmannus de experimento Florentino. Saurin on the Cartesian system of
weiglit.
Sylloge. 34. A. P. 1709. 131. 1718. 191. H. 7.
Canton on the compressibility of water. Ph.
Ilambergerus de experimento Hugenii. 4.
1762.640. 1764.261.
tr.
Jen. 172.J.
Herbert de aquae elasticitate. 8. V^ienn.
Hamberger on the direction of bodies in a
1774.
vortex. Com. Petr. 1.245.
Zimmermann Traite de I'elasticite de I'eau
Mazieres on ethereal vortices. A. P. Pr.
et d'autres fluides. 8. Leipz. 1779- U. S.
I. vi.

Mongez on the compressibility of fluids.

Bulfinger on motion in a vortex. C. Petr.
Roz. XI. 1. IV. 144.
J. Bernoulli on Roz. XXI. 463.
elasticity. Bulfinger's experiment on the physical cause
Deluc on expansible fluids. Roz. XLIII.'iO. of gravity. A. P. Pr. If. iii.
Barruel on elasticity. £xtr. Journ. Phys. Nollet on the motion of fluids within a
XLIX. 251. Ann. Ch. XXXIII. 100. sphere. A. P. 1741. 184.
Journ. polyt. IV. xi. 295. Ph. M. VI. 51. Kratzenstein's spring steelyard for measur-

Libes on elasticity. Journ. Phys. XLIX. 413. ing gravity. N. C. Petr, II. 210.
Ann. Ch. XXXIII. 110. Berthier on terrestrial attraction and
repul-
sion. A. P. 1751. H. 38.
Palton's theory of gases. See Meteorology.
weakened by use, but Berthier's comparison of attraction with
Emerson says, that springs are re-

cover their strength when laid by. ethereal impulse. A. P. 1764. H. 148.
380. CATALOGUE. COHESION.

Van Swinden de attractione. 4. Leyd. 1766. , Cokeiion and Capillary Action of Fluids,
Hollmann on attraction. Comm. Gott. IV.
Fabri Dialogi physici. 8. Lyons, 1669.
215.
Ace. Ph. tr. I670. V. 2058.
CAi/rco/ Attractioad impulsionem revocata. 4.
Walhs on the suspension of quicksilver at a
R. S.
great height. De motu. xiv. Ph. tr. 1672.
Thoughts on general gravitation. London,
VII. 5160.
1777.
E. M. Pliysique. Art. Attraction.
Huygens on the suspension of quiciisilver at
75 inches, and on the siphon running in a
Bergmann on universal attraction. Opusc.
vacuum. Ph. tr. 1672. VII. 5027.
VI. 38.
Beluc on Roz. XLII. 88. *Boyie on the figure of fluids. Ph. tr. I676.
gravity.
XI. 775.
Cohesion in general. On the common surface of different combinations of
fluids, sometimes concave, sometimes convex.
Leibnitii theoria motus. 12. Lond. I67I.
Hooke and Papin on the suspension of mer-
Ace. Ph. tr. 1671. VI. 2213.
Deriving cohesion from motion.
cury and of water in a vacuum. Birch.
IV. 300,301, 307.
Desaguliers's experiment on the cohesion of
lead. Ph. XXXIII. 345. Lahire on the contraction of moist ropes.
tr. 1725.
A circle of contact, about one tenth of an inch in dia- A. P. IX. 157.
meter, supported more thac 40 pounds. Carre on capillary tubes. A. P. 1705. 241.
Triewald's queries respecting cohesion. Ph. H. 21.
tr. 1729. XXXVI. 39. Hauksbee on the of capillary tubes
effect
}{nmber"erus et Suessmilch de cohaesione et remaining in a vacuum. Ph. tr. 1706.
attractione. 4. Jena, 1732. XXV. 2223.
llamberger Naturiehre. Vorrede. A capillary siphon must have one leg at least as much
IVinkler de causis conjunctionis. 4. Ijcipz. longer than the other as the length appropriate to its bore,
in order to run.
1736.
Hauksbee on the ascent of water. Ph. tr.
Felice de attractione cohaerentiae causa. 4.
1709. XXVL258.
1757.
Hauksbee on the motion of a drop between
Dehic on cohesion and on affinities. Roz.
two plates. Ph. tr. 1711. XXVII. 395.
XLII. 218.
Hauksbee on the force of attraction of two
fLibeson molecular attraction. Journ. Phys.
plates.'Ph. tr. 1712. XXVII. 413.
LIV. 391.
Measured' by the angular elevation at which a drop of
Referred to gravitation.
oil was held in equilibrium. The force appears to be
nearly
Hitter on cohesion. Giib. IV^. 1.
as the square of the distance inversely. Newton mentions
Thinks the cohesive force is as the capacity for heat and At 18 inches from
the same law in his queries. the line
the distance from the point of fusion conjointly. of contact the elevation was 15', at 16, 25', at 8, 1''
45', at
fBenzenberg on cohesion. Gilb. XVI. 76. 4, 6", at 2, 22°.
From gravitation, a blunder. Hauksbee on the ascent of water between
fiobison says, that the strength of gold is
by draw-
tripled
two plates.
Ph. tr. 1712. XXVII. 539.
ing it into wire.

Physiol, disquis. Adams's lect. I.

Hauksbee on the ascent of fluids. Ph. tr.

Jones deduces cohesion from the pressure of caloiic' 1715. XXVIir. 151.
^
5
 CATALOGUE. — COHESION. 381

The height of spirit of wine was exactly in the inverse The appearances resemble those of mercury.
ratio of the distance of the plates. When the line of con- Gellert on prismatic capillary tubes. C. Petr.
tact of the {)lates was parallel to the surface of the water, XII. 302.
the fluid contained between them bent inwards as the plates
Thinks that the height is inversely as the square root of
were raised, half way between the line of contact and the
the area.
surface. This curvature may be considered as the vertex of
Lemonnier on fluidity. A. P. 1741. H. ] I.
a hyperbola, and the circumstance will be explained. The
force of attraction of a drop of spirit was observed more ac- HoUmann on the difference of barometers.
curately than that of the oil ;
the inclination of the plates C. Gott. 1751. 1.227.
beingis'.at 18^ inches, the elevation was 45', at Oj, 1°46',
Thinks that in small tubes the nature of the glass has
at 4j, 6°, at 2^, 15°, the inclination being 10', the distance
some effect.

18^, the elevation was 1" 30', at g~, 3" 30', at 4', 14°.
*Segner on the surfaces of fluids. C. Gott.
Taylor on the ascent of water between two 1751. I. 301.
glass plates. Ph. tr. 1712. XXVII. 538. Proceeds on true physical principles, but commits a ma-
The curve is very nearly a hyperbola. terial error in neglecting the effect of a double curiature :

appears also to have made some

Taylor on the attraction of wood to water. other mistakes in his cal-

Ph.tr. 1721. XXXI. 204. culations. Says that the height of mercury on glass or
paper was .1357848 E. i. j half of this he calls the modulus
An inch square required 50 grains to raise it ; the weight
for mercury.
was always directly as the surface: the elevation 16
hundredths of an inch, or perhaps more. On Taylor's measure of attraction. Misc.
Homberg on a capillary siphon running in Taur. I.

a vacuum. A. P. 1714. H. 84. Tetens de fluxu siphonis in vacuo. 4. Blitzow.

Jurin on capillary tubes. Ph. tr. 1718. XXX. 1763.
7S9. Lalande Journ. des sav. 1768.
Denies Haiaksbee's remark on a capillary siphon. But Lalande sur la cause de I'elevation des li-
bothmay be right in different circumstances.
qiteurs. 12. Par. 1770.
Jurin on the action of glass tubes on water
Morveau on the attraction of water and oils>
and quicksilver. Ph. tr. 17 19- XXX. 1083.
and on the adhesion of surfaces. Roz. I.
Suggests, after Huygens, the pressure of a medium.
172, 460.
.Turin's essay in Cotes's lectures.
Morveau on apparent adhesion, (^himie de
Ditton's discourse on the new law of fluids.
I'Acad. de Dijon. 1. 63. E. M. Chimie. I.
Petit's new hypothesis. A. P. 1724. 94.
Art. Adhesion.
H. 1.

on the adhesion of the *Lord C. Cavendish's table of the depression

•j-Petit particles of
air. A. P. J731. 50. H. 1. of mercury. I'h. tr. 1776. 382.

Biilfinger on capillary tubes. C. Petr. II. Achard on the adherence of solids to fluids.

233. III. 281. A. Berl. 1776. 149. Schriften I. 355.

With Jurin's experiments.
*Dutour on capillary tubes, and on adhesion.
*Musschenbroek de tubis vitreis. Diss. phys.
Roz. XI. 127. XIII. Suppl. 357. XIV.
271. De speculis, 334. 216. XV. 46, 234. XVI. 85. XIX. 137,
Weitbrecht on capillary tubes. C. Petr. Vlll.
287.
261. IX. 275.
The mean adhesion of a disc of 72 square lines Fr. to
Gellert on lead melted in capillary tubes. C.
water, was 31 gr. Fr. to wine 29, to brandy 22 J, to olive oil
Petr. XII. 293. "243." .
a2, to spirit of wine 18. A disc of glass, 11 lines in dia-
38^ CATALOGUE. — COHESION.
meter, adhered to mercury with a force of 194 grains, a Considers it as a mechanical atuaction between oils and
disc of talc with 119, of tallow 49, of paper i7j, of wax 11, water.

of box, waxed, with a force of i

onl)". Otto on the effiect of oil on waves. Zach.
Godaixl on apparent attractions. Roz. XIII. Eph. II. 516. III. 242. Ph. M. IV. 225.
473. Leslie on capillary action. Ph. M. XIV.
^leister on oil
swimming on water. Coiu- 193.
menlat. Gott. 1778. I. 35. Hassenfratz on the eflfcct of adhesion in de-

Besile on the cohesion of liquids. Roz. termining specific gravities. Ann. Ch.
XXVIII. 171. XXIX. 287, 339. XXX. Gilb. I. 396,515.
Pounded glass appearing to be specifically
125. lighter.

Gives 82 gr. Fr. for the cohesion of 25 square lines of Schmidt on Hassenfratz'is experiments. Gilb..

mercury, 8^ for water. In some cases the apparent ad- IV. 194.
hesion was diminished under the air pump. But this was Denies their accuracy.
probably the effect of the extrication of air bubbles. B. Prevoston the motions of floating bodies.

*Monge on apparent attractions and repul- Ann. Ch. XI. 3.

sions. A. P. 1787. 506. Nich. HI. 269. Milon on capillary tubes. Journ. Phys. LIV.
Supposes that the superficial particles of the fluid only 128. Gilb. XII. Repert. XVI. 427.
act in producing the effects of cohesion, and infers that the
Found that the cleanest
mercury, when hot, would not
curve must be a lintearia. But he has not filled up this
rise even in red hot lubes.
true outline with equal success. Spirit of wine, when not
Von Arnim. Gilb. IV. 376.
too hot, forms floating globules when dropped through a
Finds an effect from the length of a capillary tube.
capillary tube. Two dry bodies floating approach each
other from an inequality of pressure even under the sur-
H'allstrom on the rise of water in tubes. Gilb.
;

face, as the fingers under mercury. A

dry and a moist XIV. 425.
body repel each other in the same manner as an inclined Attributes the apparent effect of the length of a capillary

place and a body placed on it would separate. Two wet tube to the circumstance of its being sucked with the lipt,
bodies are drawn by the between them as by a chain.
fluid which, even when the lips were perfectly clean, appeared
But these explanations do not agree with the supposition of to produce a depression. In general it is probable that in-
the lintearia, which is vertical at its origin. The distance equalities in the dimensions of the bore have been the cause
of two plates being ^
of a line, the height of the water was of the irregularity, which has never been perceptible in ex-

15j lines, at^, the height was 33J, at Jj, 74 lines. periments with flat plates. Water rose 11.7 lines Swedish

in a tube .2 line in diameter.

Bennet on attraction and repulsion. Manch.
Cavallo's Nat. Phil. II. 135, 139.
M. III. 116.
Shows that the undulations observed
A small globule of mercury will be drawn away from
by Franklin do not
paper by glass, and from glass by more mercury. An iron
depend on the mutual action of matter.
ball floating on mercury is surrounded by a depression.
Banks on the floating of cork balls. Manch. A drop of mercury recedes from the line of contact of two
iM.UI. 178. glass plates. A needle floats on water when dry, but if
Explains the phenomena pretty correctly, after S'Graves- any water gets over it, it sinks.
ande. Robison observes that insects, which walk on water, have

Waterproof cloth. Ph. M. X. 370. their feet wetted by a spirituous solution, and sink.

Impregnated with some substance not highly attractive The equation of the surface of a drop of water is

of water. See cloth. aaxx + aajiy ~ xyyi, where x z: o. Or thus, a*x'x' +

Carradori on the adhesion of la*xif'x + (a'
— x'y') t/*
— x'y'i'ir* 3; o, Y. The series
superficial
given by Euler, A. Petr. III. 188, for the clastic curve,
fluids. Journ. Phys. XLVIII. 287. Ph,
might be applied to the simple lintearia, which is a species
M. XI. 27. Gilb.'xil. 108. of it.
 Catalogue. — heat and cold. 383

Fluidity of Liquids, and Firmness of Solids. Link on fluidity. Ann. Ch. XXV. 113.

See heat. On springs. Ph. M. II. 67.

Springs of metal soon break, or take a set, if suffered to
Ductility. See Divisibility. wooden
vibrate; springs break if stopped and not suffered
Boyle fluiditatis et firmitatis historia. Works!. Red
to vibrate. deal is the best wood for springs.
I. 240. Cr}stals slowly formed are the hardest. See Higgins on

Reaumur on the ductility of different sub- light.

The cohesive strength depends much See

stances. A. P. 1713. 199- H. 9. onsoliditj.
cohesion.
Reaumur. A. P. 1726. 243.
Lead is rendered less sonorous by hammering.
HEAT AND COLD.
Fluidity. A. P. 1741. H. 11.

Beguelin on hard bodies. A. Berl. 1751.331. Boyle on cold. Works II. 228.
On the explosion of grindstones. A. P. 1762. Ace. Ph. tr. 1665-6. I. 3.
H. 37. 1768. H. 31. Boyle de frigore. 4. Lond. l6S3.
Attributed to the efFect of the centrifugal force, and to
Petit sur le froid et le chaud. Par. I67I.
the expansion of the wooden wedges.
M. B.
Fontana on solidity and fluidity. Soc. Ital.
Ace. Ph. tr. 1671. VI. S043.
1.89.
Dodart on heat and cold. A. P. I. 143.
On hammering. Sickingen liber die platina.
Mariotte on heat and cold. A. P. I. I74.
115.
Oeuvr. I. 183.
Coulomb on the force of torsion. A. P. 1784.
Varignon on fire and flame. A. P. II. 171.
229.
Malebranche on fire. A. P. I699. 22. H. 17,
The force varies as the angle of deviation, and as the

biquadrate power of the diameter of the wire ; a weight of f Geoffrey on cold. A. P.

half a pound vibrating twice as fast as a weight of two Ace. Ph. tr. 1701. XXII. 951.
Steel wire was 3^ times as stiff as brass ; its direct
pounds. Lemery on the matter of fire. A. P. 1709.
cohesive strength as 12 to 7 ; it was 18 or 20 times as stiff
400. H. 6.
as a thread of silk : brass wire was less easily deranged by
The annealed wire was the same
Boerhaave de igne. Elementa chemiac. I.
great torsion. elasticity of

in quantity as that of unannealed, but its extent of action 116.

was reduced from 11 to 6 or 7 , in copper : the time of Winkler de frigore. 4. Leipz. 1737.
oscillation was exactly the same in both «ases. P. 26»,
Martine's medical and philosophical essays.
Coulomb's physical theory of friction. S.
Chatelet Dissertation sur le feu. 8. Par. 1744.
E. X. 1785. 254.
Lambert on the constitution of fluids. A. Euler, Du Fiesc, Crequi, Chastelet, and Vol-
Berl. 1784. 299- taire on fire. A. P. Prix. IV.

*Delangez on the statics and mechanics of Kraft on cold and heat. C. Petr. XIV. 218.
semifluids. Soc. Ital. IV. 329. Bikkcr de igne. 4. Utrecht, 1756.

llutton on the flexibility of the Brazilian Hillarij on fire. 8. Lond. 176O.

stone. Ed. tr. III. 86. Belgiado del calore e dtil freddo. Parma,
Fleuriau on elastic stones. Roz. XLI. 86, 91' 1764.
On Fleurlau's mode of making marble fle.v- Inqiiirj/ into the effects of heat. 8. Lond.
ible by heat, producing partial separations. .1770.

Ph. M. X. 277. Herbert de igne. 8. Vieun. 1773.

384 CATALOGUE. — HEAT AND COLD.

Bordenave on fire. Roz. IV. 104. Seguin on heat. Roz. XXXVI. 417-
Changeux on heat and cold. Roz. VI. 299, du calorique.
Segnin sur les phenomfenes
357. 8. R. S.
Marat decouvertes sur le feu. 8. Par. Deluc's Letters, cxli.
1779.
*Crawford on animal heat. 2 ed. 8. Lond.
Marat lecherches sur Ic feu. 8. Par. 1780.
1788. R. I.
Donnsdorf uber Electricii'at.
Lesanelier sur I'air et le feu. 2 v. 8. Par.
Magellan Essai sur la nouvelle theorie du R. S.
^1788.
feu elementaire, 1780.
*Pictet Essais de physique. 8. Gen. 1 790.
Magellan on hre. Roz. XVII. 375, 411.
Pictet on ti\e. 12. 1791. R.I. <.

Lavoisier and Laplace on heat. A. P. 1780.

Annales de Chimie, in many parts.
355. H. 3.

Scheele Traite de Tair etdufeu, par Dietrich.

Saussure on heat. Roz. XXXVI. 193.

12. Par. 1781. R. S. *Mai/er iiber die gesetze des warmestofls. 8.

Hopson on fire. 8. Lond. 178). Erlang. 1791. R. I.

Fontana on light, flame, and heat. Soc. Ital.

iiber electricitat und warme.
Lampadius 8.
I. 104. Berl. 1793.
,

Scopoli, Volta,
and Fontana on heat. Crell. Dalton's meteorol. obs. 115.
N. Entd. XII. 2. Annalen, 1784.
Voigt Theorie des feuers. 8. Jena, 1793.
Erxleben on the laws of heat. N. C. Gott.
Lampadius iiber das feuer. 8. Gott. 1793.
abh.
Physik. chem. 330.
I.
Franklin on light and heat. Am. tr. III. 5.
and colours, with the
Experiments on light
Gottliug Beytrag zur
analogy between heat and motion. 8. antiphlogistischen
chemie. 8. Weimar, 1794.
Lond. 1786.
Baader \om w'armestofF. 4. Vienn. and Leipz. Gehler's phys. wbrterb. II. 207.

178(5.
Harrington on fire on heat. 8. Lond. 1796,
Thompson (Count Rumford) on heat. Ph. tr. 1798. R. S.
1786, 1787, 1792. Socquet sur le calorique. Journ. Phys. LII.
Rumford's institution of a prize. Ph. tr.
214.
1757.215. On Parr's theory of light and heat. Nich. II.
Ducarla sur le feu. R. I.
547.
Carradori Teona. del calore. 2 vol. Flor.
Mangin Theorie du feu. 8. Paris. 1800.
1787. R. S.
Extr. Roz. XXXIV. 271.
Aslley on the doctrine of heat. Nich.
Marne iiber feuer, licht, und warme. 1787. V. 23.
Weber iiber das feuer. 8. Landshut, 1788. Von Arnim on heat. Gilb. V. 57.

La Serre theorie du feu. Avignon, 1788. Prize questions on heat. Ph. M. I. 323.

Berlinghieri on heat. Roz. XXXV. 113, *LesUes inquiry into the nature and pro-
433. pagation of heat. 8. Lond. 1804. U. I.
 CATALOGUE. — HEAT. 385

Sources of Heat and Cold. Combustion.

See Economy of Heat.
Sources simply mechanical; fric- XXVIII.
Sage on fuel. A. P. 1785.239- Roz.
tion, compression. 57.

Fordyce. Ph. tr. 1787-

See Capacity for Heat. Suspected that fuel difFerently burnt gave diflferent quan-
Philo Belopoiica. tities of heat. Sometimes indeed much is wasted iu
Says that fire came out of Ctcsibius's airgun. smoke.

Friction. Pliny Hist. nat.

§. 76, 77. Thomson on combustion. Nich. 8. II. 10.

Of heat and cold in a vacuum. C. Bon. H. i.

312. Spontaneous Combustions.

Of cold from expansion in the machine at Albiniis et Kletwich de phosphoro. 8. Frankf.

Schemnitz. Ph. tr. ]762. an der Oder 1688.

Darwin's Lefevre on spontaneous inflammation of
experiments on the ex-
a'
frigorific

pansion of air. Ph.tr. 1788.43. serge in a fulling mill. A. P 1725. H. 4.

An effect of 4" or 5° was produced in some experiments. The Empress and Georgi on spontaneous in-

Pictet on heat from friction. Ess. ix. flammations with oil, soot, and other sub-
Picteton cold produced by exhaustion. Journ. stances. A. Petr. III. i. H. 3.

XLVn. Carette. Roz. XXVII. 92.

Phys. (IV.).186.
Baillet on ice
Morozzo on spontaneous inflammations. M.
produced by the expansion of
Tur. 1786. III. 478. Repert. II. 4l6.
air. Journ. Phys. XLVIH. IG6.
Humfries on a spontaneous inflammation.
Rumford on the heat excited by friction.
Ph.tr. 1794. 426.
Ph. tr. 1798. 80. Ess. 11. ix. Nich. H. From linseed oil poured on cotton cloth.
10(3.
Spontaneous inflammations at Spalding and
'

On heat from compression. Ph. M. VHI. elsewhere. Repert. III. 19, 21, 95.
214.
Supposed s])ontaneous combustion of a black
Dalton on the heat produced
by mechanical silk stocking. Ph. M. XVI. 92.
condensation. Manch. M. V. 515. Nich.
Bartholdi on spontaneous inflammation. Ann.
8. ni. 160.
Repert. ii. H. 118. Ph. M. Ch. Nich. VIII. 216.
XUl. 59. Gilb. XIV. 101.

Estimates, that air under the pressure of two atmo-

spheres absorbs 50° of heat in expanding ; and that some-
Effects of Heat.
thing more than iO° is
produced when air is admitted into
an exhausted receiver. See Capacity. Temporary Effects and Measures
Davy on the collision of steel. Journ. R. I. I. of Heat.
Nich. 8. IV. 103.
*
On heat in the condenser. Ph. Expa?uion. Pyrometers, Thermometers,
M. XIV. 3G3.
B. Soc. Phil. n. 87. See Meteorology.
Tow was inflamed in an
gun ; air and
light was seen Experiments of the Academy del Cimento. i.

through a strorg glass fixed in the substance of the ma- With Musschenbroek's additions.
chine.
Spicit thermometers described.
VOL. II.
3 D
386 CATALOGUE. HEAT, EXPANSION.
* Delisle on the mercurial thermometer. Ph.
Hooke's statical tTiermometer. Birch. II. I.

Waliis and Beale on thennoscopes. Ph. tr. tr. 1736. XXXIX. 221.

]65y. IV. 1113. Delitle sur Tastronomie et la geographic

*Croune on the expansion of water before physique. 4. Petersb. 1738.
Birch. IV. 26. Delisle's degrees are ten thousandths of the bulk of the
it freezes.
With Hooke's and Croune's further experi- mercury, neglecting the expansion of glass. Fahrenheit's
objections,
are nearly ten thousandths, without this inaccutacy.
ments. Dated 2? Feb. 1684.

Picard on the effect of cold on stones and Eilicott's pyrometer. Ph. tr. 1736. 297.
metals. A. P. I. 77. Braun's comparison of scales. C. Petr. VII.
Lahire on the effects of heal and cold. A. P. Weitbrecht on thermometers. C. Petr. VIII.
IX. 316, 322.
II. 36. 310.
Lahire on thermometers. A. P. 1706. 432. Krafft on thermometers. C. Petr. IX. 241.
1710. 546. H. 13. 1711. 144. H. 10. Marline on thermometers, heating and cool-
Lahire on the expansion of air by boiling ing. 12.
water. A. P. 1708. 274. H. 1. Segner de aequandis thermometris aereis. 4.
Amontons on the effects of heat on air. A. P. Gott. 1739.
H, Bernoulli's air thermometer was like a barometer,' with
1703. 101. 6.
the reservoir hermetically sealed.
Amontons assumes, that his thermometer is the natural

measure of absolute heat : Lambert and Dalton afterwards Clayton on the elasticity of steam. Ph. tr.

advanced nearly the same opinion. 1739. XLI. 162.

Amontons on the appaient fall of the ther-
A digester exploded.
mometer. A. P. 170o. 75. H. 4.
Ludolff on thermometers. M. Berl. 1740»
VI. 255.
Hauksbee on the weight of water in different
'
Grischow's comparison of 7 thermometers,
circumstances. Ph. tr. 1708. XXVI. 93.
1

221.
M. Berl. 1740. VI. 267.
Brook Taylor on the expansion of fluids in Description d'un thermometre universel. 8.
the thermometer. Ph. tr. 1723. XXXII. Par. 1742. M. B.

291. Celsius on thermometers. Schw. Abb. 1742.

He found the expansion proportionate to the increments 197.
of heat by mixture. Makes lOO degrees between the freezing and boiling

Leupold. Th. Aerostaticum. points of water.

Musscheubroek's pyrometer. Tentam. Exp. Bouguer on the expansion of metals. A. P.

and in Desagul. Phil. I. 421. 1745. 230. H. 10.

Leutmann Traite des barometres. Wheler on the rotation of tubes near the
Bulfinger de thermometris. Comm. Petr. III. fire. Ph. tr. 1745. XLIII. 341.
196, 242. IV. 216. By the curvature.

Reaumur on thermometers. A. P. 1730. 452. Mortimer on thermometers, and on a metal-

1'731. 250. H. 6. line thermometer. Ph. tr. 1747. XLIV,
Reaumur's degrees are thousandths of the bulk of his
672. n. 484, 485.
diluted alcohol.
Halley suggested mercurial thermometers ;
Fahrenheit
Delisle on thermometers. M. Berl. 1734. IV. introduced them. A metalline thermometer for multiply-
343. ing the expansion by means of bars.
 CATALOGUE. HEAT, EXPANSION. 387

Johnson on Fotheringham's metalline ther- Titii descriptio thermometri, Loescri. Leipz.

mometer. Ph. tr. 1748. XLV. 128. 1765.
Stancari's thermometer of air and mercury. Musschenbroek. Intr. II.

B. Bon. I. 209. Copper and brass appear to have expanded more when
drawn into wire ; lead somewhat less.
Galeati on an air thermometer. C. Bon. II.
Hennert Traite des thermoraetres. Hague,
ii. 201.
1768.
Tabarrani on thermometers. C. Bon. II. iii.
DonnsdorfFs Electricitat.
233.
Soumille's thermometer of four parts, for en-
f-Miles on thermometers. Ph. tr. 1749.
XLVI. 1.
larging the degrees. A. P. 1770. H. 1 12.
Hauhold de thermometro Reaumuriano. 4.
Wargentin on thermometers. Schw. Abh.
Leipz. 1771.
1749. 1G7.
Meister on the scales of thermometers. N.
Bourbon's thermometer, with a concave
C. Gott. 1772. [II. 144.
bulb. 1752. II. 148.
Perica's thermometer. Roz. II. 512.
Richmann on heat, as measured by ther-
Herbert de igne. Vienna, 1773.
mometers and lenses. N. C. Petr. IV.
Pasumoi's thermometer. Roz. VI. 230.
277.
Finds the expansion greater in greater heats. Strohmej/er uber die thermometer. S Gott^

*Smeaton's pyrometrical experiments. Ph. 1775.

Fontana on the Grand Duke's cabinet. Roz.
tr. 1754. 598. Errata.
Lamljert on expansions. Act. Helv. II. 172. IX. 41.

*Lambert Pyrometrie. 4. Berl. 1779-

*Roy's experiments subservient to the mea-
surement of heights. Ph. tr. 1777. 653.
Lord Charles Cavendish on thermometers
for particular uses. Ph. tr. 1757- 300.
Roy on Ramsden's pyrometer. Ph. tr. 1785.
461.
For showing the majcimum and minimum.
The fixed parts were of cast iron, and were kept at the

Hecueil de diverses ]/ieces

sur le thermometre freezing temperature : the object glass of the micrometer

et barometre. 4. Bale, 1757. Act. Helvet. was fixed exactly over the ends of the expanding bars, mov-

m. ing with them, and showing a difference of ^^ of an

inch. When the adjustment was perfect, the expansion
Bergen de thermometris. 4. Nuremb. 1757. was found not to vary in dilferent parts of the scale.

Essays on the thermometer. Act. Helv. III. Report of a committee of the R. S. on ther-
23. mometers. Ph. tr. 1777. 816.
Sulzer on thermometers. Act. Helv. III. 259. *DeIuc on pyrometry and areometry. Ph. tr.
Roz. XI. 371.
1778.419.
Zeiher's metalline thermometer. N. C. Petr. Measured the proportions of expansion by asocrtaining
IX. 305. the quiescent point of a compound bar. Finds a tardiness

Zeiher on N. C. in most metals to return to their original dimensions

mending thermometers, after

having been heated, when slowly cooled. Attributes an

Petr. IX. 314.
irregularity to the expansion of glass, which later obser-
By a bulb of iron, adjusted by a screw to the scale.
vations have not confirmed.
Fitzgerald's metalline thermometer. Pli. tr.
Deluc observes, that all fluids
begin to expand more ra-
1760. 823. 1761. 146. pidly as they approach their boiling points. Rech. sur I'atm.
Compound bars. II. It appears from Wedgwood's exjerimenis on a silver
388 CATAtOGUE. — HEAT, EXPANSION.

piece, that in mercury the inequality cannot be very Hindenburg Formulae comparandis thermo-
great. metri.s idoneae. 4. Leipz.
Deluc on expansions. Roz. XLTII. 422.
Rosenthal Meteorologische werkzeuge. I.
Fan Smndtn sur la comparaison d<js ther-
38.
niometres. Amst. 1778. Charles on the effect of the expansion of
Compares 72 scales. Thermometer for a maximum.
glass. A. P. 1787. 567.
Van Swinden on Du Crest's universal ther-

mometer. Roz. XIII. Suppl. 402. Langsdorf Theorie der hydrodjmamischen

iind pyrometrischen grundlehren.
Shuckburgh. Ph. tr. 1779.
Blagden. Ph. tr. 1788.
Cavallo on the expansion of mercury. Ph. tr.
The maximum of density of strong brine, like that of
1781.511. water, is about s" above its
freezing point,
Luz liber die thermometer. 8. Niiremb.
Gaussen sur le thermometre de Reaumur. 8,
1781. R.I. XXXVII.
Bezieres, 1789. Roz. 186.
Wedgwood's thermometer for high degrees
Gaussen on the expansions of mercury and
of heat. Ph.tr. 1782. 305. 1784. 359-
alcohol. M. Laus. Ill, 364.
1786. 390. Journ. Phys. XXX. 299- Re-
Compares Micheli's atid Deluc's experiments, and finds
pert. VI. Q35. '
that they agree.

By measuring the contraction of pieces of clay exposed

Morveau on the expansion of air. Ann. Ch.-
to the heat. It was connected w ith the common thermo-
I. 256.
meters by measuring the expansion of a piece of silver in a

gage of earthenware. Found

the melting of ice of no use Guy ton on Wedgwood's thermometer. Ann.
as a from the
test, of the ice, and the continuation
porosity Ch. XXXI. 171.
of the operation of freezing at the same time. Conjectures
Guyton's metalline theniiometer of platina.
that vapour freezes at a higher temperature than water.
to be difficulties in being assured of the
Repert. ii. III. 458. Nich. VI. 89-
There seem many
proper quality of the clay. Cotte on thermometers of mercury and of

Thermometers. E. M. A. VIII.. Art. Ther- alcohol. Roz. XXXVII. 189. Ph. M. VI.

mometre. 250.

M. Ph. tr. 1792. 270.

Pyrometer. E. PI. III. Horlogerie, pi.
T. Wedgwood proposes to measure heat by fir^ding the
50.
loss of weight of hot water into which the heated substance
Thermometers used by Hutchins. Ph. tr.
has been dropped.
1783. 303*. Sanmartini's wheel thermometer. Soc. Ital.
Zunotti on the effect of immersion on ther- VI. 71.-
mometers. C. Bon. VI. O. 83. Casbois on expansion in barometers., Roz.
Achard on the expansion of fluids. A. Berl.
XLII. 441.
1784. 3. Lemaistre on Six's thermometer. Journ.
On a great variety of fluids and solutions. He seems to

neglect the expansion of glass.

Phys. XLVIl. (IV.) 150.

Achard's thermometer is of semitransparent porcelain, Enc. Br. Art. Thermometer.

filled with a composition of 2 parts bismuth, } lead, and 1
Gilpin's tables of specific gravities. Ph. tr.

tin, which melts at the heat of boiling water.

1794. 275.
Kirwan on specific gravities, talien at dif- Prony on the expansions of gases and vapours.
ferent degrees of heat. Pit. tr. 1785. 267. Journ. Poh 1. 1, ii. 24. Formulas.
 CATALOGUE. — HEAT, EXPANSION. 389
Arnim doubts the expansion of water in cooling.
Rutherford's improved thermometer. Ed. tr.

III. 247. On Wedgwood's thermometer. Ph. M. IX.

For marking the eictremc points. 153.
Schmidt on the expansioa of Gren. IV.
Expansion of metals. Ph. M. XI. 271.
air.
320.
Gay Lussac on the expansion of gases.
P. Wilson on the motion of lighted wicks
Ann. Ch. cxxviii. 137. Nich 8. III. 207.
when swimming. Ed. tr. IV. l63. Nich. Gilb. XII. 257.
II. 167. With Arnim's remarks. Gilb. All gases and vapours that were tried expanded equally,
III. 447. Nich. 8. I. 34.
From the circulation caused by expansion. Heat appears to give a partial increase of a
tenacity to
A Drebelian air thermometer, terminating in razor's edge. Probably because the edge cools fastest, con-
a bail. Kunze Schaupl. II. 31. tracts, and is stretched.

Is a differential thermometer, although perhaps not un- Dalton on the expansion of gases. Manch.
derstood by the inventor.
M. V. Nich. 8. III. 130. Gilb. XII. 310.
Rittenhouse on the expansion of wood. Am. Assuming that the absolute heat is as the distance of the

tr. IV. 29. Ph. M. X. 343. particles, Dalton fixes the natural zero at 1547", F. below
the freezing point; this Gilbert corrects to or
H'js",
Trembley on the dilatation of elastic fluids.
— 1 566°, F.
A. Berl. 1798. 38.
Dalton on the expansion of water by cold.
Remarks on Prony.
M. Manch. M.V. Ph.M. XIV.355. Nich. 1805.
Reguier's metalline tliermometer. Inst,
Ualion says, that in a water thermometer of earthenware,
II. 18.
the apparent maximum of density is at 36° or 38°, in
Two arches of brass are confined by iron ;
their distance
queen's ware 40°, in glass 41.5", in iron 42.5°, in copper
is measured by wheelwork.
45.5°, in brass 46°, in lead 49.5°. Nich. 1805. Hence,
Lefevre Gineau. M. Inst. if we compare the expansion of glass with that of iron,

Found, by very accurate experiments, that water is the

copper, brass, and lead, we shall find, according to Dal-
densest at the temperature of 4° C. or 39.2° F. ton's own principles, the maximum at 39.5°, 38°, 38°, and
Baume on thermometers. Extr. by Cotte. 38.5° respectively. The thermometers of earthenware
were evidently incapable of great accuracy. The com-
Journ. Phys. XLVIII. 282.
parison of iron and lead gives about 37.5°.
Nicholson on the flexure of compound bars
Dalton on mercurial thernyimeters, and on
by heat. Nich. I. 575.
the natural zero. Nich. 8. V. 34.
Gazeran on pieces for Wedgwood's thermo-
meter. Ami. Ch. XXXVI. 100. Repert. "t'Lalande's scale for a thermometer. Journ.
XIV. 211. Gilb. VIII. 233. Phys. LVII. 4.54. Gilb. XVII. 102.

Rumford on the expansion of cold water. Nearly like Delisle's.

Ciichton's self registering metalline ther-
Essays, II. vi. Gilb. I. 436.
mometer. See Meteorology,
Rumford's differential air thermometer. Ph.
*Gilbert on Dalton's expansions. Gilb. XIV,
tr. 1804. 77.
266.
Leslie's photometer. Nich. III. 46l, 518.
A differential air thermometer ; described also in Leslie H'allstrom on the expansion of fluids. Gilb.
on heat. XIV. 297.
Pictet's steam thermometer. Gilb. II. 280. Hallstrbm on the maximum of density of
Juch's steam thermometer. Gilb. II. 296. water, and on the exjfansion of quicksilver.
'
. Gilb. V. 64. Gilb. XVII. 107.
590 CATALOGUE. — HEAT, EXPANSION.

Nich. 8. IV. 63. Expansions of different Substances.

-

Speer's hydrometer has • scales, for diiferent tempera-

According to the Committee of the Royal Society, the
tures.
apparent expansion of mercury in glass is
^55 for each
On air thermometers. Gilb. XV. 57.
degree of Fahrenheit : this may be considered as a sufficient

Soldner on Dalton's laws of expansion. Gilb. definition of those degrees for the present purpose, placing

XVII. 44. the freezing point of pure water at 3s". Dalton asserts,

that all liquids expand with greater rapidity exactly in pro-

*Hope on the contraction of water by heat.
portion to the elevation of their temperature above their
Ed. tr. V. 379.
respective freezing points, m.aking the whole expansions
Makes the maximum of density between 39. 5° and
as the squares of the real temperatures ; but this does not
40°.
appear to be by any means true of mercury, nor of alcohol,
Mushet-on the shrinkage of cast iron. Ph.
accordmg to the comparison of thermometers made in
M. XVIIl. 3. Hudson's Bay : nor is it
exactly true even in the case of
thermometers are very inconvenient for travelling water. It appears, however, that in solids as well as in
Spirit ;

fliey are easily deranged by shaking, so that the tube re- fluids, equal increments of heat produce somewhat greater
mains constantly full, and the bubble in the ball. expansions as the temperature is higher.

Solids.
 CATALOGUE.'— HEAT, EXPANSION. 391

Solids.
39'2 CATAtOGUE. — HEAT, EXPANSION.

Water. The degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer, reckoning either way from 39", being called /, the eitpansion of
water is
nearly expressed by .000 0025!/"'
— .000 000 00435/', or* more shortly, 22/' (l
— .OO'if], in ten

millionths; and the diminution of the specific gravity by .000 002!$/"' — .000 ooo 004? s/'.
Specific gravity. Diminution of sp. gr. Expansion. For 1°,

Observed. Obsen'cd. Calculated. Observed. Calculated.

10^ As 69°. Dalton corrected.
so .99980 Gilpin, 20 18 .00020 .00018 .00004
1794.
•
99988 -G. 12 11 .00012

34 •99994 G. 5
39 1.00000 G. o
44 .99994 G. 6 5
48 .99982 G. 18 18
49 .99978 G. 22 22
54' .99951 G. 49 48
59 •99914 G. 8fi S4
04 .99867 G. 133 130
69 .99812 G. 188 186
74 .99749 G. 251 SSO
77 225 DeLuc.by
comparison.
79 .99680 G. 320 322
(82) .99612 Kirvran. 388 368
90 .99511 G. 1790. 489 509
100 .99313 G. 687 711
102 ,99246 K. 754 753
122 .98757 K. 1243 1247
1128 Dr Luc.
142 .98199 K. 1801 1818
162 .97583 K. 2417 2443
J67 2520 De Luc.
182 .96900 K. 3100 3109
202 .96145 K. 3855 3802
213 .95848 K. 4152 4140
4400 De Luc, by comparison.
CATALOGUE. HEAT, CHANGES OF FORM. 593
J9+ CATALOGUE. HEAT, CHANGES OF FORM.

Produced suddenly by pressure.

of Heat on
the Form of Aggregation.
¥ff(cti
NoUet on ice. Ph. tr. 1738. XL. 307-

Freezing, Thawing,
and Melting. C. Petr. X.
Gmelin on the cold of ice.

Merrct on freezing. Birch. I. 330. 303.

Hollmann de Ph. tr.
Rinaldini on ice made without air. Ph.
tr, subita congelatione.

1745. XLIII. 239- Sylloge comm. 138.

1671. VI. 2169.
heavier than common ice. lect.
Says that Experiments on steam. Desaguliers's
it is

On the expansion of water in freezing. Ph.tr. H. 333.

1698. XX. .S84. Bertieron a knife projected from a lump
Desmasters on freezing water. Ph. tr. l698.
of frozen snow. A. P. 1748.29-
.XX. 439. Richmann on the force of water in freezing.
in a
Lahire on the effect of cold on water N. C. Petr. I. 276.
barrel. A. P. I. 14. Mairan on ice. Ace. A. P. 1749- H. 53.
pistol
A. P. II. 144.
Lahire on the figure of ice.
On the thawing of ice into crystals. A. P.
Lahire on ice and on cold. A. P. IX. 313. 1751. H. 37.
Buot on the of water in freezing, Petersb. 1760.
expansion Braiin de frigore artificial!. 4.

A. P. 1.76. Braun on the freezing of fluids. N. C. Petr.

A. P. II. 70.
Varignon on ice. VIII. 339.
on the effects of cold on water,
Perrault Braun on the freezing of mercury by artifi-
boiled or not boiled. A. P. I. 77. cial cold. N. C. Petr. XI. 268, 302.
Perrault on congelation. A. P. I. 252. Watson's extract. Ph. tr. 1761. 156.

Homberg on ice. A. P. II. 105. X. 173. Poissonnier on the congelation of mercury^.

17O8. H. 21. A.P. 1760. H.26.
thaws faster in a vacuum than in the air.
Observes, that it
Wilke on freezing. Schw. Abh. XXXI.
from A. P. X. 173.
Homberg on ice free air.
Lavoisier on freezing. Roz. Intr. II. 510.
Thinks that it is as dense as water.
Black on the congelation of boHed water.
Mariotte on the congelation of water. A. P.
Ph. tr. 1775. 124.'
X. 352. Takes place at 31°, perhaps from the entrance
of air.

Newton's table of temperatures. Ph. tr. 1701.

4.
Cherna de aqua intra aquam. Groning.
XXIII. 824.
1775.
Amontons on the apparent fall of the ther-
Hutchins on freezing quicksilver.
Ph. tr.

mometer. A. P. 1705. 73. H. 4.

1776. 174.
Hauksbee on freezing water freed from air.
Hutchins's experiments on the congelation
Ph. tr. 1709. 302.
of quicksilver. Ph. tr. 1783. 303*.
Found no difference in the density.
Nairne on the freezing of sea water. Ph. tr.
Fahrenheit de congelatione in vacuo. Ph. tr.

XXXIII. 78.
1776.249. Roz. IX. 361.
1724.
of sea water contained Van Smnden sur le froid de 1770. 8. Amst.
Middleton found that the ice

_L of salt, in Hudson's bayi 1778.

Triewald on congelation. Ph. tr. 1731. On freezing.

XXXVII. 79. Flauguergues on congelation.

Roz. XV. 477-
 CATALOGUE.^^HEAT, CHANGES OF FORM. 595
De Luc Tdees sur la
met^orologie. I. ccvii. when the inside trf the vessel was rubbed with \Tax, a little

II. dcvi. water being interposed. A thin film was more easily-

On Pure boiled water

frozen. The access of air only promotes congelation when
freezing. may be cooled to 14"
without freezing. it is loaded with frozen particles ; the smallest particle of

Wilson's e.vperiments on cold. Ph.tr. 1781.

ice producing the effect instantaneously. The contact o£
metals seems to facilitate congelation, and the rapidity with
386.
which the water Is cooled. Water expands considerably
Snow was observed to evaporate at 27" F. without being when thus cooled. The greatest cold supported without
perceptibly cooled by it. It adhered firmly to glass at 3" ;
freezing was 20°.
perhaps the contact of air may cause snow to melt more
Blagden on the congelation of aqueous so-
readily, producing the increased cold which is sometimes
observed in it.
lutions. Ph. tr. 1788. 277.
Cavendish on Hiitchins's experiments. Ph. The point of congelation of water with - of salt was
112 "
32° 1
tr. 1783. 303. ; thus, with it was 4°, with ^, 2Sf. Other
Makes the point of congelation of
mercury — asj" of salts followed also similar laws. Crystallization did not
the Royal Society's thermometer. seem immediately promote congelation. The maximum
to

of density of water with

Jf of salt was about 8° above its
Cavendish on Macnab's experiments in
freezing point.
Hudson's bay. Ph. tr. 1786. 241.
Euler and Krafft on the congelation of mer-
Finds that the sulfuric and nitric acids may be cooled mach
below their freezing points without congelation that their cury. N. A. Pelr. 1785. III. 60.
strength rather raises than depresses their freezing points,
;
At about — 36" or — 40*.

but that when diluted they seem to have two Guthrie sur la congelation du mercure. 4.
freezing
points, one for the acid, the other for the water, both of Petersb. 1785.
which however depend on the Thus the nitric
strength. Keir on the congelation of the vitriolic acid.
acid, its strength being .56, freezes at — 30°, .53 at
Ph.tr. 1787. 267.
19°; .437 at — 4j°; the nitrous acid, strength .54, freezes
Found
at— 3li°, .411 at— li», .38 at — 45^", ,243 at 44i», that the sulfuric acid of the specific
gravity 1.7 so,
fieezes at 45° F. into crystals, which are more dense than
.91 at— 17°: the sulfuric acid, strength .98 at—
15",
more than
.629 at— 36°, .41 at— 78j°, .35 at — 2, while solid,
1.924, perhaps but which thaw
68^°, .34 at —
into acid of the specific whether the acid
6S°, .33 at— 55^°. Diluted alcohol is also
similarly af-
gravity 1.7 80,
was originallj- a little more or less dense. But when the
fected. Mr. Macnab produced a cold of 7 g^".
specific gravity varies as far as 1.75 or 1.81, it will not
Cavendish on Macnab's further experiments. freeze at 1 8° F.

Ph. tr. 1788. 166. Chaptal on the congelation of sulfuric acid.

Confirms his former conclusions, and those of Mr. Keir, Roz. XXXr. 468.
respecting the sulfuric acid ; this has a second point of
Walker. Ph. tr. 1788. 395.
difficult congelation about the strength of .92,
freezing at
Cooled water
about — 26°. Thus at .977 the freezing point was + 1°,
to 10° without freezing it.

at .918, — 26°, at .846, + 42°,

Walker on the congelation of quicksilver
.75S, — 45°. at In Keir's in

eiperiments the acid of the density of .848 was frozen at England. Ph. tr. 1789. I99.
46". Saussure on liquefaction. Roz. XX-XVI.
Blagden's history of the congelation of mer- 193.
cury. Ph.tr. 1783.329. Williams on the expansive force of freezing-
water. Ed. tr. IL 23.
Blagden on the cooling of water below its
Makes the expansion or From the difference of
freezing point. Ph.tr. 1788. 125. ^', J^-.

refractive power it
might be expected be or
Boiled water
is
only more readily frozen when it is ren-
to
,', f .

dered turbid. Sand, or broken glass, did not promote the Priestley on the air evolved in freezing.
congelation, nor even agitation, unless it was minute, as Am. tr. V, 36.
'
596 CATALOGUE,— HEAT, CHANGES OF FORM.;

Heller on the freezing of water. Gilb. 1.474. Baron on the evaporation of ice. A. P. 1753.
+ Dickson on water freezing. Ph. M. VII. 69. 250. H. 194.
t Blandiet on explosions. Ph. M. VII. 71. Cullen on evaporation. Ed. ess. 11. 145.
Weber on the strength of ice. Gilb. XI. 353. Leide7ifrost de aquae qualitatibus. S.Duisburg.
Driessen on the congelation of water. Ph. 1756.
M. XV. 249. On evaporation at low temperatures.

Crichton on the melting point of lead and Franklin's letters. I. 303, 398. Roz. II. 276.
tin. Ph. M. XVI. 48. On cold from evaporation. M. Taur. I.

Sir J. Hall of the effects of heat with com- Cigna on evaporation. M. Taur. II. 143.
pression. Nich. IX. 98. Cigna on ebullition. Roz. III. 109.
See Tables of the Effects of Heat. Fourcroy de Ramecourt on the vapour of
mercury. A. P. 1768. H. 36.
Degrees of Fluidity. Wistar on the vapour of melting ifce. Roz. VI.
'Gerstner on the fluidity of water of differ- 183. Gilb.V. 354.

ent temperatures. Bohm. Gesellsch. 1798. On water thrown into melted glass. Roz. XI.
>4ji:ll
Gilb. V. 160. 30, 411.
AYith a tube .0074 inch Fr. in diameter, 33 long, a re- Grignon on the effects of a drop of water on
s«rvoir was half emptied in 35' 34" at 30" Reaum. in 60' hot substances. Roz. XII. 288.
56" at 10°, in -6' 19" at 4°, the remaining half in 157'
Lavoisier on elastic fluids. A. P. 1777. 420.
io", 201' 40", and 38l' respectively. With a tube .136
in diameter, 7.9 long, the times of the discharge of the
H. 20.

half were q' 31", Lavoisier on fluids becoming aeriform at low

first 2' 42", and 2' 44" : of the second half

7' 16", 7' 5j", and s' 22". temperatures. Roz. XXVI. 142.
Deslandes, Bosc d'Antic, and Grignon on.
Boiling, Simple Evaporation, Sublimation, evaporation at low temperatures. Roz..
Volatilisation and Deposition. 1778.

Boyle on fixedness. Birch. III. 144. Shuckburgh on the temperature of boiling

' Hooke discovered the permanency of the temperature
water. Ph. tr. 177iJ. 362.
of boiling water in 1684. Fontana on evaporation in quiescent air.

Papin on vacuo. Birch. IV. 427.

distilling in Roz. XIII. 22.
Homberg on the heat of boiling water. A. P. Finds that evaporation does not take place in closed

1703. H. 25. when the heat is communicated from above. But

vessels

perhaps the heat was not conveyed to the fluid.

Fahrenheit de calore llquorum ebullientium.
Milon on evaporation in a vacuum. Roz.
Ph.tr. 1724. XXXin. 1.
XIII. 217.
Reaumur on the evaporation of snow. A. P.
Achard. Berl. Naturf. I. 1 12. Koz.XVI. 174.
1738. H. 36.
Achard on the heat of boiling fluids. A. Berl.
Ludolff on the evaporation of mercury.
1782.3. 1783. 84.
M. Berl. 1741. VI. 109.
Achard on measuring heights by the boiling
Nollet on ebullition, A. P. 1748. 57.
Richmann on N. C, point of water. A. Berl. 1782. 54.
evaporation. Petr. I.
Achard on the effect of diflisrenl substances
198, 284. II. 134, 145.
On the effect of Ch« depth of t«3««1s, and on tht cold upon the temperature of boiling water. A.
fioduced. Berl. 1784. 58. With a copious table.

^
\
 CATALOGUE. — HEAT, CHANGES OF FORM. 397
fhe whole effect of any insoluble subsKmce seldom Ann. Ch. XXII. 31. XL. 3. B. Soc. Phil.
amounted to a degree of Reaumur. Metallic filings gene-
he printed.
n. 8. S. E. to
lowered the point of ebullition.
Guyton on odorous emanations. Ann. Ch.
rally

Achaid on the boiling point of water. A.

XXVH. 218.
Bed. 1785. 3.
Canadori on heat, evaporation, and inevapo-
Finds some irregularities from the nature of the vessels.
rable fluids. Ann. Ch. XXIX. 93. XLII.
Aciiard on the effect of salts upon the boil-
65. Gilb. XII. 103.
ing point of water. A. Berl. 1785. 67.
Carradori on Prevost's expansion of odours,
Wilson on cold. Ph.tr. 1781. 386.
Snow was found to evaporate at a?", but was not per-
Ann. Ch. XXXVII. 38.

yet the thermometer was always Biot on Prevost's experiments. B. Soc. Phil.
ceptibly cooled by it,

lower on the snow than in the air, unless very deeply 11. 54.
immersed.
Klaproth on the evaporation of a drop of
Cotte on the evaporations from different
water at a high temperature. Journ.
vessels. Roz. XVIII. 306. LV. 61. Nich. 8. IV. 202.
Phys.
Cavallo on cold from evaporation. Ph. tr.
Van Maruni on the conversion of licjuids into
1781. 511.
gases in a vticuum. Gilb. I. 145.
Delessert on the heat of steam. Iloz. XX VIII. On the specific gravity of steam. Repert.
170. IX. 249.
Saussure on evaporation. Gren. I. iii. 460. Correcting a blunder of Desaguliers.
Roz. XXXIV. 443. Messier on the sublimation of mercury. M.
Betancourt siu' la force expansive de la Inst. IL 473. Gilb. XII. 96.
^ vapeur de I'eau. 4 Paris, R. S. Journ. Says, that heat would not produce the efTect without
and that bubbles were seen with
Prony Arch. hydr. I. 157. Hut- light, rising, a glass.
polyt.
ton's dictionary II. 755. Ph. M. I. 345.
*Bikker and Rouppe on the force of steam.
Haarl. Verb. Gilb. X. 257.
Deluc on the heat of boiling water. Roz.
The steam was made to press on hot quicksilver ; great
XLII. 264.
care was taken toexpel the air. Journ. R. I., I. 179.
Dalton on the force of steam. Meteor,
Von Charpentier Gilb. XII. S65.
essays. Denies the influence of light on the barometer, and the
* Dalton on the force of steam and on eva- ascent of visible globules but he does not appear
; to have

poration. Manch. M. V. 53. Repert. ii. excluded all light.

I. 22. Gilb. XV. 1. Gilbert's remarks on Dalton's experiments.

Crichton on the boiling point of mercury. Gilb. XV. 25.

Ph. M. XVI. 48. Soldneron Dalton'slaws of expansion. Gilb.

Lichtenberg. Erxleb. Natnrl.

XVII. 44.

Observes, that pure water may be heated to 234° be- Mr. Giddy has favoured me with an account.of some
fore it boils, and that it Will then sink to 212°. very accurate observations on the quantity of water em-

Table of temperatures. Erxleb. Natiirl. 401. ployed for supplying a steam engine, by which it appears,
that the specific gravity of steam under a pressure of about
Volta's apparatus for experiments on etherial
30. is nearly .5^, or a little more than one third of that of

vapour. Ann. Ch. XII. 292. air; which agrees very well with Desaguliers's experiments.
Volta's notes. Gilbert. XV. Professor Robison observes, that, in his experiments, the
B. Prevoston the motions of odorous bodies, addition of 30° to the temperature, in most cases, nearly
and on rendering their emanations visible. doubled the elasticity both of steam and of the vapour of
398 CATALOGUE, HEAT, CHANGES OF FORM.
alcohol. Hence he obseiTcs, that the logarithm of the alcohol, 50° for muriate of lime.

elasticity should vary as the temperature. Encycl. Br. Art. I.4113-f.005r

Schmidt's formula is c-=.r in hundredths
Steam Engine. He could, however, discover no sensible
of a French inch of mercury, r being the temperature
elasticity in ilcohol at 32° ; nor could Betancourt Molina.
Dalton pursues Robison's idea of the logarithmic, with
in degree* of Reaumur. This is nearly equivalent to
1.163-f.002l/
some alterations: he made experiment? both under the / in hundredths of an English inch,/ being
air pump and with the Torricellian column ; he found that the degrees of Fahrenheit reckoned from 32° ; or to
a difference of ll^" increased the elasticity 1.4925 times 1.33S8-I-.004C
c for the degrees of the ther-
at 3J°, and 1.2425 times at 212", hence he infers that centigrade

.015 is to be deducted from the ratio for every such inter- mometer.

val, and continues his table both ways. But it is certain Prony's formula for Bctancourt's experiments, is ri-

that this cannot bs the law of nature, since about 394° th« diculously complicated, and yet not at all accurate.

would become uniform, and then decrease, if the Soldner gives, for expressing Dalton's numbers, the for-
elasticity
law were true. He says that Betancourt and Robison mulaen:l. 30.13. —^—
(6f)2—/). (212— /)
52042
,.
.He accommodates
make the elasticity too great in high temperatures from
but the fact when the similar formulae to other scales, and deduces from them
the e.\trication of air: is, that

has been taVen to avoid the elasticity has others for the determination of the heat of boiling water
greatest care it,

had under different pressures.

appeared nearly the same, and the circumstance, if it ,

This however is
only an approximation to Dalton's
taken place, would have been very immaterial. Indeed,
which from the properties of the
the only support of Dalton's measures above the boiling principle, logarithmic

jx«nt is the law, which

he has imagined for the expansion curve, leads to a formula of this kind, eiz.016l373 —
of other vapours ; he tays, that their" elasticity is always (1.0365
— .00008/). I.
(1.0365— .00008/) .4343

of temper- (.00008/).
equal to that of steam, at a given difFerence
and some experiments, that
them have also found several expressions which for particular
I
ature above or below :

he adduces, agree exactly with the law j but it is utterly purposes may possibly be of some use, although thejr arc

incredible that an expansive force of 7 tenths of an inch

all superseded in general by the formula first mentioned ;

1.5
vihich thevapourof alcohol ought to have at the freezing
these are, reckoning / always from 32°, c— 003/ ,

point, should
have entirely escaped both Betancourt and
.006788/ *0«7e8/
Professor Robison. Still, however, his rule for the force e=:io /, e=:io (/+.000329/*— .oooooooi
of different vapours must be allowed to be a very valuable
.000019^\
approximation at temperatures between 50° and 220°. 10
(.0551/— /e—numb. 1. .3 0103 -f-

A much simpler formula will agree extremely well with .01541/— .000017/'— .000 000 008/', in tenths; and for
all Dalton's experiments on water, and with the mean of
atmospherical temperatures ez:.2-}-.007/4-.00016/',
all the best experiments that have been made by others in which is deduced from Dalton's table, but may perhaps
higher temperatures. It is this, the elasticity of steam in be improved by making e^.ls4-.007/4- .000l({/"*.

atmospheres of 30 inches of mercury is rf:r:(l-f-.002(}/")',

y being the degrees of Fahrenheit above a 1 -a", whence we Comtruction of Thermometers.
.1
'

have /iz for the elevation of the boiling point with

.0029
Braun's comparison of the scales of thermo-
an increase of pressure. If we reckon f from 32", we meters. IN. C. Petr. VIl. pi. 18.
shall have the elasticity in inches of mercury nearly .1781 VV'entz on dividing tlieniiometers with un-
(i-f-.ooe/)' and for the ejevation or depression of the
;
equal tubes. Act. Helv. III. 105.
boiling point, if e be the elevation of the barometer
above 30 in inches, we shall have for small variations /zi Report of the committee of the R. S. Ph. tr.

* e 1777. 816.
»^ r: ).642e. Deluc makes ih* cor-
7 X .10 X -oo'^g .009 The stem of a thermometer being 1 00° colder than the
rection 1.59c, Shuckburgh l.7oe, the mean is i.64 5e, bulb, the mercury will be about ij° lower in 180°. It

which agrees very singularly with the calculation. Ac- ought always to be of the same temperature.
cording to Dalton's principles the formula may be ac- The bulb being immersed an inch under water, the
commodated to any other vajiour, by reckoning / from boiling point is raised .08°, which is about half as much
some other constant point of the scale ; as —5° for as the same pressure would occasion if exerted by the air.
 CATALOGUE. HEAT, CHANGES OF FORM. 399
The thermometer it a medium stands about .48°, higher

immersed in water, than in st«am only, >yhich corres-

ponds to a difference of about .3 in the height of the

barometer.
The rapidity of boiling makes little difference in the

keat, there are, however, sometimes irregularities of half

a degree or more, notwithstanding all possible precautions.

The standard thermometer is graduated by immersion in
steam, when the barometer is at 29.8 : its boiling point is

' "
higher than that of De Luc's, who employs 28.75 for
the height of the barometer, immersing the bulb in water.
A vessel with a chimney is employed, loosely covered for

steam, the bulb being held 2 inches above the water.

When the bulb is immersed, the barometer ought to

stand at 49.5, but when an open vessel is used, the baro-

meter must be at 29.8, and the thermometer must be

wrapped and held upright, and hot water must

in cloths,

be frequently poured over it. Rain water or distilled

water must be employed.
Corrections are given for the expansion of the scale, and
for the coldness of the stem ; and a diagonal scale for re-

ducing the effect of the height of the barometer. For

each inch ^j^ of the interval between the freezing
and boiling points must be allowed. •

Six on the division of thermometers. Ph,

tr. 1782. 72.

Biot's thermometer. See Communication

of Heat.
It is simplest and most usual to reduce thermometers to

SO. of the barometer.

Thermometers.
Comparative Table of
Degrees from Freezing Boiling
freezing to boiling, point. point.

Wedgwood 1.48« — 8.142 — fl.fiSS

Poleni 15.« 47.3 62.9

Amontons 21.5 51.5 73-

Newton 34. O. 34
Old Edinburgh 38.8 8.2 4;
Del Cimento
sometimes 13.5 8 If
.8i
Reaumur 0. 80
SO
Sauvages 87 0. 87
Celsius, centigrade 100. O. 100
Delisle 150 150 0.
Del Cimento
sometimes 154 20. !?
Sulzer nearly as De-
lisle, about
156
Hales 163 0. 163
Delahire Obs. Par. 17li 28 199i
Fahrenheit 180 32 2ia
Ac. I'ar. old. 214 25 as 9
R. S. old ai».s — 73i 14U
400 CATALOGUE. — HEAT, CHANGES OF FORM.
Fine gold melts, W. a2°W.S237°F-
1301
Bergman
Settling heat of flint glass 19
Fine silver melts, W. 28 •717

Bergman 1000
Swedish copper melts, W. 97 4587

Bergman 14S0
Bra« melts SI

Enamel burnt on 6

Red heat, visible by daylight. W. oW. 1077

Bergman 1050

Red heat, visible in the dark -iW. 047

Antimony melts, Bergman 809

7.inc melts, Bergman 699

Mercury boils 0SOor 653

Expressed oils boil 600

Sulfuric acid boils

{530
546

Steel becomes deep bins

f 560
Oil of turpentine boils
\324.5
Lead melts
 CATALOGUE. — HEAT, CHANGES OF FOHXr. 401

Formula. Dalton. Formula. Dalton.

'57° .474 .474 116' 3.100 3,00
58 .491 .490 117 3.188 3.08
59 .509 .507 .407 Schm. 118 3.378 3.18
00 .528 .524 Ale. 1.45 D. as water 30* 119 3.369 3.25
higher. Ammonia 4.3 D. as 120 3.463 3.33 Ale. as water 6° higher. Rob.
waler 69° higher, 121 3.580 3.42
61 .547 .542 122 3.658 3.50 3.90 Bet. 3.9 Schm.
02 .567 .560 .661 Form. 2. Ether 12.75, 123 3.760 3.39
as water 110" higher. Dalt. 124 3.863 3.69
03 .587 .578 125 3.969 3.79
64 .609 .597 126 4. 078 3.89
65 .630 .616 Muriate of lime .3 D. as wa- 127 4.188 4.00
ter 19° lower. 128 4.361 4.11
66 .653 .635 129 4.418 4.23
67 .676 .655 130 4.538 4.34
68 .700 .676 .65 Bet. .653 Schm. 131 4.657 4.47
69 .724 .698 133 4.781 4.60
70 .750 .721 .55 Rob. Muriate of lime 133 4.9O8 4.73
.4 D. as water 18° lower. 134 5.037 4.88 Ale. as water 29* higher. Ach.
71 .776 .745 135 5.171 5.00
72 .803 .770 .764 Form. 2. .75 Lord C. 136 5.307 5.14
Cavendish. 137 5.446 5.29
73' .830 •798 138 5.583 5.44
74 .858 .833 139 5.732 5.59
75 .888 .851 140 5.880 5.74 Ale. aswater 30° higher. Rob.
76 .918 .880 Ammonia 30, as water 72*
77 .949 .910 .96 Bet. .o6i Schni. higher. Dalton.
78 .980 .940 141 6.031 5.90
79 1.013 .971 142 6.186 6.05
80 1.047 1.000 143 6.344 6.21
81 1.082 1.04 144 6.506 6.37
82 1.117 1.07 145 6.671 6.53
83 1.154 1.10 148- 6.840 6.70
84 1.192 1.14 147 7.012 6.87 Ale. as water 31.5* higher.
85 1.231 1.17 Ach. Ether 64. 7.s, D. m
«0 1.270 1.31 water 105° higher.
•7 1.311 1.24 7.189 7.05
•8 1.353 1.28 149 7.369 7.23
«9 ,
1.396 1.33 150 7.553 7.42 6.72 Rob. 6.8 Achard.
00 1.442 1.36 151 7-740 7.61
01 1.487 1.40 152 -7.983 7-81
03 1.533 1.44 153 8.128 8-01
03 1.580 1.48 154 8-328 8-20
04 1.629 1.53 155 8.532 8.40
95 1.680 1.58 Muriate of lime .g D. as wa- 156 8.740 8.60
ter 18° lower. 157 8.953 8.81
S6 1.732 1.63 158 9-170 9-02
97 1.785 1.68 159 9-391 9-24
08 1.839 1-74 160 9.617 gAS
09 1.895 1.80 161 9.84a 9-68
]00 1.B53 1.8S 1.61 Rob. 163 10-08 9-91
101 2.012 1.93 163 10-32 10-15
103 2.073 1.98 Ether 30, as water 110" 164 10.57 10-41
higher. Dalton. 165 10-82 10-68
103 2.135 3.04 166 11.07 10-98
104 2.199 2.11 167 11.33 11-25 11.73 Schm. A.lc. M watw
105 2.264 2.18 33° higher. Ach.
106 2.331 2.25 3.38 Bet. 168 11.60 11.54
107 3.400 2.32 169 11.87 11.83
-
108 2.470 2.39 170 12.14 12.13
109 2.542 2.46 171 13.43 12.43 Ale. as water 36" higher.
110 2.616 2.53 Ach.
111 2.692 2.60 173 12.72 13-78
113 a. 7-0 2.68 173 13.01 1302
113 2.830 2.78 174 13.30 13-32
114 2.931 2.84 175 13.61 13.63 14. Achard. Ale. so. Dalt.
115 '3.015 3.93 a> water 37° higher.

TOL. II. S F
403 CATALOGUE. HEAT, CHANGES OF FORM.
Formula.
 eATALOGUE. — HEAT, PERMANENT EFFECTS, *m
Formula. Dalton. Watson on unannealed glass vessels. Ph. Ir.
808° 150.9 (114. is) 1745. XLIII. 505.
303 153.4
304 155. S Casali on unannealed glass. C. Bon. II.
305 158.S
308 160.9 i. 321,328. III. 40G. V. ii. I69.
307 163.5
Lecat on glass drops, and on the tempering
308 166.0
30y 168.7 of steel. Ph. tr. 1749. XLVI. 175.
310 1/1.4
311 174.1 Observes, that a drop may sometimes be ground away
312 176.2 by emery and oil without breaking. Compares tempering
The vapour of sulfuric acid ousht to have a force of .1 to annealing.

at 390", that of mercury at 460", the one boiling at 590", Hanovv on the Bologna jars. Danz. Gesell.
the other at 660" Dalton.
I. 584. III. 328.
Chemical and Physiological Efects. Hawoz» Veisuchemit den Springkolbchen. 4.

See Economy of Heat. Danz. 1751.

Richinann on solutions at different tempera- Bosc d'Antic on glass drops. S. E. IV.
tures. N. C. Petr. IV. 270. Kaestner de lacrymis vitreis. Dissert, viii.

Blagden's observations made in a heated 59. 125.

room. Ph.tr. 1773. 111. Maupetit on the glass drop. lloz. VI. 394.

Supported a heat of about 300" in air and there was no *Coulomb. A. P. 1764.
;
'ZQ5.
in cooling, on the con-
evaporation from the skin to assist Found that the force of tonion is
equally powerful in
water was deposited. TiUet found two girls that
trary, wires annealed and unannealed: they perforaed their vibra-
supported a heat of 2Soa in an oven. Mercury could A
tions in equal times. tempered bar required also as
not be borne at 120", nor water at 125"; oil was sup- much force to deflect it to agiven angle, as a hard one
portable at 129", and spirits of
wine at 130". A
of the same dimensions. soft bar, a spring tempered,

Harniss on the chemical action of light and and a hard one, were bent to equal angles by 5 pounds ;

heat. Nich. V. 245. with 6 the hard bar broke, with 7 the soft one bent, but

returned as far from its new upon the removal

Journ. de phys. LVII. 66. position
of the weight, as if it had not bent. The elastic bar
An account of a Spaniard who washed his hands and
was broken by 18 pounds. Chladni also found the sound
face in oil at 224", put his foot on a red hot iron, and
of soft iron and steel similar to that of the hardest, and I
held a lighted candle to his leg. His pulse was 130"
have observed the same in a tuning fork. This may be
or 140".
inferred from the theory of annealing ;
the whole cohesive
See Physiology. force not being affected by the partial extensions of some
Soda and potash are said to exchange their acids at dif-
strata and the consequent condensation of others,
ferent temperatures.
Nicholson. Manch. M. II. 370.
In general a bath is pleasantly warm from 90" to 1 1 0° ;
Observes, that the specific gravitj' of lead and tin varies
we drink tea about 11 5 " or more, coffee sometimes at 130»
in the third figure of the number expressing it, accord-

ing to the different modes of cooling.

Permanent Effects of Heat and
Guyton on tempering steel. Ann. .Ch.
Cold.
XXVII. 186.

*Hooke on From Nicholson. See Cutlery.

Micrographia.
glass drops.
on the Batavian drops. A. P. II. Cavallo. Nat. Ph. II. 27-
Homberg
A piece of steel, whicli measured 2.769 inches when
85. X. 146.
soft,was found, by Mr. Pennington, to measure after
Wolf on brittle bottles. A. P. 1743. H. 43.
hardening, 2.7785, and when again tempered so as to
Brur.ion the Bologna bottles. Ph. tr. 1745. become blue, 2.768. The specific gravity of hammered
XLIII. 272. steel is 7.84, that of hardened steel 7.816. The difference
404 CATALOGUE.— HEAT, COMMUNICATION.
of the length is
^L, that of the specific gravity from tem- Musschenbroek's table of the time of heatina:
pering consequently ^ but the hammering increases it to
;
of different bodies. Introd. II. 678.
Jj.
The expansion of water by freezing presents a similar
Euler on the motions of fluids from heat.
phenomenon.
On the flexure of wax and metal in cooling. N. C. Petr. XI. 232. XIII. 305. XIV.
Nich. 8. IV.- 176. 270. XV. 1, 219.

Hatchett. Ph. tr. 1803. 118. Braun on the communication of heat. N. C.

Found that gold debased with impure copper became Petr. XII. 289. Roz. I, l.

brittle when cast in moulds of sand, but was rendered Confirms Richmann's experiments on boiling water and

ductile when cast in moulds of iron. The specific gravity alcohol but finds the result different with wine and oils.
:

of standard gold when cast in iron was also greater than For these, however, the boiling point must be variable,
when cast in sand, in the ratio of 290 to 289, and in one and the result is of no value.

experiment of 61 to 60. The mefal cooled more rapidly Roy. Ph. tr. 1777. 720.
in sand. In some cases the evolution of gas may, perhaps, Observes, that water is a very bad conductor of heat.
be concerned in affecting the specific gravity.
Erxleben on the laws of heat. N. C. Gott.
Communication of Heat by contact 1777. VIII. 74.
Exceptions to the law of Newton, Richmann, and
and in general.
Lambert.

La Chapelle on a bar of steel becoming Achard on the conducting powers of gases.

hot when withdrawn from boiling water. A. Eerl. 1783. 84.
A. P. II. 25. Achard's comparison of heat and electricity.

Romberg on the increased heat of the bot- Roz. XXII. 245.

tom of a when removed from
vessel the Achard on the cooling of bodies in air of
fire. A. P. 1703. H. 24. different densities. A. Berl. 1785. 24.
This appears to be a fallacy : with a clean surface it
Makes no general conclusions. The difference betvvee*

may easily be detected. the rates of cooling in air exhausted to | and to \ was some-

Martine's essay on the heating and cooling times imperceptible, and scarcely in any case jL.

of bodies. Fordyce's experiment on heat. Ph. tr. 1787.

Richmann on the laws of the decrement of 310.
heat. N. C.Petr. I. 174. II. 172.
Two equal cylinders of pasteboard were inclosed in

eider down under glass, one was covered with iron,

Makes its decrement as the surface exposed and as the
the other with pasteboard, both painted with the same
difference of temperature conjointly.
black paint, which was exposed to the sun's rays : th«
Richmann on the cooUng bodies in air.
pasteboard never transmitted a heat of more than nop
N. C. IV. 241. the iron 121°: the iron also retained its heat much the
Insists that a ball of metal 4 inches in diameter cannot
longest.
be heated by boiling water beyond 207° and the ex- :

Sir B. Thompson on heat. Ph. tr. 1786. 273.

periments seem to indicate, that even in cooling its tem-
Ess. II. viii. Repert. IV. 30. Gilb. V.
perature is always lower, which indeed is the only point

that can affect the theory. Brass and copper retain heat 288.
and than lead. The conducting power of mercury being 1 000, that of
longer than iron, iron than tin, tin

moist air was 230, of water 313, of common air 80.41,

Lambert on heating and cooling. Act. Helv.
II.
of air \ as dense 80.23, of air
^ as dense 78, of a
172. The two
vacuum 55. last numbers, compared with the
Lambert Pyrometrie. conducting power of common air, appear to indicate a

Darwin. Ph. tr. 1757. 240. formula of this kind, 55-J-25.4(fJT, d being the density,

Supposes steam to float in air, and retain its heat. compared with that of the atmosphere.
 CATALOGUE.-— HEAT, COMMUNICATIOTST. 405

Sir B. Thompson's experiments on heat. Nich. IV. 529. Nich. 8. T. 81. Gilb. XIV.
Ph. tr. 1792. 48. 129, 146.
Maintains that the attiaction of loose substances for air * Dalton on the
power of fluids to conduct
is the principal cause of thtir impeding the passage of
heat : thinks that elastic fluids do not conduct heat like
heat. Manch. M. V. 373. Nich. 8. IV.
56. Repert. ii. II. 282. Gilb. XIV. 184.
-V
solids and liquids, from particle to particle.

Count Rumford on the propagation of heat Shows that fluids actually conduct heat when quiescent,
in fluids. Ess. I. vi. Ph. M. II. 343. but that their motions are usually the most concerned
in its communication. Says that water conducts heat,
Gilb. 244.
as it does electricity, more readily than ice : that
Extends to liquids what he had before suggested respect-
the maximum of effect of water in thawing ice must be
ing elastic fluids. Observes, that water thickened with
at the maximum of density :
which, by neglecting to con-
farinaceous substances is with difficulty heated and cooled,
sider the expansion of glass, he erroneously places at
and that fruits have the same property.

Rumford on a phenomenon observed in the

Ph. tr. 1804. 23. Nich. IX. Nicholson's experiment on the conducting
glaciers. 58.
The consequence of the expansion of water when it is powers of fluids. Nich. V. 197.
much cooled, and of the want of conducting power of
Murray on the passage of heat through fluids.
fluids.
Nich. I. 165, 242. Gilb. XIV. 158.
Saussure on collecting heat by glasses.
Biot on the experiments of Count Rumford
Voyage dans les Alpes. ^ 932.
and Thomson. B. Soc. Ph. n. 53, 62.
Ingenhousz on the heat acquired by metals.
Verm. Schr. II. 341. Gren. I. 154. Roz. Biot on the propagation of heat in solids.
B. .Soc. Phil. n. 88. Gilb. XVII. 231.
1789. i.

Humboldt on the conducting power of vari- Confirms Newton's law of decrements proportional to

ous substances for heat. Roz. XLIIL

the difference of temperature. A bar of iron was dipped
at one end in mercury at 21 a", and 7 holes were mada
304. in at equal which
it distances, in thermometers were
"

Lichtenberg in Erxleben. placed : the last was never affected : the next, which was
Silver is the best conductor, platina the worst. at the distance of 39 inches, was never raised more than
Such a rod
Mayer on the conducting power of metals, 1° of Reaumur. is recommended as a tlier-
raometet for high temperatures but it is
probable that the
Gren. IV. 22. :

effect of the air would produce great irregularities. Copper

Mayer on heat communicated by wood. appeared to conduct heat somewhat more readily than iron.
Crell's Journ. Ann. Ch. XXX. 32. The temperatures of thermometers were nearly, in geome-
Guy ton on the conducting power of char- trical proportion when their distances were in arithmetical

coal. Ann. Ch. XXVI. 225. Nich. II. proportion.

499. Ph. M. II. 182. Leslie's inquiry into the nature of heat.
Charcoal transmitted in ^ of an hour only 6oJ ° W. Maintains that heat is communicated through gases
»n equal coat of sand 89°. in three ways, by pulsation, by abduction, as in solids,
Delue's remarks on Rumford's experiments. and by regression or circulation : but in liquids he finds
that there is no radiation.
Glib. 1.404.
Parrot on the propagation of heat in fluids.
Socquet on the conducting powers of fluids.
Journ. Phys. XLIX. 441. Gilb. VI. 407. XVII. 257, 369.
Gilb.

Repert. XIII. 277.

-
BerthoUet. Chem. Stat. Nich. VIII. 134.
Asserts their conducting powers. Thinks that fluids must communicate heat from particta

Thomson on the conducting powers of fluids. to particle.

406 CATALOGUE. — HEAT, RADIATION.

Hornblower on the nonconducting power of Wolfe. Ph. tr. 17fi9. 4.

fluids. Nich, VIII. I69. Hoesen's mirrors melted a wheel nail in 3 seconds, a

pistole in 2. Hoffman used them opposite to each other,

and collected the heat radiating from a stove
strongly
Radiant Heat. heated. 2 Sept. 1768.

Construction of burning lenses and mirrors. Watson on the heat admitted by blackened
See Optical Instruments. bodies. Ph.tr. 1773.40.

Mariolte on the heat of a burning mirror. Found an elevation from 108° to 11 8°, by coating the

glass bulb of a thermometer with Indian ink.

A. P. I. 223.
Mariotte observes, that terrestrial heat is
Lavoisier on the heating of coloured bodies.
intercepted by
glass, while light is transmitted. Oeuvres. I. 1772. ii. 614. 1773. H. 81.
Homberg on a burning mirror. A. P. 1705. Trudaine on his lens. A. P. 1774. Essai.
H. 39. It was observed, that the wood caught fire more towards
Little effect -was when the heat of the atmo- the extremity of the image than in the centre but this
produced ;

sphere was considerable.

was only from aberration, 70, 71. The diameter was 4
the focal length about
Homberg on the ancient burning glasses. feet, 1 1 .

A. P. 1711. H. 16. Cavallo's thermometrical experiments. Ph.

'^Lahire on the heat of the lunar rays. A. P. tr. 1780. 585.

1705. 340. Found that a blackened thermometer rose about 10*
higher in the sun's rays, and showed some difference even
Harris and Desaguliers on Viliette's con-
in the daylight. Found no heat from the moon. When
cave. Ph. tr. 1719. XXX. 970. the balls of thermometers were coloured, the colours nearest
It burnt less powerfully as it grew hot. the violet showed the greatest heat.

Segntr de speculis Archimedeis. 4. Jen.

Marcorelle on thermometers in different si-
1722.
tuations. S. E. X. 85.
Dufay's catoptrical experiments. A. P. 172G. In August, at Toulon, the sun's rays raised the thermo-
115, 165. H.47. meter 8° or e°, and twice as much when it was surrounded
Courtivron's catoptrical researches. A. P. with other objects. Mairan found that the heat reflected

on a thermometer by plane mirrors was proportionate to

1747. 449.
their number.
Buffon on burning mirrors. A. P. 1747.
Socin on the reflection of heat. Roz. XXVII.
82. 1748. 305.
268.
Burnt wood at 209 feet, by 168 small plane mirrors.
*Pictet on the effect of colours, and on the
Richmann on the heat of a pencil of rays.
reflection of invisible heat. Essais de
N. C. Petr. 111. 340. IV. 277.
It was nearly in the inverse ratio of the square of the dis- physique.
tance from the focus. See Expansion. Pictet's further experiments. Nich. 8. III.

Nollet's experiments with concentrated solar 223. Giib. XIII. 120.

rays. A. P. 1757.551. H. 23. The heat of a candle was intercepted by glass.

Zeiher on burning lenses. N. C. Petr. VII. *Privost sur r6quilibre du feu. 8. Genev.
237. Gren. VI. Rozier. XXXVIII. 314.
Pistoi on the heating of bodies by A. Prevost on heat and
light. its
interception. Ph. tr.-

Sienn. II. 126. 1802. 403.

Franklin on the effect of colours in the ad- Remarks on Herschel's experiments.

mission of heat. Letter Ivi. Roz. II. 381. T.Wedgwood. Ph.tr. 1792.370.
 CATALOGUE. — HEAT, llADIATIOK, 407

Found that a blackened wire was sooner heated and cooled within an inch of the focus, without inconvenience.

than a wire not coloured. Imison's elements. I. 371. But tins remark appears to

require confirmation if were accurate, we might expect

light, heat and
it
Huttons dissertation on fire. 8.
:

the smallest imperfection in the focal adjustment of the eye

Ace. Ed. tr. IV. H. 7. Read 1794.
to cause a great difference in tlie apparent brilliancy of an
Calls radiant heat obscure light ;
observes the greater heat
object ;
which is not the fact : indeed Count Rumford's
of the red rays, and says that a blackened thermometer is
late experiments appear wlioUy to confute it.
most sensible to the eflTect of obscure light, as well as to

that of visible light.

Leslie discovered, by experiments made in 1802, that the
heat emitted by radiation was affected by the natme of ths
*Herschel on the heat of the prismatic rays,
surface exposed. The action of a blackened surface of
on the invisible rays of the sun, and on was
tin being 100, that of a steel plate 15, of clean tin 12,
the solar and terrestrial rays that occasion of tin scraped bright 16, when scraped with the edge of a
heat. Pli. tr. 1800. <-l55, 284, 293,437. fine file in one direction 26, when scraped again across
about 13, a surface of lead clean 19, covered with a grey
Nich. IV. 320, 360. V. 69. Ph. M. VII.
crust 45, a thin coat of isinglass 80, resin 96, writing paper
VIII. Giib. VII. 137.
98, ice 85. Heat as well as light is so projected from a
With many experiments on the transmission of heat.
surface as to be equally dense in all directions, consequently

fLeshe's observations on hght and heat. from each point in a quantity which is as the sine of the

Nich. IV. 344, 4l6. Giib. X. 88. angle of inclination. The radiation is not affected by the

quality of the gas, in contact with the surface, but it is not

*Leslie on heat.
transmitted by water. For the time of cooling of a hol-
Benzenberg's remarks on Leslie. Giib. X. low tin ball 6 inches in diameter, filled with water, in
'

'350.
still air, take, in minutes, L.— — L.
a -^
, making the
Hermst'adt on the effect of heat on different t I

three first decimals integers, h and i being the tempera-

colours. A. Berl. 1801. 83.
tureson the centigrade scale, and a being 50. And for
^chraidtniliiler on the heat communicated the same ball painted, make a z:: 110, and take ^^ of the
to wood by the sun's rays. Giib. XIV. result: thus, from 100° C. to 50°, or 212° F. to 122°,
30G. metal takes 124'.9, paper or paint 83'.2, to 10° C. or 50°
F. 602' and 344'. 1 respectively. For the effect of diffiirent
Kumford's experiments on radiant heat. Ph.
gases and different densities, in air the discharge from a
tr. 1804. 77. B. Soc. Phil. n. 87. Giib.
XVII. Sti, 218.
vitreous surface is
-5(3^^ + *(i^''), from a metallic surface
i J Jt 1

On the effects of colours, and on the nature of the ^(3 + f(2")

<;•' ;
in hydrogen gas Kisd* 4- id'^^), and
surface.
^(12J' + Jd"). Thus, if d r: 1, theabductive power of
Bockmann's prize essay on the heating of air is |, or .4286, tlie pulsatory energy of a vitreous surface

bodies in the solar rays. Note. Giib. XVII, i, or .5714, of a metallic surface ,L, or .0714. In hydrogen

122. gas the pulsatory power the same, the abductive power
'-?, or 1.7143. If cir:-5^, the abductive power is .18 for air,
On the velocity of radiant heat. Ph. M.
.857 for hydrogen, the pulsatory power .48 or .06 in air,
XIX. 309. .51 or .0637 in hydrogen. If d :=^^!^, the abductive
Parker's was a double convex lens, three feet in diameter, is .1071 for .5655 for hydrogen, the pulsatory-
power air,

3 inches thick in the middle it

weighed 212 pounds. Its .475 or .0594 for hydrogen.
power .433 or .054 for
:
air,

aperture when was 32j inches ; its focal length fl feet

set Itwould be easy to make an experiment on the velocity
8 inches : the focal length was generally shortened by a with which radiant heat is conveyed to a distance, and
smaller lens. The most refractory substance fused was a there is little doubt but that such an experiment would
cornelian,which required 75" for its fusion; a crystal confute Mr. Leslie's hypothesis of the transmission of heat
pebble was fused in a" ; a piece of white agate in 30".
by a pulsation of the air propagated with the velocity of
Cavallo. The finger might be pUced in the cone of rays sound.
408 CATALOGUE. — HEAT, CAPACITIES.

Carette Soyer on the heat excited

Capacity for Heat. by lime.
Roz. XXIX. tm.
See Natural History.
Kirwan's table Magellan's essay on fire.
in
Compression. See Sources of Heat.
Berlinghieri esame della teoria di Crawford.
•fDesaguliers's experiments on quicksilver 4. Pisa, 1787.
and water. Ph. tr. 1720. 81.
Espr. des Journ. Mars. 1790.
Makes the quicksilver contain most heat in the same
b«.ilk.
Gren on Crawford. Journ I.

Richmann on the heat of mixtures. N. C. Morgan on Crawford.

Petr. 1. 152, lG8, 174. Seguin. Ann. Ch. lit. 148. V. J9I.
Table of specific lieats. Cavallo. N. Ph. HI,
Hichmann on the heat of quicksilver. N. C.
HI. 309.
Petr. 70.
From Crawford, Kirwan, and Lavoisier. Specimens.
Richmann on the cooling of bodies. N. C. Water l.ooo Nitrous acid L. .661
Petr. IV. 241. C. K. .844
Oxygen 4.749
Braun on the phenomena of heat. N. C. K. 37. Spermaceti oil C. .500

Petr. X. 309. Atmospheric air C. 1.700 K. .399

K. 18.6/0 Iron C. .127
Musschenbroek's table of the time of heat-
Aqueous vapour C. 1.790 K. .125
ing. Introd. II. 678. * Pictet (8.5) L. .101
Baume on col3 from evaporation. S. E. V. Carbonic acid C. 1.045 Mercury L. .029

405, 425. K. .027 K. .03*

*B!ack's experiments on heat. Table of capacities for heat. Thomson's

Ace. Roz. Intr. II. 428. chemistry. I. R. I.
According to the doctrine which derives many of the
Irvine's essays.
variations of sensible heat from the variations of capacity of
Lavoisier and Laplace on a new mode of the substances concerned, the heat extricated by
compres-
measuring heat. A. P. 1780. 355. H. 3. sion, and absorbed in dilatation, must be referred to such a
By the melting of ice.
change of capacity, and every substance must have its ca-

Cavendish. Ph. tr. 1783. 312. pacity diminished in proportion as it

occupies less space.
" We may endeavour to ascertain in what ratio this diminu-
Says, that heat is
generated" in freezing, and " dis-
tion of capacity takes place, supposing, as the most pro-
appears" in thawing.
bable ground of calculation, tfcat a condensation in a given

*Wedgwood on the calorimeter. Ph. tr.

degree diminishes the total capacity in a given ratio, what-
1784.371. ever the initial density may have been : the capacity must
therefore be supposed to vary as a certain power of the
*Crawford on animal heat and combustion. —
rarity; and taking 1400° as the natural zero, we may
8. Lond. 2ed. 1788.
inquire what that power is. In Mr. Dalton's experiments,
Wilke on specific heat. Roz. XXVI. 256, 50 degrees of heat, or somewhat more, were produced when
381. the air was readmitted into a space partially exhausted:
The capacity of water being i, that of an equal weight now it is evident that this cannot be the whole change of
of agate is .195, glass .187, iron .126, brass .116, copper temperature of the air so compressed, since it is mixed with
,114, zinc 102, silver .082, .antimony .063, tin .06, gold the air admitted, which is left in its original state of equili-

.05, bismuth .043, lead .042. But for equal volumes, the brium. Suppose the density of the air in the receiver at so"
proportions are, copper 1.027, water 1, iron .993, brass F. to have been diminished x times, then its capacity will

.971, gold .966, ver .833, agate .517, lead .487, glass be diminished by compression x" times, and its temperature
.448. will be increased I450ct'' — 1450; but this increase of
 CATALOGUE. HEAT, CAPACITIES. 409
is to be diffused through x times as much air, shown, by direct experiment, that steam has a greater ca-
temperature
audit will then become —
ax"-' ax—', callmg 14 JO a, pacity as its temperature is lower.

which becomes a maximum when (» — l).ai''-'i + Specific Capacity.

o«-'i = o, or (n — l).i"+ 1 :=o, ot x

— — (l ri) ",
gravity.
Isa'F. .50 1.72
which, as n becomes small, approaches to 2.718 as its
103 .OS i.oa
limit. Consequently the greatest heat that can be pro- 303 .S3 1.04
duced in this manner is when the air has been exhausted 313 1.00 1.00
332 1.21 . 1.50
to about I
of the atmospheric density, wherever we place 333 1.44 1.53
1450 X2.7'' — 1450 342 1.71 1.50
the natural zero. Putting then -=50, 352 2.03 1.47
2T7
50 X 2.7 303 3.38 1.44
we have 2.7"=:-
1450
+ 1 =: l.ogs, whence n i«
373 3.S0 1.41

Hence, if a steam engine work with double atmo-

about , and the heat produced by compression to x
spheres, the heat being about 247°, it will require 1.87
times as much water, of which the capacity is 1.4 8, its

times the density should be 1450 \x "•"'— 1/, which,

V'^'*"'^— i/, =
'
if x excess above that of water i as much as at 212°, it will

r: 2, becomes 93° ;
and such should have been the de- therefore absorb about 752°, and the heat required for

gree of cold produced by the return of air of double the raising water from 100 will be as 1.87 (147 + 752), to
natural density to the state of equilibrium. Whether this 112 -f 940, or nearly as 8 to 5, while the effect is

effect was lost by the difficulty of

making the observation doubled.
with accuracy, or whether the friction produces some heat Robison says, that four ounces of water at 100°, will
which is confounded with the sffect of expansion, may condense in a second nearly 200 cubic feet of steam, re-
perhaps be determined by future experiments : but in this ducing its expansive force to one fifth. If this is correct,
case Mr. Dalton observed only a heat of so°, at in the it sets at defiance all theories of capacity. The only dis-

former experiment. We may, however, deduce from that tant analogy that can be found for it, is the facility with

experiment an acceleration of about f to be added to the which rarefied air is found to carry off heat, which would
calculation of the velocity of sound ; and since the results induce us to suppose that the capacity of a given bulk of
of experiments on sound require an acceleration of J, or nmch
air is less affected by its density than this calculation
only i more, which has been ascertained with great accu- appears to demonstrate.
racy, it may be feir to allow the supposition of I^place and
Biot, that the whole acceleration of sound to this
is owing Natural Zero.
cause, and we may at least assume that acceleration, as

affording a limit, which the heat produced by condensation, Opinions of Amontons, Lambert, and
certainly cannot exceed. We may therefore make the ex- See Expansion.
Dalton.
ponent of the density J, for expressing the change of ca-
•

Seguin on heat. Ann. Ch. III. 148. Ac-

pacity, and the heat produced 1450 V^x — 1/, which,
count of the theories of specific heat. V.
when ttie density is doubled or"'haIved, becomes 131.2°. 191. Nich. 8. IV. 221.
A compression of |ig
will produce a heat of 1°.
Observes, that from experiments on the mixture of sul-
Now it appears from experiments on the sounds of dif- furic acid and water, might be inferred that the natural
it

ferent gases, and from the sound of a pipe in air of densities zert) is 7292° below the zero of Fahrenheit, but from
the most various, tha,t the correction of the velocity of Kirwan's experiments on ice only 1350°. Other experi-
sound is nearly the same in all hence may be inferred ments on 1401°, Dalton 1547°.
;
it ice give
that the heat produced by condensation follows nearly the Dalton on the iiatuial zero. Gilb. XIV. 287.
same law with respect to all gase?. This principle may
Gay Lussac's experiments on Dalton's supposition give
therefore probably be extended to steam. Supposing the IbiO^. Gilb.
conversion of water into steam to absorb as much heat as
would raise its we may
temperature 940', call its capacity
Heat denominated latent.
at 212° 1. 00, and may calculate a table for other
tempe-
ratures, assuming, with Mr. Dalton, that its simple ex-
Landriarii. Opusc. fisicoch. viii. Roz,
•

pansion by heat is equal to tlia,t of air. Mr. Watt' has -XXVI. 88, 197.
VOL. II. 3g
410 CATALOGUE. — ECONOMY OF HEAT.

Soycomt against latent beat. Roz. XXXII. J.A. Euler on ovens. A. Berl. 1766. 302.
143. Germ. Quedlinburg. Euler on the equilibrium of fluids. N. C.

Young in Higgins's minutes of a society. Petr. XIII. 305. XIV. i. 270. XV. 1, 219.
8. Lond. 1795. With the effects of heat.

Tilloch against latent heat. Ph. M. VIII. 70. SiVg/erdedigestore Papini. B&le, I769.
Leslie on heat. Against latent heat. Gramont on the Chinese stove. Ph. tr. 1771.
59.
Economy of Heat and Cold. Henry's self
moving register for a flue. Am.
Internal fire places in boilers. Birch. I. 173. tr. I. 350.

Pefargues's remedy for smoke. Mach. A. I. Franklin on smoky chimnies. Am. tr. II. 1,

211. Franklin on chimnies. Am. tr. II. 231.

On making ice in the torrid zone. A. P. IX. Franklin's stove consuming its smoke. Am.
320. tr. II. 57. Roz. XXXV. 356.
Chaumette's mode of preventing smoky The draught going down.

chimnies. A. P. 1715. H. 65. Mach. A. Acc. A. P. 1773. H. 77.

III. 47.
Franklin on smoky chimnies. Lond.
Stoves and fire Roz. Introd. I. 615.
Ganger's fire places and stoves. A. P. 1720. places.

H. 1J4. Mach. A. IV. 11. IX. 49, 162.

Barker on the mode of making ice in the
Gavger Mecanique du feu.
Smoke Jacks. Leup. Th. M. G. t. 51. East Indies. Ph. tr. 1775. 252.
By evaporation. Natural ice unknown there. The water
Aeolipile. Leupold. Th. M. G. t. 52.
perforates through earthen ware pans placed on sugar canec
Fresneau's culinary stove. A. P. 1 739. H. in straw.
58. On heating rooms. Roz. XV. 148.
Lagny's fire place with a valve for putting Clements's oven. Bailey's mach. II. 55.
out the fire at pleasure. A. P. 1741. H.
Lavoisier on fuel. A. P. 1781. 379.
165. Mach. A. VII. 115.
Furnaces. E. M. PI. II. Fer. Glaces. E. M.
Volckamer on putting out fires in chimnies A. 111. Art. Fournaliste.
by gunpowder. Coll. Ac. VI. 281. Smoky chimnies. E. M. A. III. Art. Fumiste,
Cooke on warming rooms by steam. Ph. tr.
E. M.A. III. Art. Glaci^re.
1745. XLIII. 370. Stoves. E. M. A. VI. Art. Poelier.
Vanni^res's portable fire
place. A. P. 1752. A Prussian oven for coals. Roz. XXIII. 433.
H. 148. Sanches on the v.apour baths of Russia. Ro«.
Pigage's boiler, with a fire in the centre.
XXV. 141.
Mach. A. VII. 307.
Sage on fuel. A. P. 1785. 239. 1789. 548.
Nollet on producing cold withoat ice. A. P.
Roz. XXXV. 385. Repert. V. 418.
1756. 82. H. 1.
Says that coal gives 1 times as much heat as an equal

Gennet6's cover for a chimney. A. P. 1759. weight of wood.

H. 232. Beddoes's account of Vk'^alker's experiments
Smoke jack. Emers. mech. f. 235. on freezing mixtures. Ph. tr. 1787. 282.
Montalembert on the conversion of open fire Walker on artificial cold. Ph. tr. 1768. 39H.
places into stoves. A. P. 1763, 335. H. 7. 1795. 270. 1801. 120.
 CATALOGUE. — ECOVOMT OF HEAT, 411

Equal parts of muriate of ammonia and nitre, dissolved Williams on the mode of making ice at
in water, sink the thermomclcr about 40", and may be
Benares. Ph. tr. 1793. 56, 129.
dried again. Phosphate of soda 9, nitrate of ammoniac, It K made when the thermometer is between Sb" and 42°.
dilute nitrous acid 4, depress the temperature from so" to
— 21°. Muriate of lime 3, snow 2, sink it from 32° to- Blakeif on fire machinery. 8. Lond. 1793*
-^50"; caustic potash 4, snow 3, to — si". Ice ground to Enc. Br. Art. Furnace.
powder with a centrebit is better than snow, frozen vapour Brown's evaporator. S. A. XII. 257,
than either.
Green's patent for wanning rooms. Repert.
Rumford on the preparation of food. Ess. I.
I. 21.
iii.
Stratton's patent kitchen
range.- Repert. I.
*Rumford on fire places. Ess. T. iv.
289.
Rumford on the management of fire and
Hoyle's patent for heating buildings. Repert;
the economy of fuel. Ess. II. vi. Gilb.
I. 300.
III. 309. IV. 85, 330.
Ward's patent for employing smoke. Repert.
One pound of pine wood burnt raised the temperature
I. 373.
of 20.1 pounds of water 180 degrees : from Kirwan's com-
parison the same quantity of pitcoal would raise 36 pounds Percival's chamber lamp furnace. Repert.
of water in the same degree, and a pound of charcoal 57.6 III. 24.

According to Lavoisier, equal heats are produced

pounds.
Conway's patent coke oven. Repert. III.
by 403 pounds of coke, 600 of pit coal, 600 of charcoal,
75.
and 1089 of oak wood. In general | of the heat of the
fuel employed are wasted.
Mode of sweeping chimnies by machinery.

Runiford's perpetual hme kiln. Ess. Journ. Repert. lU. 322.

Lowitz on the production of cold. Ann. Ch..
Phys. XLIX. 65.
XXII. 297.
Rumford on increasing the heat of fires by
Percival's lamp furnace. Ir.tr. IV. 91.
balls. Journ. R. I., I, Repert. XV. 248.
Ph. M. X. 42.
Smith's kettle for inflammable fluids. Am.
tr. IV. 431. Repert. XV. 327.
Rumford on conveying heat by steam. Journ.
On artificial cold. Gilb. I. 479- H. 107.
R. I., I. Nich. V. 159. Repert. XV. 186.
Ph.M. X.46. Gilb. XIII. 385. Pepys on artificial cold. Ph. M. III. 76.

On the cold produced by tattees. Asiatic Froze sa pounds of mercury ; produced a cold of —62°.
Walker's greatest cold was — 63°.
mirror. May 1789.
See Meteorology, Observations of Climates. Watt's patent furnaces. Repert. IV. 226»
Anderson on smoky chimnies. For burning smoke.

*Fossorabroni on salt works. Soc. Ital. VII, Braith'waite's patent smoke jacks, Repert.
57. VI. 1.

Wood produces heat enough in its combustion to eva- Brodie's patent ship's stove. Repert, VII, 22.
porate twice its weight of water, and to prepare f of its
Blast machine
Carron. Smeaton's reports,
at
weight of salt.

Saint Julien on warm baths. Roz.XXXII.51. Russian stoves. Repert. VII. 63.

Miche on reverberating furnaces. Roz. Redman's patent portable kitchen. Repert.

XXXII. 385. VII. 105.
Descharmes on a glass house. Roz, Lasterie on the alcarrazas, for cooling li-

XXXVIII. 341. quors. B. Soc. Phil. n. 13.

412 CATALOGUE. ECONOMT OF HEAT.
CoUins's patent grate. Repert. VIII. 36l. On Rumford's principles, making the smoke descend.

Peak's improved fireplace. Am. tr. V. 320. Holmes's family oven, without flues. S. A.
Repert. ii. II. 436. XVIII. 230. Repert. XIV. 186.
With a sliding frontispiece. Heated by a piece of iron projecting into the fiie.

frearson's patent for evaporation. Repert. Wakefield's steam houses for pines. S. A.
IX. 217. XVIII. 398.
Hassenfralz on the best form of boilers for Power's patent portable oven. Repert. XIV.
evaporation. Journ polyt. II. vi. 364.
365.
Chaptal on Schmidt's stove. Ann. Ch. on
Guyton Carcel's lamp. Ann. Ch,
XXXII. 270. XXXVIII. 135.
Claveriug on chimnies. London. It produced a heat of 7" W. or 505.0° C. 942° F.

*Clavelin on chimnies and fire places. Guyton's Swedish stove. Ann. Ch. XLI. 97.
Extr. Ann. Ch. XXXIII. 172. Gilb. VI. Repert. XVI. 254. Nich, 8. II. 24.
293. With apertures emitting heated air.

Howard's air furnaces. Ph. ]M. Sir G. O. Paul's stoves for ventilating hos-
improved
V. 190. pitals. S. A. XIX. 330. Repert. ii. II. 268.
*Roebuck on blast furnaces. Ed. tr. V. 31. Robertson's stove consuming its smoke. Ph.
Nich. IV. 110. Ph. M. VI. 324., Repert. M. XI. 65.
XIII. 19. Berard's stove. B. M61anges. 57.
Recommends a Urge quantity of air, lupplied with a Edelcrantz's digester. Journ. Phys. LVI.
moderakte velocity.
147. Nich. VII. 161. Ph. M. XVII. l62.
Burns's stoves and grates. Ph. M. V. 204.
Burns's patent grates. Repert. XII. 225. Anderson's patent hothouses for saving fuel*

Ph. M. VII. 264. Anderson's Recreations. Repert. XV. 298.

For preventing accidents. Cadet de Vaux on cooking with steam.
Blundell's patent machine for saving fuel. Gilb. XI. 244.

Repert. X. 84. Smith's patent vapour bath. Repert, ii. I.

Howard's patent pneumatic kitchen. Repert. 411.

X. 147. Thilorier's stove without smoke. Gilb. XI.
'

Raley's patent furnace. Repert. X. 155. 241.

Kirwan on the carbon in coals. Ir. tr. Re- Woolf on heating by steam. Gilb. XIII.

pert. XIII. 171. 395.

Fabbroni on the alcarrazas. Gilb. III. 230. A blowpipe by alcohol. Nich. 8. III. 1.

Repert. XIII. 274. Stephens's patent lime kiln. Repert. ii. III.

89.
Crosbey's patent fire
places. Repert. XII. 73.
With tubes, and a false back. On sweeping chimnies. Repert. ii. III. 156.

Whittington's patent baking stove. Repert. Wyalt's evaporator. Repert. ii. III. 360.
XII. 78. Hooke's blowpipe by alcohol. Nich. 8. IV.
Marquard's vapour blowpipe. Repert. XIII. 106.
274. Black's furnace improved. Nich. VI. 273.
Rowntree's patent application of fire to Gilbert on heating fluids by steam. Gilb.
boilers. Repert. XIV. ]. XVI. 503.
 CATALOGUE. —NATURE OF HEAT. 41S

A furnace for smelting iron. Rees cyclop. mometer, 1330 at 200". This variation is however some
what too great.
II. PI.
Cavendish. Ph. tr. 1783. 312.
Revolving apparatus for distilling. Rees cy-
Thinks Sir Isaac Newton's opinion of heat much the
clop. II. PI. Art. Chemistry. most probable.
Hornblower on sweeping chimnies by a blast.
Achard's comparison of heat and electricity.
Nich. VII. 246. Roz. XXII. 245.
A mode of heating boilers at Meux's brewery. Achard on the tendency of heat to ascend.
Ph. M. XVII. 275. A. Berl. 1788. 3. Printed 1793.
Aikin's portable blast furnace. Ph. M. The experiments are not conclusive.

XVII. 166. Fordyce on the loss of weight in heated bo-

Accum's chemical lamp. Nich. VIII. 2l6. dies. Ph. tr. 1785. 361.

Greenough on Melograni's blowpipe. Nich. Probably the effect of an ascending current of air.

IX. 25, 143. Fordyce's experiment on heat. Ph. tr. 1 787.

Curaudau's evaporating furnace. Nich. IX. 310.
Is persuaded that heat is a quality and not a substance.
204.
An M. XX. Rome de I'isle and Marivetz on the matter
improved maltkiln. Ph. 71.
A good freezing mixture is muriate of lime i, water l ;
of heat. Roz. XXXII. 63, 71.
or nitrate of ammonia 1, water 1 ; or muriate of ammonia Henry on the increase of weight in heated
i, nitrate of potash 5, water IS. Alcohol and snow pro- bodies. Manch. M. III. 174.
duce great cold. it from oxidation.
Explains

Henry on the materiality of heat. Manch.

Extinction of Heat.
M. V. 603. Ph. M. XV. 45. Nich. 8. HI.
Bertholon on extinguishing fires. M, Laus. 197.
III. 1. Thinks that the heat excited by friction may be borrowed

Van Marum's for extinguish- from without. But to borrow heat from another body is to
portable pump -
be colder than that body, and to cool it. // ^\ i^ i
""'
fires. ii. III. 46 1. Nich. 8. V. 'TJ ^N.
ing Repert.
Reynieron the nature of fire. Roz. XXXVI*,: ^^iVy'^,. ^-T!
103.
94.
Nature of Heat. Beddoes. Ph. tr. 1791. 173.
Observes, that heat and flame are produced by oxyge»
Homberg. A. P. 1700. H. 11.
already fixed, in the manufacture of iron.
Mentions some efTects of motion analogouj to thoje of
*Pictet Essais de physique. 8.
heat, fixing a vessel-to the clapper of a mill.
The tendency to ascend, which he attributes to heat,
Lomonosow on the cause of heat and cold.
may perhaps be partly understood from the great compa-
N. C. Petr. I. 206.
rative capacity for heat of air highly rarefied.
Supposes heat to consist in motion.
*Prevost sur I'equilibre du feu. 8. Genev.
Whitehurst on the weight of ignited sub-
Roz. XXXVIII. 314.
stances. Ph.tr. 1776.575.
Young's remarks on the manufacture of
Euler on the nature of the air. A. Petr. III.
iron. Gentl. Mag. 1792.
i. 162.
T.Wedgwood. Ph.tr. 1792.270.
Supposes the particle* of air to revolve within vesicles
Air not visible made a wire red hot.
of water with a velocity of 2150 feet in a second, at

412°; that this velocity varies as the square root of the Dize on heat as the cause of shining. Journ.
exp&Bsive force, becoming 1790 at 100° of Delitle's ther- Phys. XLIX. 177. Gilb, IV. 410.
414 CATALOGUE. — ELECTRICITY.
Rumfoid on the heat caused by friction. 2372. 1708. XXVI. 82, 87. ITOg.XXVI.
Ph. tr. 1798. 80. 391,439. 1711. XXVII. 328.
The capacity of chips did not difier from that of any- Fr. byDesmarets. Abstr. A.P. 1754. H. 34.
other iron.
Stephen Gray's electrical experiments. Ph..
Runjf'ord on the weight ascribed to heat.
tr. 1720. XXXI. 104. 1731. XXXVII. 18.
Ph. tr.
Repert. XII.
1799: 179- 151.
17.'J2. XXXVII. 397.
Nich. in. 381. Ph. M. IV. 162.
Weighed water against mercury at different tempera-
Dufay's eight memoirs. A. P. 1733, 1734,
tures, and found no difference. 1737.
Rumford on the nature of heat. Ph. tr. 1804. Dufay's letter on electricity. Ph. tr. 1734.
77. XXXVIII. 258.
Supposes a radiation of positive cold.
On vitreous and resinous electricity. Acknowledge-
Tilloch on the weight of heat. Ph. M. IX. ments to Hauksbee and Gray.

158. Schilling on electricity. M. Berl. 1734. IV.

Tilloch on the nature of heat. Ph. M. XII. 334.

317. Desaguliers on electricity. Ph.tr. 1739. XLI.
For caloric.
186, aOO. 1741. XLI. 634. 1742. XLII.
Leslie on heat. 14, 140.
J. T. Mayer on the nature of heat. Com- DesaguUers on electricity. Lond. 1742.
mentat. Gott. 1803. XV. M. 1. Martenson de electricitate. 4. Upsal, 1740,
In favour of the existence of caloric.
J 742.
On the chemical effects of tremors. Mch. Bosc on A. P. 1743.
electricity. Kf. 45.
VII. 122.
fVinklers Gedanken von der electricitat. 8.
Higgins slacked lime in vessels hermetically sealed, and
found no difference in their weight. Leipz. 1744.
Winklers Eigenschaften der electrischen

LITERAIUKE OF ELECTKICITY. materie. 8. Leipz. 1745.

Winkler Electricitatis recens observata. Ph..
Gralath Electrische bibliothek. Danz. Ge-
tr. 1745. XLIII. 317.
sellsch. I. 23. B. B.
Ro&c Tentamina electrica. 4. Witteb. 1744.
Copied in Priestley's Hist. Electr. at the end.^

Kriinitz Verzeichniss der vornehmsten schrif- NoUet on electricity. A. P. 1745, 1746,

ten von der electricitat. 8. Leips. I769. 1747, 1748, 1749, 1753, 1755, 176O,.

Weigels Grundriss der Chemie. 1761, 1762, 1764, 1766.

Nollet EssaJ sur I'electricite. 12. Par. 1746.
feLECTEICITY IN GENERAL.
Nolkt Recherches sur I'electricite. 4. Par..

Gilbertus de magnete. 1749.

Guerike experimenta Magdeburgica. Nollet on electricity. Ph. tr, 1748. XLV..
Ph. tr. abr. X. i. i. 269. 187.

Homberg on the electricity of sulfur. A. P. Hollet lettres sur I'electricite. 12, Par. 1753,
II. 145. 1760. M.B.
Hauksbee's electrical experiments. Ph. tr. Extract by Watsoa. Th. tr. 1753. 201..
1706, XXV. 2277. 1707. XXV. 23J3, 1761. S^Q.
 CATALOGUE. — ELECTRICITY. 415

Watson on Ph. tr. 1745. XLIII. Wilson's short view of electricity. 4. London,
electricity.
481. 1780. R. L
Elementary. Mentions fixed inflammable air. Canton's electrical experiments. Ph. tr.

Watson. Ph.tr. 1746. XLIV.41. 1747. 695, 1753. 350. 1754. 780.
704. Leroy on the species of electricity. A. P.
derived from
Observes, after NoUet, that electricity is
1753. 447. H. 18. 1755. 264. H. 20.
the ground,
Franklin's electrical experiments. Ph. tr.
Watson on Franklin's theory. Ph.tr. 1751.
1755. 300.
202.
Franklin's letter on electricity. Ph. tr. 1755.
fVaiz Abliandlung von der electricitat. 4.
305. 1760. 525.
Berl. 1745.
Franklin on electricity. 4. Lond. 1769, 1774.
HoUmann de igne electrico. Ph. tr. 1745.
R. L
XLIII. 239.
Klingenstierna Tal om de nyaste rbn vid
Piderit de electricitale. Marburg, 1745.
electricitaten. Stockh. 1755.
-[•Miles's electrical experiments
and obser-
Lovett's subtile medium. 8. 1756. R. I.
vations. Ph. tr. 1746. XLIV. 27, 53, 78,
Lovett's philosophical essays. 8; Worcest.
158.
1766. R. I.
Mulkr Ursach und nutzen der electricitat.
Lovett's electrical philosopher. 8. 1777. R. L
1746.
Boze Recherches sur r61ectricit6. 1746. Aepinus on some electrical experiments.
A. Berl. 1756. N. C. Petr. VII. 277.
M.B.
Bozt Tentamina electrica. 4. Wittemb. 1747. Musschenbroek Introductio ad Ph. Nat.
M.B. Euler junior on electricity. A. Berl. 1757.
fHales on some electrical experiments. Ph. 125.
tr. 1748. XLV. 409. Beccaria Lettere dell' elettrismo. f. Bologna,
Martin on electricity. 8. Bath, 1748. 1758.
Recueil de traites sur I'electricite. 8. Par. Beccaria's experimentJ. Ph. tr. 1760. 514,
1748. 525.
Jallabert sur I'electricit^. 8. Par. 1749. Beccaria dcU' elettrismo artificiale. 4. Tur,
M.B. 1772.
'
''
t
Bouhnger traitfi de I'electricite. 12. Par. Beccaria on artificial electricity. 4. 1776.
1750. R.L ^
Secondat observations physiques. 12. Par.
Symmer's experiments, with a
electrical let-
"
1750. ter of Mitchell. Ph. tr. 1759- 340.
Veratti sur r61ectricit6. 12. Montpel. 1750.
Egelin de electricitate. 4. Utrecht, 1759.
Dutour's researches on electricity. S. E. I.
Wesley's electricity made plain. 12. Lond,
345. II. 246, 516, 537. HI. 244. 1760.
Bina Electricorum effectuura explicatio. Cigna's electrical experiments. M. Taur. If.

1751. 77. in. 31. V. i. 97.

Wilson on some electrical experiments made Dalibard Histoire abreg€e de l'61ectricil<^»

at Paris. Ph. tr. 1753. 347, 1763. 436. 2 V. 12. Par. 1766-
Al6 CATALOGUE. ELECTRICITY.

Saussure de electricitate. Genev. 1766. Lyons's further proofs. 4.

LuUhi de electricitate. 8. Genev. 1766. Marat's electrical discoveries. Roz. XVIL
Hartmami's Versuche in leeren raiime. 8. 317, 459.

Hanov. 1766. Marat Recherches physiques sur I'electri-

8. Lond; cite. 8. Par. 1782. Germ. 1784.

Priestki/'s introduction to electricity.
1769. R.I.
On electricity. Roz. XVIIL 157.
of elec- La CepMe sur I'electricite. 2 v. 8. Par.
Priesiky's history and present state
Lond. 1769- 1781. R.S.
tricity. 4.
Experiments made in 1760. 49. Achard's electrical experiments. Roz. XIX.
Bauer von der theorie und dem niitzen der 417. XXIL 245. XXV. 429.

electricit'at. 1770. Cuthbertson Eigenschappen van de electri-

8. Lond. 2 Amst. 1782, part
Ferguson's introduction to electricity. citat. parts. 3, 1794.
1771. R.S. Germ. 8. Leips. 1786.

Sigaud de la Fond Iraki de I'electricit^. Cuthbertson uber die versuche von Deimann
12. Par. 1771. R. I. und Troostwyck. 8. Leipz. 1790.
Ace. Roz. Intr. I. 83. Milner's experiments and observations on
Sigaud de la Fond Precis des phenomfenes electricity.

electriques. Par. 1781. D'Inarre Anfangsgriinde der naturlehre. 8-

Brydone on some electrical experiments. Frankf. 1783. 1.

Ph. tr. 1773. l63. Kiihn Geschichte der electricit'at. Leipz.
Jacqmt Precis de I'electricite. Vienna, 1775. 1783.
Becket on electricity. 8. Van Marum Experiences sur I'electricite.
Berdoe on the electric fluid. 8. Harl. R. S. Roz. XXXL 343. Gilb. I.
Gross Electrische pausen. 8. Leips. 1776. 239, 256. X. 121.

Dubois Lettre sur I'electricit^. Tableau des Kunze Neue electrische versuche. 4.

sciences. Par. 1776. 143. Donndorffs Lehre von der electricitat. 8.

Weber Electrische versuche. Erf. 1784.

Socin Anfangsgriinde der electricitat. 1777. Tressan snrie fluide electrique. 2 v. 8. Par.

Gallitzin's letters on A. Petr. I. 1786. R.S.

electricity.
ii. H. 25. Beck Entwurf der lehre von electricitat.

Le Prince Gallitzin sur I'electricite. 4. Pe- 1787.

tersb. 1778.
Vassalli and Zimmerman's electrical experi-
ments. Soc. Ital. IV. 264.
Herbert Theoria phaenomenorum electrici-
Nicholson's experiments. Ph.tr. 1789. 265.
tatis. Vienna, 1778.
*Lord Mahon's principles of electricity. 4. Sennet's new experiments. 8. Derby, 1789.
Lond. 1779. R- I- R.S.
Lord Mahon Principes d'felectricit^. 8. Lond. On Charles's electrical experiments., Roz.
1781. R. L ; XXX. 433.
Lyons's new system of electricity. 4. Lond. Briefe iiber die electricitat, von C. L. 8.
1780. Leips. 1789.
 CATALOGUE. ELECTRICITY. 417
Deluc on Roz. XXXVI.
electricity. 450. Cigna on the analogy of magnetism and
Brook on electricity. 1790. M. Taur.
electricity. I.
Peart on and
electricity magnetism. 8 ,

*Aepim tentamen theoriae electricitatis et

Gainsborough, 1791. R. S.
magnetismi. 4. Petersb. 1759. R. I.
Peart on electric
atmospheres. 1793. R. S, Aepinus's comparison of magnetism and
Adams on electricity, by Jones. 8. London, electricity. N. C. Petr. X. 296.
Dutour sur la matiero 12. Par.
Lampadim iiber electricitat und warme. 8. electrique.
Berl. 1793.
1 760.

Cavallo's electricity. 3 v. 8. Lond. Bergmann on the existence of two fluids.

1795. R. I.
Ph. tr. 1764. 84.
Morgan's lectures on electricity. 2 v. 12.
Lond. *Cavendish on the principal phaenomena of

Acc.Ann.Ch. XXXIV. electricity. Ph. tr. 1771.584.

93.
Enc. Br. Art. Herbert Theoria phaenomenorijm electrici-
Electricity.
tatis. Vienna, 1778.
Robison. Enc. Br.
Suppl. Art. Electricity.
Von Arnim's electrical Elder's letters. II. 34.
experiments. Gilb. On the identity of the electric fluid with his
V. 33. VI. 116. ether.

Clos on electricity. Journ. Wilke on the existence of two fluids. Scluv.

Phys. LIV. 3I6.
Remer's electrical experiments. Gilb. VIII. Abb. XXXIX. 68.
323. *Lord Mahon's electricity.
On the law of the force.

Achard on the elasticity of electrified air.

Theory of Electricity. A. Berl. 1780.
Gray. Ph. tr. 1732. XXXVII. 397. Perceived no effect.
Found electric attraction in and through a vacuum. Achard on the similarity of the excitation
Gordon Versuch einer
erklarung der electri- of electricity and of heat. Goth. Ma*. II.
citat. 8. Erf. 1745.
ii. 139.
Rosenberg von der ursachen der electricitat. Achard on the efl^ectof surface. Roz. XXVI.
Breslau, 1745.
378.
Kratzenstein Theoria electricitatis. 4 Hal.
Karstens Anleitung. ccccxcvii.
1746.
For two fluids.
Kratzensteins Vorlesungen. 4. ed.
Copenh. Barletti's theory of electricity. Soc. Ital. I. 1.
1781.
II. 1.
For two fluids.
Laurentii Beraud Theoria electricitatis. Pe-
Ellicott on the laws of Ph. tr.
electricity.
tersb.
1748. XLV. 195.
An to a theory.
Donndorf iiber electricitat. 1783.
approach
J. Enter de causa electricitatis, 4. Forster. CrelJs JN. Entd. XII. 154.
Petersb.
For two fluids.
1755.
*Coulomb. A. P. 1784. A. P. 1785. 578.
J. Elder on the physical cause of
electricity. Shows that the force varies
inversely as the square Of
A. Berl. 1757. 125.
the distance.

Symmer on two electric fluids. Pb. tr. 1759. Coulomb's fourth memoir on
electricity. A.
340.
P. 1786. 67.
VOL. II.
3 H
418 CATALOGUE. — ELECTRIC IT V,

The distribution of electricity is npt regulated by elective

Tremery against two electric fluids. B. See.
attractions. The fluid in conductors is accumulated at the
Phil. n. 63. Journ. Phys. LIV, 357.
surface, and does not penetrate the body, as Cavendish had
Woods on the Franklin ian theory of elec-
before observed.
tricity. Ph. M. XVII. 97.
Cor.lomb on the distribution of the electric
riiiid. A. P. 1787. 421.
With experiments.
Coulomb on the distribiltion of the electric Equilibrium of Electricity.
fluid in diflercnt parts of conductors. A. P.
1788. 617. Induced Electricity.
^
With experiments.
In order to avoid the supposed electric repulsion of mat- Guericke Exp. Magdeb. iv. c. 15, art. 3.

Coulomb, imagines two fluids possessed of equivalent

ter,
Aepinus. N. C. Petr. VI.
properties, neutralising each
other's elasticity like oxygen
Beccaria. Ph. tr. 1770. 277.
and hydrogen combined.
Account of Coulomb's memoirs. Roz.
Charge.
XXVII. 1)6. XLIII. 247. Journ. Phys.
XLV.(It.)235, 448. Gray on the electricity of water. Ph. tr.

Weber Theorie der electricitat. Naturf. Fr. 1732. XXXVII. 227.

xlvi. Winkleis electrische kraft des wassers in

Prevost Traite du raagnetisme. Preface. glasernen gefasgen. 8. Leips. 1746.

Haiii/ Theorie de I'electricite et du mag- f Miles on the electricity of water. Ph.tr.

netisme. 8. Par. 1787- R. S. 1746. 91-

Traite de physique. Wilson's retractation on the Leyden phial.

Hauy
Extract of Haliy's account of Aepinus's the- Ph. tr. 1756. 682.
*Wilkt de electricitatibus contrariis. 4. Ros-
ory. Roz. XXXI. 401.
DeLuc Idees sur la meteorologie. R. I. tock, 1757.
Wilke. Schw. Abb. 1758. 241. 1762. 213,
De Luc Journ. de Physique. Juin, 1790.
Gehlers worterbuch. Art. 253.
physicalisches
Flasche. Beccaria's electrical experiments. Ph. tr.

of points. 1767.297.
Chajjpe on the electric properties
On combinations of glass plates.
Roz. XL. 329.
Cavendish. Ph. tr. 1776.
Voigt Theorie des Feuers. The quantity of electricity is
inversely as the thickness of
Schmidt on the weight of the electric fluid.
the glass.
Abhandl. 8. Giessen, 1793. 163. Achard on the charge of electricity in pro-
Biot on the disposition of electricity in a
portion to the surface of a body. A. Berl.
spheroid. B. Soc. Phil.
n. 51.
1780. 47. Roz. XXVI. 378.
Heidmarm Theorie der electricitat. 2 v. 8.
W. Gray on the charge of glass. Ph.
E. tr.
Vienn. 1799- R- S.
1788. 121.
*Robison. Euc. Br. Suppl. Art. Elec- Observes, that glass may receive a certain portion of

tricity. electricity without discharging any from the other side ;

From Aepinus and Cavendish, with his own additions. and that the capacity of a body is
proportional to its sur-
Account of Deluc's theory, near the end. face only.
 CATALOGUE. ELECTRICITY. 419
When the fluid was electrified the hydrometers some-
Barletti on the laws of charged glass. Soc.
times rose a few degrees.
Ital. IV. 304. VII. 444.
Nicholson. Ph.tr. 1789. 285.
'
Carmoy on the motion of electrified fluids in

capillary tubes. Journ. Phys. XLV. (II.)

Observes, that some uncompensated electricity is neces-

that the intensity of the charge, and the lot).

sary to a charge :

Thinks the mere presence of has no general

explosive distance with a given quantity of electricity, js electricity

he found that effect on this motion.

directly as the thickness of the substance ;

a piece of Muscovy talc, ^^ inch thick, received ten times Miller on electric attraction and repulsion.
as much electricity as an equal surface of common glass. Ir.tr. VII. l.'39.Nich. IV.461.
Hence a solid inch of such matter must contain at least as
Giib. IV. 419. V.73.
much electricity as would charge a conductor 7 inches in
Aldini attributes regular forms, like those of snow, to
diameter, and 135 feet long, so as to give a spark of nine
Lichtenberg's figures. Von Arnim denies their regularity.
inches ; and the bulk of a man more than 5000 times as
much. On the phenomena of powder thrown on
Wilkimon on the Leyden phial. 8. Lond. glass. Journ. Phys. LW. 237.
1798. Von Arnim on terrestrial tend-
electricitj'j as
A double plate of glass takes a higher charge than a sin-
same thickness.
inf» to the discovery of springs. Gilb.
gle piece of the
Xm. 4()7.
Ritter on an electric polarity. Gilb. XV.
Electric Attractions and Repulsions.
106.

Gray. Ph. tr. 173^. XXXVIl. 397.

Finds that the attraction operates in and through a
vacuum.
and repulsion. Conducting Powers.
Dufay on electric attraction

A. P. 1733.475. 1734. 341.

Wheler's experiments on electrical repulsion. Plot's catalogue of electrics. Ph. tr. XX.
Ph.tr. 1739. XLI. 98. 1698. 384.

Mortimer on \V heler's
experiments. Ph. tr. Gray on the electricity of water. Ph. tr.

1739. XLI. 112. 1732. XXXVIL 227.

Desaguliers. Ph. tr. 1742. XLII. 140. Dufay. A. P. 1733. 73, 233.
Thinks the attraction between air and water may be Desaguliers. Ph. tr. 1741. XLI. 661.
electrical, causing the rise of vapour. Watson. Ph.tr. 1746. XLIV. 41.
Symmer on electrical cohesion. Ph.tr. 1759. Found ice a conductor.

340. Watson on insulation. Ph. tr. 1747. XLIV.

Lichtenberg's figures delineated on electrics 388.

by the attraction of dust. N. C. Gott. Watson on electricity in a vacuum. Ph. tr.

1777. Vlir. IG8. Commentat. Gott. 1778. 1751. 362.

I. M. 65. Dcluc Idces. xii. Troostwyck Bosc on healed glass. Ph. tr. 1749. XLVI.
en Krayenhoffs verhandllng. 8. Germ. 189-

Leipz.Samml. xlvi. Goth. Mag. I. iii. 76. Lemonnicr on the electricity of the air. A.
V. iv. 176. Cavallo. Ph. tr. 1780. 13. P. 1752. 233. II. 8.

Sanmartini on the effect of electricity on Dutour on the action of flame upon electrical

hydrometers. Soc. Ital. VI. 120. bodies. S. E. II. 246.

 420 CATALOGUE. — ELECTRICITY.
Mazeas on the electricity of the air. Ph. tr. Achard Schriften. 246.
1753. 377. Bergman on the conducting power of water.
Ammerdn de eleclriciiate lignorum. 24. Roz. XIV. 192.
Lucern. 1754. Cavallo. Ph. tr. 1783. 495.
Delaval on electricily. Ph. tr. 1759. 83. Pith balls electrified did not
diverge in the vacuum of an
Delaval oa the effects of heat. Ph. tr. 17GI. air pump, whether much or little
electricity was commu-
nicated to tliem. Perhaps from the perfection of the con-
353.
ductor.
fWilson and Bergman on the permeabihty
Cavallo on a vacuum. Electr. ed.
of glass. Ph.tr. 176O. 896,907.
4. part 4.
c. 8.
Canton on Delaval's experiments. Ph. tr.
Lavoisier and Laplace on the electricity
17G2. 457.
absorbed by vapours. A. P. 1781. 292.
Ascribes the increase of conducting power to moisture
rather than to cold.
H. 6.

Coulomb on the loss of electricity in a given

Kinnersley's experiments. Ph. tr. 1763. 84.
time. A. P. 1785. 612.
fKinnersley on the conducting power of
charcoal. Ph. tr. 1773. 38. Morgan on a vacuum. Ph. tr. 1785. 272.
A line drawn by a black lead pencil conducts.
When the mercury has been boiled for some hours in a
Leroy on the transmission of the spark under gage, neither light nor charge can be procured in it. Air
different circumstances. A. P. 1766.451. conducts best when the light streaming through it is
bluish violet. Acids conduct better than water, and hot
Priestley on the conducting power of char-
water than cold.
coal. Ph. tr. 1770. 211. Vassalli and Zimmerman's experiments on
Cotte. A. P. 1772. i.H. 16.
water and ice. Soc. Ital. IV. 264.
Snow serves as a conductor in storms.
Eandi. M. Tur, 1790. V. 7.
Henley's experiments. Ph. tr. 1774. 389.
Shows that vapour is a conductor, and that an imperfect Says that light may be seen in the dark, even when the

acuum conducts.
vacuum is perfect. But it may be said that some mercurial
vapour is
present.
Henley on the impermeability of glass. Ph.
Volta on the use of the electrometer in
tr. 1778. 1049. hy-
Cavendish. Ph.tr. 1776. grometry. Soc. Ital. V. 551.
Iron wire conducts 400 million times better than pure
Volta. Gilb. XIV. 257.
Says that wire conducts a million times better than water.
water; sea water, with one thirtieth of salt, loo times
better ; a saturated solution of salt 720 times better.
Repeats some of Cavendish's experiments.

Achard on the electricity of ice. Roz. VHI. Tremery on conductors of electricity, and
364. on the emission of the electric fluid. B.
Acliard on the celerity of electrization. A. Soc. Phil. n. 19. Journ. Phys. XLVIIL
Berl. 1777.25. 168.

Achard on the analogy of conductors of Bressy on the electricity of water. Gilb. I.

heat and of electricity. A. Berl. 1779. 27. 375.

Roz. XXII. 245. Wood on the permeability of glass. Ph. M.
With an instrument for measuring the conducting power. II. 147.
Achard on the distinction of conductors and Heller on the conducting power of water.
electrics. Roz. XV. 117. Gilb. VI. 249.
 CATALOGUE. ELECTRICITY. 421

Erman on conducting powers. Gilb. XII Nonconductors.

143.
Ice, at — 13° F. Achard.

Powders, not metallic. Delaval.

Shows that ice is a nonconductor.
Soft stones, when heated. Delaval.
A thread of gum lac insulates ten times as well as silk.
Hard stones.
A needle of sealing wax retains for some days its electric
Dry vegetable substances. Baked wood requires to be
polarity. A capillary bore lessens the insulating power of
varnished.
glass. According to Saussure's hygrometer, the dissipation
Ashes.
of electricity by the air is
nearly in the triplicate ratio of
Dry and complete oxids.
its moisture. A jar will be discharged if sounded like a
Oils.
harmonica. Robison.
Common air, and other gases.
White sugar and sugar candy.

Table of Conductors, in order, chiefly Paper.

from
Dry and external animal sub- White hair conducts less
Cavallo.
stances, as feathers, wool, perfectly than black.
and hair.
Conduclors. __
Henley. Ph. tr. 1770.
Cotton.
Gold. In Henley's experiments, the
Silk.
Silver. same charge melted of gold
Wax.
Copper. wire 4 inches, of brass 6, of
Resins.
Platina. silvered copper 8, of silver lo,
Sulfur.
Brass. of iron lo or more. Copper
Amber.
Iron. is allowed to conduct much
Tin. more Transparent gems.
readily than irotj. Nairne.
Glasi of all kinds. Glass often heated is best fSr
Mercury. Platina is said by some to be
Lead. a bad conductor. electrical purposes. Bosc,

Semimetais. A pel feet vacuum. Morgan.

Metallic ores.
Charcoal. Seems to be placed too low.
Motions of the Electric Fluid.
Animal fluids. Velocity.
Acids.
Watson. Pli. tr. 1748. XLV.49, 491.
Saline solutions.
No perceptible time was occupied in a circuit of 12273
Hot water.
feet : but the report was not so loud when the circuit was
Cold water.
so much extended.
oils.
Liquids, excepting
Red hot glass.

Melted resin.
Simple Communication.
Flame.
~Ice, not too cold. Snow. Cotte. Nairne. Ph. tr. 1774. 79.
Metallic salts. Observes, that a ball was struck at the distance of nine
Salts in general. inches by the same charge that reached a
point oply at six.
Earths and soft stones. Perhaps, however, the point had very rapidly diminished
Glass, filled with boiling the charge.

water. Kinnersley. On the direction of the electric current.

Smoke.
Henley, Ph. Ir. 1774. 389. ii.
Steam or vapour.
Flame is driven by a weak charge towards the
An imperfect vacuum. Yet the negative
electrical machine works
side.
in a vacuum.
Hot air. Read denies that hot air is a
Henley on the long continuance of exci-
conductor. tation. Ph. tr. 1777. 85.
 422 CATALOGUE. — ELECTRICITY.
the motions of electricity. Light.
Iiigenhousz on
Roz. XVI. 117. See Galvanic Electricity.
Coulomb on the loss of electricity in a given Picard on the light of barometers. A. P. II.

time. A. P. 1783.612. 125. X. 393.

Cavallo's experiments on the escape of elec- Bernoulli on the light of barometers. A. P.

tricity. Ph. 1788.

tr. 1. 1700. 178. H. 5. 1701. 1. H. 1.
Nicholson found, that a point, projecting more or
from
less
Hauksbee on the mercurial phosphorus. Ph.
'
more or less the effect of a smaller
a large ball, produces
tr. J 705. XXIV. 2129.
ball, or of a point, and that a smaller projeciion has the exhausted
The phenomenon is best seen when the air is

effect of a small ball when it receives than when it emits

to half its density, but is visible in some measure without
Cuthbertson observes, that when the flame
of
electricity.
exhaustion.
the one positive, the
a is placed between two balls,
can(J[e
It may Lahire on the barometric light. A. P» 1705.
other negative, the negative ball only is heated.
to be con- 22G.
be questioned whether every spark is not rather
than as the light of diamonds. Pli. 1708.
sidered as resembling the breaking of a charged jar Wall on tr.

a simple communication. XXVI. 69.

«
Dufay on electrical light. A. P. 1723. 293.
Lateral Explosions. H. 1.
H. 13. 1734. 503. II. 1. 1735. 347.
63. 1770. 192. 1737. 86, 307.
*Priestley. Ph.tr. 1769. 57,
Beccari on the light of diamonds. Coll.
Henley. Ph. tr. 1774. 389-
iii-

Cavendish. Ph. tr. 1776. Acad. X. 197.

from a wire. Ph. tr. 1735.
Electricity spreads even Gray on electrical light.

'
XXXIX. 16.
Discharge. Opinion respecting thunder. 24.
Miles on luminous emanations from friction.
Lemonnier on the communicatidn of elec-
Ph.tr. 1745. XLIII. 441.
tricity.
Ph. tr. 1746. 290. A. P. 1746.
electric nature of the baro-
497. H. 10. Trembley on the
electrical experiments. Opusc. metrical light, 1745. Ph. tr. 1746. XLIV,
Bergmann's
V. 587. 58.
Waiz on barometrical light.
Immediate Effects.
Lohier on electric light upon clothes. A. P.
Mechanical Changes.
^
1746. H. 23.
Winkler electrici. Ph.
On the spark. Roz. XV. descriptio pyrorgani
powdering glass by
tr. 1747. XLIV. 497.
334.
A plaything.
Vacca Berhnghieri. Roz. XL. 133.
and hair.
fluid has no mo- Cooke on the sparkling of flannel
Observes, that the electrical perceptible
Ph. tr. 1748. XLV. 394.
mentum.
iiber das electrische licht.
On Lulliii's card. Nich. 8. III. 223. Doppdmayer
When the experiment of perforating a card is made in 1749.
is near the negative in-
air much rarefied,the perforation Canton's figures of sparks. "Ph. tr. 1734. 780.
'
stead of the positive point. of a plant. A. P,
effects are ultimately referable to heat and Fayol on the illumination
Perhaps these
1739. H. 36.
expansion.
 CATALOGUE. ELECTRICITY. 423

Nollet on the illumination of ice. A. P. Priestley on the rings made on metal by

1766. H. 2. explosions. Ph.tr. 1768. 6S.
Lane. Ph. tr. 1767- 451. The metals were held near the point of a needle. The
A shock passing through water is visible. battery contained 21 square feet.

Nairne. Ph. tr. 1777. 614. Ingenhousz on lighting a candle by electri-

Observes that the light is

verj- faint In a moist vacuum. city. Ph. tr. 1778. 1023.
Deluc Modif. I. Ixxxv. Employs cotton, with powdered resin.

On barometrical light.
Nairne on the effect of electricity in shorten-

ing wires. Ph. tr. 1780. 334,

Morgan. Ph. tr. 1785. 272.
The more readily a body conducts, the more difficult it
Wolf on firing gunpowder. Goth. -Mag. II.

is to make it luminous. Gold leaf may be made luminrus. ii. 70.

The light produced by electricity streaming through very Van Marum on the effects of electricity.
rate air is green : when the air is denser it becomes blue,
Nich. II. 527.
and then violet, till the air no longer conducts.
Bertholiet's comparison of electricity and
Crellon electrical light. Rozier, Feb. 1717. heat. Nich. VIII. 80.
Good figures of sparks. Nicholson. Ph. tr. Thinks that electricity produces heat only by means of
chemical changes.
1789. 265.
A ball Cuthbertson has observed, that gunpowder is readily fired
I*,,
of an inch in diameter, highly electrified, was
surrounded by a steady faint light ;
a ball of an inch and a by a discharge passing through an interrupted circuit, by
half was rendered luminous, with a bright speck
means of wet tubes and wet twine. He that a dou-
says
moving
ble charge melts a quadruple length of wire.
on its surface.
Ehrmann's electrical lamp consists of an electrophorus,
Eandi. M.Tur. 1790. V. 7.
giving a spark, which setson fire a stream of hydrogen gas.
Says that a faint light may be seen in the dark, in the

most perfect vacuum that can be procured,

Congelation.
lirxleben by Lichtenberg. dxxiv.
The lock of a pistol gives light under water. Robert on the supposed of electricity
effect

fJnch on the light of sugar. Ph. M. V. in congelation, lloz. XXXVI. 222.

207.
Supposed Transmissinn of Odours.

Electric Heat. Nollet. Ph. tr. 1750. 368.

Winkler. Ph. tr. 1751. 231.
See Galvanic Electricity.
With Watson's experiments.
Winkler onfiring spirits. Ph.tr. 1744.XLIII. Watson against the transmission of odours.
166.
Ph. tr. 1756. 348.
-f-Winkler on electrical combustions. Ph. tr,

1754.772. Chemical Effects.

Miles on firing phosphorus. Ph. tr. 1745.
Priestley, vii.

XLm.290. Electricity often discolours the leaves of delicate flowers.

Roche on a frock set 6n fire. Ph. tr. 1748. Pearson on the gas produced by electricity.
XLV. 323. Ph. tr. 1797. H"?.

Kinnersley on an electrical air thermometer, Wollaston. Ph.tr. 1801.

and on the extension of wire. Pb. tr. Van Marum on decomposing water by
1763. 84. electricity. Gilb. XI. 220.
424 CATALOGUE. — ELECTEICITY.
On oxidation by electricity. Gilb. XI. Schwankhardt on the influence of electricity
400. upon vegetation. Roz. XXVII. 462.
See Galvanism. Remarks. XXVIII. 93.
Carmoy on shocks. Roz. XXIX. 194.
Efi'ects.
Physiological
Carmoy on the effects of electricity on ve-
On Vegetables and Animals. getation. Roz. XXXIII. 339-

De BOzes on the effect of electricity on an Troostlcyck et Krayenhoff de I'application

de I'electricite. 4. Amst. 1788.
insulated person. Ph. tr. 1745. XLllI.
Roulandj Dormoy, Bertholon, and Derozi^rcs
419.
That
on the effect of electricity on vegetation.
it
quickens the pulse.
Lallamand's experiment on a glass of water.. Roz. XXXV. 3, 161, 401. XXXVIII.
Ph. tr. 1746. XLIV. 78. 351,427.
The first time the shock deprived him for some mo- Effects of electricity on the hedysaruni
ments of the power of breathing. Musschenbroek repeated
gyrans. Goth. Mag. V. iii. 13.
his experiment, and says he felt a most terrible pain.
Van Marum on death by electricity. Roz.
Winkler on the effects of electricity. Ph. tr.
XXXVIII. 62.
1746. XLIV. 211. Van M arum's experiments. Ph. M. VIIl. 193.
shock gave him and his wife convulsions and
Says, that a A machine capable of fusing 24 inches of wire, -i^
of an

cpistaxis. inch in diameter, produced no effect on the pulse, nor on

Winkler Rei medicae utile electricitatis in- the perspiration ;
and did not appear to promote evaporation.

ventum. Ph. tr. 1748. XLV. 262.

Chappe and Mauduyt on the supposed ef-
Browning on electrifying trees. Ph. tr. 1747. fects of electricity on the growth of ani-

XLIV. 373. mals. Roz. XL. 62, 241.

Perceived no effect from electricity in the operation of Volta. Gilb. XIV. 257.
phlebotomy. Says, that only a little more electricity is required to

Watson. Ph.tr. 1751.231. produce an equal shock from larger

a surface. A surface
Kits et Koestlin de effectibus electricitatis. 16 times as large required an elevation of the electrometer
to one tenth of the number of degrees. But the degrees of
Tubing. 1775.
4.
the electrometer cannot be an immediate measure of the
Henley on a bullock struck by lightning. quantity of electricity,
without having regard to its situa-

Ph.tr. 1776.463. tion with respect to the tlectiified bodies.

The skin was only affected where the hair was white,
On an insensibility of electricity.
Gilb. XIV.
conductor.
being there the least perfect
423.
Cavendish. Ph. tr. 1776. a less unpleasant
more on
A small charge of a large surface gives
Says, that the sensible
shock depends rather
shock than a larger charge of a small one, and may per-
the quantity of the electricity than on its force : a double
be fitter for medical purposes. The spark from a
shock rather haps
force with half the quantity, producing a less
than from a large body. Robison.
long wire is sharper
powerful.

Ingtnhomz Versuche niit pflanzen. 3 v. 8.

communication of
Secondary Effects of the
Vienna, 1778.. 1790. Electricity.

Ingenhousz. Koz. XXXII. 321. XXXV. 81.

Streams of Aax.
Found no effect on vegetation.

Achard on hatching eggs. A. Berl. 1778. Lord Mahon's electricity.

in Gren. VI. vii. §. 208.
33. Schrjften. 241. Mayer
 CATALOGUE. — ELECTRIC ITT. 425

Gray on the revolutions of pendulous bodies. Volta's papers on galvanic electricity. See
Ph. tr. 1736. XXXIX. 280. . Galvanism.

^-Gray's experiment on revolutions, re-

last

lated by Mortiiner.Ph.tr. 1730. XXXIX. Excitation by Friction.

400.
Gray fancied the motions were naturally directed from See Electrical Machines.
west to east.
Hauksbee's experiments on attrition in a va-
Wheler on Gray's experiments of revolu-
cuum. Ph. tr. 170j. XXIV. 2165.
tions. Ph.tr. 1739. XLI. 118.
Amber rubbing a woollen cloth produced light and heat :

According to Lichtenberg, some similar observations have

flint and steelonly a faint lambent light. Glass rubbed
keen made by Miiller, Delaperriere, Hartmann, and
with woollen cloth became electric in'a vacuum. Glass
Schaffer.
rubbed with glass shone both in the open air and in a va-

Henley. Ph. tr. 1774. SSQ. ii.

cuum, as well as under water.
Flame is driren by a weak charge towards a negative ball.

A tube of glass, surrounding a point, prevents the current Gray's experiments on worsteds of dif-
ef air, and the escape of the fluid. Robison. ferent colours. Ph. tr. 1735. XXXIX.
166.
Ludolffon the electricity of barometers. A.
Excitation, or Destruction of the Berl. 1745. 1.

stable Electric Equilibrium. Cooke on the electricity of new flannel. Ph.

tr. 1747. XLIV. 457.
Richmann on excitation. C. Petr. XIV.
Symmer. Ph. tr. 1759- 308. Dutour from
299.
Symmer. A. P. 1767. H. 34.
Bergmann on the excitation of glass plates, Beccaria dell' elettrismo. 4. 1753. Ph. tr,
and of ribbons. Opusc. V. 370, 391. 1766. 105.
Aubert on electric permutations. Roz.
Cigna. Misc.Taur. III.
XXXIX. 194.
Bergmann. Schw. Abh. XXV. 344. Ph. tr.

On excitation. Nich. II. 43.

1764. 84.
Vassalli on excitation. Gilb. VII. 498. Finds that a body becomes more disposed to negative
Soc.
Haiiy on the excitation of metals. B. electricity as it becomes more heated.

Phil. n. 85. Gilb. XVII. 441. of barometers. N.

Aepinus on the electricity
Beonet found that no was excited by flame,
electricity C. Petr. XV. 303.
nor by the expansion of
by the explosion of gunpowder, On a cat that gave smart sparks. A. P. 1771.
condensed air.
H. 37.
Excitation by simple Contact. Henley. Ph. tr. 1774. 389- v.

Perhaps Webers Erfahrungen

idioelectrische *Henley. Ph. tr. 1777. 122.
ohne reiben zu electrisiren. 1781. Socins anfangsgriinde der electricitat. Ha-
kijrper
Bennet's experiments on excitation. Ph. tr. nau, 1778. 66.
Herbert on the excitation of metals. Theoria
1787. 26.
electr. Vienna, 1778. 15.
Bennet's new experiments on electricity. phaenom.
1739. Nich. 8. 1. 144, 184.Gilb. XVII.428. On metals as electrics. Heuimer in Rozier.

Cavailo's electricity. XVI. 50, 74.

VOL. II. 3 1
426 CATALOGUE. — ELECTRICITY.

Nicholson. Ph. tr. 1789. Wilson on the electricity of shavings. Nich.

IVi/ke de electricitatibus contrariis. Auf- 8. IV. 49. Gilb. XVII. 205.

satze. 8. Gott. 1790. Gersdorf on the electricity of powder. Gilb.

Finds that the friction of a quill, in different directions, XVII. 200.
produces different species of electricity. Haijy on the electricity of metals. Ph. M.
Lichtcnberg in Erxleben. §. 514. XX. 120.

Lichtenberg's Table of Excitation, transposed.

The marks denote the electricity of the substances under which

they stand.

Polished Hair. Wool. Feathers. Paper. Wood. Wax. Sealing Ground Metals. Resin. Silk. Sulfur.
glass. wax. glass.
Polished glass
Hair
Wool +
Feathers +
Paper + +
Wood + +
Wax +
Sealing wax + + o
Ground glass + + +
Metals + + o
Resin + + +
Silk + + + +
Sulfur + +
It appears that any substance in this table, rtibbed with any of the following substances, becomes positively electric j

with any of the preceding, negatively. This proposition is, however, liable to some modifications, according to the mode
of applying friction, and the degree of heat ; the table requires also some further subdivisions.
" a smooth mbe maybe made negative by drawing it crosswise over the back of a cat, or
Mr. Henley says, that glass

by exciting it with a dry, warm rabbit's skin." Henley made a great number of experiments with a variety of sub-
stances rubbed on wool and silk : there are only two instances where the wool produced a positive and the silk negative

electricity, and these were probably owing to the greater heat of the wool. There were, however, very great irregularities

in the effects produced upon different substances of the same class thus a guinea, a sixpence, and a piece of tin, became
;

negative ;
a piece of copper, a steel button, and a silver button, positive, at least when the cloth was warm animal sub- :

stances, excepting shells, generally positive :

vegetables almost always negative, but the smooth skins of beans positive ;

common pebbles, marble, coal, and jet, negative :

gems and crystals positive :
glazed wares and writing paper positive;
tobacco pipe, clastic gum, a tallow candle, oiled silk, Indian ink, and blue vitriol, negative. Mr. Errington and Mr.
Cavallo extended the list to almost looo articles.

Excitation bi/ Change of Form of Aggregation. Lavoisier and Laplace on the electricity ab-

substances. Ph. sorbed by vapours. A. P. 1781. 292.

Gray on melted tr. 1732.
XXXVII. 285. H. 6.

Bennet. Ph. tr. 1787-

Kinnersley. Ph. tr. 17G3. 84.
Water running through a heated tobacco pipe showed a
The vapouf of electrified water did not carry up elec-
strong electricity.
tricity.

Henley on the positive electricity of cooling Liphardt on the electricity of chocolate.

chocolate. Ph.tr. 1777.85. Roz. XXX. 434.
 CATALOGUE. — ELECTRICITY, GALVANISM. 427

Van Marum and Troostwyck on electricity Volta on charging a battery by the pile.
from melting. Roz. [II. 248. XXX Gilb. XIII. 257.
On electricity from evaporation. Ph. M. Volta. Gilb. XV. 86.
XIII. 231. Says, that a battery may be strengthened' by the interpo-
sition of plates, without a fluid. Gilbert could not, how-
ever, succeed in the experiment.
Eltctricity from Chemical Changes, .

Fowler on animal electricity. 8. Edinb. 1793.

Galvanism. R. L
Gardenii dissertatio de electrici ignis natura.
Desgenettes on animal electricity. Roz,
Water evaporating from clean iron leaves it negative,
XLI I. 238.
from rusty iron, positive.
On animal electricity. Soc. Philom. Roz
Al. Galvani de viribus electricitatis in motu XLII. 292.
musculavi connnentarius. Boiogn. 179 J. Laney on animal electricity.Roz.XLIII.46l.
C. Bon. VII. O. 363. Gren. VI.

Mayer Abhandlungen von Galvani und an- Creue Beytrag zu Galvanis versuchen. 8.

dern.'iv, 8. Prague, 1793. Frankf. 1793.

Balbo and Valli on Galvani's animal elec- P/«^'deelectricitate animali. 8. Stutg. 1790i
tricity. Roz. XLI. 57, 6Q, 185...
Ace. m
Gren. VIII. 196.
Vacca Berlinghieri on animai electricity. Note of Pfaff 's galvanic experiments. Ann.
Roz. XLI. 314. Ch. XXXIV. 307.
*Volta on Galvani's discoveries. Ph. tr. 1793. Pfaff on Volta's galvanic theory. Gilb. X.
10. Ph. M. IV. 163, 306. 219.
The involuntary muscles, even the heart, appeared to Fabroni on the mutual action of metals.
Volta to be insensible of the stimulus of Galvanism in-
;
Read, 1793. Nich. Ph. M. V. 268. Gilb.
sects vcere affected by it, but not worms. When a piece
IV. 428.
of zinc was laid on the point of the tongue, and a silver

spoon was applied to the tongue further back, and made to Achard on the irritation of the nerves by
touch the zinc, a sour taste was produced by the zinc at contact. A. Berl. 179O. 3.
the instant of contact.
Monro's experiments on animal electricity.
Volta's remarks. Gren. III. 4. IV. 1. VIII.
Ed.u. III. 231.
303. Ann. Ch. XXIII. 270.
Ph. tr. 1794.
*Volta on electricity excited by contact. Ph. Read finds all noxious vapours in a negative state.
tr. 1800. 403. Ph. M. VII. 289. Journ.
Aldiiiide animali electricitate.4.Bologu.R.S.
Phys. LI. 344.
1794. R. I.
Account of the Galvanic pile and series, which he con-
eiders as actually producing a perpetual motion from the
Aldini sopra I'elettricita anijnale. 8. Pad.
mechanical powers of electricity. 1795. R.S.
Volta's letter on the causes of Galvanic Aldini sul galvanisnio. 8.
Boiogn. 1802. R. S.
Journ. Phys. Nich. 8. I. 135.
effects. Aldini on galvanism. 4. Ijond. 1803. K. I,
Volta's memoir. M. Inst. IV. B. Soc. Phil, Aldini's experiments. Ph. M. XIV. 88, 191,
n. 58. Ann. Ch. XL. 225. Gdb. X. 421. 364.
Volta's answer to Nicholson's remarks. Bibl. Wells on the galvanic contraction of the
Brit. n. 150. muscles. Ph. tr. 1795. 246.
 428 CATALOGUE. — ELECTRICITV, GALVANISM.
On excitation produced by the union of metals and fluids.
Nicholson, Carlisle, Cruickshank, and others,
Observes, that charcoal has a power like that of the me- on galvanic electricity. Ph. M. VII. 337,
tals; and that silver acquires the power of exciting by-
347.
touching moisture.
Cruickshank on galvanic Journ.
E.xperiinents and observations on galvanism, electricity.

b\' Nicholson,Cruickshank, Carlisle, Davy, Phys. LI. 164.

and others. Nich. I. V. .
On Perkinism. Journ. Phys. XLIX. 232.
Perkins's patent for a mode of
Halle's report on galvanism. 13. Soc. Phil, curing dis-
eases. Repert. ii. 11. 179.
n. 17. Journ. Phys. XLVII. (IV.) 302.
One of the tractors is made
of copper, zinc, and gold
Report on galvanism. Ph. M. I. 319.
the other of iron, silver, and platina.
;

Vassalli Eandi on galvanism. Journ. Phys^

Hemmer on animal electricity. Ph. M.
XLVIII. 336. Ph. M. VIH. 171. XV. V. 1.

38, 310. Nich. 8. V. lOQ.

Davy on galvanic comlHiiations. Ph. tr.
Vassalli Eandi on animal electricity. Journ.
ISO 1.397. Ph. M. XI. 202.
Phys L. 148. *Davy's outlines of a view of galvanism.
Remarks on galvanism and chemical electri-
Jomn. R. I., I. 49. Ph. M. XI. 326.
cityby *Ritter, Bockmann, Pfaff, Hebe- Dcivy'* charcoal battery. Journ. R. I., I.
brand, Treviranus, Erman, Huet, Simon, Niclr. 8. 1. 144.
Reinhold, Gerboin, Jager, and others. Inst. Nat. B,
Davy's galvtMuc experiments.
Giib.H. vn. Soc. Phil. n. 62.
Ritter's galvanic experiments. B. Soc. Phil.
Davy's galvanic experiments. Nich. 8. Ilf.
n. .53, 76, 79- Ann. Ch. XLI. 208, 135.
*Ritter on galvanism. Glib. VIH. 386. Wollaston on tlie chemical production and
IX. 1.
agency of electricity. Ph. tr. 1801. 427.
Positive electricity gives oxygen, negative hydrogen.
Gilb. XI. 104.
Ritter on the denomination of galvanic poles.
E.xperiments made at the Ecole de medecine,
Gilb. IX. 212. .

B. Soc. Phil. n. 45.

Calls the oxygen, or positive side, the true zinc side.
Galvanic experiments. B. Soc. Phil. n. 50.
Ritter's experiments with a battery of 600
Robertson's galvanic experiments. Ann. Ch.
pieces. Glib. XIII. 1, 265.
XXXVII. 132.
Ritter's galvanic experiments and remar"ks.
Dcsormes's galvanic experiments. Ann. Ch.
Gilb. XVI. 293.
Places conductors in this order of excitation. Some XXXVn. 284.
amalgams of zinc and mercury, zinc, lead, tin, iron, bis- Desormes and Hachette on the principles of
galvanism. Ann. Ch. XLIV. 267.
muth, cobalt, arsenic, copper, antimony, platina, gold,
mercury, silver, coal, plumbago, tin crystals, nickel,
Hachette on galvanism. Journ. Polyt. IV.
pyritical substances, palladium, graphite, crystals of man-
Some experiments on the sensible effects of gal-
xi. 284.
ganese.
vanism. Von Arnim. Gilb. V. 465.
Hitter's passive battery. Journ. Observes, that electricity is
only develbped by oxidatioa
Phys. LVII.
when no light is
produced.
345. Nich. VIII. 176, 184.
Cuvier's report on galvanism. Journ. Phys..
'

Ritter on galvanic phenomena. Nich. VI.

223, VII. 288. LII.318.
 CATALOGUE. — ELECTRICITY, GALVANISM. 4v9

Report on galvanism. Ph. M. X. 87, 93. Lehot on galvanism. Ann. Ch. XXXVIII*
Biot and Cuvier's galvanic experiments. B. 42. Gilb. IX. 188.
Soc. Phil. n. 53. Ann. Ch. XXX[X. 242. Friedlander on some galvanic experiments.
Biot on the motions of the galvanic fluid. B. Journ. Phys. Lll. 101.
Soc. phil. n. .^4. Journ. Phys. LIII. 264- Friedlander on the pile. Ph. M. IX. 221.
Gilb. X. 24. On medical galvanism. Journ. Phys. LII.
Notes of Biot's experiments. Ph. M. XI. 391, 467.
272, 283. *Fonrcroy's galvanic experiments. Ann. Ch.
Biot's reports to the National Institute on XXXIX. 103.

Volta's experiments. M. Inst. V. 195. Journ.

Gautherot on galvanism. Ann. Ch. XXXIXj
R. I. Ph. M. XI. 301. Gilb. X. 203.
r., 389.
Biot on the effect of oxidation on the pile. Gautherot on galvanism. Extr. Journ. Phys.

B. Soc. Ph. n. 76. Gilb. XV. 90. LVI. 429.

Adopts the chemical theory.
Makes the effect little or nothing ; but the arguments are
inconclusive. Moyes on the pile. Ph. M. IX. 217-
Cuthbertson on Volta's fundamental galva-
Galvanic experiments by Volta, Nicholson,
nic experiments. Nich. 8. II. 281. '
Carlisle, Grimm, Ritier, Hermbstadt, He-
Cuthbertson's distinction between galvanism'
bebrand, Pfaff, Bourguet, Davy, Ileid-
Erman> and electricity. Ph. M. XVII1.358. Nich.
mann, Reinhold, Ciirtet, Bouvier,

and
Vni. 97.
Aldini, Pepys, Buntzen, Brugnatelli,
Thinks that the length of wire, ignited by galvanism, is
others. Gilb. VIL.XVII.
simply as the charges ; by electricity, as the square of the
Galvanic apparatus, by PfafF, Simon, Hauff,
charge.
Davy, and others. Gilb. VII. VIII. XI. Cuthbertson's galvanic experiments. Nich"
XII. XV. VIII. 205.
Remarks on Volta's galvanic pile, by Gilbert Gerboin's galvanic experiments. Ann. Ch.
Griiner, Pfaff, Von Arnim. J'ager, Ernian, XLI. 197.
Desormcs, Priestley, Biot, Cuvier, Rein-
Pepys on the galvanometer. Ph. M. X. 38.
hold, and others. Gilb. VII. .XV. The zinc end of the pile, so called,
commonly is
positive.
Van Marum and comparison of Vol-,
Pfaff's
Pepys's galvanic apparatus. Ph. M. XI. 94.
ta's pile with the Teylerian machine. Nich.
XV. 94.
8. I. 154, 173. Ph. M. XII. iGl.
Pictet on some experiments of Volta. Ph.
Van Marum charged a battery of jars with a pile; its

shock was only half as intense as that of the

M. XI. 149.
pile.

Van Marum on Pfaff's galvanic experiments. Gilb. VIII. 166.

Ann. Ch. XL. 289. Gilbert observes, that a simple chain is formcd.by zinc,
a liquid, and silver the addition of dry metals makes no
Van Marum on Ritter's experiments. Nicli. ;

difference in its nature, so that if silver and zinc be added

VIII. 212.
beyond the zinc and silver, the silver end will be the true
Frie&tley on Volta's pile. zinc pole of the chain, which is negative, and the zinc end',

Ace. Nich. 8. I. 198. or the silver pole positive, giving oxygen, while the sUve'

Sue Histoire du galvanisme. 2 end or zinc pole gives hydrogen gas.

v. 8. Par.
1802. R. I. Liidicke on a cheap battery. Gilb. IX. 1 ig.,

Nauche Journal de galvanisme. Paris. Tourdes on the galvanic irritation of the

430 CATALOGUE. — ELECTRICAL APPARATUS.

fibrine of the blood. B. Soc. IJliil.

n. 71. Haliy Traite de physique. II. 1 .

Gilb. X. 499. On galvanic apparatus. Nich. VII. 269.

Bostook on galvanism. Nicli. 8. 11. 296. III. VIII. 79.
3. Gilb. XII. 476. Experiments by Dyckhoff and others. Nich.
Note of Bonaparte's galvanic prize. Ph. M. VII. 303, 305.
XIII. ]88. Gilb. XI. 492. Dyckhoff asserts, that the strata of a pile may be separated
by bits of glass with air intervening thi» Wilkinson denies.
Erman's theory of the pile. Gilb. XI. 89. ;

Nich. VIII. I.
Journ. Phys. LIII. 121.
Rossi's experiments. Ph. M. XVIII. 131.
Erman supposes, that two heterogeneous metals in con-
become Pownall on the theory of galvanism and the
tact electrical piincipally by induction ; that the

silver is
positive where it touches the zinc, and negative on Newtonian ether. Ph. M. XVIII. 155.
the other side ;
the zinc the reverse ;
that more alternations On the theory of galvanism. Ph. M. XVIII.
of dry metals have no further effect ; but that a communica-
170.
tion with a different conducting substance, on each side,
Galvanic experiments. Nich. VIII. 84.
favours the effect of induction ;
that moist conductors in-

terposed, divide themselves by induction into different states On galvanism. Nich. VIII. I71.
of electricity ; that the middle of a pile is the neutral point ; 'Ihicknesse on galvanism. Nich. IX. 120.
and that a communication produces a discharge like that of on the galvanic power. Nich. IX.
Sylvester
a charged jar.
179.
Sprenger on galvanism in deafness. Gilb. Harrison and Gough. Nich. IX. 241.
XI. 334, 488. Make the igniting power of plates as the sixth power of
Einhof on galvanising the deaf and dumb. their diameter, from Wilkinson's experiments. -
Gilb. XII. 230.
Parrot's galvanic tlieory. Gilb. XII. 49.
Electrical apparatus in general.
From a combination of induction and chemical action.

Medical galvanism. Gilb. XII. 450.

Galvanic experiments. Journ. Phys. LIV..
Leupold Th. Aerostat, t. 9.
.LVII. E. M, PI. VIII, Amusemens de physique.
Lagrave's galvanic experiments. Journ. Electrisirmachinen.
Bohaeitbergers Stuttg.
Phys. LVI. 361. Nich. 8. V. 62. 17H4..I791.
Compares the transmission of the galvanic fluid through Giitk Instrumenten kabinet. 1790.
water to the propagation of sound.
Kunze Schauplatz der gemeinniitzigen mas-
Wilson on the galvanic effect of minute par-
chinen. II.
ticles of zinc and copper. Nich. 8. III.
Weber Electrische versuche.
147.
Galvanic apparatus. See Chemical Electri-
AlizeiTii's pile. Nat. Inst. Ace. Journ, Phys.
city.
LVn. 74.
For a cement take 7 parts lac, 4 resin, 2 amber, and 4
JVilkhisori's elements of galvanism. 2 v. 8. Venice turpentine, 12 16 resin,
lac, I
amber, 3 Venice
1804. R, I. turpentine, 24 pitch. Kunze.

Wilkinson on burning wire by galvanism. Sealing wax may be employed for varnishing glass, either

Nich. VII. 206. by heating the glass, or by dissolving the wax in spirits : but
amber varnish is better. Cavallo.
Wilkinson on galvanism. Nich. VIII. 1^ 70. Such a varnish makes the insulating power of the glass
IX. 175, 240. oioxe perfect. See Machines.
 CATALOGUE. ELECTRICAL APPARATUS. 431
Fan Marum Lettre sur un,e machine elec-
Excitation. Electrical Machines trique. 4. R. S.
Van Marum Continuation
for applying Friction. d'experiences. 4.
Haarl. 1787. R. S.
Hawksbee on a globe lined with sealing wax. Van Marum
description des fiottoirs elec-
Ph. tr. 1708. XXVI. 219. triques. 4. Haarl. 1789. R. S. Roz.
Winkler Beschreibung einer electrisirma- XXXIV. 274.
schine. 1"44. On a mode of applying the silk, before
praciiscd in Ens-
^
land.
Faure Coiigeuure intorno alia machina elet-
trica. 4. Van Marum on the Teylerian machine.
Rome, 1747. Roz
Plate machines used by Planta, 1760. XXXVIII. 109.

Epinasse on electrical machines. Ph.tr. 1767.

Van Marnm's new and
simple plate machine.
186. Roz. XXXVIII. 447.
Lines the cylinder with a resin. Imitating Nicholson's improvements.

Leroy on an electrical machine for produc- Van Manim on the electrical machine.
Roz.
ing both species of electricity. A. P. 1772. XL. 270.
i. 499. H. 9. Van MarumSeconde continuation. 4.
Haarl
Leroy's electrical pump. A. P. 1783. 6l5. 1795. R. S.
Nooth on the cushion and flap. Ph.tr. 1773. Van Marum and Pfaff's
comparison of Vol-
333. ta's
pile with the Teyleiian machine. Ph
Schmidt Beschreibung einer electrisirma- M. XII. 161.
schine. 1778. Prieur's extract on the Teylerian machine
Larigenbiicfier Beschreibung einer clectri- Ann. Ch. XXV. 312.
sirmaschme. 1778. Tries's claim to Van Marum's machine.
Ingenhousz on the plate machine. Ph. tr. Roz. XL. 1 16.
1769. 659. electrical
Varnished pasteboard succeeded well
Leroy's machine. Roz. XXIX.
in dry rooms. 129.
Brilhac on an electrical plate machine. R02 Nairne on his patent electrical
machine. 8.
XV. 377. Lond. 1787. R. S.
Repert. VH. 380.
Bertholon's electrical machine. Roz.
XVI. SeiferhMs electrisirmaschine. Nuremb.
74.
1767.
An electrical machine, moved by clock- Cavallo's remarks on the rubber and
work. Roz. XIX. 149, Ph.
flap.
tr. 1788. i.
Goth. Mag. I. i. 83.
Attributes the effect to a
compensation.
Kohlreif on the cushion. Goth. Mao-. I. iii.
Saint Julien's electrical
101. plate machine. Roz.

Ron/and description des machines a

XXXIII. 367. Fig.
taffetas.
Nicholson's experiments and observations
8. Amst. 1785.
in
Van Marum Description d'une electricity. Ph. tr. 1789. 26o. Nicb. I.
tr^-s
grande 83.
machine electrique. 4. Haarl. 178j. R. S. The hand was the first rubber, then the simple cushion
Roz. XXVII. 148. was applisd, and a flap was added to it, then the rubber
432 CATALOGUE. — ELECTRICAL APPARATUS.

was moistened ;
next the amalgani was applied, and lastly

Nooth invented the silk flap. The surface of a plate imme-

Amalgams.
diately opposite to the cushion attracts the electric fluid ;

is gained by applying a cushion to

it. A
nothing therefore Woulfe on the aurum mosaicum. Ph. tr-

piece of metal projecting forwards over the edge of the

1771. 114.
cushion of a cylinder, considerably increased the intensity
It was made of mercury, tin, sulfur, and muriate of am-
of the glass
ofaction, probably by increasing the capacity
monia.
in.its If a piece of silk be applied closely
neighbourhood.
to the cylinder, it will attract the electricity on one side, Higgins's amalgam. Ph. tr. 1778. 861.
and emit it on the other, according to the direction in which Four parts of mercury with one of zinc.

the cylinder is turned : but such an arrangement is not prac-

Kieniueyer's amalgam. Rozier
XXXHI. 96-
be well greased, so as
tically advantageous. If a cylinder Two parts of mercury, one of zinc, and o.ie of tin.

to become opaque, and the silk flap be made semitranspa- Neret's amalgam consists of equal parts of tin and mer-.
rent with the grease, the amalgam be then applied with cury : Cuthbertson uses mercury with tin filings and a little

it as long as the
leather to the cylinder, and pressed against oil.

action of the machine made with two

friction continues to increase, the The amalgam of tin is parts of mercury

will be very powerful. When a nine inch cylinder had been and one powdered chalk. Cavallo.
of tinfoil, adding a little

tl-.us treated, the conductor gave flashes to the table on For the amalgam of zinc, melt one part of zinc, and

which it stood, at the distance of

1 4 inches. A square foot shake it in a wooden box with 4 or 5 parts of mercury,
was the friction of 1 8 or 1 9 feet of heated above the temperature of boiling water then triturate
fully charged by
:
of a jar
the cylinder : the Haarlem required at first the
machine at it with a little tallow and a very little powdered wniting;
friction of 00.6 feet, and with a single cushion would have and add one fourth of the amalgam of tin. Cavallo.

half as much. This cylinder was equal

in effect to
required
times as ex-
the great Teylerian machine, whifh was thirty
Elect rophorus.
pensive but afterwards
-,
Van Marum tripled the effect of the

Tevlcriao raachiae.
Dei-
-Wilke. Schw. Abh. 1762. XXXIX, 54, II6,
Ctithbertson iiber die veisuche von
200.
man n und Troostwyck.
Beccaria Electricitas vindex. Gr'az.
Pearson's portable electrical machine. Nich, X.
Volta. Scelta di opusc. Milan. 37. Roz.
I. 50G.
Vlll. 21.Sept. 1776. Ph. tr. 1782. llozier,
An electrical macbine of silk. Nich. II. 4eO.
1783. Brugnatelli bibl. fis.
Nich. HI. 4.
Fell's pocket ribbon machine. Volta on the passage of electricity through
Cirinini on a large electrical machine. Gilb.
Soc. Ital. V. 551.
imperfect conductors.
IV. 3.39.
Henley. Ph. tr. 1776. 513.
Wolff's electrical machine. Nich. VII. 124.
Achard A. Berl. 1776. 122-
With improved rubbers.

See Chemical Electricity, Achard. Schr. 226.

Galvanic batteries.
Gcuan as a rubber. Cavallo. Ph. tr. 1777. II6, 388.
applied liquid mercury

Ingenhousz's portable machine

is a varnished ribband,
On the electrophorus. A. Petr. I. i. H. 70.
or nail, and rubbed with a cat's skin
on Kiafft's theory of the electrophorus. A. Petr>
:

hung a fixed pin

thelittle which is charged is held near the rubber, and
jar
1. i. 154.
collects negative electricity from the ribband
drum machine is of wood, covered with Ingenhousz
Elements of electricity,
Lichtenbcrg's
black woollen cloth. Gutle's electrical machine o f woollen l"h. tr. 1778. 1027.
liigonhousz.
is said to be cheap and powerful. Socin Anfangsgrlinde. iian. 1778. 1792-
cement a cylinder consists of 5 parts of resin,
The best for
8.
Picket Expenmenta physicomedica.
4 of bees wax, and a of powdered red ochre.
The silken

mode. Cavallo.
Wuiizb. 1778.
is made of black
flap
 CATALOGUE. — ELECTRICAL APPARATUS. 433

Klindwoith. Goth. Mag. I. ii. S5. Cuthbertson's improvement on batteries*

Obert. Goth. Mag. 96. V. iii. INich. 11.525. Gilb. III. 1.

-Minkeler. Goth. Mag. V. iii. 110. A battery of talc. Nich. 8. V. 2l6.

Robison says, that a the best form for a jar.
AbbWduog des electricit'atstiagers. globe is
•f-Sch'dffer
Partisil damp is said to make a battery capable of a great
4. Ratisb. 1776. K. S.
intensity of charge.
iS'cAa^erkr'attedeselectiophors.4. Rat. 1776.
Schuffers f'ernere versuche. Ratisb. 1777-
Electrical Measures in general.
Adanison electricity. 8. London, 1784. 181.
Robert on the electrophorus. Roz. XXXVII. Achard on the force of electricity. Berl.
183. Naturf. fr. I. 53.
Nich. I. 355. Robison. Enc. Br. Suppl. Art. Electrometer.
The barrier, which the surface of the electrophorus pre-

sents, seems to be analogous to the operation of the galva-

Measures of Tension. Simple Electrometers,
nic battery.

"Nicholson's revolving doubter somewhat similar in its

Darcy's electrometer. A. P. 1749. 63. H. 7.
is

operation to the electrophorus. See Microelectrometer.

Richmann's electrometer. N. C. Petr. IV.
301.
Conductors. electrometer. Ph. tr.
Hd^ley's quadrant
Volta on a shock from a conductor. Roz, 177i. 359.

XIII. 249. Comus's electric platometer. Roz. VII. 520.

Sulla capacity dei conduttori elettrici. 4* Cavallo's electrometers. Ph. tr. 1777. 388.

R.S. 1780. 15.

For the pocket, and for atmospherical observations,
Nicholson. Ph. tr. 1789.
Never uses points for a conductor, but a ball brought Brooks's electrometer. Ph.tr. 1782.384.
near to the cylinder, or the cushion without a rubber. An electrical balance.

Terry's electrometer. Roz. XXIV. 315.

Coated Jars and Batteries. An electrometer. Roz. XXV. 228.
*Coulomb's electrical balance. A. P. 1785.
See Charge.
569.
Kleist discovered the effect of charged glast in 1745.
Employs the torsion of a wire.

[Needham on some experiments made at Pa-

Saussure's electrometer. Voyage. IFI. Ixxviii.
ris. Ph. tr. 1746. XLiV. 247.
Lcmonnier discovered the permanency of the charge-
Boyer Brun's electroscope for a conductor,

NoUet gave a shock to 180 guards at once.

Roz. XXVllI. 183,

Dutoiir on charged talc. A. P. 1753. H. 76. Deluc's fundamental electrometer. Idees. I,

Wilson's experiments. Ph. cccxcvii. Gren. I. iii. 380.

tr. 1778. 995.
Found that a point was struck at the greatest distance. Rennet's electrometer. Ph.tr. 1787.26. Nich.
On the advantage of paper under the coatj- II. 438.

ins;. Brooks, c. iii.

Of gold leaf.

Says, that it prevents the jats breaking. Chappc's electrometer. Roz. XXXIV. 370.
Van Mai urn's battery. Gilb. i. 68. Vassalli's elcctrometrical experiments. M.
Halriaiie on the force of a battery. Nich. I. Tur. 1790. V. 57.
156. Giib. m. 22. Improved electrometer. Nich. I. 270. .

VOL. II. 3K
434 CATALOGUE.— EX-ECTRlCAt APPARATUS.
with a charge equal and
XXXVII. stroyed, and the revolving plate,
Cadet's electrometer. Ann. Ch. to that of the first fixed plate, is brought opposite
opposite
68, Nich. V.31. to the second, while this is connected
with the ball, and

delicate electrometer. Gilb. from the ball a charge nearly equal to that
of the
Marechaiix's acquires
of the
so that the redundant electricity of each
XV. 98.
first plate :

both contained
fixed plates is now nearly equal to what they

Microelectrometers. at first, and the charge is nearly doubled by each turn.

On the doubler of electricity. Journ. Phys.

Condensers, Multipliers, and Galvanometers.
XLV. (II.) 463.
Volta on rendering sensible small degrees A Microelectrometer. Nich. I. l6.

of electricity. Th. tr. 1782. 237- Read on the invention of the doubler. Nich.
in-
Volta on the advantage of an imperfect II. 495.
sulation. Roz. XXII. 325. XXIII. 381.
on Read's condenser. Nich.
Cuthberlson
Soc. Ital. V. Gilb. XIII. 208.
Ph-
Bennet's electrometer with a condenser. Ph. M. X. 38.
Pepys's galvanometer.
tr. 1787. 32. Of gold leaf.
a
marble on the electrometer, and on
this
A plate of Gilbert and Bohnenberger on microelectro-
imall plate of metal. meters. Gilb. IX. 121,158.
Bennet's doubler of electricity. Ph. 1787. Gilb. XI. 344.
tr.
Weber's glass condenser.
on the Danube.
Indicated the electricity of ice
288.
plates laid
on each other. Liable to the Hacliette and Desormes's improved doubler.
Merely varnished
inconvenience of contracting a permanent charge. B.Soc. Phil. n. 83. Gilb. XVII. 414.
Dumotiez's condenser. Roz. XXXI. 431.
Marechaux's electromicrometer. Gilb. XV.
of
Cavallo on measuring small quantities 98. XVI. 115.
Ph. tr. 1788. 1. With a screw and silver leaf.
electricity.
Found many accidental errors from
permanent charges, Wilson's condenserand doubler. Nich. IX. 19.
instruments had been untouched
even when the plates of the
for a month. To illustrate this, he made experiments on Regulators and Dischargers.
of the vslocity with which the
the decreasing progression
Lane's electrometer. Ph. tr. 1767. 451.
Huid escapes.
Cuthbertson's measurement by explosion.
Cavallo's multiplier. Nich I. 394.
Nich. II. 215.
Cavallo's collector. Ph. tr. 1788. 255. Roz.
Lawson's discharging electrometer. Ph. M.
XXXIV. 258.
XI. 251.
Consisting of a fixed plate
between two moveable ones.
Von Hauch's discharging electrometer.
Ph.
Nicholson's revolving doubler. Ph. tr. 1788.
M. XI. 267.
403. Nich. II. 370. IV. 95.
from Gilb. XIV. 257.
thin plates at the distance of -^ of an
inch
Some
Volta says, that Lane's electrometer agrees with Henley's
lOO times. This
each other had their capacity augmented
in all its indications.
instrument was intended for producing electricity from
the

almost inseparable from the

charge which is plates,
Distim'uhhers.
and usually gave a spark when turned lO or 20
times.

or from a
Chappe on a mode of
out
It pumps negative electricity
positive distinguishing electri-
two fixed plate s,by means of a revolving plate; the
ball into
in either of the fixed city. Roz. XXXIV. 62.
redundant electricity contained
Nicholson on instruments for the distinctioD
jlates is attracted to one of them by the revolving plate, con-
nected with the ball; all the communications are then de- of electricity. Nich. 8. HI. 121.
 CATALOGUE. —SPONTANEOUS ELECTRICITY. 435

One from a projecting point which gives sparks at diffcr- Haliy on the boracite. Ann. Ch. IX. 59. Roz
ont distances, according to the kind of «i«etricity the
:

XXXVIII. 323. Gren. VII. 87.

•ther from the decomposition of water.
Haliy on the electricity of some crystals. M.
Cuthbertson on the distinction of electricities.
Inst. I. 49.
Nich. 8. III. 188. Ph. M. XIX. 83.
From the heat of a candle communicated to the negative Haiiy Traite de physique. I.

Haiiy has observed, that electrical crj'stals are notsj'mme-

bail.
trically formed at the corresponding angles : thus in the bo-
rate of magnesia the 4 intire angles became negative, and
Spontaneous Electricity. the 4 truncated angles positive.

Beckmann. Erfind. 2 ed. I. 248.

Of Inanimate Substances.
Rom.
Napione sul lincurio. 4. 1795. R. S.

Atmospheric Electricity.
Ritter on electrical polarity. Giib. XV. 106.
On terrestrial electricity. Gilb. XVll. 482.
See Meteorology.

Mineral Eltctriciltf. Tourmalin and other Animal Electricity.

Crystals. See Chemical Electricit}'.
Due de la Noya Caraffa surla tourmaline. 4. On electric fishes. Roz. Intr. II. 432.
Par. 1759. M. B.
Oseretskovsky on a preternatural electricity..
Wilson. Ph. tr. 1759. 302. 1763. 436. On A. Petr. III. i. 2.33.
some similar gems. Ph. tr. 1762. 443. The person was Michael Puschfcin of Tobolsk ; the rela-
tor was not an eye witness.
fWatson on the lyncurium. Ph. tr. 1 759. 394.
Lovens on electricity as a living force. 1779.
Aepimis Recueil de memoires sur la tourma-
line. 8. Petersb. 1762. Geoffrey on the anatomy of electric fishes.
B. Soc. Phil.n. 70. Journ. Phys. LVI.242.
Aepinus on the Brasilian emerald. N. C.
Petr. XII. 351.
Ph. M. XV. 126. Gilb. XIV. 397.

Bergmann. Ph. tr. 1766. 236. Schvv. Abh. Haiiy on electric animals. Traite de'Phys. 4 1 .

XXIII. 286.
Finds, that one pole of the tourmalin becomes positive
Raia Torpedo.
by expansion, and negative by contraction, the other the Authors on the torpedo. Krlinitz. Abhandl.
reverse.
xvii.
Bergmann on the electricity of Iceland crys-
Reaumur. A. P. 1714. 344. H. 19.
tal. Opusc. V. 36G. On the tourmalin. 401.
TewpZeOTflM in Nouvelliste. 1759.
Wilke. Schw. AbH. XXVIII. 95. XXX. 1,
morbo yaws.
Schilling de Utr. 1770.
105.
Walsh. Ph.tr. 1773. 461. 1775.46.5.
Franklin. A. P. 1773. H.78.
Hunter. Ph. tr. 1773. 481.
Miiller an Born. 4. Vienna, 1773.
Pringle's discourse on the torpedo. 4. Lond.
Zallinger vom turmalin. 8. Vienna, 1779.
1775.
Gerhard. Roz. XXI. Suppl. 1782.
't-Ingenhousz. Ph. tr. 1775. 1.
Ddaunay Lettre sur la tourmaline. 4. R, S.
*Gavendish. Ph. tr. 1776. 196.
Werner in Cronstedt's
mineralogy. The shock of the torpedo resembles that of a lar^-e

Hauy. A. P. 1785. 206. battery weakly charged; such a shock will pass but a little

On the tourmaline and on electricity as a test.

way through the air. An artificial torpedo was made so as
 435 CATALOGUE. -MAGNETISJI.
to imitate all the effects of the natural one. One hand re-
Tetrodon, as supposed.
ceived alinost as great a shock from it as could be obtained

by both hands. Paterson. Ph. ir. 1786. 382.

Roz. IV. 205.
MAGNETISM IN GENERAL.
Ac. Brux. III. H.5.
Spallanzani. Goth. Mag. V. i. 41. *Gilbertus de magnete. f. Lond. l600. M. B.
Girardi and Walter on the torpedo. Soc. Ital. Cabaei philosophia magnetica. f. Ferrar.

in. 553. 1629. M. B.

Biyant on the torpedo. Am. tr. If. 166.

Kirchtri magnes. 4. Cologne, 1643. M. B.
VassalU Eandi on the torpedo. Journ. Phys. Nortnan's new attractive. M. B.

XLIX, 69. Ph. tr. abr. II. iv. 601. IV. 2 p. iv. 286.
Nich. I. 355. VI. 2 p. iv. 253. VIII. 2 p. iv. 740. X.2
p.iv.678.
Gyninotus Electricus.
Lister on magnetism. Birch, iv. 26l.
Richer. A. P. I. Il6. VII. i.
part 2. 92. Derham's magnetical experiments and ob-
Duhamel Hist. Ac. Sc. l68.
servations. Ph. tr. 1704. XXIV. 2036.
Berkel Reise nach Rio de Berbice. 1680. Some experiments on dividing magnets.
1689. Eberhai-ds uiagnetische theorie. 4.
Leipz.
Allamand. Haarl. Verb. II. 372. 1720.
Gronovius. Act. Helv. IV. 26. Basle, 1760.
Dufay on the magnet. A. P. 1728. 355. 1730.
Mussch^nbr. A. P. 1760. H.21. 142. 1731.417.
SchilUng. A. Berl. 1770. 68. Mu.sschenbroek de magnete. Diss. Phys. ] .

*Williams. Ph. tr. 1775. 94.

*Serviugton Savery's magnetic observations.
Garden. Ph. tr. 1775. 105. Ph.tr. 1730. 295.
*Hunter. Ph.tr. 1775. 395. Pieces sur I'aiman. 4. Par. 1748. A. P. Prix.
Anatomical.
V. , ,

Ingenhousz. Phys. scbr. I. 273.

D. and J . Bernoulli. A. P. Pr. V. xii.
Flagg. Am. tr. II. 170.
Euleri nova theoria magnetis. Opusc.
Bryant and Collins. Amer. trans. II.
in.
Goth. Mag. V. ii. 171.
Schwigkardi ars magnetica.
Block Fische. 4. Berl. 1786. II.
Penrose on magnetism. 4. Lond. 1753.
Fahlberg. Gilb. XIV. 4i6.
Description des couraas magnetiques. 4.
Silurus Electricus.
Strasb. 1753. Germ. Hamb. Mag. XII. i.

Broussonet. A. P. 1782. 692. Roz. XXVII. 579.

139. *Aepini tentainen theoriae. 4.
Adanson and
Aepinus. N. C. Pet'r. IX. 340.
After Forskal.

Trichiinus Indicus; Scarella de magnete. 2 v. 4. Brescia, 1759.

* Gmel. Linn. 1.1142. Cooper's experimental magnetism. 8. 1761.

It. ind. II. 270. Lalande on the magnet. A. P. 1761.
'Nieuhoff.
Rinman Geschichte des eisens, von Georgi.iii.
Jiaii syn. pise. Anguilia marina.
Ichth. aj)p. t. 3. f. 3. Wilke Tal om magneten. 8. Stock. 1764.
Wilhtgkbj/.
 CATALOGUE. THEORY OF MAGNETISM. 437

Wilke uber der magneten. Germ, by G ro- Taylor. Ph. tr. 1714. XXIX. n. 344.

iling. 8. Leips. 1794. Musschenbroek de viribus magneticis. Ph.

Brugman de materia magnetica. 4. Franeq. tr. 1725. XXXIII. 370.
Failed in the attempt to discover the law.
1765. R. S.
Germ.by Eschenbach. 8. Leips. 1784. Knight's experiments. Ph.tr. 1747. XLIV.
656.
JBrugmunni magnetismus. Leyd. 1778.
4.
In favour of magnetic currents.
Lovett on electricity and magnetism. 8. 1766.
Euleri nova theoria magnetis. Opusc. 4.
R.I.
Berl. 1750. III.
*Lambert on magnetism. A. Berl. 1766. Euler supposes, that the direction of the currents is
regu-
22, 49. lated by a kind of valves.
Lemonnier Loix du magnetisme. 2 v. 8.
jiepinus de similitudine vis electricae etmag-
Par. 1776. neticae. 4. Petersb. 1758. N. C. Petr. X.
Ace. A. P. 1776. H. 51.
296.
Lacam's thoughts on magnetism. 8. R. S.
*Aepinus Tentamen theoriae electricitatis et
Fraiik/in in Sigaud de la Fond Precis expe-
magnetismi.
rimental.
Aepinus's further comparison of magnetism
Franklin on magnetism. Am. tr. III.. 10.
and electricity. N. C. Petr. X. 296.
Van Swindell Tentamen de phaenomenis
Aepinus on Mayer's theory of magnetism,
magneticis, specimen 1. 4. R. S.
N. C. Petr. XII. 325.
Gai/er Theoria magnetis. 8. Ingolst. 1781. and
Cigna on the analogy between electricity
Rittenhouse on magnetism. Amer. tr.
magnetism. Misc. Taur. I.
j^rfa/HS on magnetism. 8. Loud. 1784.
Brti^mann de materia magnetica.
Cavallo on magnetism. 8. Lond. 1787. 1800.
Kraftt on the force of magnetism. C. Petr.
R. L XII. 276.
Cotte's magnetical observation. Roz. XXX. Gabler theoria magnetis.
349. Donndorir Uber electiit ilat.
Feart on electricity and magnetism. 8.
Van Swiitden llei;ueil de memoires sur I'ana-
Gainsbor. 1791. R. S.
logie de I'electricite et du magnetisme. 3 v.
Dalton's meteor, obs. 61.
Walktr on magnetism. 8. Lond. 1-794. R.S.
8. Hague, 1784.
*Coulomb on the law of the magnetic and
Larimer on magnetism. 4. 17957 R. L
electric forces. A. P. 1785.
Kirwan on magnetism, h. tr. VL 177. Giib.
Finds, that they vary as the squares of the distances in-
VL391. versely. A needle is urged by a constant force in the direc-

Magnetical observations. Gilb. IIL 43. VL tion of the quiescent position.

170. Coulomb's seventh memoir. A. P. 1789. 455.

Ritteron magnetic attraction. Gilb. IV. I.
Roz. XLIII. 247.
Madison on m;ignetisni. Hepert. XV. 329- Particular consideration of the separation of a magnet.

HuiiyTraite de Physique. II. 58.

Coulomb on the ft)rces of needles. M. Inst.
III. 176. Ph.M.XI. 18.3.
Theory of Magmthm. When the form is similar, the force is as the weight.

Hausksbee on the law of magnetic attiaction. Coulomb supposes the existence of two magnetic fluids,

Ph. tr. 1712. XXVIl. 506. which are only displaced in each molecule.
438 CATALOGUE. — MAGNETIC SUBSTAKCES..

Kohl on pure cobalt. Crell. N. E. VII. sg.

Abridgment of Coulomb's theory. Journ.
XLV. (II.)448. Cavallo on the magnetism of various sub-
Phys.
stances. Ph. 1786. 62.
Silberschlag. A. Berl. 1786. tr.

Deduces magnetic attraction from currents. Finds, that a smaller quantity of iron will affect the needle
than can be detected by any chemical test. Some pieces of
Rittenhouse, Am. tr. II. 178.
nickel were not magnetic, but they were found to contain
I'etectricite at du magnet-
HauyTheoriede cobalt. Some becomes magnetic by ham-
brass, but not all,

isme. mering, and loses power by heat ; and this effect could
its

not be produced by an artificial mixture of iron with brass.

Prevost de I'origine des forces magnetiques.
8. Genev. 1788. Cavallo's experiments. Ph.tr. 1787.6.

Viallon's theory of magnetism. Roz. XLIII. Almost all substances attracted needles floating on a very

clean surface of quicksilver. The brass which was least mag-

208.
netic was not rendered magnetic by hammering. Iron
On currents. Nich. 8. 1.
supposed magnetic while dissolving in an acid, disturbed the needle 1°. Red
234. hot iron is not attracted. This Gilbert had before observed.

Arnim on the theory of magnetism. Gilb. Brisson. A. P. 1788. l6l.

III. 48. VIII. 84. Cast steel is unfit for magnetic use ; English and German
The of may be imitated by steel best.
magnetic arrangement filings

coated plate of glass placed on two

strewing powder on a Bennet. Ph.tr. 1792-81.
electric balls. Robison.
Thinks that Cavallo's experiments on solution and on
hammering may be explained from the production of pola-

rity in the substances.

But is difficult to conceive, that po-

Magnetic Substances. larity in this sense can increase the attraction.

Landriani in Mayers sammlung. 8. Dresd.

Pa"-et and Hooke on the effect of heat on the
1793. III. 388.
magnet. Birch. IV. 256, 264.
Humboldt on a magnetic serpentine. Ann.
Musschenbroekonthe Indian magnetic sand.
Ch. XXII. 51. Journ. Phys. XLV.
Ph.tr. 1734. XXXVllI. 297. (II.)

314.
Galeationthe iron found in different bodies.
Von Arnim on magnetic substances, Gilb. V,
C. Bon. II. ii.

Ph. 384,
Arderon on giving pohirity to brass. tr.
With a catalogue,
1758. 774.
the magnetism of copper and
Yourtg on Coulomb's experiments. Journ.
Lehmann on
R. I., I.
brass. N. C. Petr. XII. 368.
Carradori on Coulomb's universal magnel-
On the universality of magnetism. TBrug-
isni. Journ. Phys. LV. 450.
mann by Eschenbach. Leipz. 1781.
Sage on the magnetism of nickel. Ph. M.
Coulomb. A. P. 1784.266.
XIII. 58.
Found that wire, when twisted, received 9 tijnes as much
force.
Thenard on nickel. B. Soc. Phil. n. 68.
magnetic
Chenevix on the magnetism of nickel. Nich.
Coulomb on universal magnetism. B. Soc.
8. III. 286. Gilb. XI. 370.
Phil. n. 61, 63. Journ. Phys. LIV. 240,
Hatcheit on magnetical pyrites. Ph.tr. 1804.
267, 454. Journ.R. I., I. Ph. M.XII. 278.
315.
XIII. 401. Gilb. XI. 254, 367. XII. 194, The smallest mixture of antimony destroys the polarity
A metal is affected if it conuins only y^^ part of iron. of iron. M. Young.
 CATALOGUE. — MAGNETICAL EXPERIMENTS. 439

a quantity of iron, too small to be ascertained by chemical

Inslilulion. I. 134. tests, might not have been the cause of the effects
described
From the Journals of the Royal
by Mr. Coulomb, although they indicate a force something
Extract from the Decade Philosophique, No. 21.
greater, upon a rough calculati6n, than one 2000th of the
National Institute. that all bo-
Experiments showing
Y.
weight of the substance,
dies are subject to the magnetic influence, even in a degree
P. 217. Note on Mr. Coulo.mb's Experiments on Mag-
which is capable of being measured.
These experiments were made by Mr. Coulomb, and re- netism.

peated by him before the Institute.

He employed all the We find in No. 3, Tome 3, of the Bulletin de la Societe
he examined the form of a cylinder, or a Coulomb's further experi-
Philoraathique, an account of Mr.
substances that in

small bar J he suspended them by a thread of silk in its na- ments on magnetism. They appear to have been made
tural state,and placed them between the opposite poles of with great precaution, and they tend to confirm the opinion
two magnets of steel. Such a thread can scarcely support that the greater
already advanced in these Journals, p. 135,
more than two or three drachms without breaking ; it was not the whole, of the effect observed was owing to
if
part,
therefore ruicessary to reduce these needles to very small di- the presence of iron. For it appears that, according to the
mensions. IVIr. Coulomb made them about a third of an in the purification of the metals exa-
method employed
inch in length, and about a'thirtieth of an inch in thick- mined, their apparent magnetic power was very materially
ness ; and those of metal only one third as thick. different. Mr. Coulomb observes that, upon this founda-
In making the experiments, he placed the magnets in the tion, we may make.the action of the magnet, upon a needle
same right line. Their opposite poles were separated about thus suspended, a very useful instrument in chemical exa-
a quarter of an inch more than the length of the needle minations for he finds that the attractive force is directly
;

which was to oscillate between them. The result was, as the quantity of iron in any mixture ; and, according to
that of whatever substance the needles were formed, they its magnitude, we may estimate that quantity, when it is so
always ranged themselves accurately in the direction of the small as wholly to elude all chemical tests.

and if they were deflected

from this direction,
magnets ;

with oscillations, which were often as

they returned to
Supposed Magnetism of Animals.
it

or more in a minute. Hence, the weight

frequent as thirty
and figure of the needles being given, it was easy to deter- on the magnetism of the gymnotus
Schilling
mine the force that produced these oscillations.
electricus. A. Berl. 1770. 68,
made in succession with small
The experiments were
Schilling. Ingenhousz Verm.
schr.
of gold, silver, copper, lead, and titi; with little Against
plates
with a bit of chalk, a fragment of bone, 271.
cylinders of glass,
Pav. 1783.
and different kinds of wood. Spallamani a Lucchesini.
Three essays in VanSvvintien's Recueil.
In the course of his lecture on magnetism on the 3oth of
Andry and Thouret. Mem. de la
Soc. de
April, Dr. Young repeated some of these experiments with Med.
wires of different kinds : one of them was of tin, and sus-
silk worm's
Saurine on animal magnetism. Roz.
a
pended within a cylindrical glass jar by single
thread its oscillations were so slow as to occupy several
:
XXXVI. SOS.
minutes, and was scarcely affected by turning the cross
it

which thread was attached ; so that the suspension

Particular Experiments and Pheno-
barto the

«iust have been sufficiently delicate : under these circum-

stances the opposite poles of two strong magnets were ap- mena.
and at the distance of about twice the
plied close to the jar,
but the was absolutely Desaguliers's experiments.
length of the suspended wire
: effect
Ph. tr. 1747- XLIV.
imperceptible :
morning indeed, there had been an
in the Knight's experiments.
appearance of oscillations occupying about a minute, and 6.56.
derived the destruction of
tending to the direction of the magnets, perhaps Waddel and Knight on
from some superficial particles of iron
which had lost their
polarity by lightning.
Ph. tr. 1740.
course of the day.
magnetic property by oxidation in the
There must at any rate be a doubt whether the presence of XLVl. 111.
440 CATALOGUE, — TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.

Colepress on heating a magnet. Pli. tr. I667. Kilter's experiments.Journ.Phys. LVII. 406.
11.50.
Effects of iron on the needle. Ph. tr. lG85.
Terrestrial Magnetistn.
XV. 1213.
Leeuwenhoek's magnetical experiments. Pli.
Declination, Dip, and Variation,
tr. 16J7.X[X. 512.
Ballard on the magnetism of drills. Ph. tr.
For particular observations^ see various nau-
1608.417.
tical and meteorological journals,
Taylor's experiments. Ph. tr. 1721. XXXI. Gellibrand on the variation of the needle.
204.
Petit on aterrella, and on the change of de-
Savery's observations. Ph.tr. 1780. XXXVI. clination. Ph. tr. 1667. [I.n.28. ,

295. l66s. Ph. I668.III. 725.

DecUnation in tr.
Marbel. Ph. tr. 1732. XXXVII. n. 423.
Bond's prediction of the variation to 17 16.
Middleton on the effect of cold on the nee-
Ph.tr. 1668.111. n. 40.
,dle. Ph.tr. 1738. XL. 310.
of poles. Ph.
Makes it 9°. 1?' W. in 1? 16. It was actually about 10°.
Eames on a plurality
tr. 1738.
XL. 383. Auzout on the declination at Rome in 1670.

Desagiiliers. Ph.tr. 1738.

XL. 385. On an Ph.tr. 1670. V, 1184.
It was 21°. W.
experiment of Diifay. 386.
A blow fixing the temporary polarity
and again destroy- Hevelius. Ph. tr. 167O. V. 2059-
ing it.
Halley. Ph. tr. l683. XIII. 208.
Bremond on a file made magnetic by light- Ph. tr. I693. XVII.
Halley's hypothesis.
ning. Ph. tr. 1741. XLI. 614. 563.
Knight's experiments. Ph.
tr. 1744. XLIII.
Bound with XVI. in the copy of the R. X..

161. 1747. XLIV. 656.

With very powerful magnets.
Halley. Ph. tr. 1714. I65.

N. C. Heathcote. Ph. tr. 1684. XIV. 578.

Aepinus on a magnetical experiment.
In Guinea.
Petr. IX. 340.
At Nuremberg. Ph. tr. l685. XV. 1253.
III.
Lafollie's magnetical experiments. Iloz.
Valkmont sur I'aimant qui s'est fait a Char-
99-
tres. 12." Par. I692. M. B.
Van Swinden sur un ph^nomfene paradoxe.
*J. C. on the polarity of iron. Ph. tr. I694.
Recueil. III.
C. Bon. XVIII. 257.
Veratti's magnetical experiments.
Molvneaux on an error from the change of
VI. 31.
variation. Ph.tr. l6y7. XIX. 625.
Cavailo on magnetism as affected by effer-
Ballard on the magnetism of dulls.. Ph. tr.
vescence, Ph.tr. 1786. 1787.
Am. 1698. XX. 417.
Ilittenhouse's magnetical experiments.
tr. II. 178.
Cunningham on the dip. Ph. tr. 1706.XXII.

Am. 507.
Madison's magnetical experiments.
Cunningham. Ph. tr. 1704. XXIV. l639.
tr. IV. 323.

M. In China.
Magnetical phenomena. Ph. I. 426.
Liidicke's experiments. Gilb. XI. 114. Ph. tr. 1700. XXII. 725.
 CATALOGUE. —TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. 441

Ship! are sometimes carried into the Bristol channel in- For 1700, 1710, 1720, 1730, 1744, and 1750. Con-
stead of the British, by mistalting the variation, not by a clude that no calculations can extend to all the changes.

current.
Mountaine on maps and charts. Ph. tr.
Wallison Halley's chart. Ph.tr. 1702.XXIII.
1758. 563.
1106.
*Mountaine and Dodson's chart. R. I.
Saunderson. Ph. tr. 17'20. XXXI. 120.
Mountaine on the variation from 176O to
In the Baltic.
1762. Ph. tr. 1766.216.
Rogers and Halley. Ph. tr. 1721. XXXI.
Williams on ascertaining the longitude by
173.
the variation. Load. 1755. Engl. Ital.
Cornwall. Ph. tr. 1722. XXXII. 55.
Written by Dr. Johnson.
In the Ethiopic ocean.
Euler's theory of the magnetic declination.
-[-Leeuwenhoek on the magnetism of an iron
cross. Ph. tr. 1722. XXX FI. 72. A. Berl. 1755. 117. 1757. 175. I766. 213,
Graham. Ph. tr. 1724. XXXIK. 96. Strmncr et ZegoUstroni de declinatione. Ups.
Observes a diurnal change of variation, 1755.
Graham on the dip. Ph. tr. 1725. XXXIII. Euler's theory. A. Berl. J 755. 107. 1757.
332. 175. 1766.
About 74° 40' in 1 723. Notes the frequency of vibration. Canton on the diurnal variation. Ph. tr, 1759.
Graham. Ph. tr. 1748. XLV. 279- 398.
Middleton. Ph.tr. 1726. XXXIV. 73. 1731. With tables.

XXXVII. 71. 1730. XXXIX. 270'. 1742. Mayer's theory. GiJlt, Anz, 176O. 633. 1762,
XLII. 157. 377. Lichtenberg in Er.xleben. Mayer
In Hudson's Bay.
Op. posth.
Robin's tables from Middleton. Ph. tr. 1731. Confused and inaccurate. Kobison.

XXXVII. 69. 1733. XXXVIII. 127.

Mtindert Sorrey Beschaffenheit der erdkugei
Hoxton on an agitation of the needle in a aus der wirkung des magnets. 1744.
storm. Ph. tr. 1731. XXXVII. 53.
Bdlin Carte des variations. Par. 1765.
Hoxton. Ph. tr. 1739. XLI. 17 1.
Lambert. A. Berl. 1766.
Atlantic.
Wilke's chart. Schw. Abh. XXX. 209.
Musschenbroek. Ph.tr. 1732.XXXVII.428.
A, P. 1772. ii. 464.
At Utrecht.
Musschenbroek's chart for 1744. Introd. II.
Wilke iiber den magneten.
At the end. Eckeberg's observations. Schw. Abh. XXX.
238.
On board the Hartford. Ph. tr. 1732.
XXXVII. 331. Mallet's observations in Lapland. Ph. tr.

Harris. Ph. tr. 1733. XXXVIII. 75. 1770. 363.

Elvius.Sdnv. Abh. 1747-89. Cook.Ph.tr. 1771.422.

Lemonnier. A. P. 1771.93. H.29. 1772. ii.
Wargentin on the effect of an aurora borea-
lis. Ph.tr. 1751. 126. 457. H. 56. 1773. 440. H. 1. 1774. 237.

Mountaine and Dodson on the H. 5. On the dip. 1777- 89. H. 4.

magnetic
chart. Ph.tr. 1754.875. Lemonnier Loix du magnetisme.
Mountaine and Dodson's tables of 50 000 On the line of no declination. Lemonnier.
observations. Ph. A. P. 1777. 168.
tr. 1757. 329.
*OL. II. St
 44S CATALOr.UE. TKUKESTEIAL iMAGNETISM.
Hutchins on the dip in the north seas. Ph. Makes the needle undergo several vicissitudes in the
year,
tr. 1775. 129. 1776. 179. becoming From January to March
four times stationary.
it retires from the meridian, then approaches it till
made about 1735. May, is
Douglass's observations
stationary in June, retires in July, approaches till
October,
Ph. tr. 1776. 18. and from
retires it in November and December.
Known to Mountaine.
Churchman's magnetic atlas. II. 1.
Dunns magnetic atlas. Lond. 1776.
Churchman on the magnetic atlas. 4. R. I,
Legentil. A. P. 1777. 401. H. 5.
Dalton's meteor, observ. 61.
Diilryniple. Ph. tr. 1778. 389.
*llobison. Enc. Br. Art. Variation. Suppl.
Easrlndics.
Art.
Magnetism.
Pickersgiil. Ph. tr. 1778. 1057-
Davis's straights. Macdonald on the diurnal variation of the
Miller. Koz. XIII. 391- needle in Sumatra. Ph. tr. 1796.340.
The
Lacepede. Roz. XV. 140.
variation about 1° s' E. at 7 in the morning,
1" 11' at 5 in the
J?ode Jahrbuch. 1779. afternoon; diminishing again till 7 the
next morning. Supposes the
strongest pole to the south.
VunSwindcn. S. E. Vlll.
Macdonald on the variation of the needle at
Thinks the diurnal variation owing rather to a change in

the needle than in the earth, the effects in different places

St. Helena. Ph.tr. 1798.397.
Nov. 1796, the variation was 15° 40' 311" W.;
and with different needles varying considerably. The de- in-

an aurora creasing 3' 55" from 6 in the morning to 8, then dimi-

clination increases before borcalis.
nishing till 6 in the evening, and
Van Swinden on the affection of the needle remaining stationary all
night.
in the aurora borealis. A. Petr. J780. IV.
Haiiy on natural magnets. B. Soc. Phil. n.
i.H.lO.
.5. Journ.
Phys. XLV. (II.) ,'309.
'

Coulomb. S. E. VIII. , , . .
Rennel's variation chart of Africa. Fark's
Attributes the diurnal Tarijition to the action of»the
Zach. Ephem. IV. 192.
travels.
,sun with his atmosphere, like the aurora bprealis, driv-
ing the magnetic fluid from the parts of the earth nearest lo Harding on the variation.' Ir. tr. IV. 107.
him : the action continuing in these climates an hour or two Thinks the change at Dublin is 1 2' 20 every year.
"

after noon, till the sun reaches the meridian of the magne-
tic pole.
Nugent on the magnetic poles. Ph. M. V.
378.
runcks N. und S. Erdoberflache. Leip.z.
Heller on the magnetic effects of the sun and
. 1781.
moon. Gilb. IV. 477.
Sho\vs the variation and the dip.
Humboldt. B. Soc. Phil. n. 37.
Cassini on the dailv vaikition. Koz. XXIV.
Found the number of vibrations in tqual times at Paris
2.37.
245, at Valcntia 235, atCumanaSig. But what was the
Po'ister in Svvinbiirne's Travels. II. ?
temperature
Several observations of variation. Am. Ac. I.
Humboldt. Ph. M. XI. 3.55.
Chart of the magnetic equator and meridian. Finds the lanishing point of declination lat. 29°. N. Ions'.
A. P. 1786. 4:). Journ. Phys. XLVI. 84. .66° 40'VV. probably of Paris this is further W.
:
than in
Lambert's chart in Bode. 1779.
Silberschlag's theory. A.Berl. 1786.87.
Makes the lines of equal dip parallel.
Humboldt's letters. Ph. M. XVI. l65.
Cavallo. Ph.tr. 1787. 6. Burckhardt on the law of declination at Pa-
Deduces the diurnal variation from the effect of heat. ris. Zach. Mon. corn III.
161, 546. Note.
Btiffon Mineralosrie. V. Ph. M. IX. •
Cotteonthediurnal variation. R02. XLr.204. Gives for the declination at Paris T. dccl. = .449 Csin.

^
 CATALOGUE. —TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. US
,465 gr. t) 4- .0425 (sin. .03 gr. t)
*
+ .0267 (sin. l.oe Progress of the diurnal Variation.
gr. 0* ; 'being the number of years elapsed since 1863,
the degrees, gr. being decimal. In 1799 the declination at
Paris was 2s.26fl", in 183?, according to the formula, it

will be a maximum at 24°. 2S'. The complete period is

860 years.

On a magnetic globe floating in

mercury.
Ph. M. XIII. 404.
Hitter on magnetism. Gilb. XV. 206.
Supposes a lunar period.

Lalande on Churchman's north pole. Ph. M.

XIV. 249.
Account of Gay Lussac and Biot's aerosta-
tic voyage. Ph. M. XIX. S74.
They found little or no difference in the foice at the

height of above 4 miles.

The eruption of Hecla considerably affected the needle.
Robison.

It has been observed, that the variation is

certainly
affected by atmospherical causes, as in the aurora borealis ;
but not certainly by terrestrial, and that it is fair to con-
clude that itscause is wholly atmospherical the
:
argument
appears however to be a weak one.

Table of the change of Declination observed in

London. Cavallo.

1576
U\ CATALOGCE. — MAGNETIC AL APPARATUS.

Strength of Knight's magnets. Ph.

tr. 1744. Sjostcen on making magnets. Gilb. XVIF.
XLIII. 161. 325.
Touching them in a cirde.
Knighton the poles of magnets. Ph. tr. 1745.
A bar rubbed from both ends to the middle, has both
XLIII. 361.
ends of the same quality with the pole employed ; the mid-
Mitchell on artificial magnets. 8. Lond. 1750. dle of the contrary quality.
Cambr. 1751. M.B. Oil somewhat impedes the communication of mag-

Canton's method, with Folkes's report. Ph. netism. Robiscn.

tr. 1751. 31.

Klingatstierna el Brander de magnetismo

ar- Compasses and dipping Needles.
tificial!. Stoch. 1752.
See Navigation.
liiviere sur les aimansartificiels. Par. 1752.
Lahire on an annular needle^ Ph.tr. I6B6.
Richmann on malving magnets. N. C. Petr.
XVI. 344.
IV. 235.
Lahire's variation compass. A. P. 1716.6.
Wenlz on artificial magnets. Act. Helv. II. Mean's compass. A. P. 1731. H. 92.
264.
Buachc's compass. A. P. 1732. 377.
Nebel de magnete artificiaii. 4. Utr. 1756. For the dip and declination.
Antheauime. A. P. 1753, 1761.
Quereineuf's azimuth compass. A. P .
1734.
jintktaulme sur les aimans artificiels. Par.
11.105. Mach.A.VII. 3.
1760.
Middleton's azimuth compass Ph. tr. 1738.
Le Noble's artificial magnets. A. P. 1772. i.
XL. 395,
H. 17. With a telescope.
Lemonnier Loix du niagnetisme. Lemaire's variation compass. A. P. 1747. H.
machine. Ph.
Fothergiil oq Knight's
tr.
126. Mach. A. VII. 361.
1776. 591.
Magny's compass. A. P.
Fuss on artificial magnets. A. Petr. II. ii.H.
Bernoulli on dipping needles. A. P. Prix. V.
35. Roz. 1782. viii. Act. Helv. III. 233.
On artificial magnets. Roz. IX. 454. Trombelli and Collina on the invention of
Wilson on Knigiit's artificial loadstones. Ph. the compass. C. Bon. II. iii. 333,372.
tr. 1779-51.
Knight.Ph.tr. 1749. iii.

Made of elutriated iron filings, and linseed oil. Rhomboidal needles are bad.

E. ]M. A. VI.694. *Kuight's compass, with Smeaton's remarks.

E. M. Piiysique. Art.
Aimant. Ph. tr. 1750. 505, 513.
Ingenhousz's paste. Venn. Schr. 1.409. Duhamel on the improvement of the com pass.
Brisson on the best steel for magnetical uses. . A. P. 1750. 154. H. 1. 1772. ii. 44. H. 58.
A. P. 1788. 169. Repert. III. 276. Zeiher's needle and compass. N. C. Petr.
Cast steel bad. English or German best. VII. 309. VIIL 284.
Kotelnikovv's suspension for a needle. N. C.
Tremery on elliptic magnets. B. Soc. Phil.
n. 6. Petr. VIII. 304.

A complex horseshoe magnet. Isich. 8. V. Nairneon Mitchell's dipping needle. Ph. tr.

216. 1772. 476.

."5>
 CATALOGUE. — MAGXETICAL OESERVATIOXS. US
Marine compass. A. P. 1773. 320. E. M. A. VI. 7 14. E. M. PI. V. Marine. III.
Lemonnier on removing friction from com- E.M. Physique. Art. Aimant. Boussole.
passes. A. P. 1773. 440. H. 1. Degaulte sur un compass azimuthal a reflec-
A compass. Roz. Intr. I. 422. tion. 8. R. S.

Lorimer's needle for the dip and the varia- Cavallo.Ph.tr. 1786.65.
tion. Ph. tr. 1775. 72. Recommends for delicate purposes suspension by a chain
of horse hair.
Cavendish. Ph. tr. 177fi. 375.
The needle is capable of inversion the dipping needle on: Roz. XIX. 189.
Cotte's variation compass.
Mitchell's construction. Romans's improved compass. Am. tr. 11.396.
Gaule's variation compass. A. P. 1777.
Repert. IV. 178.
Krafft on the dipping needle. A. Petr. II. ii. The box hung on a centre.
170.
Report on M'Culloch's sea compasses. Lond.
Ingenhousz on suspending needles. Ph. tr.
1788.
1779. 537.
Drury on cased needles. Ir. tr. 1788. II. IIQ.
Proposes to have them made hollow, so as nearly to float
Repert. I. 111.
on a fluid, and then suspended by a magnet, with a cavity
below Rennet's suspension of the magnetic needle.
to prevent their being shaken off.
Ph.tr. 1792.81. Repert. XII. 311.
Lac6p^de on compasses, Roz. XV. 140.
Aspider's thread, which, after 8000 revolutions, showed
*Van Swinden on magnetic needles. S. E. 1

no tendency to untwist, and broke at last.

VIII. 1780.
Prize memoir. Proposes flat needles, turning on a pro- Prony's instrument for observing the varia-
jecting point. tion. Journ.
Phys. XLIV. (II.) 471.
*Coulomb on magnetic needles. S. E. IX. Cassini's azimuth compass. M, Inst, V. 145.
1780.
Prize memoir.Thinks the form of a needle of little conse-

.quencc •.
perforating them has scarcely any effect. Divided Magnetical Observations.
needles act most powerfully. Found the circle of contact of

the needle with

Howard on a reversion of the needle. Ph. Ir.
its support, in a particular case, -Jj of aline,
it to be equally pressed, which 1676. XI. 647.
supposing is
nearly true.
Reversion of a compass. Ph. tr. 1684, XIV,
Coulomb's needle suspended by a thread of
520.
silk. A. P. 1785.560.

Coulomb's mode of measuring the dip, M.

Middleton. Ph. tr. 1738. XL. 310.
Found the needle afiected by cold so that it could not
Inst. IV. 565. B. Soc. Phil. n. 31.
traverse.
Compares the weight required to keep the needle hori-
2nntal with the time of its horizontal vibration ; and thinks Bouguer on marine observations of declina-
that the dip may be thus determined within lo'or 12'. tion. A. P. Pri.x. II. vi.

Coulomb. Ph. M. XV. 186. Remark on the disturbance of the nee'dle

by
Prefers long and broad needles magnetized by Aepinus's the electricity
'
of the glass. Ph. tr. 1746.
method .
XLIV. 242.
The may be removed by
Gattey on guarding needles from electricity,
electricity a wet finger.

Roz. XVII. 296. Waddel and Knight on the destruction of

Rmnouski on observing the dip. A. Petr. 1781. polarity by lightning. Ph, tr, J749. XLVI.
V. i. 191. 111.
446 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGY.
The needles were rhomboidal, there was iron about the Bernoulli on the atmosphere. Act. Heir. T.

compass, and in the binnacle. 35. U. 101.

Ellis on wind and weather. Ph. tr. 1755. 124.
Franklin's physical and meteorological ob-
Magnetic Measures.
servations, read 1756. Ph. tr. 1765. 182.
Milk's essay on the weather. 12.
See Terrestrial Magnetism.
Musschenbroek's cautions on observations.
Graliam. Ph. tr. 1725. XXXIII. 3.32.

Observed the frequency of the vibrations of the dipping N. C. Petr. VIII. 367.

needle. Richard llisto'ue natureile del'air et des me-

Coulomb. A. P. 1785.578. teores. 10 v. 12. Par. 1770, 1771.

Shows, that a horizontal needle is urged by a Lambert on meteorology. A.Berl. 1771- GO.
force which is constant if reduced to the direction of the Lambert on meteorological observations. A.
meridian.
Berl. 1772. 60.
Saussure's magnetometer. Voyages, cccclv. Defuc Modifications de I'atmosphere. 4. Gen.
1772.8. Par. 1784. R.I.
METEOROLOGY. *Df/uc Idees sur la meteorologie. 2 v. 8.

Lond. 1786, 1787- R. L

Literature of Meteortdogj-.
Deluc on meteorology. Roz. XXXVII. 120.
"

Deluc'ri answer to Monge. Ann. Ch. VIlI.

Weigels Chemie.' ^. 398.
73.
Meteorology in general. Colte Traite de meteorologie. 4. Par. 1774.

Zahn on the economy of tlie world. Suite. 2 V. 1789.

Cotte on meteorology. Roz, VII. 93.
Lycosthenes on meteors.
J)cs Cartes Meteora. Opp. II. Cotte's general results or axioms. Journ.
Ph. tr. abr. II. i. 1 . IV. 2 p. J. 1 . VI. 2 p, i.
Phys. XLIV.(l.)23l. Ph. M. VI. 146.
1. Vni. 2 p. i. 377. X. 2 p. i. 269. Note of Cotte's memoirs. Journ. Phys,
Fritscfi on meteors. XLV.(II.)431.
Jurin invitatio ad observationes metcorologi- Fdhiger liber die witterung. 4. Sagan. 1773.
cas. Ph. tr. 1^23. 11. 422. XXX Toaldo on meteorology as affecting vegeta-
Greenwood on the method of meteorologi- tion. Roz. X. a49.
cal observations. Ph. tr. 1728. XXXV. Toaldo la meteorologia applicata all'
agri-
390. eoltura. 8. Ven. 1786. R. S.
*Polem observationes meteorologicae Paia- Toaldo Saggio meteorologico. 4. R. S.

vianae. Ph. tr. 1731. 201. Busch Vermischte abhandlungen. Hamb.

Cyrilli aeris terraeque historia, 1732.
Ph. tr. 1777. II. 225.
1733. 184. Van Sieiitdfh sur les observations faites a
On the causes of a dry and wet summer. Ph. Franeker. Leyd.8.

tr. 1740. 519. Extract of a memoir of Van Swinden, by

A frosty winter producing a diy summer. Cotte. Roz. XII. 297.

HoHmann on meteorological observations. Dionis du Sejour sur les phenom&nes. 8.

C. Gott. 1751. 1. 41. And elsewhere. R.S.

 CATALOGUE. METEOROLOGY. 447

Gatterer's meteorological year. Commeii- Meteorological remarks. Roz. XXXIV.

tat. Gott. 1780. III. Ph. 82. 321.
Gatterer Goth. Mag. I. ii. 1.
Monge on phenomena of me-
the principal
Horrebow tractatus historicometeorologicus. teorology. Ann. Ch. V. 1.

4.Copenh. 1780. Garnett's collection of meteorological ob-

Jones on the natural philosophy of the ele- servations. Manch. M. IV. 234, 521.

ments. 4. R. 1. Copland and others on the weather. Manch.

,
Rosent/ial iiber meteorologische beobachtun- M. IV. 243.
Dalton's meteorological observations and
gen. 4. Erf. 1781.
Ephemerides societatis meteorologicae Pala- essays. 8. Lond. 1793. Rules for judging
tiiiae. 1781. . . Manh. B. B. of the weather. 195.
Extracts from the memoirs of the Palatine Enc. Br. Art. Weather,

society^ by Cotte. Roz. XLIH. 294. Six on meteorology. 8. 1794. R.I.

Joiiru. Phys. XLIV. (I.) Kirwan on the weather. Ir. tr. V. 3, 31,

Mouitum ad observatores societatis meteoro- 39.

Kirwan on the variations of the
logicae. 4. R. S. atmosphere.
Ir. tr. Vlll. 2G9.
Achard on the imperfections of meteorology.
Roz. XXIII. 282. Pouchet Meieorologie terrestre. 8. Rouen,
*Hube iiber (lie ausdlinstung. 1797. R. S.
Locliead on the natural
lioiiland Tableau des proprietes de I'air. 8. history of Guiana.
Mich. II. 297.
Par. 1784. II. I.

*Senebier on the improvement of meteoro-

Humboldt's letter from South America.
Journ. Phys. XL1X.433.
logy. Roz. XXVII. 300. XXX. 177,
Lamarck on meteorological registers. Journ.
24o, 328.
*Saussure Voyages. Phys. LI. 419.
Coupe's meteorological remarks. Journ.
Saussure Relation abregee d'un voyage a la
Phys. LIII. 262.
cime du Mont Blanc. 8. Gen.R.S.
Bcddoes on prognostics of the weather.
Account of Saussure's journey. Roz. XXXI. Nich.8. I. 98.
317, 374.
Capper on the weather in
England. Nich.
Saussure's observations. Roz. XXXIV. l6l, 8. I. 275.
*Saussure liygrometrie. Parrot on meteorology. Gilb. X. 1G7.
Madison on meteorological observations. Am. Bockmann's meteorological remarks. Gilb.
tr. II. 123.
XIV. 112.
Filgrams VVetrerkundc. Vienna, 1788. 4. Cordier's journey to the summit of Teneriffe.
Marsham's indications of spring. Ph. tr. Ph. M. XVII. 31.
1789- 154. Menzies's journey to the summitof Whararai.
Rdtnond Observations faites dans les Pyre- Journ. R. I., 1.311.
nees. 8. Par. 1789. U. S.
Prognostics of the weather. Nich. VII. 148.
Ramond's ascent of Mont Perdu. Nicb VI. Aerostatic voyage by
Gay Lussac and Biot
230. Ph. M. XIX. 374
448 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGICAL JOURNALS.

Plot. Ph. tr. 1685. XV. 930.

IMeleorological Apparatus, and
Modes of At Oxford. A barometrical diagram.
Observing. Garden. Ph. tr. 1685. XV. 991.
Leutmanni inslrumenta meteorognostica. 8. Hillier. Ph. tr. l697. XIX. 687.
Cape Corse in Guinea.
Wittenberg, 1725.
Nollet. A. P. 1740. 385, 567. 1741. 338. H. Derham. Ph. tr. I698. XX.41.AtUpminster.
145. 1699. XXI. 45. 1700. XXII. 527. 170s.

Pickering. Ph. tr. 1744. n. 473. XXIIi. 1443. 1707. XXV, 2378. 1709.
*Cavendish on the meteorological instru- XXVI. 309, from Irelandf ; 342. Switzer-
ments of the R. S. Ph.tr. 1776.375. land and Upminster.1732. XXXVIT.26I.
Fontana's account of the Grand Duiic's cabi- 1733.XXXVIII. 101. 1734.XXXV1II.
net. Roz. IX. 41. 334, 405, 458.
Changeux's meteorographic instruments.
Cunningham. Ph.tr. l699- XXI,323. 1704.
Roz. XV. 74. XVI. 325. XXIV. 1639.
TIemmtr Descriptio instruuientoruni societa- China.

tis Palalinae. 4. Manh. 1782. Townley. Ph. tr. 1699- XXI. 47. 1705.
Monitum ad observatores societatis Palatinae. XXIV. 1877.
Rosenthal Meteorologische werkzeuge. 2 v. Locke.Ph.tr. 1705. XXIV. I917.
8. Gotha, 17S2, 1784. Cruquius. Ph. tr. 1724. XXXIII. 4.
Landriani Descrizione di una machina me- Middieton. Ph. tr. 1731. XXXVII. 76.

teorologica. 4. R.
S. *Poleni. Ph. tr. 1731. XXXVII. 201. 1738.
*Moscati's description of a meteorological XL. 239.
observatory. Soc. Ital.
V. 356. Pavia.

On Lazowsky's long wire. Nich. II. 11. *Musschenbro€k. Ph. tr. 1732. XXXVII.
Toaldo on the prognostications of animals. 357,428.
Ph. M. IV. S67. Utrecht.

Schweighauser on the sound

of a long wire.
CyrilU. Ph.tr. 1733. XXX VIU. 184.
Ph. M. IX. 285. Weidler. Ph. tr. 1736. XXX IX. 238, 260.
A to emit a sound upon the
very long wire was supposed XL.
Hadley. Ph. tr. 1738. 154. Abstr. 1742.
approach of any change of weather it was probably from
:

XLII. 243. Abstr.

an alteration of temperature.

Lynn. Ph. tr. 1741. XLI. 686.

Bossi suHa dottrina di QuatremereDisjonval.
Synopsis.
8. Tur. 1803. R. S.
of animals. Ph, Revillas. Ph. tr. 1742. XLII. 193.
Meyer on the presensations Rome.
M.XI.211.
Nouveau traite sur les barometrcs. 8. Par. Linings. Ph. tr. 1748. XLV. 336.
South Carolina.
1802.
T. Heberden. Ph.tr. 1751.357. 1754.617.
Meteorological Journals. Madeira.

A. P. Numerous observations may be found Watson. Ph.tr. 1753. 108.

by the inde.\. Siberia ; abstract.

 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGY, CELESTIAL INFLUENCES. 445

Simon. Ph. tr. 1753. 320. 17o6. 759. Pickersgill. Ph. tr. 1778. 1057.
Dublin. Davis's Straights.

Borlase. Ph. tr. 1763. 27. 1770. 230. 1772. Latrobe. Ph.tr. 1779-657. )781. 197-
365. Several manuscript continuations. R. S.
Rose. Ph. tr. 1766. 291. Nain and Okak.
Guebec.
Diary kept in Hudson's bay. f. R. S.
Huxham Ph. tr. 1767. 443.PI. Chandler's meteorological diary- f. R^ S.
Carlyle. Ph.tr. 1 768. 83. Robertson's journal kept on board the Rain-
Wolfe. Ph. tr. 1768. 151. bow. 4. R. S.
Warsaw.
Schotle. Ph. tr. 1780. 478.
Wargentin. Ph. tr. 1768. 152.
Scnegambia.
Stockholm.

Farr. Ph.
*Ephenierides ^ocietatis Palalinae. Cotte's
tr. 1769. 81. 1775. 194. 1776. 367.
extracts; Roz.
1777.353. J778. 567.
Aikins. Ph. tr. 1784. 58.
Bristol.
Minchead.
Miller. Ph. tr. 1769. 155. 1771. 195.'
Ph. tr. 1770.228. At the Royal Observatory of Paris, A. P.
At Bridgewater. 1784. 631.

Pigott. Ph.tr. 1771. 274. Bent, for several years, M.S. R.S^
Rouen. London.

Barker. Ph. tr. 17 72.. 1802.

Pcarce. M.S. R. S.
Fort William. '^t^f/'="0'RNIA.
From 1736. Lyndon.
Kirwan. Ir. tr.V.VI.
Woilaston. Ph. tr. 1773. 67.
Dublin.
Cotte. S. E. 1773. 427.
Observations in Greenland, Labrador, and
From Messier, for 10 years.
Africa. Gilb. XIL 206.
Journals kept at the house of the R. S. Ph.
Mourgue Essais de siatistique.
tr. 1775. . .
Ace. Jonrn. Phys. LII. 118.
Horsley. Ph. tr. 1775. 167. Abriged 1776.
Several other manuscript journals. R. S.
354.
Barker. Ph. tr. 1775. 202.
Allahabad.
General effects of the Sun and Mooii.

Roxburgh. Ph. tr. 1778. 180. 1780.246. Kratzenstein von dem einflusse des mondes.
Manuscript continuations. R. S. 8. Halle, 1746. 1771-
Fort St. George. Lambert on tl^e moon's influence upon the

Dalryniple. Ph. tr. 1778. 389- atmosphere. Act. Helv. IV. 315. A. Berl.
East Indies. 1771.66.
Barr. Ph. tr. 1778. 560. 1780. 272. Toaldo della vera influenza degli astri. 4. Pad. '

Montreal. 1770. R.S.

M'Gouan. Ph. tr. 1778. 564. Frencb by Jacquin.
Edinburgh. Toaldo Tabulae barometri aestnsque maris.
4. Pad. 1773.
Lloyd. Ph. tr. 1778. 571.
Leeds. Toaldo Saggio meteorologico. 4. R. S.
VOL. II. 3M
450 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGV, CLIMATE.

Toaldo Oil the lunar influence. Roz. XIII. Mairan on the causes of heat and cold. A. P.
442. 1719. 104. H. 3. 1721. 8. H. 16. 1765.
•

Toaldo Saros meteoiologique. 4. R. S. Roz. 143. H. ].

XXI. 176. Mairan Recherches sur le chaud et le froid.

Toaldo's 24 aphorisms. Rozier. 1785.388. 4. Par. 1768.

Toaldo's system and observations. Ph. M. Weitbrechl on the heat of running water. C.
III. 120. IV. 417. Petr. VII. 235.

Gr. Fontana on the hinisolar influence on the Euler on climates. C. Petr. XI. 82.

atmosphere. Ac. Sienn. V.' llG. Merely mathematical ; supposing the sun to cool the
earth at night.
Fabri Geogr. Ma^,. II. i. 72.
Horsley. Ph. tr. 177fi. 354. Nollet on the freezing of large rivers. A. P.
Cotte on lunar periods. Roz. XX. 249- 1743. 51. H. 8.
Cotte on the lunar period of 19 years. Roz. Krafft Oratio declimatibus borealibus.
XXVIII. 270. XLII. 279. Journ. Piiys. Segner de caloreet frigore. 4. Golt. 1746.
L. 358. Ellis on the temperature of the bottom of the
Mann on aerial tides. Roz. XXVU. 7. Ph. sea. Ph. tr. 1751. 211.
Mag. V. 104. Kaestner on Halley. Hamb. Mag. II. 426.
Chiminello on atmospheric tides. A. Pad. Simpson's fluxions.
r. 195. IV. 88. Sheldrake's causes of heat and cold. 8. Lond.
Lamarck on the lunar influence on the atmo- 1756.

sphere. Journ. Phys.

X
LVI. (III.) 428. LII. Wargentin on climate. Schw. Abh. 1757.
296. LIII. 277. B. Soc. Phil. n. 15. JSich. 159.
III. 488. Ph.M. IX. 373. Gilb. VI. 204. Marline's essays.
Against Cotte. Lomonosow on the ice in the North sea. Schw.
Howard on the variation of the barometer Abh. 1763. 37.
from solar and lunar influence. Ph. M. On mean temperatures. Act. Helv. IV. 1.

VII. 355. Gr'uners Eisgebirge des Schweizerlandes. 8.

Finds a mean elevation of .1 at the quadratures.
Bern. 17 60. 36.
Lamanon on atmospherical tides. Gilb. VI.
Heberden on the heat at diflJerent
heights.
194. Ph. tr. 1765. 126.
Hemmer on the sun's influence upon the ba- Finds 1" depression for each 1 90 feet of height.

rometer. Ph. M. XI. 151.

Barrington on the clianges in the climate of
Italy. Ph. tr. 1768. 58.
Climate in general.
Douglas on the temperature of the sea at
Ph. ditterent depths. Ph. 1770.
Halley on the heat of different latitudes. tr.
.S9.^

tr. 1693. XVII. 878. Emerson's miscellanies. 490.

From computation. Williamson on the change of climate in
{•Lahire on the thermometer covered with America. Am. tr. I. 277, 336.
snow ascending in a frost. A. P. IX. 318 On chmates. Roz. III. 245. IV. 174. X. 148.
Effect oi the wind on the thermometer. Ph. Bourrit des glacieres de bavoye. 8. Gen.
tr. 1710, XXVU. 644. H. 13. 1773.
 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGT, CLIMATE. 451

Bourrit des Alpes Pennines. 8. Gen. 1781. Hamilton on the climate of Ireland. Ir. tr-

Phil. tr. 1775. 459. 1783. II. 143. VI. 27. Nich. 11. 381.
Roebuck the tem- Morozzo on
suggests the estimation of climates by temperature of the sea and
tlie •

perature of springs. lakes at diftereut depths. M. Tur. 1788,

Voyages dans
-
Saussure les Alpes. TV, 309.
Observes, that there is sometimes a sense of heat on these Guthrie on the climate of Russia. Ed. tr. If.
mountains.
213.
Wilson on local heat. Ph. tr. 1780.
Mann on the changes of climates. Comm-
Hassenfratz on the free heat of the atmo-
Ac. Theod. Pal. 1790. VI. 82. Gi:eu. I.
sphere. Roz. XIX. 337.
231. Ph. M. IV. 357. V.
Goth. Mag. I. ii. 19-
Mann sur les grandes gelees. 8. Ghent,
Six on local heat. Ph. tr. 1784. 428. 1788.
1792. R.S.
103.
Mayer de variationibus thermomeri. Op.
In cloudy weather there is little difference In the tempe-

rature at different in clear weather the lowest ined. I. 1.

heights ;

station is coldest at night, and hottest by day. When the Toaldo on the hejit of the lunar rays. C. Bon.
heat is below 40° there is liltle difference in the day time. VII. 0.9,471.
!n general the difference is 1° or 2', sometimes 4° at night.
Toaldo on climates. Ac. Pad. III. 2l6.
The ground is sometimes 1° or 2° colder than the air a few
Pictet Essais de physique. I. viii.
feet above it, and was found even 1 0° colder than the highest
On the warmth of the strata of air.
station.

In a well at Dover, 360 feet deep, with 21 feet of water, Picteton mean temperatures. Roz.XLII. 78.
the water was 56" at the surface, 52° in the middle, 48|" at Williams on the use of the thermometer in
the bottom, in September. At Sheerncss in a well with 4. Phllad. 1792. Am. tr. III.
soundin;?.
ISOfeet of water, wholly below the level of the sea, the ther-
82.
mometer was 51° in the middle, 56° at the bottom: but
Dalton on climates. Meteor, observ. 1 1 8.
perhaps the pressure of six atmospheres disturbed the ther-
mometer a little. Cotte on temperatures. Roz. XLII. 282.

Pugh on European climates. 8. Lond. 1784. Cotle on lunar constitutions. Roz. L. 358.
U.S. *Prevost sur I'equilibre de la chaleur. Roz.
Deluc Idees. Il.dccxcvii. XLII. 81.
On the sense of heat upon high mountains. Lamarck on the variations of the heavens in
Forster's works. mean latitudes. Note. Ph. M. XV. I89.
Proves that ice may be formed at sea. Cassini on the equinoctial variation of tem-
*Kirwan's estimate of the temperature of dif-
perature. Roz. XL. 295.
ferent latitudes. 8. Lond. 1787. K. I. Pr.
Rittenhouse on the temperature of the air
--by Adet. 8.
and of the sea. Am. tr. 111. \Qi.
Exir. Ptoz. XXXVir. 410.
Strickland on the use of thermometers in
Kirwan on the variations of the atmosphere.
naviqat.on. Am. tr. V. 90.
-

Extr. Ph. M.XVI. 21'>.

Van Svvinden on hard winters. Journ. Pliys.
On tliC heat of summers and winters.
L. 277.
Darvviu. Ph. tr. 1788. 43.
The Playfair. Ed. tr.
air ascending from t..e vallies towards the hills, must
Says, tl.at the temperature diminishes 1° for about so«
expand, and thence become cooler : thus the thermometer
feet of elevation.
often rises with the barometer.
 4^2 CATALOGUE.. — METEOROLOGY, CLIMATE.

HiiniSoldt on the temperature of the sea. B. mer heat is

usually 79°- In every habitable climate there

Soc. Fhil. n.57. is a heat of 60° or more, for at least 2 months.

Says, that the water becomes much colder in shallow According to Cavallo, the greatest heat of the day in
is before 3 o'clock;
places,
July according to others, about half
way between noon and sunset.
Prony on the declination of the columns of
the I^intheon. B. Soc. Phil. n. 37-

Probably the effect of a change of temperature.

Particular Observations of Tem-
Beddoes on perature.
foretelling the temperature of
summers. Nich. V. 131. Nich.8.1.98. Account of a frost in Somersetshire. Ph. tr.

On the temperature of springs. Gilb. III. 217. 1672. VII. 5138.

Lamarck on the cliniate in middle latitudes. Derham on the great frost of I7O8 — 9. Ph.
Journ. Phys. LVI. 118. Note. Ph. M. tr. 1709. XXVI. 454.
XV. 189. Derham on a frost. Ph. tr. 1731. XXXVII.
Voliinj on the climate and soil of America. 16.

8. 1804. R. I. *Cossigni and Reaumur. A. P. 1733. . 1740.

Esmark on the height of the snow line. Ph. Isle of Boutbon and Paris.
'

M. XVII. 374. Miles. Ph. tr. 1742. XLII. 20. 1747.XLIV.

Perrln's register of the heat of the sea, in the 613. 1749. XLVI. 208. 1750. XLVI. 571.
East Indies. Nich. VIII. 131. 1754. 507, 525. 1755. 43.
CoUe's fieneial aphorisms, from Gren. 111. 5. There Middleton. Ph. tr, 1742. XLII. 157.
variation of heat between the tropics
Linings. Ph,
is little it be-
:
tr. 1743. XLII.49I.
comes greater on plains than on hills : it is never so low In Carolina.
near the sea as in inland parts: the wind has no effect on
Ardeion. Ph. tr. 1750. XLVI. 573, 1754*
it ;
its maximum aad minimum are about six weeks after

the solstices it varies more in suiamer than in winter

507.
: : it

is least a little before sunrise:' its maxima in the sun Stedman. Ph. tr. 1751. 4.
and shade are seldom on the same day : it decreases more Deniidoir. Ph. tr. 1753. 107.
rapidly in the autumn than it increases in summer. A cold In Siberia.
winter docs not forebode a hot summer.
Trcmblcy. Ph. tr. 1757. 148.
Kirwan says, that the mean heat at the sea side is 84" — 53 Hague.
(sine lat.) *. From this we must deduct for elevation, i" Huxham. Ph.tr. 1757.428. 1758.523.
for each 800 feet that wc ascend perpendicularly, wheVe the
Smeaton. Ph.tr. 1758. 488.
declivity is about 6 feet per mile ; where 7 feet, 1" for 600
Edystone and Plymouth.
feet ;
where 13 feet, for 500 ;
where 1 5 or more, 1" for 400.
Ellis. Ph. tr. 1758. 754.
For the distance from the sea, we must add 1° for each 50
In Georgia :
greatest heat 105°.
miles, between 10° and 20° latitude ; between 2.5° and 30",
1° for 100 miles : between 30° and 35°, we must deduct 1" Brooke. Ph. tr. 1759. 58, 70.
for 400 miles; between 35" and 70" for 150. It seldom Maryland.
freezes in latitudes below 35°, and seldom hails beyond 60° ;
Pallas. PI), tr. 1763.62.
between these limits it
generally thaws when the sun's alti-
Bcilin.
tude is above 40°. The greatest cold is
usually half an hour
before sunrise ;
the greatest heat at the equator about 1
Howard. Ph. tr. 1764. 118.
•'clock ; further north it is later : in latitude 50° about half Bedfordshire.

past 2. In latitudes above 48° July is warmer thanAugust: Martin. Ph.tr. 1764. 217-
in lower latitudes colder. At Petersburgh the greatest sum- Bengal.
 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGY, CLIMATE. 45$

Whitehurst. Ph. tr. 17^)7. 265. Heberden's table of the mean heat from 1763
Apr. 1 8, at
J past 9, p. m. — 1
°
F. to 1772. Ph. tr. 1788. 66.
Bevis and Short. Ph. tr. 1768. 54, 55. P. Wilson on cold attending a hoar frost.

Byres. I'h. tr. 1768. 336. Ed. tr. I. 146.

At Rome, gg''.
Pingie on some severe winters, A. P. 1789.
Watson. Ph. tr. 1771.213. 514.
Wilson. Ph. tr. 1771.326. Philotattee. Jsiatic Mirror. Mag. 1789.
Glasgow.
An account of the heat Cawnpore, from
at 7 th April t«
6th May 1789. For 21 days from 14th April to 6th May,
Van Swinden. Ph. tr. 1773. 89.
mean
the heat without doors at 2, p. m. was 127°, the
De Caifi.S. E 1773.541. greatest heat, lath April, 144"; the mean heat at night U3":

On the cold in Canada from the N. W. winds. behind a tattee, or wet mat, tlie mean heat, at 2, was 79",
48 lower than in the open
'

air.
Barker. Ph.tr. 1775. 202.
*Cotte's table of temperatures. Roz-
Allahabad. The heat often 109" in the shade, once 114°.
XXXIX. 27.
Roebuck on the heal of London and Edin-
Agrees in general with Kirwan. Cotte malies the mean
burgh. Ph. tr. 1775. 459. temperature of Paris 9;° R. or 53".4 F.
Roz, IV. 82. Cotte on some severe winters. Journ. Phys.
A heat of34i R. or lOo" F. was fatal to more than l»000
XLVIII. 270.
persons at Pekin.
Toaldo on the temperatures of 50 places.
Brisson and Duluc. A. P. 1777- 522.
Roz. 43.XXXIX
The cellar or well of the observatory varied from ol" to
Toaldo on some sudden heats. Soc. Ital. VI.
IQl" R. or from 53'' to
i5|" F.
85.
Wilson on cold at Glasgow. Ph. tr.' 1780.
A copious table of temperatures by Heinsius.
45 I .
Erxleb. §.761.
Blagden. Ph. tr. 1781.
From Winkler's physik.
The mean temperature in Jamaica is about 81°.
Rumford on the saltncss of the sea. Ess. If.
CullumOn a hardfiosi 23 June 1783. Ph. tr.
vi.

1784.416. Manch. M. IV. 601.

Cassini. A. P. 1786. 507- Roz. XXXV. 140. The sea varies at Liverpool from 36° to 68''.

Cassini on the greatest heat at Paris. M. Messier on the heat of 1793. Ann. Ch.
Inst. IV. 338. XVIII. 310.
In 1701, 104° F. Messier on the heat at Paris. M, Inst. IV.
Hunter. Ph. tr. 1788. 53. 501.
Found the springs at Kingston in Jamaica, about 80°
;
Manch. M. IV.
after a gentle ascent of two miles 79° ;
cold spring, nearly The thermometer at Kendal is about 47° at a mean. •

1400 yards above the sea, was 61 j"; the variation is 1" for Kirwan's rules give 4 8i°.
SSOfeet.Theextremes atKingston weresg and gi° :theusual Ph. M. X. 172.
height in the cold season from 70' to 77' in the hot from The mean temperature Columbo
, at is 79^.5, the utmost
«5° to 90°. At Brighthelmstone the heat of a well was 50", variation 13".
at Bromley, in November 491", and the mean between the The mean of the greatest cold and heat at Paris is 54*^.5.
heat in London, at sunrise and at 2 o'clock, is about 49". 2. Lalandt mentions a heat of 113° in Senegal. In the sum-
Kirwan gives 52" for the mean heat of London, The mers of 1753, 1765, and 179s,
wrclls it was 104" in France.
at New York vary from 54° to 50°. The mean temperature in London is 50°, 5 from the ob-
454 "CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGY, WINDS.

servations of the R. S. varying in different years from 48° spirits ;

this is said to crystallize in bad weather, especially

to 52® : the mean of the greatest cold and greatest heat is 50" in windy weather : but it is probably mote atfectcd by eoH
or 4g°. than by wind.

A t the equator, the line of congelation is about 1 5 600 feet

above the sea; near the tropic, 13 430; at Teneriffe, lat. Winds.
28°, 10 000 ; in Auvergne, lat. 45°, 6740 ;
lat.51° to 54"

5800 ; lat. 80° n. about 1200. Bouguer says, 2434 tois»s in Winds in general.
the torrid zone ; in France 1300 or 1600.
Bacon de ventis. 1664. Works. III. 441.
Bohun on winds. 8. Oxf. l671.
Meteorological Tliermometers. Ace. Ph.tr. 1672. VII. 5147.
Garden's causes of wind. Ph. tr. l6S5. XV.
See Heat.
1148.
Self registering thermometer. Leupold. Th.
Morhofi Polyhistor. II. ii. c. 33.
Aerostat, t. 23.
D'Alembat sur la cause geuerale des vents.
Van Swinden surla comparaison des thermo-
4. Berl. 1747.
metres. 253.
Ace. A. P. 1750. H. 41.
On thermometers showing the maximum.
Relating to gravitation.
Lord Charles Cavendish on thermometers Musschenbioek Introductio. II; 1090.
showing the maximum. Ph.tr. 1757. 300.
VVargentin. Schw. Abh. 1762. 173.
Gaussen. Itoz. XV II. 61. Elder on the motions of fluids from he?it. N.
Six's thermometer. Ph. tr. 1782. 72. C.Petr. XI. XIII. XIV. XV.
Six on a thermometer. 8. Maidstone, 1794.
Leipz. Samuil. zur Physik. II. 575.
K.I.
Coudvaye Theorie des vents et des ondes. 8.
Hutchins's thermometgrs. Ph. tr. 1783.303*.
Fontenay, 1786. Copenh. 1796. R.S. Par.
Rutherford's thermometer. Ed. tr. III. 247. 1802.
Consisting of two horizontal thermometers, one of spirit,
Ducarla on winds. Roz. XXXII. 89.
with a little cone of coloured glass within the fluid, the
Kirwan on the variations of the atmosphere.
other of mercury, with a bit of ivory in the empty part : the

one marking the greatest heat, the other tne least. Ir. tr.

Keith's self regiitcriiig thermometer. Ed.tr. Darwin's botanic garden. Notes.

IV. 203. Nich. HI. 264. Ph. M. IE. 61. Observations on winds. Manch. M. IV. 601.
Glib. XVII. 319. Capper on the winds and monsoons. 4. Lond.
Wiih a float leaving a mark, or writing on a wheel. 1801. U. S.
Enc. Brit. Art. I hermomeler.
Lemaistre on Six's thermometer. Gilb. II.
Regular Winds.
287.
Garden on the cause of several winds. Ph. tr.
Von Arnim's thermometrograph. Gilb. II.
1685. XV. 1148'.
289.
*Halley on the trade winds, with a map. Ph.
Crichton's self registering thermometer. Ph.
tr l.iSG. XVI. 1>3. /

M XV. 147. Glib. XVI[ 317.

*Wailis'bOi)jeitions to Ilalley. Birch. IV.5I9.
A thermometer of metal showing the ma.iimum and mi-
* Had
ley on the cause of trade winds. Ph. tr.
nimu-n.
A oaroscope is sometimes made of a solution of 6 parts of 1735. XXXIX 58.

camphor, 2 nitre, and l sal aramoniacj in common malt On the rotatory momentum of the air.
 CATALOGUE. METEOROtOGY, WINDS. 455

is more E. towards America, and more S. towards Africa,

Musschenbroek's chart of the trade winds.
On the coast of Brasil, when the sun is far northwards,
Introd. at the end.
the S. E. becomes more S. and the N. E. more E. and the
*Semeyns Haarl. Verh. III. 183.
reverse when the sun is far southwards.
La Nux on the trade winds. A. P. 1 760. H. 8. On the coast of Guinea, for 1 500 miles, from Sierra
17. Leone to St. Thomas, the wind is
always S. or S. W. pro-

Franklin. Ph. tr. 1765. 182. bably from an inclination of the trade wind towards the
W. wind from the current of air descend- land.
Derives the N.
in America theN. W. wind is g. Between lat. 4" and 10°, and between the longitudes of
ing from the upper regions :

a land breeze. Cape Verd and the Cape Verd islands, there is a track of sea

very liable to storms of thunder and lightning. It is called

Forrest on the monsoons. 4. Calc. 1732. B. B.
the rains. Probably there are opposite winds that meet
8. Lond. 1784. here.
Bad theory. 10. In thelndian ocean, between 10° and ao°S. latitude,
Atkins. Ph. tr. 1784. 58. the wind is
regularly S. E. From June to November, these
The N. W. wind prevails at Minehead. winds reach to within 2'^ of the equator ; but from Decem-
wind N. W. between 3° and 10° near
Legentil. A. P. 1784. 480.
ber to May the is lat.

The wind is inclined to W. at Paris. Madagascar, and from 2° to 12° near Sumatra.
11. Between Sumatra and Africa, from 3^ S. latitude to
On trade winds. Leipz. Mag. fur Oekon.
the coasts on theN. the monsoons blow N.E. from Septem-
1786. i.
ber to April, and S. W. from March to October the wind :

Prevost on the trade winds. Roz.XXXVlII. is steadier, and the weather fairer in the former half year.

365, 370. 12. Between Madagascar and Africa, and thence north-

Kirwan on the variations of the atmosphere. wards to the equator, from April to October there is a S.S. W.

wind, which further N. becomes W. S. W,

Extr. Pli. M. XV. 311.
13. East of Sumatra, and as far as Japan, the monsoons
Incline to Halley's theory in preference to Hadley's.
are N. and S. but not quite so certain as in the Arabian gulf.
On the monsoons at Bombay. Ph. M. XiV. 14. From New Guinea to Sumatra and Java, the mon-
328. soons are more N. W. and S. E. being on the South of the
Mafich. M. IV.601. equator ; they begin a month or six weeks later than in the

At Liverpool the S. E. wind prevails, probably from local Chinese seas.

circumstances. In other places, S. W. or N. E. winds are 15. The changes of these winds are attended by calms and

most usual. storms.

Particulars of the trade winds, from Roherlson. 10. At Liverpool the wind is said to be westerly two thirds

\. For 30° on each side of the equator, there is almost con- of the year. In the south of Italy the S. E. scirocco is the

stantly an easterly wind in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans : most frequent.
it is called the trade wind : near the equator it is due east, 17. Winds passing over land become dry and dense: over
further off it blows towards the equator, and is N. E. or the sea, warm and light.
S. E. 18. In some countries the dry winds produce dreadfully

2. Beyond 30° latitude, the wind is more uncertain. scorching effects, as the solanos in Arabia. Others, as in
3. The monsoons are, perhaps erroneously, deduced China, are inconvenient from their extreme moisture.
from a superior current in a contrary direction.

4. In the Atlantic, between 10° and 28° N. latitude

about 300 miles from the coast of Africa, there a con-
Measures of Wind.
is

stant N. E. wind.
Wren's weather clock. Birch. I. 341. Fi".
6. On the American side of the Caribbee islands the N. E.

wind becomes neatly E. Croun's anemometer. Bird'. \\. 257-

6. The trade winds extend 3° or 4° further N. and S. on Giegory on wind. Ph. tr. 1 J75. X. 307.
the W. than on the E. side of the Atlantic. The wind broke down «n obelise la feet high, 3 feet

7. Within 4° of the equator^ the wind is always S. E. : it tbi«k.

3
i56 CATALOGUE. METEOROLOGT, WINDS.
Derham on sound. Ph. tr. XXVI. Stedman on the degrees of wind required for

Leupold Tb. aerostat, t. 18, 20, 22. Plagos- machines. Ph. tr. 1777. 493.

copium et plagographium. t. 39) 48, 49- Heavy machines can work about ^ of the year.
Anemometers. Van Swiuden sur le froid de I77(}.
Bouvet's machine for measuring the force of Lambert on observing the wind. A. Berl.
the wind at sea. \]ach. A. VI. 153. 1777. 36.
D'onsen Bray's self registering anemometer. Dahlbcrg Description d'un anemometre. 4.
A. P. 1734. 123. Erf. 1781. Hoz. XVII. 438.
Wilke's anemobaiometer. Schw. Abh. III. Demenge's anemometer. Roz. XV. 433.
85. Woltraann Theorie des hydrometrischea
Kraffr. C.Petr.XIIt. flUgels.
Lomonosow's anemometer. N. C. Petr. II. Ximenes on the velocity of the wind. Goth.
128- M. Ill.iii. 191.
Smealon. Ph. tr. 1759. 100. On Knowles's machine for weighing the force
Plagoscope. 'Emerson's mech. F. 253. of the wind. 8. R. S.
Gadoiin el Hiolte de anemometro novo. Abo, A wind fane with an index. Roz. XX.
17G0. 416.
Brice on the velocity of the wind. Ph. tr. Saussure's anemometer. R. S.

1766. 226. Rochon Voyage a Madagascar. Par. 1791.

Found it 63 miles in an hour. A wind that went iso feet in i", or 102 miles in an how.
BouguerManoeuvre des vaisseaux.l5 1 .Traite Manch. M. 1V.602.
du navire. 359. Hutchinson measured the velocity of the wind by run-

One of the best anemometers. ning with a handkerchief, till it remained flat
against a
stick.
Noilet Art des experiences. III. 62.
Zeiher's measurement of the wind. N. C. Hermans windbeobachter. Freiberg. 1793.
Petr. X. 302. *Ludicke on the ancient denominations of
the winds. Hind. Arch. III. 38.
Brunings on the velocity of the wind. Haarl.
Verhand. XIV. 609. Benzeuberg on wind gages. Gilb. VIII. 240.
Lind's portable wind gage, with a table of Ph. M. XIII. 194.
Garnerin went with Mr. Sowden 60 miles in
the wind's force. Ph. tr. 1775. 353. ^of an hour*
with Mr. Locker 9 miles in ^ of an hour.
An inverted siphon ;
the connexion isformed by a narrow
to in frosty weather salt may be
VVeatherbottle. bee Meteorological thermo-
tube prevent oscillations ;

•dded to the water. meters.

 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGT, WIND. ^57

Intensity of Wind.

Comparison of Rouse's Table, published by Smeaton, with that of Lind.

-i lid's
 458 CATALOGUE. — METKOKOIOG Y, TVIND.

Degeer's exiilanation of a shower of insects. Franklin and others on stilling waves by oil.

A. P. 1750. H. 30. Ph.tr. 1774.445.

Borlase on a storm. Ph. tr. 1753. 80. The success was partial only, as might be expected.

Miller on a storm in Cumberhind. Ph. tr. Franklin. Am. tr. 11.

^
1757. 194. Says, that one side of a piece of water, 3 feet deep and 10
Griffith on a storm at Oxford. Ph. tr. 1765. miles wide, has been raised 10 feet by the wind, the other -

being left bare.

273.
.Servieres on a singular wind. Roz. XIII.

Particular kinds and effects of Suppl. 132.

Dobson on the harmattan. Ph. tr. 1781. 46.
Wind. Anextremely dry wind in Africa, coming from the
N. E. drying even potash. It generally brings a fog of
Waterspouts. See Atmospherical Electricity. soraeunknowTH nature.

Pliny xi. c. 103. On the harmattan. Goth. M. I. iv.41.

Says, that waves are stilled by oil. Quoted by Cayallo. On the Samum. Goth. M. IV. iii. 38.

Boyle's relations about the bottom of the sea. Ducarla on winds cooled by evaporation.
Says, that storms have little effect at 20 feet below the Roz. XXII. 432.
surfsce of the sea, and probably none at 30 feet,
Saussure on cold winds. Nich. I. 229. Gilb.
Wright on a sand flood in Suffolk. Ph. tr. III. 201.
«
1668. III. 722. Dalton on bottom winds on Derwent lake.
Templer on two hurricanes in Northampton- Meteor, obs. 52.
shire. Ph. tr. 1671. VI. 2156. No theory.
Langford on hurricanes. Ph. tr. I698. XX. A violent tornado in Berwickshire. Ph. M.
407. Abr. II. 105. IV. 219.
Thinks, that hurricanes are connected with the moon. Lamarck on a hurricane. Journ. Phys. LII.
Before a hurricane the skies appear turbulent, the sun looks
377.
red, although the hills are free from clouds or fogs. All
Clos on partial winds. Journ. Phys. LIV.
hunicanes begin between N. and W. their course is gene-

rally opposite to that of the trade winds. Tornados come 259.

from several points. Mitchell on a N. E. storm in America. Ph.

Bocanbrey. See Waterspouts.

M. XIII. 273.
Franklin observed, that such storms generally begin I©
Derby on a whirlwind. Ph. tr. 1739. XLl.
leeward :
they advance 100 miles in an hour.
229.
Fuller on a hurricane in Huntingdonshire.
Ph.tr. 1741. XLI. 851. Currents of the Sea.
Lord Lovell on a fiery whirlwind. Ph. tr.

1742. 183. Smith's conjecture respecting an inferior cur-

A flash of fire, or lather more than a flash, with a jmell rent in the Straights. Ph. tr. l684. XIV.
oftulfur.
564.
On a whirlwind. C. Bon. II. i. 453. Says, that an inferior current was found in the Baltic so

Henry on a stream of wind. Ph. tr. 1753. strong as to carry a boat against a superior current, by
XLII. m«ans of a bucket sunk with a cannon ball.
 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGY, BAROMETERS. 459

Ph.tr. 1?00. XXII. 725. Possibly from gas under the mud. But whence are the
" bottom winds
The entrance of ships into the Bristol channel, instead of
.'"

the English, has been attributed to a current, but was sup- Rennel on a current prevailing to the west of
posed to be rather owing to a mistake of the variation.
Scilly. Ph. tr. 1793. 1S2.
Vossius on currents. Supposed to come out of the bay of Biscay, towards the
On the currents at the mouth of the Sliaighls. N. W. by W. and to have been collected by the westerly
winds of the Atlantic.
Ph.tr. 1724. XXXIII. igi.
The current runs 2 miles an hour where the breadth is
Robisonsays, that the current at the Straights sometimes
runs outwards in the middle.
5 leagues ;
1 mile, where it is 18 leagues : but at the sides
there a current outwards, especially on the south side.
is

In 1712, Mr. L'aigle sunk a Dutch ship, laden with brandy

^m'ometers.
and oil, in the middle between Taiiffa and Tangier ;
a few

days afterwards the sunk ship rose 4 leagues to the west-

wards : the relater was at Gibraltar at the time, and saw the Mercurial Barometers, and Baro>
brandy brought from Tangier, and conversed with the cap-
tain and other eye witnesses. The straights aie unfathom-
meters in general.
able.
Schotti technica curiosa.
D. Bernoulli on the cause of currents. A. P.
Wallis and Beale. Ph. tr. 1669. IV. 1113.
Prix. vir.
Hooke's wheel barometer. Ph. tr. \C\Q5,
Belidor. Arch. hydr. II. ii. 19.
1666. 1.218.
Waiz on the current at the Straights. Schw.
Hooke on a barometer with spirits. Ph. tr.
Abh. 1775. 28.
1686. XVI. 241
Peyssonnel on the currents in the West In- Traite des barometrcs. Amst. 1686.
dies and elsewhere. Ph. tr. 1756. 624.
Derham on a svhcel barometer, with a rack.
More on the tides in the Straights. Ph. tr.
Ph.tr. 1698. XX. 41.
1762. 447.
Sturmii collegium experimentale.
Maintains, that the currents run in contrary directions on
the opposite coasts. Gray's microscopic baromettr. Ph.tr. l69t{.
XX. 176.
*Blagden on the heat of the water in the

gulf stream. Ph. tr. 1781. S34.

Comparison of barometers of mercury and
The stream is about 20 leagues broad, and warmer thaa of water. A. P. I. 234.
the neighbouring water. Its heat at its commencement in. Amontons on barometers. A. P. II. 2.'). V704.
the gulf of Florida about 82°, and 2°
264,271. H. 1. 1705. 232. H. 16. 229.
is it loses for every 3°

of latitude in going northwards it continues sensible ofF

Huygens on a new barometer. A. P. X. 375.
:

Nantucket.
Journ. Sav. 1672. 139.
Franklin's maritime obseivations. Am. tr. II,
Lahire on barometers. A. P. 1706. 432.
314.
Lahire's new barometer. A. P. 1708. 154.
With a chart of the gulf stream, and an account of its

heat. It extends to 4*" N. lat.

H. 3.

FownalVs Maraldi on an of some barome-

hydraulic and nautical observa- irregtilariiy
ters. A. P. 17O6. H. 1.
tions. 4. Lond. 1787. R. S.
On . From the accidental introduction of a fluid.
the currents of the Atlantic.

On the agitations of •Hallcy.l'h.ti. 1720. XXXI.

Derwent water. Ph.M. Patrick's barometer is a tube sliglid.y tapered without k
XI. 1G3. bulb, like Bernoulli's.
460 CATALOGUE. — METEOHOtOGY, BAROMETERS.

Fahrenheit's new barometer. Ph. tr. 1724. On correcting barometers for temperature.
XXXIII. 179. M. Taur. I.
From the heat at Which water boils. Cavallo estimates,
Fitzgerald's wheel barometer. Ph. tr. 1761.
that such a barometer will determine the density within
146. 1770. 74.
.1 of quicksilver.
With friction wheels.
Self registering barometer. Lciipold. Th. on barometers. Schw. Abb. 1763. 89.
Leslie
acrostaticum. t. 23.
Spry on a portable barometer. Ph. tr. 1765.
Deslantles on a barometer which stood still 83.
for 7 montiis. A. P. 1726. H. 14.
Dciuynes on the effect of tubes of different
Saurin on the rectification of barometers. diameters. A. P. 1768 247. H. 10.
A. P. 1727.282. On this subject see the properties of matter. Sho\vs the
on barometers. C. Petr. 1.317. great effect of boiling the mercury.
liulfinger

Rowning's barometer. Ph. tr. 173". Portable barometers by Bourbon and Perica.
XXXVIII. 59. A. P. 1771. H. 68.
The barometer floats in a fluid, with a small prominent Perica's barometer. Roz. XVIII. 39I.
stem : it must therefore rise and fall very rapidly.
Cigna on barometer tubes. Koz. Iiitr. II 462.
Middleton. Fh.tr 173;l.XXXVIIl. 127.
Changeu.x on the barometer. Roz. IV'. 85.
Commends Patrick's marine barometer.
•|-Changeux's barometer. Roz. XXII. 387.
Beigliton onOrme's barometer. Ph. tr. 173S.
With appendices which receive small portions of mercury,
XL. 248. and mark the height. It is said, however, to be difficult oi
A diagonal barometer, the mercury well boiled.
impossible to empty these appendices.
Saul on the" vveatlier glass. 8. Lond. 1730.
Deluc. Ph. tr. 1777. 401.
1748. M. B.
Recommends siphon barometers as alone to be depended
Ludolff's baror.ieter scale, corrected for tem- on.

perattne. A. Berl. 1749.33. Ramsdeii's portable barometer. Ph. tr. 1777.

Richmann's barometers. N. C Petr. If. 181. 658.
Various nioies of reading off: some of them suspended Described by Roy.

siphons, nearly like Magellan's. Fonchy's statical barometer. A. P. 1780. 75.

Kollet's obervations on barometers. A. P. H. 1.

17J1.275. H.23. ITdseler vom Ludolffischen barometer. 4.

Bourbon's poitable barometer. A. P. 1751. Holzmiindcn, 1780.
H. 173. Lamanon's barometer. Roz. XIX. 3.

Brisson's portable barometer. A. P. 1755. Magellan's barometer. Roz. XIX. 108, 194
H. 14f). 257, 341.
Rccueil de p ^ces sur Ic thermonietre et sur Magellan Bcschreibung neuer barometer.
le barometre. 4. Basle, 1757. Act. Ilelv. Leipz. 1782. R. L
JII.94. E. M. A. VI. Art. Procedes. 762.
Sulzci's portable b.tvomcter. Act. Ilelv. III. E. M. Physique. Art. Barometre.
259. Moscati and Landriani on the improvement
Boistissandeau's portable barometer. A. P. -
of the barometer. Soc. Ital. I. 225.
1758. H. 105. Moscati Ricerche sopra il barometro. 4. R, S^

S€g»er Baromctruin navale. Gott. On the barometer. Roz. XXI. 436, 449.
 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGY, BAROSCOPES. 46 1

Lw uber die barometer. Leipz. 1782. R. I. Corrected for temperature.

Rosenthal Meteorologishe werkzeuge. R 'dig's sim,>le barometer. Gilb. VI. 445-.

Hurler's new baroiiieier. iloz. XXIX. 346. Wilson on increasing the sensibility of the ba-
Portable. rometer. Nich. 8. III. 21.
Acliard on barometrical measures. A. Berl. Schmidt on the double biuometer of Hny-
1786. 3. gens. Gilb. XlV. 199.
M'Guire's portable barometer. Ir. tr. 1787. Recommends it strongly, and makes it correct itself for

tompeiaturc. Without such a correction the eipansion and

1.41.
the vapour of the spirits would produce great
irregularity.
M'Guire's self registering barometer. Ir. tr.

IV. 141. Maigne's portable barometer. Gilb. XV.

463.
.idfrfams on the barometer. London, 1790.
Adams's leot IV. 430. A barometrical perpetual motion. Nich. IX.
When a tube has once had mercury boiled in it, is is 212.
found, that even cold mercury will often
fill it completely. Rees's Cyclop. III. Plates. Pneumatics.
Cotte on the effect ot temperature on the ba- When the mouth of a barometer is much contracted, a
rometer. Roz. XLIl. 441.
friction is produced. Some preserve the surface of the re-

IV. 99.
servoir level, by letting it
spread on a horizontal surface :
Austin's portable barometer. Ir. tr.
and if the surface is
large enough, the method must be a
Barton's barometer with a wheel inde.\.
good one, but the mercury ought not to be confined to a
Manth. M.IV. 547- height less than one seventh of an inch.

Hamilton's portable barometer. Ir. tr. V. 95. The specific gravity of mercury, once distilled, is frora

Bfylr'age
zur verferligung des barometers. 13.55 to 13.57, but Boerhaave foundit after 511 distillations
14.11. The density of the mercury usually employed is
Frankf. J 795.
13.6.
Humboldt'^s portable barometer. Journ. Phys.
Roy found that the expansion of 30 inches of mercury is
XLVII. (IV.) 468. Ph. M. IV. 304.
the barometer, including the effects of its
vapour, from 32"
Cont^'s portable barometer. B. Soc. Phih
to 91°, was .1922. The results of his experiments are
n. 14. expressed very nearly by the formula e^: .00011 182 /—
Prony's barometrical balance. B. Soc. Phil. .000 000 0913/* — .000 000 000 OjJ^ ^ which gives .1926
for 92°. Some authors assert, that Roy's results are a little
n. 20.
too great : and
any dependence can be placod on Dalton's
if
Guerin on a portable barometer. Journ.
analogies, the effect of the vapour must be extremely incon-
Phys. LIU. 444. Fh. iVl.XI. 362. siderable.

Klugel on Magellan's barometer. Hind.

Arch. III. 182.
Statical Baroscopes, Air Barome-
Per|>etual motion by barometers. Nich. III.

126. ters and Manometers.

Keith's self registering barometer. Ed. tr.
Schotti technica curio^a. I. c. GI.
IV. 209.
"Von Arnim on barometers by Prony, Conte, Boyle's statical baroscope. Ph. tr. 1660 — 6.
I. 231.
Humboldt, Godekiiig, Brander, and Voigt.
Gilb. 11.311.
Hooke on a statical barometer. Birch. III.

Some statical, others portable. 384, 387.

*Hooke's marine barometer. Ph.
Voigt on Haas's barometer. Gilb. IV. 456. tr. 1701,
Mullei's barometer. Gilb. V. 17- XXII. 791.
 462 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGY, VARIATrONS OF THE BAROMETEU.
Described and much commended by Ilalley. With a spi-
Boyle on the barometer. Ph. tr. l665 — 6. I.
rit thermometer and a sliding scale. 181.
•

Chapelle on a barometrical fish. A. P. I. 274.

Halley. Ph. tr. 1686. XVI. 104.
Caswell's baroscope. Ph. tr. 1704. XXIV. The mercury is commonly low in calm weather before
1597. rain, higher in serene settled weather ; lowest in high
A floating manometer. winds, even without rain ; highest in E. and N. E. winds ;

Amontons's marine barometer without mer- high in calm frosty weather : it rises fast after storms of
wind it varies most in high latitudes, within the tropics
cury. A. P. 1705. 49. H. 1.
;

very little. It has been observed by others, that N. and

Varignon's manometer. A. P. 1705. SOO N. E. winds are heavier than S. and S. W., as being colder.
H. 26. Lister on the barometer. Ph. tr. 1 684. XIV.
Manometers. Leupold. Th. aerostat, t. 9.
790.
Zeiher's marine barometer. N. C. Petr. VIII, Leibnitz on the cause of the
changes. A. P.
274. 1711. H. 3.
Measuring the force by a spring. Leibnitz invented a machine to illustrate the variations of

Fouchy's dasymeter. A. P. 1780. 73. Roz. the barometer by the effects of the fall of a body upon the
XXV. 345. equilibrium of a balance.
A beam resting on a cun'ed surface, answering the pur- Desaguliers on the variation of the barome-
pose of Guerike's manometer, which was a thin ball sup- ter. Ph. tr. 1717. XXX. 570.
ported by a bent lever balance ; but perhaps no improve-
In answer to Leibnitz.
ment.
Gersten de mutationibus barometri. 8.
Manometer. E. M. A. VI. 734.
Frankf. 1733. M. B.
Gerstner's air balance. Gren. IV. 172.
Ace. Ph. tr. 1733. XXXVin.43.
Kramp's manometer. Hind. Arch. III. 233.
Like Caswell's, an open hemisphere, to be depressed to a Beighton's remarks on the barometer. Ph. tr.

1738. XL. 248.

given mark, by weights put in a dish.

areometer, with Arnim's remarks. Hollmannus de difterentiis altitudinum baro-

•fSay's
Gilb. II. 230. metri. Ph.tr. 1742. XLIL 116.

Journ. Phys. LVI. 366. Hollmannus de barometrorum cum

tempesta-
Berger brought portions of air from different heights in tum mutationibus consensu. Ph.tr. 1749.
well stopped bottles, and compared the quantities of mer- XLVI. 101.
cury that was forced into them. But the method does not
On the various heights of the barometer.
appear to be very accurate.
M. Taur. I.
Berard Melanges. l63.
C. Bon. II. i. 307, 353.
Davy on the manometer. Journ. R. I., I.

XVI. Fourcroy de Ramecourt on oscillationsof the

INich. 8. IV. 32. Gilb. 105.
barometer. A. P. 1768. H. 36.
On eudiometry and manometry. Gilb. XV.
61.
Beguelin. A. Berl. 1773.47. 1774.119.
Montaigne. Roz. II. 26l.
Changeux. Roz. VII. 459.
Variations of the Barometer in Deluc Idees. II. 590. Modifications. I. iii.

223.
general.
Saussure Hygromelrie. §..294.
Voyti^es. IV.
*Beaieon the barometer. Ph. tr. 1665— G. I. Lambert on the density of the air. Ro/..
153, 163. XVIIL 126.
 CATALOGUE. — SIETEOROLOOY, WEIGHT OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 463

*Ephemeiides Soc. Palat, nictefj from Peyrouse's Voyages. Ed. tr.

Toalcio on a variation of die barometer. Roz. V. 3.

XX. 83. Dalton. Manch..M. V. 666.

Dangos on tiie
periodical variation of the ba-
Thinks that the same barometrical variations generally

rometer. Roz. XXX. 260.

extend over
all Europe without a
day's difference. But
Cotte's observations seem to be inconsistent with this opi-
Kirvvan. Ir. tr. 1788. 11.43. Roz. XXXIX. nion.
100.
In these climates, the barometer is
generally lowest at
Legentil. Vo^-age. I. 526. noon and at The mean height is greatest at the
midnight.
The barometer does not vary at Pondicherry.
equinoxes, but greater in summer than in winter.
Cavallo.
Fontana dalle altezze barpiiietriche saggio The usual scale of the barometer is, 31 , very dry or hard
analitico. 4. R. S. frost; 30.5, settled fair or frost fair or frost
; 30, ; 29. 5,
Fontana on the mass of the atmosphere. Ac. changeable ; 29, rain or snow ; 28.5, much rain or snow ;

Sienn. V. 76. 28, stormy. Any rapid change is said to foretel bad weather.
The diurnal variation of the barometer has been found to
Cotte on the variations of the barometer in
be more sensible at sea than on shore, especially in inland
different places. Roz. XLI. 54. XLII. It is possible that currents of air from heat be
places. may
340. concerned in its production.
At Bourdeaux and at Montmorency, 12 changes out of 19
were the same wa) , 7 the contrary way.

Cotte on the barometer. Ph. M. Particular Barometrical Obser-

I. 208.
Franceschini on the height of the barome- vations.
ter. Soc. Ital. V. 294.

Ed Plot on the weather at Oxford, with a baro-

As. Res. IV. 195. tr. IV. H. 25.
Balfour found the barometer in April, at Calcutta, rise a metrical diagram. Ph. tr. 1685. XV.
little from 6 in the morning to lo, then fall till 6, rise till 930.
10, and fall till 6 again. The difference is sometimes .1, but Beeston on the barometer in Jamaica. Ph.
generally less than .05, depending probably on some reci-
tr. 1696. XIX. 225.
procation of winds.
Variation only .3.
Due la Chapelle on the diurna;! variations of Cunningham on the barometer in China. Pb.
the barometer. B. Soc. Phil. n. 21. Gilb. XXI. 323.
tr. 1699.
II. 361. Variation .0 or .7. Latitude 24° 20'.

Pugh sur la pesanteur de I'atmosphere. 4. Toaldo novae tabulae barometri aestusque

Rouen, 1800. R. S. maris. 4. R. S.
Biich on the variations of the barometer. Roxburgh. Ph. tr. 1778. 180.
Journ. Phys. XLIX. 85. Gilb. V. 10. At Fort St. George. Variation .3.

Humboldt on the barometer in South Ame- Fleuriaii on the mean height of the barome-
rica. Ph. M. IX. Q.85. ter at the sea side. Journ. Phys. XLVII.
From g in the morning it falls till 4, then rises till 11, falls (IV.) 158.
and
till
J past 4, rises till g again, in all weathers.
Variation at Columbo. 36. Ph. M. X. 172.
ZachMon. corr. III. 6Q, 543. 28 ia^.lFr. or .7644.™

Burckhardt finds the mean height of the barometer Manch. M. V.

greater by .23 when the wind is E. than when S. The surface of the mercury moves annually about 8d
Accountof the diurnal variations of the baro- inches at Kendal ; in London much lees.
454 CATALOGUE. METEOROLOGY, EVAPORATION.
only isa; millions. But the experiment c„ evaporation
Mean
ivican of the
Height ui iiii. Barometer,.
from Erxle-
111.1^,111.
^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^ ^^_.j^^^ j^g ^^j,,l for jhe comparison.
ben and others. ,. tj iv ou;
»
Lanire. A. r. JA.3I5.

Height once observed at

Middlewich.Manch. M. V. 31.00
Hawksbee on the absorption of air by water.
- - 30-957
Greatest observed height. Shuckb. Ph. tr. 1707. XXV. 2412.
- - "
Upsal-
- * l°'\l
30.09 Leibnitz and others on vapours. M.Berol,
^.Carolina -

- - 30.095
^ it o^
7 10. 1. 123. Op. II. U. 82.
]
Mean level of the sea. Fleuriau
3o°9 of vapours. Ph. tr.
Dcsaguliers on the rise
- - "
Atlantic. Burckhardt
30"*
Mediterranean. Burckhardt
^ -
1729. XXXVI. 6.
Shuckb. - 30.04 f™™
Mean in England and in Italy.
^^^^^ ^^^ specific gravity of
steam ^feo observations
- 30.00
Mean level of the sea, as usually estimated from Nieuwentwy t's ex-
^y jjeighton and himself: or ^yW
,

- - " 30.00
Tort St. George on the hence infers, that vapour in sura-
p„iments eolipilc:
- - - 29.98
Columbo. Ph. M. X. mej heat should be about as dense as water, and should
5J55
- - " ^°^° own
Dover therefore float in air. But from his experiments, the
London. R. S. - - ^S'^' times as great.
specific gravity should
be above five Repcr-
«1 feet above the level of low water. The mean of
^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^
differing 0.5.
any yea. scarcely DesaQuherS.
-^
Ph. tr. 1742. XLII. 140.
- -
. - - , - • - 29. SI
Leyaen ' Thinks, that vapour maybe raised by an electric attraction
- - - - - 29.80
Kendal
in the air.
Padua ^^-^^
TT irI c^ ^
=9 80 Hales. Veg. Stat.
Manama
Makes the annual evaporation from the earth in England
„ ^ „
bello . . - - - . .>n 60
^y.ou
...
Porto

Liverpool
- - _ on.
-" 7' *
4 clinches.
"i
„
m
• •
i 1

. . . - - 29.62 NoUet on the vapour found the air pump.

Turin
- • - " 29.57
Petersburg A. P. 1740. 243.
- " ^^•^''
Wallerius and Ericson's experiments. Schw.
- -
Gottingen
^"'" - ' ' ' '"'"
'*•** Abh. 1740. 27. 1746. 3, 153. 1747. 235,
Bile
- - - - "'"^ 272.
Nuremberg
Zurich - - - - 28.29 Kratzemtein von diinsten und dampten. 8.

- - - - 27-89
Clausthal j^^^^
j^^^jj^^
- - - " '^'•^*
t^hur
- . - - 23.0s
Kra/f?
-if
de vapoium
* generatione. 4f Tubing.
M.St.Gothard
a , - - - 21-37 1745.
Eichmann. C. Petr. XIV. 273. N. C. Petr.

, 7 T- 4- • I- 198. II. 121.

or to the tem-
Atmospherical ±.VapOratlOn, Thinks the evaporation nearly proportionate
' perature.
Ilygrology.
water. A. P. 1751.
Leroy on the suspension of
See Effects of Heat. 48 1.
Simple Evaporation.
of the sea. Ph. tr. Ph. 1755. 124.
Halley on the evaporation Eeles. tr.

of vesicular vapour in favour of

1686 XVI. 368. Against the existence
;

electrical atmospheres.
in 1693. Ph. tr.
Halley on the evaporation read 1756.Ph.tr.
Franklin's observations,
1694 XVIII 183
In a place not exposed, 8 inches. Calculates, that the 1765.182.
that either water or dust may be supported in the
Mediterranean in a summer's day, is Thinks
evaix>ration of the
a solutum in air.
by adhesion: that evaporation
is
i280 million tuns, and that the 9 principal rivers furnish air
 CATALOGUE. METEOROLOGY, EVAPORATIOK, 465

Darwin's remarks on Eeles's opinions. Ph. Deluc on vapours and rain. Roz. XXXVI.
tr. 1757. 240. 276.
but *Deluc on evaporation. Ph. tr. 1792. 400.
Supposes that the particles of vapour are real steam,
that vapour exists in air precisely as in a va-
incapable of communicating their heat, perhaps on account
Maintains,
cuum, the distance at which its can remain with-
•f some motion. particles
out uniting with each other being determined only by the
Hamilton on evaporation. Pli. tr. 1765. 146.
temperature, and not being affected by the interposition of
Objects both to vesicles and to fixed fire, and maintains
air. Deluc finds that the hygrometer stands at the same
the doctrine of solution in air.
vacuum moist
height in a moist as in air.

Lambert on hygrometry, with experiments on VVistar oa evaporation in cold air. Am. tr.

evaporation. A. Berl. 1769. 68. 1772. 103. 111.125. IV. 72. Repeit. XIV. 375.
Roz. XVIIF. 126. Volta in Gren. III. 479-
Makes the quantity of vapour as the square of the den- Found by many experiments, that the presence of air is

sity. indiflferent to the quantity of vapour. Aug. 1798. Gilb.

XII. 394.
Lord Karnes on evaporation. Ed. ess. IIL
Kirwah on the variations of the atmosphere.
80.
Ir. tr. Vill.
Cigna on evaporation. Roz. Intr. IL 232.
Extr. Ph. M. XIV. 143. Nich. 8. V. 287-
Dobson on evaporation. Ph. tr. 1777.244.
Contains much valuable matter, but the theory is com-
The mean annual evaporation, in an exposed situation at
plicated and improbable.
Liverpool, was 38.79 inches ; the rain 37.43.
Heller on the effect of light in evaporation.
Fontana on evaporation in quiescent air. Roz.
Gilb. IV. 210.
XII 1.22. Thinks it very considerable.
+Servieres on the refraction of moist air. Effect of light in the sublimation of phospho-
Roz. XIII. Suppl. 130. rus. Ph. M.XI.89.
On a phenomenon respecting ice. Roz.XIII. Von Arnim on the principles of hygrology
Suppl. 252. and hygrometry. Gilb. IV. 308.
Dobson on the harmattan. Ph. tr. 1781. 46. Dalton on rain ,ind evaporation. Manch. M.
The usual annual evaporation at Whydah is 04 Inches ;
V. 346. Gilb. XV. 121.
when the harmattan blows, it is at the rate of 133.
Compared the rain with the quantity of water that ran out
Achard on the cause of vapours. Rozior. XV, of a vessel of earth three feet deep, sunk into the ground. At
•163. Manchester, where the rain was 33.5 inches, the evapora-
tion was 25 inches of rain, besides 5 allowed for dew. But
*Saussure Essai sur I'hj'gromctrie,
the rain was here prevented from running off the surface of
Saussure. Roz. XXXVI. 193.
the earth, and there were probably some other causes that
Eason on the ascent of vapours. Manch. increased the evaporation. From the mean of ac-
.

many
Mem. I. 395. counts of rain, which appears to be about 31 inches for all

Attributes their suspension to electricity. England and Wales ; adding 5 inches for dew, and deduct-
ing 13 for the water carried offby rivers, we have 23 inches
Williams on evaporation. Am. tr. II. 1 18.
mean
for the evaporation from the surface of England and
Monge. A. P. 1787. Wales.
Denies the existence of vesicular vapour,
Dalton on the constitution of mixed
gases,
Werner on evaporation. Goth. M. VI. i. 111. and on evaporation. Manch. M. V. 535.
Against Deluc. Gilb. XII. .085. Nich. VI. 257. VII. 5.
Hube liber die
ausdlinstung. 8. Leipz. I790, Maintains, that there is no mutual repulsion betv/ecn the
Against Halley. particles of different gases.
VOL. II. 3o
 466 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOOr, EVAPORATION.
Dalton's elucidations of his
theory of mixed Desormes on the water contained in
'
gases.
gases. Nich. 8. III. 267. Ph. M. XIV. Gilb. XIII. 141.

169. Gilb. Xni. 438. Nich.Vrn. 145.

Finds the quantity
independent of the nature of the gas,

.Dalton's answer to Gough. Nicii. IX. 89, agreeing with Deluc, Volta, and Dalton.

2S9. Henry. Ph. tr. 1803. 29. 2~4.

Fmds, that equal volumes of the same under
Biot on Dalton's theory. B. See. Phil. n. 72. gas, differ-
ent pressures, are absorbed
by water. See Springs.
Quotes Laplace as ha-ving compared Dalton's
theory with
Saussure's experiments ; btjt Dalton had done the same. Henry on Dalton's theory of
gases. Nich.
The comparison is however still imperfect. Vlll. 297. IX. 126.

Parrot's theory. Gilb. X. ii. XIII. 244. Remarks on Dalton. Berthollet's chemical
-
Professor Parrot considers the moisture contained in air as statics. I. 346.
existing in two distinct states, of chemical and of
physical Haiiy Traite de physique.
vapour: he thinks the chemical vapour is sustained merely Adopts Dalton's calculations, but reduces his theory to
by the oxygen gas contained in the air, and that the ideas
it is
preci- which were originally Deluc's.
pitated in consequence of the diminution of the oxygen ; and Accum's apparatus for
the physical vapour he supposes to be drying. Nich.VI.212.
merely interposed be-
tween the interstices of the elastic particles of air, and re- Gough on the solution of water in the at-
.tiined-in its situation by heat : that the chemical solution mosphere. Nich. VIII. 243.
of water orice resembles oxidation, but that no physical eva-
Gough on Dalton's theory. Nich. IX. 52' "

poration can take place under the freezing point. Mr. Par-
107, 160.
rot builds his theory principally on eudiometrical experi- The few experiments, adduced as objections to
ments with phosphorus, which are attended with a copious Dalton'*
theory, agree, in fact, very
accurately with it.
precipitation, while the absorption of oxygen seems also to
be much Remarks on the
accelerated by the presence of water ; but these Quantity of Moisture contained in Air.
Ifwe examined the progression of M.
experiments do not appear to be, by any means, decisive in Saussure's resultt
favour of Mr. Parrot's theory. The same paper alone, we might conclude, that the
contains a presence rfair increases
the capacity of
proposal for inoculating the clouds with thunder and light- any space for vapour, nearly in the subdu-
plicate rario of the density, and that
ning, by projecting a bomb to a sufficient height. air of the usual
density
enables it to contain five times as much vapour
Parrot's remarks on Dalton. Gilb. XVII. 82* as could re-
main in it when free from air. But
Wrede's remarks on Parrot. Gilb. X. 488.
it
agrees almost as well
with these experiments, and much better with those of
XII. 319. Schtnidt, to suppose that the presence of air increases the
Bockmann's remarks on Parrot. Gilb. XI- capacity of a space for moisture in the simple ratio of its den-

66. sity, enabling it to contain, under the common pressure,

about twice as much as it could contain in its total
Mitchill on vapour from cold. Gilb. XI. 474. absence.
These experiments ought be repeated, but until
to
Sea water smokes when 25» warniet th«n the air: rain they
are confirmed, authorise us to reject the ppl-
they scarcely
water when j 9°.
nion of Deluc.
 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGY, EVAPORATl'ON. 46r

Comparison of ihe expansion of drj' Air, alnd Air saturated witli moisture, from Schmidt.
Tlie Barometer being at 29.84.
458 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGY, HYGROMETERS.
nute, correspon^^ng to vaponr deposited at 2 1 .5 : it was ac- Deluc Idees sur la I.
m^teorologie.
tually at 22°. Gilbert says, that Schmidt's experiments

agree with Dalton's theory. Gilb. XV. 25-

Deluc on the hygrometer. Roz. XXX. 437.
perfectly
Lambert's experiments, reduced to
XXXII. J 32.
English measure, give
5.95,5.53, 3.51, 1.53, asd .77, at 169°, 167°, 142°, m". *Deluc on hygrometry. Ph. tr. 1791. 1. 389.
and 84° ; instead of 11.83, 11.25, 6.19, 2.68, and 1.14; A transverse slip of whalebone, held by pincers, attached
which are nearly in the same proportion, although almost
at one end to a thin flattened wire of silver
gilt, of which
twice as great. the other end is fixed to a weak spring.
Lowitz's hygrometer. Gott. III.
491, Mag.
Senebieron hygrometer. Roz. XI. 421.
his
Hygrometers. Inochodzow's hygrometer, A. Petr. II. ii.
193.
A hygrometer of transverse deal, turning a A schistus which is weighed.
wheel. Ph. tr. 1676. XI. 647i
Copineau on the hygrometer. Roz. XV.
Conier's hygroscopes. Ph.tr. 1670'. XL 715.
384.
Both of deal.
*Saussure Essai sur I'hygronietrie. 8. Neuch,
'"Gould on oil of vitriol used as a hygroscope.
1783. R. I.
Ph. tr. 1684. XIV. 496.
Saussure's defence of the hair hygrometer,
Also on a hygroscope of lute string.
Roz. XXXII. 24, 98.
Molyneux on a hygroscope. Ph. tr. 1685.
Says, that Deluc's hygrometer is
XV. 1032. irregular :
objects to
Chiminello's quill with mercury, and to Jean
Of whipcord. Baptiste's
ribband.
Amontons's hygrometer. A. P. II. 13.
Schreber on the oculus mundi.
Lahire on the abbreviation of moist ropes. A. Naturforsch.
xix. Halle, 1783.
P. IX. 157.
Gedda sur les hygromStres.
Copenh. 1784.
Leupold. Th. Aerostat. 1. 13. 17. .
Cazalet on Casbois's hygrometer of the silk
Arderon's hygroscope. Ph.tr. 1746. XLIV. worm's intestine, Roz. XXIX, 344,
95. Seems to have little
advantage.
A sponge counterpoised. Achard. A, Berl. 1786. 3,
Arderon on the weathercord. Ph. tr. 1746. Denies that hygrometers indicate the true
quantity of va-
XLIV. 169. pour not precipitated.
A whipcord a little inflected, drawing transversely as it Franklin on a hygrometer of
itself.
mahogany.
straightens Am. tr. II. 51.
Arderon's hygrometer. Ph. tr. 1646. XLIV. Kriinitz Encyclopadie, XXVII,
184.
Sir B. Thompson on the moisture absorbed
Of cross grained deal, acting on levers. by
various substances. Ph.tr. 1787.240. Re-
Ferguson's hygrometer. Ph. tr. 1764. 259.
A transverse slip of white deal, with cords and pullies :
pert. IV. 247.
The weight of wool was increased from 1 to 1.084 in 4«
it
requires to be changed every four years.
hours, in 72 to 1.IS3, the thermometer being at 45°, and
Lambert's essay on hygrometry. A. Berl.
the air saturated with moisture of other substances exa-
:

1769. 68. 1772. 65. mined, the most absorbent was then eider down,
fur, silk
With diagrams. and cotton
linen, : the cotton was increased to 1 .043 and
Smeaton's hygrometer. Ph. tr. 1771, 198. 1.089. Hence woollen clothes next the skin are recom-
A cord impregnated with salt. mended. Silver wire acquires no additional weight.
Deluc's hygrometer. Ph.tr. 1773,404. Ricke's hygrometer, Gren, I, i. 150,
A tube of ivoiy filled with mercury.
Pilgrams wetterkunde.
 CATAtOGUE. — MET EORO LOGY, II VGROMETERS, 469

on Ulcke's hygrometer. Roz. XXXIV. of Leslie, Saussure, and Deluc. Gilb. XV.
Sflge
58. 355.
The wind affects Leslie's hygrometer very materially the
:

Roz.
Geoffrey on the hair hygrometer.
others do not agree well with each other. Deluc's seems to
XXXIV. 255. be a Tittle less depressed by an elevation of temperature
than
Attributes to it some irregularities. Saussure's.

Volta on the use of the electrometer in hygro-

On the Indications of Hygrometers.
nietrv. Soc. Ifal. V. 551.
of electricity. Deluc observes, that when the grass is covered with dew,
Ascertaining the velocity of the dissipation
it is often far from the state of extreme mois-
Leslie's hyjirometer. Nich. UI. 401. Gilb. V.
the air above

ture, the hygrometer standing at 50" or 55" ;

that extreme
23(5. X. no.
moisture, as indicated by the hygrometer, seldom, but
Leslie on moisture absorbed by earths and sometimes, exists in the open transparent air; that at great
stones. Glib. XII. 114. heights the air is very dry, excepting the clouds. The

Says, that rarefaction

lessens the action considerably. mean moisture in London, as indicated by Deluc's hygro-

Heated flannel dries the air very effectually. meter, is 79", or -,'5^
of the extreme moisture. The whole

Hofhheimer's hygrometer. Ph. M. 1.36?. expansion of the vv-halebone is about |.

which the moisture Deluc says, that substances immersed in alcohol and
Weighing a plate of glass, to is sup-
ether were expanded almost as much as when immersed in
posed to adhere.

282. II. water. Ph. tr. 1791. Saussure found that no vapours except
Ludicke on hygrometers. Gilb. I.
that of- water affected his hygrometer. Hygrometrie.
70. V. 70. X. no. Deluc produces extreme dryness in a vessel accurately
Mr. Ludicke considers the result of his experiments as
closed, with hot lime in it ; extreme moisture by a wire cage
very favourable to Mr. Leslie's hygrometer.
He proposes to
covered with cloth, having a reservoir at the top to keep it

by employing two mercurial thermometers with

improve it,
moist, which is enclosed in a jar over water : here the
very fine tubes, fixed to the same support,
and having their
whalebone hygrometer rises slowly but certainly to 100°,
bulbs very near together ; one of the tubes is to be curved;
the hair falls to 98°.
and the bulb, being first blown larger than is
necessary, is
a march
Slips of substances cut across the grain, preserve
to have a portion depressed, so as to form a dish for the re-
consistent with the increase of weight than threads.
more
ception of water, which
it will supply for many hours, Glass becomes wet when Deluc's hygrometer stands at 80°,
without the interruption occasioned by renewing it: the
metals and other substances, at 100°. Cnventry's hygro-
eold produced by the evaporation is then considered as the a very delicate
meter, of paper weighed, is test.

measure of the dryness of the air. It would however be

According to Mr. Deluc, air in a vessel with water does
without giv-
«asy to supply the quantity of water necessary, not attain the maximum of moisture, except in very low
ing the bulb a form so peculiar. The hair hygrometer ap-
temperatures ;
the whalebone hyi^rometer usually standing
peared, in the comparison, to indicate
the maximum of
at 80", Saussure's at 100°. There is generally an atmo-
moisture too early. inch or two above the surface
sphere of extreme moismre an
Voigl's hygrometer, of a quill cut spirally. of the water in a close vessel, the glass becoming clouded
Gilb. III. 126. by the slightest change of temperature.
Deluc found the expansion of a hair corresponding to the
Quill hygrometer. Gilb. IV. 477.
thus
degrees of his hygrometer
:

Zylius on the hygrometer, and in answer to 15.6

remarks. Gilb. V. 257. VIII. 342,
Remarks answer to Zylius. Gilb. VI. 236.
in

Forster's hygrometer. Ph. M. XI. I67.

-

From the beard of the avena sterilis.

Dalton. Manch. M. V.
Parrot on hygrometry. Gilb. XIII. 244.
Bockmann's comparison of the hygrometers
470 CATALOGUE. — METEOROtOGV, HYGIiOMETER*,
of Saussure, 20° to 54° ; 30° to 65°; 40° to 80° ; 45° to 86° ;

in atmospherical observations : the greatest heights were

Deluc's 56°, when Saussure's was 85° ;
and Saussure's 00°,
T.hen Deluc's was 4 8°.

Height of Deluc's hygrometer in London, from the Journal

of the R. S.
 CATALOGUE. JIETEOKOLOGY, IiyCROMETERS. 471

These experiments agree well enough with the formula, the depression required for producing deposition may. be
as far as their evidence goes, to make us adopt the ex- calculated as in the table.

pression 2 Z — llzzn, and I'^l^.^ —

(l n.) Upon this ground

at.hygr.
n
472 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGV, BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS.

Desaguliers's contrivance for taking levels.

Barometrical Measurements. Ph. tr. 1724. XXXIII. 165.

A manometer, to be brought to a given temperature.
Hooke on the constitution of the atmosphere.
Ph.tr. 1725. XXXIII. 201.
1652—.'}. Birch. I. 141, 181. Some mercury, from the East Indies, was 14 times as

Hooke on the weight of air. Birch. I. 379. heavy as water.

Makes it
^ as heavy as water. Nettleton. Ph. tr. 1725. 308.
Pascal de I'^quilibre des liqueurs. 12. Par. Allows 85 feet for .1 at 30.

166S. Celsius Experimentum in argentifodina. Ph.

Sinclair Ars gravitatis et levitatis. tr. 1725. XXXIII. 313.

Gives 106 or 112 feet for .1, Swedish measure.
Halley on the height of the barometer
at dif-
Bernoulli. Act. Helv. I. 33. II. 101.
ferent elevations. Ph. tr. 1686. XVI. 104.
Makes the mean density of air j^, of mercury 13.5:
the *Bouguer on the expansions of the atmo-
height 30 at the sea ; 29, 915 feet above it.
sphere. A. P. 1753, 515.
H. 39.
Snow- A-
Halley's barometrical observations on Sulzer on barometrical measurements.
don. Ph. tr. 1697. XIX. 565. Berl. 1753.114.
A fall of 3.8 for 3720 feet.
Lambert. Churbayerische Abh. III. ii. 75.

Halley on barometrical measurements. Ph. Kaestner Markscheidekunst. cciv.

tr. 1720. XXXI. 116. *De Luc Modifications. §. 263.
Proposes to employ Patrick's barometer.
Logarithms give fathoms at 39-74° ; reducing for toiscs
Derham on the height of the barometer on the air to 69.32°; the mercury to 54^°.

the monument. Ph.tr. 1698. XX. 1. Deluc's barometrical observations on the

Finds a difference of .2 in 164 feet.
depth of mines. Ph. tr. 1777- 401.
Cassini on the condensation of the air. A. P. Deluc's second barometrical measurement in
1705.61,272. H. 10. the Hartz. Ph. tr. 1779- 485.
Lahire on the density of the air, and on the Confirms his own rules.

height of the atmosphere.

A. P. 1705. Deluc. Roz. XLII. 264. «

110. H. 10. 1708. 274! H. 11. 1713. 53. Deluc on refractions and expansions. Roz.
H.6. XLIII. 422.
Hauksbee on the weight of the air. Ph. tr.
Maskelyne on Deluc's rule. Ph. tr. J 774.
1706. XXV. 2221. 158.
the barometer 20.7-
Found
Hbrsley on Deluc's rules, with investigations.
it in May,
Jj;

Maraldi. A. P. 1708. H. 26. Ph. tr. 1774. 214.

Scheuchzer on the expansion of the air. A.
Lavoisier on the weight of the air. A. P.
P. 1711. 154. H.6. 1774. 364.
Scheuchzer Experimenta barometrica de A cubic inch weighs .48 grains. Fr. ; hence a cubic inch

elasticiiate. Ph. tr. 1715. XXIX. E. .325 gr. E., which seems to be too much.
aeris

266. Hennert de ahitudinum mensuratione. 8.

Scheuchzer on the height of mountains. Ph. Utrecht, 1776. 1788.

tr. 1728. XXXV. 537, 577- *Shuckburgh's observations for ascertaining

Allows 73.6 feet to .1. the height of mountains. Ph.tr. 1777. 513.
A. P. Thespecific gravity of air at 53°, when the barometeris at
Varignon on the densities of
the air.

29.27, is
Jj, consequently J,^
when the barometer is at 30°.
1716. 107. H. 40.
 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGY, BAROMETRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 473
Barometrical experiments give ^ and j^. The specific Gerstner and Gruber on the density of the
gravity ofmercury at fl8° is 13-61. The decrease of gravity air. Roz. XLI. 110.
in ascending from the earth's surface produces no percepti-
Robison. Enc. Br. Art. Pneumatics.
ble effect. Logarithms give fathoms at 31.24°.
Hamilton. Ir. tr. V. 117.
*Shuckburgh's compaiisoti of his rules with
GenPi-al Roy's. Ph. tr. 1778. 681.
Wild on the influence of the wind. Zach,
Thinks, that either Roy's rules or his own are sufficiently Eph. IV. 385.
accurate.
Laplace Exposition da systeme du monde.
*Roy on the measurement of heights. Ph. Follows Deluc.

tr. 1777. 653. Laplace Mecanique celeste. IV.

Finds, that logarithms give fathoms about 31.7° in Eng- Rhode liber die berechnung der berghohen
land, but at Spitzbergen about 01°, and at the equator near nacli Laplace. Halle, 1803.
0° : the difference may perhaps depend on moisture : the
Berger's mode of bringing down air in bot-
.same cause appears to require a correction for the mean
tles, Journ. Phys. LVI. 366.
height above the sea, of which a table is given, the cor-
rection for temperature being diminished about ^j for each
.
,.
Lambert gives A =10 000 1.
,
—
s»
— —i3.(iie—y)
SI 583
--
—y
.
for the
inch that the mean height of the barometer is below 30°. y
After all possible corrections, the height of Moel Eilio came height in toisej, y being the height of the mercury in inches

out near Dcluc's rules had been employed, Fr.

^ij too great if
:

the error would have been greater. Deluc s rule is ft

— 10 000 1. - | l -^ I for
l^ \ 484 /
Chiminello on barometrica] measurements.
toises, / being the degrees of Fahrenheit.
Roz. XIII. 457. Maskelyne's rule deduced from Deluc'i is ft =: (10 000 1.

Fouchy on the weight of the air. A. P. 1780.

1+'^^ « being the difference of
(-\'^.ii'igj ( )»
S.
the temperatures. Or, if we use a thermometer on which
Magellan's description of barometers. the freezing point is at 0° and the boiling point at 81.4°,
Magellan's barometer. Roz. XIX. 108,194, formeasuring the temperature of the meicury, and another
257,341. with the freezing point at —9°, and the boiling point at 191'

Achard on measuring heights by boiling for that of the air, we shall have A iz (10000 1.
( -qzi ).
water. A. Berl. 17«2. 54. Roz. XXV. 287. + '\ i being the difTerence of the mercurial tem-
Dawie?i demoniium altitudine. Hague, 1783.
(*^1000/
1 -I
),

peratures, and k and I the temperatures of the air.

Pasumot. Roz,. XXIX. 13.
Shuckburgh says, that for common practice, when the
Trembley Saussure Voyages. III.
in
height is lessthana mile, it is sufficient to allow 91.72 feet
Tieinbiey's remarks on Deluc. Roz. XXXII. for every tenth of an inch of difference, adding .211 f. for
87. XLII. 181. each degree above 55", and increasing the whole in the ra-

Maifcr iiber das hohenmessen 8. Frank f. tio of 30 inches to the mean height of the barometers. One
ten thousandth may also be added for each degree ot dit-
1787.
fcrence in the temperature.
Mayer iiber die warme in lucksicht auf dem
Robison's formula is
nearly similar, ft~ (87X.21/)
barometer. 8. Frankf. 1796.

*Playfair. Ed. tr. I. 87.

—d
30
±: 2.83 e; /being the mean temperature reckoned

Accurate calculations. from the freezing point, \j

the mean height of the mercury,
Saussure on the density of the air at different d the difference of the heights, in tenths, and e the differ-
ence ot the temperatures. Or we may take r= (2810±0/}
heights. Roz. XXXVI. 98.
ft

d:yit 2.8c.)
Morozzo on the constitution of the air. Soc. It is said, that where the barometer rises or sinkt in the
Ital. VI. 221. course of the operation, the alteration is
generally less at
vot. II. Sp
 474 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGT, CLOUDS AND MISTS.

the greater height than in the proper proportion, acircum- Saussure's cyanometer. M Tur. 1788. IV. 409-
itance which adds to the difficulties. Roz. XXXV II I. 199-
The be employed in these re-
hygtotneier might perhaps A circle of shades of blue, for estimating the colour of the
searches with considerable advantage.
sky.
Saussure's diaphanometer. M.Tur. 1788.1V.
Clouds and Mists. 42.5.

Hube uber die aasdiinstung.

Bernoulli on the heights of the clouds. Act. Poisse on a mist at Maestiicht. Ann. Ch.
eiud. 1688. 98. Opp. I. 336. XXXIIl.217. Nich. V. 326.
on a darkness in America. Ph. tr. Murhard on Saussure's diaphanometer, for
Stilling
1763. 63. measuring the transparency of the air. Ph.
A sulfureous cloud continuing all day, on the igth of M. III. 377.
Oct. i;62.
Kirwan on the variations of the atmosphere.
Meister on the form of the clouds. Gott.
B. Prevost on Saussure's cyanomctrical ob-
Mag. I. i. 38.
servations. Journ. Phys. LVII. 372.
Marsden on a dry fog at Sumatra, killing the
L. Howard on the forms of the clouds. Ph.
fish.'Ph.tr. 1781. 383.
M. XVI. 97, 344. XVII. 11.
E. M. Physique. Art. Brouillard. Dalton's correction of a mistake of Kirwan
Deluc Idees. II.
respecting the clouds. Nich. VI. 118.
On the mist of 1783^ which affected the
It is said, that in 1791, 230 persons were drowned at

smell. Gedanken liber den nebel, von Amsterdam, by falling into the canals in a great fog.

Christ von
Beroldingen. Brunsvv. 1783.
Lucfcorabe.

der nierkvvlirdigen wilterung von 1783.^0?*

Dew.
der cntstehung des nebels. Vienna, 1783.
Lausnitz Provinzial blatter, Gorlitz, 1783. A. P. II. 13. llosee et serein.
VI. Deutscker Mercur. Oct. 1783. To- Gersten de mutationibusbarometri. S. Frankf.
aWo Goth. Mag. II. ii.
sulla nebbia. 1783. 1733.
Wiedeburg uber erdbeben und nebel. 8. Extr. Ph. tr. 1733. XXXVIII. 43.
Jen. 1783. Cotte. Roz. XXIII. 201. Some experiments on dew. Observe.-;, that honey dew is

Papers in Roz. XXIV. Melanderhiehn. derired from insects.

N. Schw. Abh.'V. Ilobii voni erdbchen Dufay. A. P. 1736. 332.

from dew. Also wa-
Cop. 1784. Goth. M ag. V.
Remarks, that metals protect glass
;Hif Island. 8.
fers and paper.
iii. 1'28. Torcia to Toaldo. Deutscher
Hales's vegetable statics.
Mercur. Apr. 1784. Verdeil on the elec- Found, that 3.28 inches of dew fall annually on the earth.
tric mists of 1783. Mem. dc Lausanne. I.
Leroy. A. P. 1751. 481.
no. Lamanon. Ph. M.V.80. HUbners Macfait on foggy weather. Ed. ess. I. 197.
phys. tageb. I. i. Franklin.
Manch. M. II. t^wrcr Kleine schriften. 8. Reuteln, 1766.1 .15.
See Igneous Meteors. Ek on dow. Roz. Intr. I. 383.
Ducarki on parasiiical clouds. Roz. XXIV. on and
E.\pcriments and observations light
39c, 450. XXV. 31,94. colours. 8. London. 786. 78. 1

• On the attraction of mountains to mists. Roz. It is said, that dew attaches itself to the inside of a bottle

XXV. 303. partly full of water, on the side opposite to the colai light.
 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGV, DEW, 474
but nearest to the light of the sky. But probably a differ- plate, produces again a cential spot^ of moisture on the in-
ence of temperature was concerned. ternal one: and the same changes may be continued for a
Hube iiber die
ausdiinstung. 211.
number of alternations, until the whole thickness becomes

On honey more than half an inch. Gilt paper, with metallic sur-
dew. See the Author^ quoted by
its

face exposed, acts as a metal, but when the paper only is

Lichtenberg in Eixleben.§. 730. it has no effect. When a plate of metal, on which

exposed,
Prieuron dew. Joiirn. Polyt. II. vi. 409. Ann. moisture would have been deposited, is fixed at a small dis-
Ch. XXV1II.317. Nich. IV. 86. tance from the glass, the moisture is transferred to the sur-

Hassenfratz on the evening and face of the glass immediately under it, without affecting
morningdew.
the metal : if this
plate is varnished on the surface remoje
Jouru. de I'Ecole Poiytechn. Ph. M. VII.
from the glass, the effect remains, but if on the side next
114. the glass, it is
destroyed. The oxidation of metals renders
*B, Prevost on dew. Ann. Ch. XLIV. 75. them also unfit for the experiment. When glasses partly
Jomn. K. I., I. Nich. 8. III. 290. Gilb. filled with mercury, or even with water, are exposed to the

XV. 485. dew, it is

dei)Osited only on the parts which are above the

Most of the facts

surface of the fluid. But in all cases when the humidity is
may perhaps be explained by means of
too copious, the results are confused.
Mr. Leslie's discoveries.
In order to reduce these facts to some general laws, Mr.
Pallon on rain and dew. Manch. M. V.
Prevost observes, that when the metal is
placed on the
Makes the dew falling on grass about 5 inches annually, warmer side of the glass, the humidity is
deposited more
or somewhat less.
copiously either on itself or on cither surface of the glass in
its neighbourhood : but that, when it is on the colder side,
Account of a Mtmoir on Dew. By Benedict I'revost.
it neither receives humidity nor permits its on the
'
deposition
Ahridgtd from the Annalet de Chimie. No. 130. glass that a coat of glass, or varnish,
destroys the efficacy
:

Journ. R. I. I. 292. of the metal, but that an additional

plate of metal restores it.

Mr. Prevost was at first disposed to attribute these

It is well I;nown that dew is often deposited on glass, pheno-
mena to the effects of electricity; but he thinks
when metals in
neighbourhood remain dry Mr. Prevost
its
;
it possible
to explain them all by the action of heat only for this
has however discovered some new and curious facts relative :
pur-
to this deposition. When thin plates of metal are fixed pose he assumes, first, that glass'attracts
humidity the more
on
powerfully as its
temperature is lower secondly, that me-
pieces of glass, it sometimes happens that they are as much ;

tals attract it but very little thirdly, that iglass exerts this
covered with dew as the glass itself: but more frequently ;

attraction notwithstanding the interposition of other bodies •

they remain dry ;

and in this case they are also surrounded
and fourthly, that metals give to in their
by a dry zone. But when the other side of the glass is ex- glass, placed

neiglibourhood, the power of being heated by warm air, ani

posed to dew, the part which is opposite to the metal re-
mains perfectly dry. If the metal be again covered with '
being cooled by cold air, with greater rapidity ; hence that the

will lose effect in temperature of the glass approaches more nearly to that of
glass, it its
preventing the deposition.
the air on the side opposite to the metal, and attracts the hu-
These experiments may be very conveniently made on
the glass of a window, when moisture is midity accordingly more or less, either to its own surface,
attaching itself to
cither of its surfaces Mr. Prevost remarks that
or to that of the metal. We
should indeed have expected a
; it often
contrary cffi;ct that the metal would rather have tended to
happens that dew
;
is
deposited externally, even when the
communicate to the glass the
temperature of the air on its
air within is warmer than without. A plate of metal fixed
own side : but granting that the assumptions of
internally on a window receives a larger quantity of moisture Mr."Prevost
serve to generalise the facts with
than the glass, while the space opposite to an external accuracy, their temporary
plate
remains dry and if the humidity is deposited from without,
:
utility isas great as if they were fundamentally probable. Y.

the place opposite the -internal plate

is also more
moistened,
while the external plate remains dry: and both these cir- Kuin in general.
cumstances may happen at once with the same result. A
small plate fixed ' Labile on rain water. A. P. 1703. 5(5.
externally, opposite to the middle of the
internal plate, protects this
part of the plate from receiving Wargentin. Schw.Abh. XXV.3.
moisture, and a smaller piece of glass, fixed on the external Leche. Sdiw. Abh. XXV. 16.
476 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGV, KAIN.

Schenmark. Scliw. Abh. XXVI. 159. Gough. Manch. M. IV.

UIloii's
voyages. 11. Observes, that the quantity of rain at different heights i«
It never rains in Peru, but for a part of the year the at- nearly as the height of the point of perpetual cong«lation

mosphere is obscured by thick fogs, called garuas. above the gage.

Franklin. 1756. Ph.tr. 1765. 182. Dalton on rain and dew. Manch M. V. 346.
Observes, that a small black cloud portends rain, denoting Nich. 8. IV. 159. Repert. ii. I. 203.
the beginning of a current of cold air from above. Dalton found the rain of a
gage, so yards high, in sum-
Franklin and Percival on the difference of mer i, in winter i as much as that of a gage below.

rain at different heights. Manch. M. II. Howard on Hutton's theory of rain. Ph. M.
No satisfactory theory. XIV. 55.
*Heberden on the rain falling at different It has been remarked, that the
largest quantities of rain
fall on the where they arc the most wanted, since
heights. Ph.tr. ntHj. 359.
hills,

In 1706, li.l inches fell at the top of Westminster they soon run off, from the inclination of the ground.

abbey, below the houses, 22.fi.

Barringlon on the rain on mountains. Ph.tr. Rain Gages.

1771.294.
Not much less than on the plains. Hooke's statical rain and
gage register.
Dobson. Ph. tr. 1777.255. Birch. III. 477.
Confirms Meberden's remark.
Perrault. A. P. II. 25.
Bertholon Nn a cause of rain. Roz. XIV. 482.
Loup. Th. Aerostat, t. 17, 18.
Ducarla on rainy winds. Roz. XVIII. 446. Grischow's hyetometer. M. Berl. 1734. IV.
Deluc Idees sur la meteorologie.
349.
Deluc on vapours and rain. Roz. XXXVI. 276. Pasumot's rain and snow gage. Roz. VIII. 43.
Letter to Hutton in the Monthly Review. Landriaiii's
chrouhyometer. Soc. Ital. I. 205.
1789. Roz. XXII. 280.
Chiminello on the fall of rain in different
Registering the time and quantity.
centuries. A. Sienn. VI. 1. Garnctt on rain gages. Ir. tr. V. 357.
Hutton's theory of rain. Ed. tr. 1. 41. II. SQ. Some of these gage? measure the
quantity by wheelwotk.
Observes, that since the capacity of air for moisture in-
creases faster than the temperature, there must he a deposi-
tion of moisture when two saturated portions of air at differ-
Particular Registers of Rain.
ent temperatures are mixed.
See MeteorologicalJournals.
liibes on rain. Roz XL. 85.
Erxleben. II. 735. Townley on the rain at Townlcy, in Lanca-
It is said, that the drops of rain, .at the equator, are some-
shire. Ph. tr. 1694. XVIII.
times an inch in diameter. The average of ) 5 years was 41.518.

Ijichtenberg's reraarkson rain. Gilb. II. 121.

Ph.tr. 1696. XIX. 357.
At Grcsham College.
Hassenfratz on snow and rain. Journ. Polyt.
Derham. Ph. tr. 1714. XXIX. ISO.
I. iv. 570.
Repert. XIV. 64.
At Upminster.
Saussure on dryness preceding rain. Gilb.
Hoisley. Ph. tr. 1723. XXXII. 328.
1.317. Nich. I. 511.
In Nonhumberland.

Zylius on rain. Gilb. V. '257- Grischow. M. Berl. 1734 . . IV. .

Kirwan on rain. In tr. Nich. 8. V. 120.

Linings. Ph.tr. 1745. XLIII. 330, 1753.284.
Electric theory.
At Charlestown,
 CATALOGUE. — HETJCO HOLOGY, RAIN. 477
Inches. 2S.5
Hagpn. Ph.tr. 17ol. 360. Noprich, 13 y.

At Leydcn. Fyfield, Hampsh. 7 y. 25.9

Ferriby, Yorksh. 26.6

Byam. Pli. tr. 1755.295.
Chichester 36.8
In Antigua.
Ulm 27.0
Anieron. Ph. tr. 17G3. 9.
Algiers 37.0
At Norwich.
Barro.vby, Yorksh. 6 y. 27.5
Borlase. Ph. tr. 17G4. 59. Chatsworth, Derbysh. 15 y. 27.S
In Cornwall. Continued. 38.4
Hague
Barker. Ph. tr. 1771. 221. Delft 28.6
At Lyndon. Continued. Harderwyk 28.6

Hutchinson on the dryness of the year 1788. A place in Cornwall, 1

y. 29.1

Bristol, 3 y. 29.3
Ph. tr. 1789. 37.
Bridgwater, Somers. g 29-3
A caution respecting the rain gage of the R.
Abo 29.3
S. Ph tr. 1792. Leyden - » 30.2
Erxleben. ^. '38. Madeira 31.0
At various places. Minehead, Somers. ai.a

An annual table Dalton's mean for all England, taking first a mean
printed by Burbage at
of the counties - - . 31.3
Nottingham. Mean of 16 places in Great Britain, Enc. Br. 32.5
AtExeter,Chichester,London,Diss,Chatsworth, W.Bridg-
Dalton's immediate mean of 32 places, mostly rainy 35.2
ford, Ferriby, Lancaster, and Kendal. It appears that De-

.... - - - 33.0
Manchester, 9 y.
cember was the wettest month in 4 places ;
June in 2 ; May - - - - 33.0

...
Middleburg
and November each in one, and April and December in one
Zurich 33.1
instance equally wetter than the rest. 1804.
Exeter - asjj v

Upsal ...
Annual fall of Rain, from Erxleben, Dalton, and others.

Inches 18.7
Liverpool, 18 y.
Padua .'...
...
- - - 34.4
34.5
West Bridgford, Netting.

Wittenberg - -
-

-
-

-
-
17.O
17.O
Cotte's

Sieima
mean
...
of 147 places
- .
34.7
35.2

St. Petersburg

... - - .
-
17.2 Venice - - - - 36.1

Lund
Diss, Norfolk - . -
.

-
18.5

18.7
Selbourne,
Dover, 5 y.
Hampsh.

.... -
-

- -
-

-
37.2
87. 5

Upminster, Essex
Carlisle,
Paris

Berlin
1 y.

....
...
-
-

-
-

_
19.5
20.2
20.2
5Q,g
Lyons
Kirkmichael, Dumfr.
Ludgvan, Cornw.
Dordrecht - -
-
-

-
-
-

s
39.*
40.8
41.0
41.0

, Widdrington, North.
Rome
Edinburgh
.

...
1 y.

-
-

-
-

.
-
31.2
21.3
jj.q
Townley, Lane. 15
Pisa

Lancaster, 10 y.
-
y.
....
-
-

-
-

-
41. s

.43.2

4.i.o

Dublin - - - - Waith Sutton, Weslm. 5 y. - - 40. 0:

02.2
"
South Lambeth,

London, 7 y.
y.
-
-

-
-
-
02.7
33.0
Plymouth, 2y.
Charlestown -
-

-
-

... -
-

-
46.5
50.9
~ Near Oundle, North. 14 y.
- - 23.0 Garsdale, Westm. 3 y. 52.3-
-

...
Lisle - . - - 24.0 Westm. 3 - -

.....
Fellfoot, y. 55-7
- - - -
Lyndon, Rutl. 21 y.
• - 24.3 Kendal, Westm. 11 y. 59. »

Utrecht
Haarlem ... .
34.7 Kendal, in 17S2
Crawshawbooth, Lane. 2 - - -
53.5
60.0

...
24.7 y.
-
Keswick, Cumb. -
- 25.0 - -
Youngsbury, Hartf. 5 y. 7 y. 67.5
- - - - 104.0
Kimbolton, Hunt. 95,0 East Indies, sometirasj
478 CATALOGUE. METEOROLOGY, SNOW AND HAIL.
For rain and dew together Dalton makes the mean for
Hail stones weighing l^^lb., the least two
England and Wales 36 inches, amounting in a year to 28
cubic miles of water. fingers thick. A. P. 1703. H. 19.
Thoresby on a hail storm. Ph. tr. 1712.

Storms of Rain. XXVII. 514.

Langwith on the figures of snow. Ph. tr.

Ph. tr. 1698. XX. 382. 1723. XXXII. 298.

In Yorkshire.
Musschenbroek on some figures of snow. Ph.
Derliain and Leeuweiihoek, Ph, tr. 1704. tr. 1732. XXXVII. 357. Mussch. Intr.
XXIV. 1530, 1535. II. pi. 61.
Chiefly wind.
Lulofs on the figure of snow. M. Eerl.
Sloane. I'h. tr. 1706. XXV. 2342.
1740. VI. 83.
At Denbigh,
Stocke nivls figurae. Ph. tr. 1742. XLII.
Thoresby. Ph.tr. 1711. XXVII. 321. 1722.
114.
XXXII. 101.
Near Halifax; fifteen persons were drowned. Engtlmati Verhandeling over de sneewfigu-
Luckoinbe's tablet of memory. ren. Haarl. 1747.

A flood in Spain, nny, destroyed 2000 persons, Monesier sur la gr^le. 4. Bourd. 1752.
Campbell. Maiidi. M. IV. 265. *Netti3 on the configuration of snow. Ph. tr.

Six inches of rain fell in a storm at Lancaster.

1756.644.
Bruni on the mass of snow that fell upon
Snow and Hail.
Berg.nmoletto. Ph.tr. 1756.796.
Fauquier on a hail storm in Virginia. Ph. tr.
Figures of snow. See Physical Optics.
175S. 746.
Kepler on the se.xangular figure of snow.
Wilke on the forms of snow. Schw. Abh.
Dornav. amphitheatr. 751.
1761.3, 89. lloz. I. 106.
Figures of snow. Hooke's micrographia.
The forms are shown by freezing soap bubbles.
88, 91.
Messieron a number of globules passing over
Exir. Ph. tr. 16/4. IX.
the sun's disc. A. P. 1777- 464. H. 3.
Fairfiix on a hailstorm. Ph. tr. 1667- II. 481.
Probably large hail stones.
Grew on the nature of snow. Ph. tr. l673.
f Ciiamboa on hail. Roz. X. 301.
VIII. 5193.
A letter on hail. Rozier. Sept. 1778.
Bart/wliiiwi de naturae mirabilibus. 4. Co-
Mongez on hail. Kox. XII. 202.
penh l!i74. ii.
Hailstones of above two pounds. Mourgue
Ace. Ph. tr. 1674. IX. ,

de Montredon. A. P. 1781. 754.

Hailstones of more than a pound in Flanders.
With a dry fog supposed to be volcanic.
I'h. tr. 1693. XXIV. 858.
Barberet. Acad. Dijon. 1.

Halley on a hail storm. Ph. tr. I697. XIX. Pasumot on prisms of ice. Roz. XXIII. 62.
570.
Franklin. Maiich. M. II. 357.
On a hail storm. Ph. tr. l697. XIX. 577, 579. Suspects that hail is formed in a very cold region, high in

XIX. But this not the most probable hypo-

fWallis on Ph. the atmosphere. is
hail. tr. 1697- 653,
thesis.
7£9.
Cassini on the figure of snow. A. P., II. 87i Tessier's account of a hail storm extending

X. 25. 200 leagues. A, P. 1789- 6I8. 1790.263.

5
 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGY, SPRINGS AND RIVERS. 479

Lichtenberg on hail. N. Hannov. Mag. Jan. Hydrology. Ph. tr. abr. II. ii. 257. TV. 2 p.
ii. 18.1. VI. 2
1793. Eixl. Naturl. p. ii. 163. VIII. Sp.ii. 641,

Thinks, that hail depends on" electricity, perhaps as

.

X.2p. ii. 567.

promoting evaporation and cold. Observes, that it
very sel- Vossius de Nili origine. 4. Hague, I666.
dom hails at night ; that in wiiuer snow is much more
Ace. Ph. tr. 1655—6. 1. 304.
common than hail ; that it often snows or rams for some
Brown on the lakeof Zircknltz in Carniolia.
days, and then hails with thunder ; and that hail often at-

tends volcanic explosions. Most of these circumstances

Ph. tr. IV. 1669. 1083.
ire easily understood, if we consider that much of the cold A lake several miles long, which abounds with fish in

which congeals the hail is

the winter, but is
dry from June to SejJtember, yielding
probably produced by evapora-
tion. grass and hay. It empties itself by a subtc^raneous channel,
Mariotte du nicuveinent deseaux. clxxix.
Hassenfratz on snow and rain. Journ.Polyt.
X/'or/g/nedes fontaines. Par. 1674.
I. iv. 570.
Rcpeit. XIV. 64.
Hassenfratz on the air contained in snow.
Ace. Ph. tr. 1675. X.
Southwell on water. Birch. HI. 196.
Journ. Phys. XLVIII. 375.
Valvasor on the lake of Zircknitz, with a
Hail stones of 8 pounds. Mann. Ph. M. II. map,
216. Ph.tr. 1686. XVI. 411.

Saussure on a red snow. Ph. M. III. 168. Young on fountains and springs. Hooke.
Driessen on the congelation of snow water. Lect. Cutl.
Thinks they originate from the sea, since large springs
. Ph. M. III. 249.
are sometimes found in small islands. Hooke docs not ac-
Gilb. IV. 246.
cede to the opinion.
Aldini attributes the form of snow to electricity. Von
Arnim denies the observation on which the opinion
Halley on the lake of Zircknitz. Birch. IV.
is
558.
grounded. Gilb. V. 73.
Account of a iiail stone whicli fell in Halley &n the cause of springs. Ph. tr. 1692.
Hungar}',
1803, and which eight men could not lift.
XVII. 468.
Gilb. XVI. 75. Halley on the saltness of the sea and of
From newspapers only.
lakes. Ph. tr. 1715. XXIX. 29fi.

On snow. Nich. VIII. 73. Oliver on an ebbing well in

Torbay. Ph. tr.

Hailstones 14 inches in circumference are said to have 1693. XVII. 908.

fallen in Hartfordshire, 4 May, 1697 some of as ounces
;
Bartholiitus de origine fontium. 4.
Copenli.
weight in the Pyrenees, 1784. In 1710 a storm of snow
1689.
destroyed 7000 Swedes in their march against Drontheim.
Sedileau on Springs. A. P. I693. 117. On
the origin of rivers. X. 221.
Springs, Rivers, Lakes, and Seas: Diodati on an inundation in Mauritius. Ph.
liattr and Ice. tr. 1698. XX. 268.
Dodart on the wells at Calais, fluctuating
See Theory of Hydraulics, and Hydraulic
with the tides. A. P. I. '^34. H. 87.
Architecture.
Borelli and Lahire on
On ebbing and flowing wells. Plin.
Epia. iv.
reciprocating springs.
A. P. II. 25.
SO.
Heariie de lacu Vettero. Ph.
Danubius
tr. 1705.
illustralus.
XXIV. I9S8.
Boyle on the saltuess of the sea. Works. Ill,
Thoresb\ 011 an eruption of waters in Craven.
357.
Ph. tr. 1706. XXV. 2236.
480 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGY, SPRINGS AND RIVERS.

Vailimrri Lezzione intorno alle fontane. Ve- Baciiilli on the mouths of rivers. C. Bon. V,
nice, 1715. M. B. ii. 99.
Robelin on wells aliernating with the tides. Barbieri on the saltness of the sea. Raccolta
A. P. 1717. H. 9.
d'opusc. xlvii.
Ph tr. 1722. XXXIf. On the divining rod. Roz. Intr. II. 231.
The height of the falls of Niagara is 186 feet.
Montucla. Math. recr.

Desaguliers on the rise and fall of water in Baumer on springs. Roz. I. 177.
ponds. Ph.tr. 1724. XXXIII. 132. On springs. Roz. VI. 435.
On the principle of Hero's fountain.
Lengths and heights of rivers. Roz. VII.
Gunltieri sopra le fontane. 8. Lucca, 1728.
292.
M. B.
fMaison neuve on the saltness of the sea.
Atwcll on reciprocating springs. Ph.tr. 1732.
Roz. XII. 392.
XXXVII. 301. Rennel on the lengths of rivers. Ph. tr. 1781.
On the principle of the siphon.
90.
Ilttmberger et Dankwerts de fontium origine. Fraula on thawing. Roz. XXI. 390.
4. Jen. 1733.
Desmaretson ice. Roz. XXII. 50, 165.
Sfgner Progammata duo. Gott. 1737.
On Page on the wells at Sheerness. Ph.tr. 1784.
reciprocating springs.
6.
On rivers. S'Gravesande. Nat. Ph. iii. c. 10.
A well being dug 330 feet deep, the water rose in it to
Lucas on the cave of Killarney, which some-
within 18 feet of the surface.
times overflows with
reciprocating water. Allut on
Ph. tr. 1740. XLI. S60. periodical springs. Roz, XXVI.
295.
Marsigli Storia del mare.
Robert and Meyerotto on the Hautes
<}hezzi deJIe fontane. Ven. 1741. M. B.
12. Fag-
nes, a marsh on an elevated plain. A.
Jallabert on the alternations of the lake of
Berl. 1788. 94,577.
Geneva. A. P. 1742. H. 26".
Ribbach on the Hautes Fagnes. A. Berl. D,
Kii/m vom ur.^prunge der quellen. 8. Berl.
Abh. 17»8. 177.
1746.
Pott on ice at the bottom of rivers. Roz.
On an inundation in
Cumberland, which un- XXXIII. 59.
oermi..ecl a mountain. Ph. tr. 1750. 362.
Besson on subaqueous ice. Roz. XXXIV.
'l>eparcieux on a pipe that gives more water
387.
by night than by day. A. P. 1750. H. 153.
Godart on subaqueous ice. Roz. XXXV»
1754. H.33.
205.
Probably from iacluded air.

On Brunelli on the river of Amazons. C. Bon.

springs. Belidor. Arch.Viydr. II. i.SSQ.
VII. O. 39.
Speed de aqua marina. 4. Oxf. 1755.
Guettard on the disappearance of some rivers.
Rumford on the saltness of the sea. Ess. II.
A. P. 1758.271. H. 13. Observes, that it tends to prevent the expansion of the water
in cooling, and to equalise the temperature of the
Wallcrius et Sv. W. de origine fontium. 176I.
air, by
causing the circulation of the water to continue in low tem-
Milbourne on a decrease of the river Eden. peratures.
Ph. tr. 1763. 7. The lake of Eichen in Baadcn haa some remarkable Tari-
Perhaps from frost. ations. Lichtenberg.
 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGV, ATMOSPHERICAL ELECTRICITY. 481

Lowitz on freshening putrid water. N. A.

Trembley on rivers, and on the lake of Ge-
neva. A. Berl. 1794. 3. Petr. 1792. X. 187.

Baillet on wraters in mines. Journ. Phys. Montucla and Lalande. IV. 507.
XLVIII. 164. Trotter's medical and chemical essays. 8.

Grimm and others on the origin of subterra- 1795.

Recommends casks charged within.
neous water. Gilb. II. 336.
LV. Bentham's metallic tanks for preserving
TrauUe on new springs. Journ. Pliys.
fresh water at sea. Repeat. XVI. 238.
346.
Edelbrooke on the Ganges in Bengal. As. v
Atmospherical Electriciiy in general.
'

res. VII. 1.

Cousin on the height of the Seine. M. Inst.

St. Gray. Ph. tr. 1735. XXXIX. 24.
" the
Observes, that electric fire (si
licet magnis com po-
IV. 334.
nere parva) seems to be of the same nature with that of
Lamarck Hydrogeologie. 8. Par. 1802. K. S. thunder and lightning."
Pearson on the wells at Brighton. Nich. on the form of lightning. Ph. tr.
•[-Logan
8.111.65. 1736. XXXIX. 240.
The and
high water prevents the efflux of the springs, Winkler Abhandiung von der electrischen
Raises the wells.

XV. ursprung deswetterleuchtens. 1746. Geh-

Dalton. Manch. M. V. 346. Gilb. 244.
lers worterb. Art. Blitz.
Observes, that a foot of wet soil contains 7 inches of

water, that is . Thinks that the Thames carries off i of *Franklin's letters.
j?

other rivers 8 times

the rain and dew that fall in England ;
Maffei della fonnazione dei fulmini. 4. Ve-
together 13 inches, and leaving 23
as for
much, making rona, 1747.
evaporation.
Wilke. Schw. Abh. 1750. 81, 155.
Nich. V.
Henry. Ph. tr. 1803. 29, 274. 8.
Eeles on the cause of thunder. Ph. tr. 1751.
229. Report, ii. HI. 255.
524.
Finds, that equal volumes of any gas are absorbed by wa-
under any pressure. Hence we may understand why Nollet and Mylius on the electricity of the
ter

the water of the deepest wells contains the most air. clouds. Ph. 1751. 553, 559.
tr.

Nollet on the effects of thunder. A. P. 1764.

Sweetening Sea Water, and pre- 408.

Watson on thunder clouds. Ph. tr. 1751. 567.
serving Fresh.
Watson on the effects of lightning. Ph. tr.
Hauton. Ph. tr. 167O. V. 2048. 1 762. 6^9.
Lister. Ph. tr. 1685. XV. 836.
Macfaiton thunder. Ed. ess. I. I89.
Boyle. Ph.tr. 1691. XVII. 627. Lemonnier on the electricity of the air. A.
Watson. Ph.tr. 1753.69. P. 1752. 233. H. 8.
Chapman. Ph.tr. 758. 635. J
Mazeas on the electriciiy of the air. Ph. tr.
On Irwin's mode of sweetening sea water. A.
1753. 377.
Gott. D. Schr. 202. Roz. XVI 1 1. l64.
Birch's remark on the on spear
light seen
Lorgiia. Soc. Ital. HI. 375. V. 8.
points. Ph. tr. 1754. 484.
Lorgna intorno alia dolcificazioncdell acqua Bittsc/taiizAc fnlgureet tonitru.
Gotting.1757.
del mare. 4. R. S.
Hartniann von lufterschcinungen. 8. Hanovt
Bay ley's machine, llepert. V. 320.
1759.
VOL. II.
3Q
 48'Ji CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGY, ATMOSPHERICAL ELICTRICITY.

Bergman on horizontal lightnings. Schw. Ferris on ascending thunder. Roz. XXII.

Abh. 1760. 62. 197.
Po/?cf/c< de la nature du tonnerre. 12. Par. Electric mists of 1783. See Clouds
and Mists.
1766. Baldwin on the appearance of an electrical
Ronayneon atmospherical electricity. Ph. tr. kite. Am. Ac. I. 257.

1772.137. Diwisch Meteorologische electricitat. 1786.

Cotte. A. P. 1772. H. 16. Oliver on
lightning. Am. tr. II. 74.
i.

Snow serves as a conductor in storms.

Bennet's account of
atmospherical electri-
Beccaria dell' elettricita atmosferica. 4. R. S.
city. Ph. tr. 1787. 288.
Bertliolon on thunder. Roz. VII, 258. Finds, that a candle collects more electricity than any
Bertholon on atmospherical electricity. Roz. point.

XX. 224. Sen6bier. Rozier. March and April 1787.

Jicrthulon de I'electricite des meteores. Par. Lightning without thunder. Senebier in Ro-
1787. zier. 1787. Gronau. Naturf. Fr. IX.
Cavallo on the electricity of the atmosphere. Bergmann on lightning. Opusc. V. 348.
Pii.tr. 1776.407. 1777. 48. Hervieu on a remarkable light in a storm.
Mako vom donner. 1778. Roz. XXXIV. 386.
, Rebnarus vom blitze. 2 v. 8. Hamb. 1778. Aepinus's letter on atmospherical electricity.
1794. Ed. tr. II. 213.

Changeux on the effects of electricity on Read's instrument for collecting

atmospheric
tlie barometer. Rozicr. Apr. 1778. electricity. Ph.tr. 1791. 185.
Gallitzin on an electrical kite. A. Petr. II. ii.
Read's apparatus and journal of
electricity.
76. Fig. Ph. tr. 1792. 225.
With precautions to prevent accidents. Read's summary view of the electricity of the

Mourgiie on thunder. Roz.XIlI. Suppl. 459. earth and atmosphere. Lond. 179,5.
Poll sopra il tuono. 8. R. S. Read's meteorological journal of
atmospheri-
Deiuc Idees. II. cal electricity. Ph. tr. 1794. 185.
Delucon lightning. Roz. XXXIX. 262. Finds, that out of 404 observations in a year, theairwas

Deiuc to Lanietherie. Roz. Aug. 1790. positively electric in 241, negative in 156, and neutral in?
only.
Peluc on lightning without thunder. Roz.
Read's experiments with the doubler. Ph. tr.
Oct. 1791.
1794. 266.
Rozier on the cause of thunder. Roz. XVI. Attributes the uncertainty of the doubler wholly to at-
309. mospheric finds all noxious and
electricity
;
putrid ex-
Rozier on a phosphoric cloud. Roz. XVIIf. halations,.{ind the air of close rooms, in a negative state.

276. On fairy rings. Withering's bot. arr. III. 335.

Acliard on atmospherical electricity. A. Berl.
Monthly Mag. XV. 2 19- Gilb. XVII. 3 51,
1780. 14. They are formed by the agaricus orcades, or
g
fairy rin
Achard on terrestrial
electricity, k. Berl. agaric, becoming larger as the roots of the fungus spread.

1786. 13. Volta to Liclitenbeig. Brugnatelli Bibl. fisi-

In contradistinction to atmospherical. ca. Germ. Meteorologische briefe.

Lei])2-
Uucarla on rainy winds. Roz. XVIII. 446, 1793.
 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGY, ACCOUNTS OF STORMS. 4B3

Lampadius uber electricitat und w'anne. 8. Chamberlayne. Ph. tr. 1712. XXVII. 528.
Berl. 1793. Wasse. Ph.tr. 1725. XXXIII. 36?.
Lichtenberw. At Mixbury. Probably an igneous meteor. Mr. Jessop
o Erxl. Nat.
more attributes the fairy rings to lightning.
Thinks, that thunder is less frequent but violent in

winter, because the air is less disposed to conduct. Bocanbrey on a vortex of fire rolling on the
Robison. Enc. Br. Suppl. Art. Thunder. earth. A. P. 1725. H. 5.
Tcaldo on thunder. Ac. Par. III. 212. Seems to have been a whirlwind or dry spout.

On the clouds in a thunderstorm. Nich. 1. 265. Beard. Ph. tr. 1726. XXXIV. 118. -

fOn fairy rings. Nich. I. 546. Davies. Ph.tr. 1730. XXXVI. 444.
In Carmarthenshire.
Heller on the returning stroke. Gilb. TI. 223.
Aldini's opinion of snow. See .Snow.
Cookson. Ph. tr. 1735. XXXIX. 75.
Magnetic effects.
Priestley on an igneous meteor. Gilb. XI.
Clark. Ph. tr. 1739. XLI. 235.
76.
Lord Petre. Ph. 1742. XLII. tr. 136.
A particular kind of lightning, supposed to be about 20
miles high. Ph.tr. 1745. XLIII. 447.
Kirwan on rain. Ir. tr. Nich. 8. V. 120. Miles. Ph. tr. 1748. XLV. 383. 1757. 104.
Erman on atmospherical electricity. Gilb. Waddel and Knight. Ph. tr. 1749. XLVI.
XV. 385. 502. 111.
Bilitoro asserts, that lightning generally strikes the S. E. Effects on the compass.
side of a house, sometimes the S. W. but never the north. Chalmers on a fire ball. Ph. tr. 1750. XLVI.
366.
Particular Accounts of Storms. On board the Montague, in lat. 43" 48', 4 Nov. 1749, a
ball of fire as large as a millstone w^ai seen rolling three or

four miles along the sea with the wind; it struck the main
Instances of lightning without audible thun-
topmast, rent the whole mainmast, and knocked down
der. Homer. Odyss. xx. 139. Virg.
Georg. 6ve men. It has been supposed that this was an electrical
I. 487. Cicer. de divin. I. xviii. Hor. Od. cloud.

I. 34. Franklin. Ph. tr. 1751.289-

Waller. Ph. tr. 1665—6. 1. 222. Palmer.Ph.tr. 1751. 330.
At Oxford. At Southraolton.
Neale. Ph.tr. 1665—6. 1. 247. Account of the death of Richmann. A. P.
Ph. tr. 1^70. V. 2084. 1753. H. 78. Ph.tr. 1754. 7o7. 1755.61.
At Stralsund. Hatiow Nachricht aus St. Petersburg.
Kirkby. Ph. tr. 1673.V1II. 6092. Kratzcnstcin says, that the stroke which destroyed Hich-
Effects on grain. mann was not conducted by his apparatus.

Howard. Ph. tr. I676. Xf. 647. Hiixham. Ph.tr. 1755. l6.
Effects on the compass, a complete reversion. At Plymouth.
Ph.tr. 1(596. XIX. 311. Brander. Ph. tr. 1755.298.
Near Aberdeen, 4 persons killed. In Wellclose Square.

Mawgridge. Ph. tr. I697. XIX. 782. Child. Ph. tr. 1755. 309.
Effects on a galley. At Darking.
Thoresby. Ph. tr. 1699. XXI. 51. Ph.tr.
Dyer. Ph. tr. 1757. 104.
1700. XXII. 507. In Cornwall.
At Leeds. Smeaton. Ph. Ir. 1759' 198.
Molyneux. Ph. tr. 1708. XXVI. 36. At Lestwithitl.
484 CATALOGUE. METEOROLOGY, ACCOUNTS OF STORMS.

Cooper. Ph.tr. 1759. 38. Poll sopra alcuni fultnini. 8. R. S.

At Norwich. Nairne on wire shortened by
lightning. Ph.
Mrs. Whitfield. Ph. tr. 1759. 282. tr. 1783.223.

Mountaine and Knight. Ph. tr. 1759. 286, Buissart on an ascending stroke of thunder.
294. Roz. XX lU. 279.
Borlase. Ph. tr. 1762. 507. Verdeilon a stroke of thunder al Lausanne.
Watson. Ph.tr. 1762.629. M. Laus. I. 158.
On ships.
Geschickte einer ausserordentlichen
begeben-
Bergmann. Ph. tr. 1763. 97.
heit. 8. Frankf. 1785.
Delaval. Ph. tr. 1764. 227.
Lightning without thunder.
St. Bride's church.
Lee on a stroke of lightning. Am. Ac. T. 253.
Lawrens. Ph. tr. 1764. 235.
Essex street.
Brydone on a thunder storm in Scotland. Ph.
tr. 1787.61.
Heberden. Ph.tr. 1764. 198.
No flash appeared to strike the men, and the lowest point
At S. Weald.
only of the iron of the wheels was melted.
Veicht. Ph. tr. 1764. 284.
On Lord Stanhope on Mr. Brydone's account.
ships in the East Indies.

Paxton. Ph. tr. 1769. 79- Ph.tr. 1787. 130.

Devonsliire. A noise equal to lOO cannon. Explains the circumstance from the effect of the return-

Williams. Ph. ing stroke.

tr. 1771.71"."
Cornwall. A whole congregation, except 5 or 6, were Lavoisier on a stroke of lightning on St.

stiuclv senttlcss. Cornwall seems to be the most exposed Paul's church. A. P. 1789. 6l3.
to thunder of any county in Britain. Hervieu on a storm. Roz. XXXIV. 386.
Henly.Ph.tr. 1772. 131. Kl'ugel Beschreibung eines heftigen gewitters.
Kirkshaw. Ph. tr. 1773. 177. 8. Halle, 1789-
A person struck dead in bed.
Withering on some effects of lightning. Ph.
King. Ph.tr. 1773.231. tr. 790. 293.
1

Wilts.
A man was struck dead under a tree ; a hole 2 J inches
Hamilton. Ph.tr. 1773. S24. in diameter was made, and some quartzose sand and peb-
Lord Tylney's house at Naples.
bles were vitrified in it.

Ivichoisou. Ph. tr. 1774. 350. Haldane on the cause of accidents from
A horse's ears were luminous : there was a light stream-
L
lightning. Nich. 433.
ing from cloud to cloud like an aurora borealis;
Effect of lightning. Nich. 432. HL
Henley. Ph. tr. 1776.463.
A bullock was struck by lightning, which affected the skin Lichtenberg on a thunder cloud. Ph. M. VL
41.
where the hair was white :
probably because the skin was
here a less perfect conductor than elsewhere, and the least Toscan on a stroke of lightning, preceded
by
perfect conductors are most affected.
the appearance of a globe of light on an
Cooper. Ph. tr. 1779- l60. iron bar. Gilb. XHl. 484.
On the ship Atlas.
Storms of th\inder. Gilb. XV. 227.
*Brereton. Ph. tr. 1731. 42.
East Bourne. A ball was, seen to burst against the house;
Gough and Wilson on some effects of light-

two persons were killed. ning. Nich. IX. 1.

Roz. XVni. 45.

Leroy. Roz. XX. 82.

Lorgna. Roz. XX. 365.
 CATALOGUE. METEOROLOGY, PRESERVATION FROM LrOHTNING. 485

Leioy on con-liictors. A. P. 1770. 53. H. 14.

Measures of Atmospherical Elec-
1773. 599. H. 3. 1790. 472, 588. Roz.
tricity. XLIII. 94.
Franklin. Ed. ess. III. 129.
Franklin's electrical kite. Ph. tr. 1751. 565.
Franklin on electricity.
Romas. S. E. II. 393.
Fdbiger Kunst gebaiide zu bew'ahren.S.BresI.
Hartmann liber die erforschung der electri-
1771.
cit'iit. 4. Haiiov. 1764.
*Keport of a committee on securing powder
Gallitzin. A. Petr. II. ii. 76.
magazines. Ph. tr. 1773. 42. Consisting
A kite.
of Cavendish, Watson, Franklin, and \

Lichtenberg's meteorological electroscope.

odiers.
Goth. Mag. I. i. 157.
They recommend pointed conductors ; ar.d adhere to
Boyer Brun on an electroscope for a conduc- theiropinion. Ph.tr. 177«,
tor. Roz. XXVIII. 133.
Henley on conductors. Ph. tr. 1774. I3S.
Read. Ph. tr. 1791 185. 1792. 225. In favour of points.

Read on the electricity of the earth and at- Henley and Haffenden on a house with a
mosphere. conductor that was struck. Ph. tr. 1775.
336.
Preservation from Lightning. Con- Henley. Ph. tr! 1777. 85.
Observes, that lampblack and tar act as a pres^atife
ductors and Precautions.
from lightning.

W'mkler dc avertendi fulminis artificio. 4. Tetein iiber die sicherung seiner person, 8.

Leipz. 1753. Biltzow, 1774.

Watson on conductors. Ph. tr. 1764. 201. Gudcn von der sicherheit wider die donner-
Delaval. Ph. tr. 1764. 227. strahlen.B. Gott. 1774.
Recommends a conductor 6 or 8 inches by J for St.
Swift on conductors. Ph. tr. 1778. 155. 1779*
Bride's church.
454.
Wilson on blunt conductors. Ph. tr. 1764.
In favour of points.
24.6.
Papers relative to an accident at Purfleet.
Wilson's dissent from a committee, witU ex- Ph. tr. 1778. 232.
Ph. tr. 1773. 48, 49.
periments.
which are
Musgrave's dissent from the committee. Ph.
Wilson attract discharges,
says, that points
inches by ^ an inch, was
tr. 1778. 801.
eften dangerous. A bat, near 4-

March 177*. Observes, that other things being equal, points are struck
hot in St. Paul's,
probably heated red
farther off than balls.
Wilson's experiments Pantheon and
in the

1778. 232, 999- *Nairne's experiments in favour of pointed

elsewhere. Ph. tr.

A a distance than a ball. conductors. Ph. tr. 1778. 823.

point was struck at greater
for securing St.
Proposal of a committee
balls are struck fur-
Says, that other things being equal,
ther otf than points. Thus a point, moving swiftly under a
Paul's. Ph. tr. 1769. l60.
conductor, approached nearer to it without being struck
Recommends 4 bars not less thai* an inch squaie, to se-
than a ball. Peihaps, however, there was time for a par-
cure the lantern.
tial discharge in silence if sp, 3 point must have great
a conductor for a ship. Ph.
;
Winn on tr. 1770.
power in producing such a discharge.
188.
 486 CATALOGUE. METEOROT.OGT, WATERSPOUTS.

Verhaltungsregehi bey doniierwittern, von A conductor, with means for

extinguishing
Lichtenberg. 8. Goiba, 1778. Goth. Mag. V. iv. 148.
fire.

Rosenthal. Goth. Mag. IV. i. 1. Lord Stanhope. Ph. tr. 1787. 130.
Reimarus von blitz
ableilungen. 8. Hamb. Recommends a number of conductors not far apart.

1778. Geanty on conductors. Roz. XXXI. 286.

Reimarus on conductors. Gilb. VI. 377. Bergmann on conductors. Opusc. VI. 110.
Barbier du I'inan on conductors for build- Leipz. Samml. zur Phys. II. 583.
The church at Genoa was struck, notwitstanding
ings. Roz. XIV. 17.
a con-
ductor.
Latourette on conductors at Lyons. Roz.
Bonnin on conductors. Roz. XXXII. 26l.
XIX. 382.
Patter.son on conductors. Am. tr. III. S21.
Camus on ringing bells in storms. Roz.
Repert. I. 1 14.
XIX. 398.
Employs black lead for the points.
Camus on conductors. Roz. XXII. £23.
Nicholson. Ph. tr. 1789.
Bartaloni on a conductor at Sienna. A. Sienn. Observes, thata point, projecting frotn a ball, only modi-
VI. 253. fies its effect, and concludes, that a
sharp conductor pro-
jecting from a building can seldom act as a point, especially
Blagden and Nairne on tlie accident by
when the cloud is negative.
lightning at Heckingham. Ph. tr. 1782.
Gross Ableitungskunst. Leipz. 1796.
335.
There were eight pointed conductors of iron ; but the Regniei's conductor approved. M. Inst. IV.
communication with moisture in the earth was perhaps im- Haldane on conluctors. Nich.Gilb. V. 115,
pared, the conductors were rusty,
and perhaps they were Wolff on conductors. Gilb. Vlil. 69.
too distant ; there was at the time a very heavy rain. A Von Arnim on conductors. Gilb. VIII. 290.
woman said she saw three balls of fire strike the house. The
Gilbert on relief from a stroke of lightning.
wall was injured, and a saddle hanging in a stable was da-
Ph. M. XVII. 300.
maged.
E. M. A. V. Art. Paralonnerre.
A person struck by lightning in bed at Augusta, a Jan.
1803, and left was recovered by some
senseless, pails of cold
Buissart on a multiplicity of conductors. Roz.
water, which his wife threw on him.
XXI. 140. The point of a conductor ought to be of copper, not only
Gallitzin and Achard on conductors. Roz. as being less liable to rusf, but as conducting equally well

XXII. with iron of twice the dimensions.

199.
Reimarus recommends, that all the highest parts of a
Conductors for a powder magazine. Roz.
house should be protected by slips of lead communicating
XXII. 477. with the ground. And this method is preferred by many to
^lichaelis and Lichtenberg on conductors. a pointed conductor.

Roz.. XXIV. 320. XXV. 297. XXVI. Conductors have sometimes been fixed to sticks and um-
brellas, connected with a chain which is dragged along tht
101.
ground, but they can afford little or no protection.
Showing, that the bars which were fixed on the temple of
Solomon, tokeepoff the birds, must have served as conduc-

Waterspouts, perhaps of Electrical

tors.

iMTidriani dell' utilita dci conduttori. 8.

Origin, generalli/ accompanied by
Milan, 1784. R. S.
XXIX. Electrical Phenomena.
Breitingcr on a conductor. Roz. 90.
JJemmerubev Manh. 1786. II. I.
wetterleiter. Mayne on a waterspout on the river at Tops-
iif;nOTt7i verhaltungsrcgeln. 8. Manh. 1791. ham. Ph.tr. 1695. XIX. 28.
 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGY, AFATEUSPOUTS, 487
An appletree s inches in diameter was cut off and thrown Franklin. Ph. tr. 1765. 182. Read 1756.
contrarily to the direction of the spout : an anchor was also
Franklin on electricity.
carried several feet.
Thinks a vacuum is made by the rotatory motion of the
Gbidon on a waterspout in the Downs. Ph.
ascending air, as when water is running through a funnel,
tr. 1701. XXII. 805. and that the water of the sea is thus raised. But no such
Delapryme on a spout. Ph. tr. 1702. XXIII. cause as this could do more than produce a slight rarefaction

281. of the air, much less raise the water to above 30 or 40 feet.

It seemed to be produced by a concourse of winds, turning At the same time the force of the wind thus excited might
like a screw, the clouds
dropping down into it : it threw carry up much water in detached drops, as it is
really ob-

trees and branches about with a gyratory motion. served to exist in waterspouts.

Swinton on a meteor seen at Oxford. Ph.tr.

Delapryme on a second spout in Lincoln-
shiie. Ph. tr. 1703. XXIII. 1331. 1761.99.
It was like the first, taking thatch from the houses and Forster's voyage. L 19I.
lead from the church : the tube seemed to fill at both ends. Dubourdine on a waterspout seen near the
*Stuart's description of waterspouts, with Seine. A. P. 1764. H. 32.
figures. Ph. tr. 1/02. XXIII. 1077- Brisson on a waterspout. A. P. 1767. 409.
Some appeared to be hollow, with water ascending in H. 11.
them: they began from above and from below nearly at the
On a terrestrial spout. Roz. VII. 70.
same time.
Butel on a terrestrial spout. Roz. VII. 334.
Ricliardson on a fall of water from a spout.
Ph.ir. 1719- XXX. 1097.
Fig.

The Mentions a fiery cloud.

spout does not appear to have been seen, but 10
acres of ground were destroyed, and a cavity seven feet deep Wilke. Schw. Abh. 1780.
was left.
Goth. Mag.V. iv. 90.
Bocanbrey on a vortex of fire
rolling on the
Oliver on waterspouts. Am. tr. II. 101.
earth. A. P. 1725. H. 5.
Observes, that water may be sucked up by a quill held at
Perhaps a waterspout with some electric light.
some distance above it.
Harris on a waterspout. Ph. tr. 1733.
Perkins on waterspouts. Am. tr. II. 335.
XXXVIII. 75.
By estimation of the distance, its thickness must have Michaud on a waterspout. M. Tur. 1788.
been about 60 yards, its height J of a mile. It wasted first IV. App. 3. Roz. XXX. 284. Nith. I.
at the lower part.
577. Gilb. VII.49.
Lord Lovell. Ph.tr. 1742.
Spallanzani on some waterspouts. Soc. Ital.
A phenomena like Bocanbrey's.
IV. 473.
Barker on a meteor like a waterspout. Ph.
Wild on a waterspout on the lake of Geneva.
tr. 1749. XLVl.248.
Journ. Phys. XLIV. (I.) 39- Gilb. VII.
A black whirling cloud that carried up water, and tore off
an ash 8 inches thick : it surrounded some persons like a 70.

thick mist, whirling about and dividing itself. Baussard on a waterspout. Journ. Phys.
Ray on a watcispout in Deeping fen, Lin- XLYl. (IU.)346. Gilb. VII. 73.
colnshire. Ph. tr. 1751.477. Wolke on a waterspout. Gilb. X. 482.
It was first seen moving across the land and water of the Professor Wolke gives an account of a waterspout,
fen : it raised the dust, broke some gates, and destroyed a which passed immediately over the ship, in which he
field of tuimps : it vanished with an appearance of fire ; it was sailing, in the Gulph of Finland : it
appeared to be
was accompanied by three others. about 25 feet in diameter, consisting of drops about the
 488 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGY, AURORA BOEEALIS.
size of a cherry ; the sea was agitated round iti base through

a space of about 130 feet in diameter : the relator rather

was ascending than descending.

Aurora Borealis.
supposes that the water
Cavallo. III. 306.
Account of authors, Weigels Chemie. I.
Thinks a consequence than a cause of
electricity rather
324.
waterspouts. They sometimes vanish and reappear.
M. Berl. 1710. I. 131.
Murhard on some waterspouts. Gilb. XII.
Seen in 1707.
239.
Halley. Ph. tr. 1716. XXIX. 40G,
Destiiption of a JValerspout. In a letter Jrom William The first that he had seen.
UiCKETTS, Captain in the R»yal Navy, to the
Esij.

Right Hon. Sir Joseph Banks, Bart. K.B. P. R. S.

Halley. Ph. XXX. 1099.
tr. 1719.

Read to the Royal Society sth May, 1803. From the

Barrell. 1717. XXX. 384.
Ph. tr.

Journals of the Royal Institution. II. 75. Folkes. Ph tr. 1717. XXX. 586.

In the month of July 1800, Capuin Rickctts was sud- Ph. tr. 1719- XXX. IIOI. In Deyonshire.
denly called on deck, on account of the ra^jid approach
of a 1719. XXX. 1104. At Dublin.
had the appear-
waterspout, among the Lipari Islands : it
Hearne. Ph. tr. 1719- XXX. 1107.
ance of a viscid fluid, tapering in its descent, proceeding
moved at the rate of
Percival. Ph. tr. 1720. XXXI. 21.
from the cloud to join the sea : it

about two miles an hour, with a loud sound of rain : it

At DubUn. Ph.tr. 1721. XXXI. 180.
passed the stern of the ship, and
wetted the after part of the In Devonshire. Ph. tr. 1721. XXXI. 186.
mainsail hence Captain Ricketts concluded that water-
:
Linnae regis. Ph. tr. 1723. XXXII. 300.
spouts were not continuous columns of water
and subse-
XXXIII. 175.
:

Binman. Ph. tr. 1724.

quent observations confirmed the opiirion.
Langwith, Huxhani, Hallet, Halley, and
In November 1801, about twenty miles from Trieste, a
Calandrini. Ph. tr. 1726. XXXIV. 132..
waterspout was seen eight miles to the southward ; round
its lower extremity was a mist, about twelve feet high, 150.

nearly of the form of an Ionian capital, with very large vo- Langwith. Ph. tr. 1727- XXXV. SOI.
lutes, the spout resting obliquely on its crown. At some With a good figure.
distance from this spout, the sea began to be agitated, and a Dobbs. Ph. XXXIV. 128.
tr. 1726.
mist rose to the height of about four feet : then a projection
Huxham. Ph. tr. 1750. XLVI. 472.
descended from the black cloud which was impending, and
met the ascending mist about twenty feet above the sea ;
Meyer. C. Petr. I. 351.
the last ten yards of the distance were described with a very
Derham. Ph.tr. 1727. XXXIV. 245. 1729.
great rapidity. A cloud of a light colour appeared to ascend XXXVI. 137.
in this spout like quicksilver in a glass tube. The first spout At Lynn. Ph. tr. 1727. XXXV. 253.
then snapped at about one third of its height, the inferior
and the superior curling upwards.
llestrich. Ph. tr. 1727. XXXV. 255.
part subsiding gradually,

Several other projections fiom the cloud appeared, with

Ph.tr. 1728. XXXV. 453.
Maier. C. Petr. IV. 121.
corresponding agitations of the water below, but not always
in spots vertically under them : seven spouts in all were Cramer. Ph. tr. 1730. XXXVI. 279.
formed two other projections were reabsorbed. Some of Hoxton on an Ph
;
agitation of the needle.
the spouts were not only oblique but curved the ascending :

tr. 1731. XXXVII. 53.

cloud moved most rapidly in those which were vertical; they
It lasted an hour.
lasted from three to five minutss, and their dissipation was
For some days before, the wea-
Greenwood and Lewis. Ph. tr. 1731.
attended by no fall of rain.

ther had been very rainy with a south easterly wind ;

but XXXVII. 55.
no rain had fallen on the day of observation. Mairan Trait^ de 1' aurora boreale. 4. Par
 CATALOGUE. — METBOROLOGY, AURORA EOREALIS. 469

1733, 2. ed. 1754. A. p. 1731: Suite. 1751. Bergmann. Opusc. V. 272.

Suite. Swinton. Ph. tr. 1764. 326, 332. I767. 108.

Ace. A. P. 1732. H. 1. Ph. tr. 1734. A luminous arch. Ph. tr. 1769. 367. 1770.

XXXVIII. 243. by Eames. 532.

Thinks the aurora borealis about 200 leagues above the Messier. Ph. tr. 1769. 86,
earth one instance, Cramer computed the height to be
in iiber die nordlichter. 8. Jena, 1 77 1 •
:
Wiedeburg
160 leagues. Supposes it derived from the sun's atmo- Am. tr. I. 404.
sphere, extending in
some directions beyond the earth's
orbit ; attributes the nebulae of stars and the tails of comets
Fdbiger Wie nordlichter zu beobachten. 4,
to a similar substance. Sorau, 1772.
Winn. Ph, tr. 1774. 128..
Mairan's explanations. A. P. 1747.363..423.
Observes, that the lights are generally followed the day
H. 32. Account. 17j1- H. 40. S. or S. W.
after by a storm from the
On Euler's system and on his oven.

Mairan observed the direction of the dipping needle to the

Hell.Ephem. Vienn. 1777.
M. Young. Hupsch Untersuchung des nordlichts. 8. Co-
pole of the aurora
borealis.

Wcidler. Ph. tr. 1734. XXXVIII. 291. logn, 1778.

Van Swinden. S. E. VIII. 1780. Roz. XV.
Wtidler de aurora boreal). 4.
128. A. Petr. 1780. IV. H. 19-
Celsius. Ph. tr. 1736. XXXIX. 241. i.

Observes, that the variation of the needle increases wrhen

Short. Ph. tr. 1740. XLI. 368.
the aurora borealis is approaching.
Ph.tr. 1741. XLI. 583.
Fan Swinden Recueil de memoires. Hague,
Various accounts, with a good figure.
1784. IIL 173.
Hevelius. Ph. tr. 1741. XLI. 744. Cavallo on an arch which lasted more than
Mortimer, Martyn, and Neve. Ph, tr. 1741. an hour, and eclipsed the sUirs. Ph. tr.

XLI. 839, 840, 843. 1781.329.

Martyn. Ph. tr. 1750. XLVI. 319, 345.
Peyrouse de la Coudicre. Goth. Mag. I. i. 10.
Nocetus de iride et aurora boreah, cum notis
E. M. .Art, Aurore
boreaie,,.
Physique
Boscovich. Rom. 1747. VVilke von den neuesten erklarungen des
Miles. Ph. tr. 1750. XLVI. 346^ nordfichts. Schwedischcs Museum. 8. Wis-
Baker. Pii. tr. 1750. XLVI. 499. 31.
mar, 1783. I.
Winkler de vi vaporum solarium in lumine
Kiinig. Goth. Mag. III. ii. 175.
boreali. 4.
Blagilen and Gmelin. Ph. tr. 1781. 228.
Gabrius. Ph.tr. 1751.39. Several testimonies of a rustling noise heard with these

*Wargeiitin. Ph. tr. 1751. 126. lights.

Observes the effect on the compass. Cramer iiber die entstehung des nordlichts.
Schw.Abh. 1752. I69. S.Brem. 1785.
VVargentin's history.
1753. 85. Ace. Goth. Mag. IV. ii. l63.
Bartram and Franklin. Ph. tr. 1762.474. Gannei. Am, Ac. I. 237.
Franklin's works. II. Eggers Bcschreibung von Island. 8. Copenh,
Franklin. Roz. XIII. 409. 178G,

Bergmann. Ph. tr. I7G2. 479. Viano. Roz. XXXIIL 153.

Bergmann. Sehw,. Abh. 1764.. 200, 251. Ginge. NvoSamling. Copenh. III'.
On the height of the lights,
Hey, Wollaston, Hutchinson, Fj^nklin;, Pi-
VOL. II. 3 K
490 CATALOGUE.— JIETEOROLOGrY<«A»BUQUAKES.

god and Cavendish on lunoinous arches.

Listeronearll^qijakps.Ph. tr.l684. XIV.511.
Ph. tr. 1790. 33 . .
47,101. Deduces them from pyrites.
Cav'cndish thinks, tliat the height wis between 52 and Lima nearly destroyed in 1689 : a hundred
71 miles; observes, that the diffused nature of the light thousand perished.
may make the appearance different in different places, and
Hartop and Burges. Ph. Ir, l69.^. XVII.
thus make distant observations fallacious ; says, that the
common aurora borealis has been supposed to consist of 8?7, 830.
In Sicily.
parallel streams.

Libes in Rozier. June 1790. Febr. 1791. Bonajuto. Ph. it. 1694. XVI II. o.
la Sicily, 60 menkilled.
XXXVIII. 191.
Sloane. Ph. tr. 1694. XVIII. 78.
Lichtenberg in Erxleben.
In Peru, 168".
Compares the aurora borealis to th^ excitation gf the
tourmalin by heat.
Ph. tr. 1700. XXII.
Effects on tlie rivers about Batavia.
Dalton's meteorological observations. 8.
1793. 54, 153. Lem6ry. A. P. 1700. 101. H. 54.
Thinks that the apparent beams of the aurora borealis Thoresby. Ph. tr. 1704. XXIV. 1555.
are the projections of cylindrical portions of a
magnetic fluid
An overflow of the sea near Avranches, A. P.
which are actually parallel to the 1716. H. 16.
dipping needle, and
therefore appear to converge to the
magnetic pole, that the Barrel. Ph. tr. 1727. XXXV. 305.
light is produced by the transmission of
electricity through
them, which somewhat disturbs their
Colman. Ph. tr. 1729- XXXVI. 124.
magnetic properties.
At Boston.
TTie arches are always perpendicular to the
magnetic meri-
dian, and, being more pcrmanentin their form, afford an Cyriili historla terraemotusNeapoiitani, 1733.
op-
portunity of determining the height, which from one observ- Ph. 1731.tr. XXXVIH. 79.
arion on a base of B-2 miles, appears to be about so miles.
Cyriili aeris terraeque historia, 1732.
i
Ph. tr.
Ciiimincllo 011 a luminous arch. Soc. Ital. 1733. XXXVIII. 184.
VIL 153. Lewis. Ph. tr. 1733. XXXVIII. 120.
Ritter on the hinnr of the aurora bo-
periods
'
Dudley. Ph. tr. 1735. XXXIX. Q3.
realis. Gilb. XV. 206. In New England.
Duke of Richmond and others. Ph. tr. 1736.
Earthquakes and Agitations. XXXIX. 361.
In order of time. Sussex and elsewhere.

Temple. Ph.tr. 1740. XLI. 340.

Account of authors. VVeigels Chemie. 369. At Naples ; the shock was slight, but
§. it was attended by
An earthquake in the year 17 destroyed 12 a remarkable agitation of the nervous
system in all who felt

cities in Asia. \U This seems to favour the supposition that

electricity i«
concerned.
Herculaneum destroyed in 79.
Johnson. Ph. tr. 1741. XLI. §01.
Earthquakes at Antioch in 115,458^526,
At Scarborough.
528,581 and 1159-
Plant.Ph.tr. 1742. XLII. 33.
The Thames ebbed for a whole day, 1214. In New England.
St. Paul's injured in 1580.
Ph. tr. 1742. XLII. 77-
Boyle. Ph. tr. 1665—6. 1. 179. Leghorn.
Near Oxford.
A great earthquake at Lima in 1746.
Pigot, Ph.tr. 1683- XIIL 311. Forster. Ph. tr. 1748. XLV. 398.
At Oxford.
Taunton.
 CATALOGUE. — lAf ETEOROLOG Y, EARtHQU AKES. A91

A collection of 56 and papers relative

letters Agitations.

Warren. Ph. 1756.579.

England and elsewhere,
tr.
, to earthquakes in
XLVJ. 601. Donati. Ph. tr. 1750. 6 1 2.
in. 1750. Ph. tr. 1750.
At Turin.
Stukely on the causes of earthquakes. Ph. tr.
Ph. tr. 1756. 6 16.
1750. XLVI. 657, 731.
At Brigue, by the Rector of the college.
Attributes them to electricity, prindpally from the rapidity
with which they affect extensive tracts of country.
Condainine's inferences from earthquakes.

Lond. Ph. tr. 1756. 622.

6'fMAe/y's philosophy of earthquakes. 8.

M,
B. Prince. Ph. tr. 1756. 642.
J 756.
An agitation at llfracorabe.
Hales on the causes of earthquakes. Ph. tr.
Holdsworth. Ph. tr. 1756.
1750. XLVI. 669.
An agitation at Dartmouth. 643.
Thitjks them sulfureous and electrical.
Vernede. Ph. tr. 1756. 663.
Tressan on the overflow of the brook Sirkes.
Maestricht.
A. P. 1750. H. 34.
Affleck. Ph. tr. 1756. 668.
Baker. Ph. tr. 1754. 564. An agitation at Antigua.
At York.
Rutherforth. Ph. tr. 1756. 681.
At Cairo 1754. Destroyed " 40 000."
Agitations inHartfordshire.
Porter.Ph.tr. 1755. 115.
Trembley. Ph. tr. 1756. 893.
At Gtmstantinople.
On a shock and agitations. Ed. ess, 11.423.
Accounts of the great earthquake, 1 Nov.
Hannov. nlitzi. Samml. 1756. xix.
1755, and of the earthquakes of 9 and 18
Mayer refers earthquakes to a change of the direction of
Nov. in 49 letters. Ph. tr. 1 755. 35 1 . . 436. gravitation.
Destroyed the city of Lisbon. Bertrand Recueil de traites sur les tremble-
Pye. Ph. tr. 1756. 458. , mens de terre. 8. 1756. M. B.
Frequent at Manilla.
Bertrand Meinoire sur les tremblemens de
Whytt. Ph. tr. 1756.501.
terre. 8.
At Glasgow. A shower of dust in the N. Sea. Hague, 1757.
Bonnet. Ph. tr. 1756.511. Winthorp. Ph. tr. 1757. 1.
In America, 18 Nov. 1755.
The I4lh Nov. 1755.

Allemand. Ph.
An earthquake in the Azores, 1757.
ir. 1756. 512. "
Buried 10 000" persons.
The 26 Dec. 1755.

Stevenson. Ph. tr. 1756. 521. Perry. Ph. tr. 1758. 491.
In Sumatra, 1756.
An agitation of a lake in Dumfriesshire for 4 hours. Feb.
Borlase. Ph. tr. 1758.499- 1762. 418, 507.
1756.
In Cornwall.
Accounts of the irregularities of the tides in
j.

Burrow. Ph. tr. 1758. 614.

the Thames, Feb. 1756. Ph. tr. 1756. 523.
Paderni. Ph.tr. 1758. 619.
530.
At Herculaneum.
Mrs. Belcher. Ph. tr. 1756. 344.
An agitation of lake Ontario, Feb. 1756. Peyssonei. Ph. tr. 1758. 645.
Russel. Ph. tr. 176O. 529.
Grovestiiis. Ph.tr. 1756.^544.
In Syria.
Hague, Feb. )756.
*Michel[ on the cause of
Allemaad. Ph. tr. 1756. 545. earthquakes. Ph.
tr. 1760. ob6.
Pringle. Ph. tr. 1756. 546. At Brussels. Ph.
Explaining the operation of subterraneous fires at differ-
tr. 1756. &oO.
ent depths : and attributing the explosions to steam.
493 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGY, EARTHQUAKES.
Salvador and MoUoj. Ph. tr. 176I. VivenzioStoria. de' tremuoti.
4.Napl. 1783.II.S.
At Lisbon, 30 March 1761.
Pira sulla causa de'tremuoti. 4. Catan. 1783.
Heberden. Ph. tr. 176I. 155. Sarti Congeturresu i tremoti. 8. Luce. 1783.
In Madeira, 3 1 March.
X)o/o»iteMsurletremblement deterrede 1783.
Mason. Ph. tr. 1762. 477. Holm vom Erdbeben auf Island. 8. Copenh.
An agitation at Barbadoes, 31 March.
Goth. Mag. V. iii. 128.
Weymarn. Ph. tr. 1763. 201.
Wiedeburg liber erdbeben nnd nebel.
Id Siberia.
On the fog of 1783. See Clouds and Mists.
Gulston, Hirst, and Verelst. Ph. tr. 1763. Bartels briefe liber Calabrien. 2 v. Gott. 1784. -

251.. 265.
Seybold vom erdbeben. Hubnen phys. ta-
At Chattigaan.
geb. I. ii. Salzb. 1784.
Saussure. A. P. 1763. H. 18.
Rozier Aug. and Sept. 1785.
An elevation of waters at Geneva.
Williams on earthquakes. Am. Ac. I. 260.
Tucker. Ph.tr. 1764.83.
An Stepkensens schilderung von Island. Alt.
irregular tide at Brisitol.
1786.
Ph. tr. 1765. 43.
At Lisbon, l"84.
More on an earthquake in the north of Eng-
land. Ph.tr. 1787.35.
Bevts's Iiistory and philosophy of eartii-
Le/imann Gedanken vom erdbeden, 8. Berl.
qufikes. 8.
1787.
Devisme. Ph. tr. 1769. 71.
At Macao. Fleming on an agitation of Loch Tay. Ed.
tr. I. 200.
Ilollmann Sylloge Comm. 1.

W ark's method of measuring earthquakes. Ed. fBertholon on a paratremblement and a pa-

ess. III. 142. Koz. 1.376.
ravolcan. lloz. XIV. 111.
Cunductors.
By powdeiing the inside of a vessel
partly filled witli water.
A great earthquake in Guatimala. 1774. Bej/trdge zur kenntniss beyder Sicilien. 8.
'
Henry. Ph. tr, 1778. 221. Zur. 1790. II. '

At Manchester, 1777- It extended 140 miles : the bells Voglio on an earthquake, 1779. C. Bon. VII.
tolled twice ;
it was observed that most noise was heard in o. 27.
the neighbourhood of conductors of
electricity, and some
In Cuba, 1791, vvith a storm.
shocks were felt.

Destroyed 3000.
AtTauririn Persia in 1780.
Turner. Ph. tr. 1792. 28S.
Threw down 15 OOO houses.
Lincolnshire.
Pennant. Ph. tr. 1781. 193.
In Wales. Taylor on some shocks. Ed. tr. III. 240.

An earthquake in Turkey, April 1794.

Lloyd. Ph. tr. 1781. 331.
At Hafodunos : the barometer was not affected. Destroyed 6000.

Gray. Ph. M. 1796. 353.

lioyd. Ph. tr.l783. 104.
The 18 Nov. I7fl5. The extreme places aflfected were
In Wales.
Leeds, Bristol, Norwich and Liverpool; the centre, Derby-
*Hamilton. Ph. tr. 1783. 169.
shire and Leicestershire. A very dark cloud was seen be-
Calabria.
fore the shock, and at the moment, a blast of wind, some-
Ippolito. Ph. (r. 1783. 209. what an explosion, was heard. Gray thinks, the causes
like
Calabria.
of earthquakes sometimes subtenancous and sometimes at-
Leone Giornale de' tremuoti. 2 v.8.Nap].1783. mosphcrLcaL
 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGY, SUBTERRANEOUS FIRES. 493

Three acres of a marshy field vpere burnt by a slow and

Cavanilles. Nich. III. 377. Ph.M. V. 318.
like that of a rick.
spontaneous combustion, hay
Gilb. VI. 67. In Peru, 1797.
Cyrilius on an eruption
of Mount Vesuvius.
Journ. Phys.
CourrejoUes on earthquakes. Ph.tr. 1732. XXXVII. 3.36.
LIV. 103. LVH. 119. Ph. M. XII. 337.
Prince Cassano on an eruption of Mount Ve-
Ph. M. X. 368.
suvius. Ph. tr. 1739- XLl. 237. Another
In Scotland.
account. 252.
Ph. M. XV. 90.
In Transylvania.
*Serao on the eruption of Vesuvius in 1737.
Naples.
Subterraneous Fires and Vokanos. Shepherd on the boiling of a canal. Ph. tr.

1739. XLI. 289.

Account of authors. Weigel Chemie.§.369.c. Merely from inflammable air.

that destroyed Pompeii,

Eruption of Vesuvius mont V^suve. 12. Par. 1741.
Histoire du
described by Pliny. Epist.
Supple on the eruption of Vesuvius. Ph. tr,
Hcrculaneura was accessible by a well in 1730, it$ ruins
1751.315. Another accoun t. 409.
before.
having been discovered the year
Parker on tl>e eruption of Vesuvius. Ph. tr.
Robinson on a rain of ashes in the gulf of
1751.474.
Volo. Ph. tr. 1665—6. I. 377.
1028. Jamineau on the eruption of Vesuvius. Ph,
Eruptions of Elna.Ph,tr.l669.IV. 909,
tr. 1755. 24.
Bordli hisloria incendii Aetnaei, anni 1669.
Account of an eruption of Etna. Ph. tf.
4.Reg, Jul. 1670. M.B,
1755.209.
Acc.Ph.tr. 1671. VI.
Delia Zbrre Istoria del Vesuvio. 4. Napl. 1755.
On a volcano in the island of the Palma in
Mitchell on a shower of black dust in Zet-
1677. Hooka. Lect. Cutl. 52.
and 300 acres of land land. 1757. 297.
Nine or ten houses vrere burnt,

Palma is one of the Canaries. Stilesand Mackinlay on an eruption of Ve-

spoiled.
monle Vesuvio. 4. 1689- suvius. Ph. tr. 1761. 39,44.
Paragallo Istoriadel
M. B. Hamilton oh an eruption of Vesuvius. Ph.
Account of vokanos in Ternate and else- tr. 1767. 192- 1768. 1. I769. 18. 1780.42.

where. Ph. tr. 1695. XIX. 42. Hamilton's journey to Etna. Ph. tr. 1770. 1.

Moluccan volcanos. Ph. tr. 1697- XIX.529. Hamilton on the soil of Naples. Ph. tr.

Bianchini on a fire in the Apennines. A. P. 1771. 1.

1706. 336. Hamilton's letters on vokanos. Germ. 8.

Hear Firenzuola. Frankf. 1784.

Valletta de incendio Vesuvtano, 1707- Ph. Hamilton i
Campi Phlcgraei, with asupple-
tr. 1713. XXVni. 22. menu f. R. S.
of Vesuvius. Ph.
Berkeley on the eruptions Hamilton on present state of Vesuvius.
tiie

tr. 1717. XXX. 708. Ph. tr. 1786. 365.

Forster on a burning island raised but of the Hamilton on the late eruption of Vesuvius.
sea near Tercera. Ph. tr. 1722. XXXII. Ph. tr. 1795. 73.
100. With coloured plates. The eruption was as violent as any

Kesbitt on a subterraneous fire in Kent Ph. on record, excepting those of 7 9 and 1631. It was expected ;

the water had also

tr. 1727. XXXV. 307. the crater having been nearly filled ;
494 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGY, SUBTEURAN EOU-S FIRES.

subsided in the wells. Ashes wet wiih salt water were Dolomieu Voyage aux isles de Lipari. Germ.
thrown out: the ashes were very thick at Taranto, 250
miles off was thrown
S. Leipz. 1783.
: a stone ten feet in diameter to an
imniense height, and eighteen hours afterwards, a shower
Dolomieu on the antiquity of lava. Goth.
of stones fell at Sienna, 250 miles The Mag. III. i. 175.
off. electricity of the

atmosphere was positive ;

there was violent lightning, with Borch Briefe liber Sicilien. fiO.
the appearance of balls of fire bursting. A stream of lava On the antiquity of lava.
1300 feet wide and 24 deep destroyed Torre del Greco, and
Dcluc's letters on the history of man. II.
covered 3000 acres of vineyards. Twenty seven ounces of
ColUni on volcanos. Germ. 4. Dresden, 1783.
ashes were deposited on a fig branch which weighed only

three the ashes appeared to be phosphoric. A mofete, or Knoll iiber die feueispeyenden 8. Erf.
;
barge.
carbonic acid gas, was emitted by the earth, and destroyed
1784.
vineyards ; but was in one instance successfully drained off.
Anderson's account of Morne Garou, in St.
Much sal ammoniac was sublimed. Notwithstanding these
Vincent. Ph. tr. 1785. I6. Fig.
devastations, the inhabitants of Torre del Greco, 1 8000 in

number, unanimonsly refused the offer of another situation Probably a recent volcano.

for rebuilding their town. Williams on a remarkable darkness. Am.

Hamilton and others on the eruption of 794. 1 Ac. I. 234.
Gilb. V. 40S. VI. 21. Jones and Alexander on a mountain
sup-
Ferbershriek aus Walschland. 8. Prag. 1773. posed volcanic. Am. Ac. I. 312, 3)6.
liaspe Beschreibung der Niederhessischen al- Beroldingen Uber die vulkane. 8. Manh.
ien vulkanen. 8. Cassel, 1774. 1791.
Mairan on the central fire. A. P. 1765. H. 13. Arduino on an ancient volcano. Soc. Ital.

Catani della Vesuviana eruzzione di 1767. VI. 102.

Catana, 1768. On the origin of basaltes. Authors

quoted by
Bartaloni on volcanos. Ac. Sienn. V. 301. Lichtenberg in Erxl. §. 787.
A volcano in Ferro broke out in 1777. Stanley on the hot springs in Iceland. Ed.
Threw out a quantity of red water, which discoloured the tr. III. 127.
lea for several leagues.
Three views of the Geyser. R. S.
Faujas de St. Fond sur les volcans. f. Par.
Cassan and RoUo on a volcano in St. Lucia.
1778. R. I.
Ph. M. III. 1.256.
Faujas de St. Fond Mineralogie des volcans. Holm on the eruption in Iceland, 1783. Ph.
8. Par. 1784. R. I.
M. III. 113. See Earthquakes.
t-Bertholon on a paravolcan. Roz. XIV. 111.
Patrin on volcanos. Gilb. V. I9I.
A conductor.
*On the explosion of a blast furnace at
Mourgue de Montredon on hailstones sup-
Colncbrook Dale. Ph. M. XI. 92.
posed to be volcanic. A. P. 1781. 754. _ A curious illusliation of volcanic eruptions.

Gioeni on ashowerof ashes. Ph. tr. 1782. 1.

Fortis on a shower of mud at Udina. Nich.
Gioeni Saggio di litologia Vesuviana. 8.
8. V. 101. Ph.M. XVI. 374.
Napl. 1790. R.S. Probably from dust which had been carried up.
Ducarlaon volcanic inundations. Roz. XX. Humboldt on mountains and volcanos.
113. "
Nich. VI. 242. See Earthquakes.
Volta on terrestrial fires, and on the Pietra
A considerable eruption of Vesuvius happened in 1 104 : a
mala near Florence. See. Ital. II. 662, QOO. sUU SOS.
greater in I
 CATALOGUE. — JIETEOROI.OGV, GEOLOGT. A9o

Bourguignon on a new island near Santerini.

Geology.
M. Trcv. Ph. tr. 1 70S. XXVI. 200.
See Geography.
Scheuchzer on the origin of mountciins. A.
Goodwin sands overflowed in 1 100.
P. 1708. H. 30.
Dollort sea, between Groningen and E.
Buttncri ruderadiluvii testes. 4. Leips. 17 10.
Friesland, formed 1277.
M. B.
Irruption of the sea at Dort, 1421.
Lord Cromartie and Sloanc on mosses. Ph.
Destroyed 72 villages and looooo persons.
Pleurs in Italy buried by a piece of the Alps.
tr. 1711. XXVII. 296.

1618. Goree on the new island in the Archipelago,

with a figure. Ph. tr. 1711. XXVII. 353.
Mineralogy and geology. Ph. tr. abr. II. iii.

267. IV. 2 p. iii. 205. VI. 2 iii. 185.

Derham on subterraneous trees found near
p.
VIII. 2 p. iii. 655. X. 2 p. iii. 587. theThames. Ph.tr. 1712. XXVII. 478.
Steno on a solid within a solid. Engl. Lond. •f-Bishop of Clogher on the sinking of a hole.

1671.
Ph.tr. 1713. XXVIII. 267.

Acc.Ph.tr. IG71. VIII. 2180. Sachette on the earth sinking in Kent. Ph. tr.

Leibnitii protogaea. II. 81. 1716. XXIX. 469.

Opp. ii.

Burneti telluris theoria sacra. 4. Lond. 1081. Musgrave de Britannia olim peninsula. Ph.
R.I. tr. 1717. XXX. 589.
new theory of Le Neve on the sinking of three oaks. Ph.
Wkiston's the earth. 8. Camb.
R.I. tr. 17 18. XXX. 766.

Southwell on Pen park hole. Ph. tr. 1683. Halley on the universal
deluge, read 1 694.
XIII. Ph. U-. 1724. XXXIU. 118.
Refers it to a comet.
Le monde naissant. 8. Utrecht, 1686.

Ray^s three physicotheological discourses. fOn the ground

sinking in Kent. Ph. tr.

8. Lond. 1692. 1713. R. I. 1728. XXXV.

551.

Woodwardi historia naturalis telluris. 8.

Mairan's conjectures on the diurnal motion
Lond. 1695. R. I. of the earth. A. P. 1729. 41. H. 51.
Woodnard's natural history of the earth. 8. Bourguet Lettres sur les sels et les cristaux.

Lond. 1733. 12. Amst. 1729. M. B.

Horsham on an Ph. Kluvers Geologia. 4. Hamb. 163O. R.

irruption of a bog. tr. I.

1697. XIX. Marsigli Storia del mare.

Keil de theoriis Burneti et Whistoni. 8. Oxf, Pardines on the ground sinking at
Auvergne.
1698. R. I. Ph. tr. 1739. XLI. 272.
Listeron coal borings. Ph. tr. IG99.XXI.73. Moro dei marini corpi che si trovano su mon-
fWallis on the original junction of Dover ti. Ven. 1740. M. B.
4.

and Calais. Ph. tr. 17OI. XXII. 967. Linnaeus on the increase of the habitable
Trees found infens.Th.tr. 1701. XXII. 986. globe. Am. Acad. II. 402.

Sinking of Borge, a seat in Norway, 1702.

Arderon on the ground sinking in Norfolk.
Became a lake 100 fathoms deep. Ph.tr. 1745. XLIIL 52.
Sherard on a new island in the A hole 12 feet deep,
Archipelago. 12J in diameter; probably undei-
Ph. tr. 1708. XXVI. 67. rained by water.
496 CATALOGUE. METEOROLOGY, GEOLOGY.

fRichmond on a moving moss. Ph.tr. 1745. Walhrius et Petharlin de diluvio universal!,

XLIII. 282. Ups. 1761.
Manfredini on the increased depth of the WalUrius et Murbert de tcllure olim non
sea. Comm. Bon. II. ii. i. fluida. 4. Ups. 176I.
Kriigers geschichte dererde. 8. Halle, 1746. Traite du deluge. 4. Bale, I76I.
Stther vom uisprunge der berge. 4. Zur. Fiichsel. Act. Acad. Mogunt. II.

1746. Raspe Specimen historiae naturalis globi. 8.

Sulzer's geological conjecture. A. Berl. 1762. Amst. 1763.

90. Silbenchlag Theorie der erde. 8. Berl. 1764.
Manfredi on the increase of the sea. C. Bon. Silberschtags Geogenie. 3 v. 4. Berl. 1780.
II. ii. 1. Beylag Gott. 1784. (Geogenie).
Buffon. Hist. nat. I. King on the deluge. Ph. tr. 1764. 44.
X)ow«/« Storia deir Adriatico. 4. Ven. 1750. King on a descent of ground near Folkstoue.
Hx)llmann on marine fossils. Comm. Gott. III. Ph. tr. 1786. 220. ,

285. Syll. Comm. 170. King's morsels of criticism.

Borlase on the changes in the Scilly isles. Ph. Dalrymple on the formation of islands. Ph.
tr. 1753. 55. tr. 1767.394.
Borlase on submarine trees in Mount's bay. Abhandlung von dem ursprunge der gebirge.
Ph. ir. 1757.51. 8. Leipz. 1770.
Three hundred yards below the present high water mark : Lavoisier on the nature of water. A. P. 1770.
some rootc also remtin in a marshy earth.
73,90.
£ertrand sur les
usages des montagnes. 8. Jmti Geschichte des erdkbrpcrs. 8. Berl. 1770.
Zurich, 1754. R. I.
Lloyd and King on Elden Hole, Ph. tr.
Bertrand Recueil sur Thistoire naturelle de
1771.250.
la terre. 4. Avignon, 1766. Walker on an eruption of the Solway moss.
Maitlet Telliamed, sur la diminution de la
Ph. tr. 1772. 123.
mer. 2 v. Hague, 1755. R. I. .
Surprised the inhabitants of 12 villages in theit beds.
BPowallius ooi wattu minskningen.8.Stockh. Ferner on the diminution of the sea.. Roz.
1755. Intr. I. 5.
Germ. Untersuchung von der verminderung Beytr'dge zur physischen erdbeschreibung.
des wassers. 8. Stockh. 1756. 5 V. 8. Brandenb. 1773 .
1785.
'.

Matthews on the sinking of a river near Pon- Collected by Otto.

tipool. Ph. tr. 1756. 547. Pouget on the changes upon the coasts of
Lehmann Geschichte von Flotzgebirgen. 8. Languedoc. A. P. 1775. 56l.
Berl. 1756. Dicquemare on the bottom of the sea. Roz.
Bruun de terrae mutationibus. 4. Petersb. Vf. 438.
1756. M. B. Saussure on the physical geography of Italy.
Walltrim et Ecjkstrand de origine montium. Roz. VII. 19.

Ups. 1758. Saussure's geological hints. Ph. M. III. 33.

Walhrius et Rude de geocosmo senescente. Wiedtburg Neue muthmassungen. 8. Goth.

Ups. 1758. 1776.
 CATALOGUE, — METEOROLOGY, GEOLOGT. 497

BnfFon Histoire naturelle. Spallanzanis travels. R . I.

Pallas sur la formation des montagnes. 4. Lincoln's geological observations. Am. Ac.
Peteisb. 1777. A. Petr. I. H. 21. Remarks. I. 372.

Leipz. Samml. zur Physik. Camper on some petrefactions. Ph. tr. 1786,
Deluc Lettres sur I'liistoire tie la terre et de 443.
I'homme. 5 v. 8. Hague, 1779. K. I- Whit.ehurst on the original state of the earth.
*Deluc's essa\'s, xi. Lond. 1786. 1792. R. I.
4.

Deluc's letters to Lam6tlierie. lloz. Fossombroni on alluvions. Soc. Ital. III. 533.
, XXXVII. 290, 332, 441. Roz. XLI.221. Brighton blockhouse carried away by the sea
414. in 1786.
Deluc's letter ia the Monthly Review enl. Ileidiiigcr Eintlieilung der gebirgsarten. 4.
June 1790. 20fi, and II. Append. Dresden, 1787.
Deluc's letters to Blumeubacli. Goth. Mag. Limbirdon a well at Boston. Ph.tr. 1787. 50.

VIII. 4. IX. 1. JVerner Kurze classification der

gebirgsarten.
Christ Geschichte des Erdkorpers. 8. Frankf. 4. Dresd. 1787.

1785. *JVerner iiber die gHnge. 12.

Barbieri Storia del mare. 8. Ven. 1782. Werner on metallic veins. Roz. XL. 334.
MeisterCommentat. Gott. 1782. V. M. 28. 46y. Separate. R. I.

1783. VI. M. 102. Thcori/ of the earth. 8. R. S.

On mountains and on the deluge. Derived from a sup- Lainetherie Theorie de la terre. 5 v. 8.
posed change of the earth's axis. Lametherie's answer to Deluc. Roz. XLI.437.
Forster on physical geograpli}'.
//erc^ers ideenzurgescliichtedermenscheit.il.
iiber die geogonic. 4. Bresl. 1783.
Fragment Hutton's theory of the earth, Ed. tr. I. GOQ.
Strange de' monti colonnari. 4. R. S.
Hutton on some appearances near Arthur's
Recherclu's sur la generation des etres or-
seat. Ed. tr. II. 3.
ganises. 12. Par. 1784.
Hutton's system. Roz. XLIII. 3.
By Serain.
Ousley on the moving of a bog. Ir. tr. 1788.
On the cavern at Gailenreuth. Schr. Berl.
XL 3.
Naturf. V. 56.
Lavoisier on the strata deposited by the sea.
Ferber on the antiquity of the strata of the
A. P. 1789.351.
earth. N. A. Petr. 1784.
A geological question. Roz. XXXIV. 401.
Ferber on petrefactions, A. Berl. 1790. 148.
Mills on the strata in Ireland and Scotland.
Ferber's travels. R. I.
, Ph. tr. 1790. 73.
Darwin. Ph. tr, 1785.5.
Pini's geological essays. Soc. Ital.-V. l63.
Says, that water rises highest from tht lowest strata of
the earth ;
and infers, that the strata, which arc the highest VI, 389.
in the hills, arc the lowest in the plains. The Neptunian theory.

J}ouglas on the antiquity of the earth. 4. Pini sopra i monti. 4. R. S.

Lond. 1785. R. S. On bones. Blununbach Beytrage zur
fossil

Trebrayom innern dergebirge.f.Dessau,1785. naturgeschichte. 8. Gott. 1790. 1. B. B.

Trebra sur I'interieur des montagnes. Par. Walch on the deluge. Blumenb. Beytr, zur
1787. R.S. naturgeschichte. 1. 17- 8.

Kant's theory. Berl. monatschr. 1785. i. 210. Burrows's theory. As. res. II. App.
VOli. 11. 3s
 498. CATALOGUE. — METEOUOLOGy, GEOLOGY.

Calcott on
Penpark hole. 8. Bristol,! 792. U.S. Kirwan's reply to Playfair. Ph. M. XIV. 1,
Dolomlcu on Egypt. Roz. XLII. 14.

Ott(^ Naturgescliichte des meeres. 2 v. 4. Correa de Serra on a submarine forest. Ph.

Bcrl. 1792. tf. 1799. 145.
Franklin's conjecture on the earth. Am. tr. On the east coast of England.

Bertrand on the theory of die earth. Jom-n.

III. 1, 10. Eiirop. Mag. Aug. 1793. Got-
ting, taschent'iilender, 1795. Phys. XLIX. 120. L. 88.

Sinking of the ground in Finland, 1793. Lowenorn on a new island near Iceland. Ph.
Apiece, of the extent of 1000 square ells, sunk 15 fathoms. M. V. 286.
Outran! on some singular balls of limestone. On a new island in the sea of Azof. Ph. M.
Ph. tr. 1796. 350. VII. 91.
Account of the bones found in the caves of Howard's letters on the creation and deluge.
Ba3'reuth, witli Hunter's observations. Ph, Lond. 1797. H. I.

tr. 179-i. 402. Humboldt's geological sketch of South Ame-

Taiton peatmosses. Ed. tr. III. 266. rica. Journ.
Phys. LIII. 6I. Ph. M.
_ Latrobe on sand hills, Aui. tr. IV. 439. :^VII.347.
Pallas on an eruption of mud. N. A. Petr. of theHuttonian theory.
riai/faii''s illustration
1794. XII. 44. 8. Edinb. 1802. R. I.

Gough on the decrease of the lakes. jNlandi. Lamarck Hydrogeologie. 8. Par. 1802. R.S.
M. IV. 1. Wrede on the supposed remains of the city
Thinks that many vallies and bogs have formerly been
Vineta. Zach. Mon. corr. V. VI .

lakes.
Reimarus ubcr die bilduug des erdbodens.
Tkddoes on flints. Manch. ]\I. IV.fiOS.
Hamb. 1802.
Wilse on a fallof earth in Norway'. Zach.
Ace. Zach. Mon. corr. VII. 180.
Ephcm. I. 545.
Remarks on Dcluc's opinion.
With a map.
lleim on the primitive state of the earth.
Aikin's geological observations. Nicli. I. 220.
Zach, Mon. corr. VI. 528.
III. 285.
Jameson on deposits and petrefactions.'Nich,
Kij-vvan on the primitive state of the globe. Ir.
8.111. 13.
tr. VI.233.
Gy'sgeological ideas. Journ. Phys, LVII.IO9.
*iC/rz£;o?<'s geological essays. 8. Lond. 1799.
Hall on whinstoue. Ed. tr. V. 43.
R. I.
Gr. Watt on the texture of basalt. Ph. tr.
Kirwan on the Huttonian theory. Ir. tr.
1804. 279.
VIII. Nich. IV. 97. Gilb. VIII. 109.
3.
Ptfr/f2«son's organic remains. 4. Lond. 1804.
Kirwan's remarks on the declivities of moun-
R.I.
tains. Ir. tr. VIII. 35. Ph. M. VIII. 29-
On a hill raised in a lake. Gilb. XVI. 384.
ISich. S. IV. >lbG.
In a mossy soil in llolstein.

Observes, that the direcMon of most mountains is from

Richardson on the Huttonian theory. Ir. tr.
E. to \V. that the S. and S. E. sides are steepest ; and sup-
the primitive forms were traced by a current run-
IX. 429.
poses that
ning from W. to E. and that these were modified by a cur-
rent running from N. to S,
 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGY, LUMINOUS METEORS. 499
It exploded wiih a great report it must have been 60
Luminous Meteors. mi!es high, and have passed over300
;

geographical miles in.

Account of authors. Wcigel Chemie. 1.327- a minute.

Cotes on a great meteor. Ph. tr. 1720.

Exhalations.
XXXI. 66.
from decomposition. See
Spontaneous light Vievar on an explosion in the air. Ph. tr.
Physical Optics. XLI.288.
1739.
Lhvvd. Ph. tr. 1694. XVIII. 49, 223.
December 1S93, Crocker, Bevis, and Breintnall on meteors.
Account of some ricks of hay burnt in

at Dolgelly, by a vapour like a weak blue flame coming Ph.tr. 1710. XLI. 346,359.
from the sea. Short on several meteors. Ph. tr. 1741. XLI.
Bianchini on a fire in the Apennines. A. P. 625.
1706.336. Lord Beauchamp, Fuller, and Gostling on a
*Derham and Beccaria on the ignis fatuus. fire ball. Ph. tr. 1741. XLI.
871, 872.
Ph. tr. 1729. XXXVI. 204. Gostling. Ph.tr. 1742. XLII. (iO.
Derham thinks a vapour on fire he saw one frisking Mason on a fire ball. Ph. tr. 1742.
it ;
XLII. 1.
about a dead thistle, it was disturbed by the slightest mo-
Cooke. Ph. tr. 1742. XLII.25.
tion of the air. Beccari says, that in the neighbourhood of
Gordon and Gostling. Ph. tr. 1742. XLII.
Bologna, they sometimes divide and meet again, and give
out sparks ; that they are most common in rain or snow, 58, 60.
which may perhaps be because the vapour is forced out of Milner. Ph. tr. 1742. XLII. 138.
the earth as the water sinks into it ; that they are not actu- A luminous track remained long after the meteor ; there

ally on fire, but are rather of the nature of cold phosphori ; was also a black cloud.
that when a horse is crossing a muddy place in hot weather,
Lord Loveli on a fiery whirlwind. Ph. tr,
a flame often rises in his footst«ps : that the meteor often
and one 1742. XLII. 183. See Waterspouts.
appears near brooks and in clayey
soils ;
that in

particular seemed fixed to a certain spot, about two feet Cradoek on a fiery meteor. Ph. tr. 1744.
above some stones near a river, but disappeared when the
XLIII. 78.
observer came close to it, nearly in the same manner as a
Costard on a fiery meteor. Ph. tr. 1745.
mist is seldom seen where it is
very near to us.
XLIII. 522.
More. Ph. tr. 1750. XLVI. 466. On the fire
Smith and Barker on a fire ball. Ph. tr. 1751.
at Firenzuola. See Volcanos.
1,3.
Shaw's travels. 4. Lond. 1754. 334.
Hirst on a fire ball. Ph. tr. 1754. 773.
Trebra. Deutscher Merkin-. Octob. 1783.
Forster, Colebrooke, and Dutton. Ph. tr.

Atmospherical Meteors and 1759-299,301.

Shootino; Stars. *Prlng!e on the accounts of a meteor. Ph,

tr. 1
759. 259-
Wallis on an igneous meteor. Pli.tr. 1677.
Eirch. Ph. tr. 176I.6.
Xn. 863. In New England.
Thoresby.' Ph. tr. 1711. XXVII. 322. Silberschlag Thcorie dcr feuerkugcln von
Halley on some extraordinary meteors. Ph. 1762.4. Magdeb. 1764.
tr. 17 14. XXIX. 159.
Winthrop. Ph. tr. 1764, 185.
Account of a phenomenon seen in the sea. Very high, as usual.
Ph.tr. 1716. XXIX. 429. Swinton. Ph.tr. 1764.326.

Halley on a meteor seen throughout England. *Leroy on a meteor. A. P. 1771. 668. II. 30.
Ph.tr. 1719- XXX. 978. It appears to have been formed over the coasts of En 5-
500 CATALOGUE. — WETIOROLOGY, LUBIINOUS METEORS.
laud: it was at first more than 18 leagues high : it described Llidicke on large igneous meteors. Gilb. I.
ill 10" more than Oo leagues. Dees not think the ap- .

10.
pearances electric. Pringle thought they vrere substances
Baudin. Ph. M. 11.225. Gilb. XHI. 346.
revolving round the earth.
Fulda. Ph.M. III. 60.
Biyclone on a fiery meteor. Pli.tr. 1773. l63.
*Caviillo on a meteor seen 13 Aug. 1783, at Benzenberg and Brandes on the height of
Windsor. Pli. tr. 1784. 108. falling stars. Gilb. V'"1.224. X. 242.
With a figure. From the time at which the
report was They were observed from a base of 46200 feet F. or 2.1

heard it was supixjscd to be 58| miles high, 10*0 yards in German geographical miles, 1 5 of which make a degree ;

diameter, and over Lincolnshire. their height was from 4 to 30 of those miles ; the mean
height about 11, or near 50 English miles. The velocity
C/appan meteors abovetIieiUinosphere.4.T{.S.
of two of them was from 4 to miles, or about 22 English
Auhertoii two meteors. Pli. tr. 1784. 112.
miles in a second. One was brighter than and was
The moved Jupiter,
first, Ig Aug. in a waving line, and from con-
450 miles distant.
curring observations seemed to be 40 or io miles high.
In the second paper Dr. Benzenberg gives two instances
Cooper and Edgewortli on a meteor, 18
indctail. Scptem. 15. Ashooting starof the fifth
magnitude.
Aiig.Ph.tr. 1784. 116, 118. Elevation of the beginning 7.7 geographical miles, of the
*Blag(len on some late fiery meteors. Ph. tr. end 8.2. Length of the path 1.5 miles. Longitude of the
1784. 201. place of disappearance 28" 3' ; Latitude 53'' 22'. Observed
The meteor seemed to deviate to the E. and to resume its by Brandes, in Ekwarden, and Benzenberg, in Ham, near
direction ;
its height was about 50 miles : it was observed by Hamburg :
length of the base 14 miles. October 3. An-
many persons that a whizzing was heard at the instant that other of the fourth magnitude observed by the same persons.
it passed. It moved at least 20 miles in a second : a velo- The termination 7.1 geographical miles above the earth.
"'
city too great for a revolving body ; hence there is reason to Ix)ngitude 27" ; Latitude 53° 5'. These observations
luppose its nature electrical. jMore than half the igneous show, says Dr. Benzenberg, that a long base will furnish
meteors .that have been observed, have moved nearly in the as accurate a comparison as a shorter one ; that even me-

direction of the magnetic.meridian. The author conjectures teors of the fourth and fifth magnitude may be seen at
thatW. Greenland, having become more icy in the course of places distant above fourteen geographical miles from each
ye^rs, has had an eflcct on the distribution of the electric other; and they confirm the former observations made at
fluid, and the electric fluid on the place of the magnetic Gottingen with a base of but one or two miles. Dr. Pott-
meridian. giesser, in Elberfeld, forty iniles distant from Hamburg,
saw a meteor on 2nd of October, in the zenith, which
Pigott on the meteor of 18 Aug. seen near
tiie

York. Ph.tr. 1784. 4,)7. appears to have been the same as was scsn at Hamburg in
the horizon; its height is estimated at 25 German miles. It
Makes its height about 41 miles, its distance about no,
was intended to continue these observations with unremit-
S. S.E.
ting assiduity.
Bernstorff. Roz. XXIV. 112.
The 18 Aug. 1783. Benzenberg on the nature of falling stars.

Ilittenhouse. Amer. tr. K. Gill). XIV. 46.

Barletti. Soc. Itiil. HI. 331. Thinks them too numerous to be bodies revolving inde-

Seen 11 Sept. 1784. pendently of the earth.

Franklin. iManch. M. If. S.i7. An igneous meteor preceded by a cloud,

Suspects that the fog of 1783 may possibly have been Gilb. XI. 47s.
" from the
produced by smoke consumption by fire of some
Hardcnberg on igneous meteors. Gilb. XIII.
of those great burning balls or globes vi-hich we happen to
250.
meet with in our rapid course round the sun, and which ate
sometimes seen to kindle and be destroyed in passing our Droysen on a meteor. Gilb. Xlfl. 370.
atmosphere." Wrede on igneous meteois. Gilb. XIV. 55.
Letttrt fisicometeorologiche. 8. Turin, 1789. XV. 111.
 CATALOGUE. — METEOROLOGY, FALLEN METEORS. 501

A meteor seen at once in Cumana and in Account of a mass of iron in South Ame^
rica like the Siberian. A. P. 1787. H.
Gernumy. Gilb. XV. 109.
8.
Nine feet by 6, and foot thick.
Account of a meteor seen 13 Nov. 1803. 1

*Chladni on the Siberian iron. Riga, 179'1.

Nich. VI. '279.
To me this meteor appeared smaller than is icpresented in
Ph. M. II. 337.
most of the accounts of it. Chladni on meteoric stones. Gilb. XIII.
Faieyon a meteor, 13 Nov. Nich. VII. 66. 350.
Firmiiigcr on a meteor. Pli. M. XVII. 279- Chladni's chronology of fallen stones. Gilb.
With a good figure. XV. 307.
Prevost on a meteor. To be published, S. E. Agrees with Benzenberg, that shooting stars must be of a
different nature, since these sometimes appear to ascend.

Hamilton. Ph. tr. 1795. 103.

Meteors which have fallen to the A shower of stones fell at Sienna 1 8 hours after the erup-
tion of Vesuvius.
Ground.
King's remarks on stones said to have fallen-
from the clouds. 4. Lond. 1796.
Barham on a fiery meteor in Jamaica. Ph.
travels.
tr. 1718. XXX. 837. Sottt/ifi/s
Mentions stones that fell in Portugal, Feb. iJgB.
It struck i[itc the earth and made several deep holes.
Baudin. Ph. M. 225.
Halley's conjectures. Ph. tr. 1719. XXX. II.

n. 360.
*Fulda on fireballs. Ph. M. IH. 66, 171.
Tata on the shower of stones at Sienna. Gilb.
Wasse on the effects of lightning. Ph. tr.
VI. 156.
1725. XXXiH.367.
At Mixburg in Northamptonshire, a fire ball was seen to Howard on stony and metalline substances
burst, and two holes were made about a yard deep and five which are said to have fallen on the earth.
inches in diameter, in a gravelly soil an iron ball shot per-
:
Ph. ir. 1802. 168. Nich. 8. II.216. Gilb.
pendicularly from a mortar did not make a greater impres-
XIII. 291.
sion. Mr. Wasse's nephew searched ihe holts, and it) one
he found avcry hard glazed slone, ten inches long, six wide,
On stones that have fallen. Gilb. X.502.
and four thick, cracked into two pieces a man was killed : Grevilleon stones that have fallen in France,
by what is called the lightning; he was much wounded, and a lump of iron that fell in India. Ph.
with some appearance of electric effects.
tr. 1803. 200. Nich. VI. 187.
Cook on a ball of sulfur supijosed to be gene-
Izarn Lithologieatmospherique. Paris, 1803.'
rated in the air. Ph. tr. 1738. XL. 4'27.
Ace. Gilb. XV. 437.
It was found in a meadow after thunder ; it was covered
Lalande. Journ. Phys. LV. 451. Gilb. XIIF.
with crystals.

Mimoires de I'Aca- 343.

Falconet on the boetilia.

d^mie des Account of a meteor that fell near the Mis-

Inscriptions. 4. Paris.
Zahn specula physicomathemalicohistorica. sissippi. Ph. M. XI. 191.
on the lunar origin of
Gemma fisica soiterranea. Laplace'.'! conjecture

De Celis on a mass of native iron found in

stones. Zach. Mon. corr. VI. 276. Gilb.
XIII. 353.
South America. Ph. tr. 1788. 37.
At Otumpa, in the chaco Guulamba, far from any mines Olbers on the fall of stones. Zach. Mon.
©r rocks ; weighii>g about 300 quintals :
supposed to be of corr. VII. 148. Gilb. XIV. 38. Ph. M.
volcanic origin. There was another piece of an iuboiescent XV. 289.
form.
Had suggested Laplace's idea in 1795.
502 CATALOGUE. XATURAL HISTORY.

fPatiiii's remarks on Howard. Glib. XIII. From

the Journals of the Royal Institution. If. :6.

328. had long been conjectured by several persons in this

It

Klaprotli's analysis of meteoric stones. Gilb.
XIH.337.
Confirms Howard's conclusions.
native iron contains no nickel.
Biot on meieoric stones. B. Soc. Phil. Gilb.
country, that the stones said to have fallen from the air,
on different parts of the earth,
and lately analysed by Mr.
Howard, might originally have been emitted b) lunar vol-
Finds that terrestrial canos facing the earth ; and meeting with little or no resist-
ance from the moon's atmosphere, might have risen to
such a height, as to be more powerfully attracted by the

XIII. 353. Ph. M. XVI. 217. earth than by the moon, and of consequence, to be

Biot on stones that Tell near Aigle. B. Soc. compelled to continue their course, until they arrived at the

confines of our atmosphere, and were again retarded by its

Phil. n. 7f). Nich. VI. 135. Gilb. XV. 74. resistance.
XVI. 44. The idea has been lately renewed in France by Laplace ;

Beauford. Ph. M. XIV. 148. and the inflammation and combustion of the stones has

Salverte and Vauqueiin. Ann. Ch. XLV. 62, been attributed to the intense heat, which must necessarily
be extricated, by so great a compression of the air, as would
225. Ph. M. XV. 346, 354. Gilb. XV.
be produced by the velocity with which these bodies must
419. enter the atmosphere.
Vauqueiin confirms Howard's conclusions. Mr. Biot has calculated, that an initial velocity, about
Foinrroy on the stones which fell near Aigle. five times as great as that which a cannon ball sometimes
Ph. M. XVI. 2iJ9. receives, would be suflBcient for the projection of a body
from a lunar volcano into the limits of the earth's superior
St. Aniand on stones that fell in Gascony in
attraction, which are situated at nearly one ninth of the dis-
1790. Gilb. XV. 429. tance of the earth from the moon.
On a stone that fell in Provence, Oct. 1803. A body, entering the atmosphere with such a velocity,
Gilb. XVI. 72. would soon experience a resistance many thousand times

Dree. Journ. Phys. LVI. 380, 405. Ph. M. greater than its weight,and the velocity would therefore soon
be very considerably lessened. It has already been shown
XVI. 217, 289.
(Journals I. 152), that a stone of moderate dimensions
G. B. on the lunar oiiarin of meteors. Nich. could scarcely retain a velocity of above 200 feet in a second.
8. III. 255. V. 201. With however, to the actual probability of tht
respect,

Poisson's calculations. Extr. by Biot. B. Soc. stones in question having been projected from the volcanos

of the moon, there will, perhaps, long be a diversity of

Phil. n. 71.
opinions.
Iiitleron the terrestrial origin of stones that
have fallen. Gilb. XVi. 221.
N.'irURAI. HISTORY IN GENEHAL.
Infers it from tlie meteorological phenomena : observes
ill analojcy with tlic aurora borcalis.
Account of authors. Dryander Catalogus
Lalande on stones which have fallen. Ph. M.
Bibliothccae historiconaturalis Joseph!
XVII. 228.
Banks. 5 v. 8. Loud. 1798.
Bourdon on a showerof stones. Ph. M.XVII.
Ph. tr. and A. P. Particular references in na-
271.
tural history are omitted.
Account of a stone which fell near Glasgow.
Bonnet sur Ics corps organises. 2 v. 8. Amst.
Ph. M. XVI II. 371.
1768.
It was seen and heard to fall into a drain ; splashed about
the water and mud ; penetrated 1 3 inches, and made a hole Abrege des transactions philosophiques. Ilts-

14 inchet in diameter; forcing its way into a sand stone toiro n.ttureilf. 2 v. 8. Par. 1787.
rock no warmth could however be perceived in it.
;
*Liimaei systema naturae. R. I.
 CATALOGUE. NATURAL HISTORY, SPECIFIC GRAVITIES, 503

Platina, laminated
Buff'on Histoire naturelle, par Sonnini. 96 v.

8. R.I.
Shaw's naturalist's miscellany. 8. Lontl. R. S.
Transactions of the Liiineaa society. 4. Lond.

1791... R. I.

Dictionnaire d'histoire naturelle.-Par. 1803...

R.I.

Density of particular Substances.

Tables of specific gravities. Ph. tr. 1685. XV.
926, 927. 1693. XVII. 694.
Ellicott on the specific gravity
"
of diamonds.
Ph. tr. 1745. XLIII. 468.
Leutmann on the specific gravity of fluids.
C. Petr. V. 273.
*Davies's tables of specific gravities. Ph. tr.

1748. XLV. 418. Abr. X. 206.

Vcty copious, with an account of the authors.
Musschenb. Introd. II. 536.
Brisson on the specific gravities of metals.
A. P. 1772. ii. 1. H. 30.
Brisson Pesantenr specifique des corps. 4.

Par. 1787. K. I.

Watson on the specific gravities of salts and

solutions. Ph. tr. 1770. 336.

Hoy on compressed air. Ph.tr. 1777.

Kirwanon the specific gravities of saline sub-
stances. Ph. tr. 1781. 7. 1782. 179.
Kirwan's mineralogy. Ed. 2.
Gilpin on the mixtures of spirit and water.
Ph.tr. 1794. 275.

Prony Architecture hydraulique.

Cavallo's Natural Philosoph}'. II. 74.

A Table of Specific Gravities.

Principally from Davics and Lavoisier. Davies's table is

compiled with great diligence from many different authors ;

Lavoisier's is
chiefly extracted from Brisson ; it is carried to
four places of decimals, but little dependence can be placed
on the last.
Mineral Productions. Solids

Platina, purified 19. 5000

hammered 20.3368
"
Platina, wire 21.04)7
504 CATALOGUE.— NATURAL HISTORY, SPECIFIC GRAVITIES.
Syrian garnet
 CATALOGUE. NATURAL HISTOUY, SPECIFIC GRAVITIES.
Newcastle coal
506 CATALOGUE. NATURAL HISTORY, SPECIFIC GRAVITIES.

Extract from Mr. Gilpin's Table. Ph. tr. 1794.

 CATALOGUE. — NATURAL HISTOET, SPECIFIC GRAVITIES. 507

Animal Substances,

Pearl

Coral

Sheep's bone, recent

Oyster shell
Ivory
Stag's horn
Ox's horn
Blade bone of an ox
Lac
Isinglass

Egg of a hen
Human blood

Blood, buff coat

serum
red globules

Ewe's milk
Asses milk
508 CATALOGUE. NATURAL HISTORY, SPECIFIC HEAT.

A Table of the Capacity of different Substances for Heal.

Taken principally, with corrections,

 Fir Ice
Tin Ash
Iron Zinc Free Box Oak Elm
ii.
- =r
Gold Lead
Silver
Brass
Flint Plate
Ivory
White
Olive
Beech Steam Water
Crown
Platina Copper
Alcohol
Oxygen
Sulfuric
Mercury and Solution
oil wood Carbonic Nitrogen at
Diamond
Hydrogen —
— glass glass stone — —
—
—
—
— —
glass
— of — — wax gas
— — —
— — — gas
acid Atmospheric

steel acid gas

212°
a s _ _ — — — — — — — — —
air
_
— — — — _ — — — _ _ —
potash
— — — gas
'

r* Q f^

3 r

:?> !I? re

CD 3" "J

cr a-

3-

o '^

— ti 3

S' § 3
x-s

»5 S
 510 CATALOGUE. — NATURAL HISTORV, MINERALOOr.
Jtkim on specific gravities. 4. Lond. 1803.
General effects of Mixture. Ace. Nich. 8. IV. 285. Ph. M. XVI. 26,
305.
Mixed gases. See Metereology. The bulk of water is diminished by the addition of
Jj of
Pearson. Ph. tr. 1796. sal ammoniac: 40 parts of platina, 5 of iron make but 39
Aristotle mentions the imrosusception of tin.
by measure. Robison. Enc. Br.

Hooke on the mutual penetration of mixtures.

Birch. III. oil. IV. 11. Affinities and Combinations.
Hauksbee's experiments on mutual penetra-
tion. Ph.tr. 1711. XXVII. 325. The proper subject of Chemistry.
Leutmann on the specific gravity of mixed
Beccariaon the internal motions of fluids. C.
metals. C. Petr. III. 138.
Bon. I. 483.
Gellert on the density of alloys. C. Petr.
Le Sage Essai de chimie
mecanique. R. S.
XIII. 382.
Krafft on the density of alloys. C. Petr. XIV. *Kirwap on the attractive powers of the mi-
neral acids. Ph.tr. 1783. 15.
252.
Deduces a numerical measure of the elective attraction
K'iistner on the specific gravity of mixtures. from the quantity of the substance
required to neutralise the
N. C. Gott. 1775. VI. 102. acids, and thence explains other phenomena with apparent
A mode of comparing the curves expressive of the densi- success.
ties.
Kirwan on the real acids in salts. Ir. tr. IV.
Achard on the bulk of solutions. A. Berl. Sc.3. VII. 163.
1785. 101. Elliot on affinities in alcohol. Ph. tr. 1786.
Pouget on mixtures of alcohol and water. Jr.
155.
tr. 1789. III. 157. Audebat on attraction in solution.
acting
*Blagden ;ind Gilpin on the excise of spiritu- Roz. XXXIII. 198.
ous hquors. Ph. tr. 1790. 321. 1792. 425. BerthoUet on the laws of Extr. Ann.
affinity.
1794. 275. Ch. XXXVI. 278.
Sanmartini on the areometer. Soc. Ital. VII. Venturi on the solution of camphor in wa-
79. ter. Ann. Ch. XXI. 262. Gilb. II. 298.
Pearson on some alloys. Ph. tr. 1796. 422. B. Prevost on spontaneous motions in mi.x-
Hassenfratz on saline mixtures. Ann. Ch. Ann. Ch. XL. 3.
tures.
XXXI. 285.
Uraparnaud on the inutual actions and mo-
Hassenfratz on measures of spirit. Ann. Ch. tions of fluids. Nich. VIII. 201.
Repert. XIII. 45. On the chemical effects of tremors. Nich.
Hassenfratz and von Arnim on mixtures. VII. 122.
Gilb. IV. 364. In some cases, soda and potash exchange their acids

The alcoometrical curve. Walker's philoso- with their temperatures. Ann. Ch.
'

phy. Lect. vj.

Schionbachon the condensation of mi.xtures. Mineralogy in General.
Gilb. XI. 175.
Ph.tr.abr.II.IV.VI.VIII.X. See Geology.
Ilatchett on the alloys of gold. Ph. ti 1803.
43. Nich. 8. V. 286.
 CATALOGUE. — NATURAL HISTORY, BOTANY. 511

Haiiy considers all calculations of forms of crystals as re-

ducible to arrangements of parallelepipeds, but he more com-

Systems. refers them to three species of primitive molecules, the
monly
KirwarCs mineralogy. 2 v. II. I. tetraedron, the triangularprism, and the parallelepiped, mak-
Ann. Ch. ing by their combinations, 6 primitive forms of crystals,
Haliy on methods of mineralogy.
first,

which are only divisible in planes paraUeJ to their surfaces,

XVIII. 225.
the tetraedron, parallelepipeds, oclaedrons, tegular or irregu-

lar, hexaedral prisms, the dodecacdron of equal rhombi,

Philosophy of Mineralogy. and the dodecaedron of two hexagonal pyramids. These, as

Forms of Primari/ Aggregation. Cri/stal- they are built up in various orders, decreasing by regular
steps,which begin either at the side, or at the angles of a
Ihation.
crystal, serving as a nucleus, form all the immense variety of
Musschenbroek. Intr. I. pi. 1.
crystalline figures. A dodecaedron of rhombi is sometimes
Baume and Lavoisier on crystallization,
lloz. composed of cubes ;
a dodecaedron of pentagons may be

I. 8, 10. produced by the same elements with a difierent law of de-

crement a cube is sometimes the nucleus df an cctaetlroa
Haliy on the forms of crystals. Roz. XIX. :

of which the sides correspond to the angles of ihe cube.

366. XXIV. 71. XLIII. 103, 146, l6l.
The molecules of ice are supposed to be either cubes or

A. P. 1784. 273. 1785. 213. 1786. 78. tetraedrons ; the diagonals of the surfaces of the calcarious

rhombus, or the Iceland are as the square roots of

1787.92. 1788. 13. 1789.519. 1790-27. crystal,

2, the obtuse angle of the surface 101° Si' I3'',"that

Ann. Ch. HI. 1. X Vll. 225. Ph. M. I. 1 13. 3 and
of the contiguous planes 104° 28' 40'. A. P. 1789. and Tr.
II. 398. Traite de physique. I.
Phys.
K'astner on the fracture of crystals. Commen-
tat. Gott. 1783. VI. M.52.
Botatiy in General.
Eason on crystallization.
Manch. M. I. 29.
Wall. Manch.M. II.4t9. Abreg6 des transactions philosophiques.Bota-
when nique. 2 v. Par. 1790. R. I.
Says, that large crystals are formed
the liquid is

much exposed to the air, and that in salt works, a little re- Ph. tr. abr. II. v. 623. IV. 2 p. v. 29^. Vt.'^
sin or oil thrown inorder to make the salt fine.
is in,
307. VIII. 2 p. V. 747.
p. V. X. 2 p. v. 699.
Antic on the crystallization of lee. Roz.
Lirmaei philosophia botanica.
XXXIII. 56.
Mawe's dictionary of gardening and botany.
Regnier on the crystallization of organized 4. 1798. R. I.
bodies. Roz. XXXIII. 215.
Miller's gardener's dictionary, by Martyh. f.

Chaptal on the effects of air and light in cfy- 1798. R.I.

stallizalion. Roz. XXXIII. 297.
Htdwig Descriptio niuscorum. Leipz. fl. I.
Dorthes on the effects of light. Ann. Ch. II.
Gaertnerde fructibus et seminibus. 4. Slutg,
92.
1798. B. B.
Kramp. Hind. Arch. II. 80.
Smith Flora Britannica. 3 v. 8. Lond. B. B.
Denies Hauy's principleof the decrements of crystals pro-
Wildenouh introduction to botany. 8. Edinb.
ceeding always according to integer numbers.
1805. R.I.
Journ.Phys. LVI. 237.
It has been asserted, that powder thrown on electric glass
assumed a regular arrangement but further ex-
crystalline ;
Systems.
periments have confuted the assertion.
Clifford and Buee on the system of Delisle and *Linnaei systema naturae. GenCTa planta--

Hauy. Nich.IX. 26. Ph. M. XIX. 159. rum. Species plantarum.

sn CATALOGUE. — NATURAL HISTORY, BOTANY.

*Jiissieu on the arrangement of plants. A. Dodart on the direction of branches. A. P.

P. 1773. 214. H. 34. 1774. 175. H. 27. 1700. 47. H.6I.
Withering's botanical arrangement. Delapryme. Ph.tr. I7O2. XXIII. 1214.
Lamarck on the classification of vegetables. Morland. Ph. tr. 1703. XXIII. 1474.
A. P. 1785. 437. On the use of the flower. Grew had observed the farina
lo be seminal Morland supposes it to pass to the seed.
Ventenat Tableau du regne vegetal selon la ;

Perrault. A. P. 1709. 11.44.

methode de Jussieu. 4 v. 8. B. B.
Parent on the motions of plants. A. P. 17 10.
Guiart on the method of Tournefort. Ann.
H. 64.
Ch. XLV. 149.
Bradley. Ph.tr. 1718.XXX.486.

Vegetable Anatomy and Phy- Bradlei/ on the gvovfth of plants. 8. 1733.

Fairchild! Ph. tr. 1724. XXXIII. 127-
siology.
Dudley. Ph. tr. 1724. XXXIII. 194.
Colours of plants. Aristotle on colours.
On the multiplication of plants.
Quoted. Roz. XLI. 470. *ifaZ£s'svegetable Statics. 8. Lond. 1731.11. 1.
A. P. Index. Art. Plantes. Extract by Desaguliers. Ph. tr. 1727.
Tonge. Ph. tr. l669.IV. 913. 167O. V. Il65, XXXV. 264, 323.
1168,1199,2067. Mairan. A. P. 1729. H. 35.
Beale on the seed of plants. Ph. tr. 1669. On the sensitive plant.
IV. 919. 1671. VI. 2143. ISicholIs. Ph. tr. 1730.XXXVI. 371.
Willoughby. Ph. tr. 1669. IV. 963. 167O. Seba. Ph. tr. 1730. XXXVI. 441.
V. 1165, 1168, 1199. 1671. VI. 2119. On vegetable preparations.

Found that willows and osiers would grow when in-

Biilfingeron the tracheae of plants. C. Petr.
verted. IV. 182.
Wray. Ph. 1669- IV. 963.
Logan on Ph.
tr. the farina foecundans. tr.

Lister. Ph.tr. 1670. V. 2067. I671. VI. 2119, XXXIX.

1736. 192.
3051. 1672. VIL 5132. 1673. VIII. 6060.
Dufay.A.P. 1736.87. H. 73.
Gnw on the anatomy of vegetables. 12. On the sensitive plant.

1671. B.B. Duhamel and Buffon on the woody strata of

Acc.Ph.tr. 1671. VI. 3037. trees. A. P. 1737- 121. H. 65. 1751. 23. H.
Grew's anatomy of the trunks of plants. 8. 147.
Lond. *Duhamel Physique des arbres.
Ace. Ph. tr. 1675. X. 486. Klein on letters found in the middle of a
Wallis. Ph. tr. 1673. VIII. 606O. beech. Ph. tr. 1739- XLI. 231.
Leeuwenhoek. Ph. tr. I676. XI. 653. 1683. Clark on substances found within trees. Pb.
XIII. 197. tr. 1739. XLI. 235.
Adds little to Grew and Malpighi. A tree 13 feet in diameter.

Woodward. Ph. tr. 1699.XXL 193. f Baker on a perfect plant in the seed. PJj.tr.
Huygens on vegetation in a close bottle. A. 1740. XLf. 448.
P. I. 130. Miles on the seed of fern^. Ph. tr. 1741. XLI.
Lahire. A. P. 11. 114. 1708. 231. H. 67. 770.
 CATALOGUE. — NATURAL HISTORY, VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. 513

Hollmannus Jesceletofolioium. Ph.tr. 1741. Percival on the perceptive power of vegeta-

XLI. 79(), 789. bles. Manch. M. II. 114.
In favour of
Cook. Ph. tr. 1745. XLIII. 525. its existence.

Effects of the farina of a different plant.

Henry on the effect of fixe^ anon vegetation.
Kraffiou vegetation. N. C. Petr. II. 231. Manch. M. II. 341.
Watson on the sex of flowers. Ph. tr. 1751. after Percival, that when the
Shows, it is favourable,
169. plants are exposed at the same time to the atmosphere.
.Bonnet sur I'usage cles feuilies. 4. Gott. 1751. Bell on the
physiology of plants, translated
B.B. M.
by Currie. Manch. II. 394.
Rivilleon caprification. S. E. II. 369. H. 4.
Observes, that Hill discovered the existence of a green co-
Alston on the sejjes of plants. Ed. ess. I. 205. rona between the wood and the pith he also
:
asserts, that
Collet on a peat pit.
Ph. tr. 1757- IO9. the cuiicle contains vessels, which the author thinks are in-

tended
Pulteney on sleep of plants. Ph.
tlie tr. 1758. for admitting air into the tracheae. Bell thinks, that

the sugar of the maple is not contained in the sap, but is de-
506.
rivedfrom some proper vessels. Hope found, that the sap
Marshall! on the growth of trees. Ph. tr.
flowed first from the superior orifices of the lowest of several
1759-7. horizontal incisions. Bell concludes, that the proper juice

Marsham on the measures of trees. Ph. tr. descends, and that in its descent the wood acquires its

growth. Guettard shows, that perspiration takes place from

1797. 128.
the upper surface of the leaf and, as well as Duhamel and
Adanson on the motions of the tremella. A. ;

Bonnet, that absorption is

performed by the lower surface.
P. 1767. 5fi4. H. 75. The motions of plants show, that they possess other powers

Murray on fallen leaves, N. C. Gott. 1770. than those of inanimate matter, and these are probably con-

II. 27. cerned in propelling the sap for the discharge from an in-
:

cision proves, that the humidity is not imbibed merely by

Fordj/ce's elements of agriculture and vegeta-
capillary action. Bell thinks, that plants have even a degree
tion. 8. 1771. 1796. R. 1.
of sensation.
A formed in the wood, and a corre-
cross
Ingenhousz Nuuvelles experiences. 8. Pa-
sponding cross in the bark, of diiferent di-
ris, 1785. R. S. Extr. Roz. XXXIV.
mensions. A. P. 1771. 491.
436.
Mustel. Ph. tr. 1773. 1?6.
Against the existence of any circulation in the sap, after Ingenhousz's experiments on vegetables. 8.

Hales. Lond.
Mustel Traite de la vegetation. 8. Ingenhousz on germination. Roz. XXVIII.
Hunter on the heat of vegetables. Ph. tr. 81.

1775.446. Ingenhousz on the nourishment of plants.

E. M . Forets et Bois. Journ. Phys. X1.V. (II.) 458.
Tessier on the effects of light upon plants. Fongeroux on the formation of the ligneous
A, P. 1783. 133. strata. A. P. 1787- 110.
Broussonet on the motions of plants, and on Desfoutaines on the irritability of the orn-ans
the hedysarum gyrans. A. P. 1784. 609. of plants. A. P. 1787. 468.
Saussure on the electricity of vegetables. Roz. Desfontaines on the organization of mono-
XXV. 290. cotyledonous plants. M. Inst. I. 478.
Bruce on the sensitive quality of the aver- Rcgnier on the generation of plants. Roz.
ihoa carambola. Ph. tr. 1785. 356. XXXI. 321.
VOi. 11. 3u
514 CATALOGUE. — NATURAL HISTORY, VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.

Smith on the irritability of vegetables. Ph. tr. Correa de Serra on the fructification of sub-
1788. 158. mersed algae. Ph. tr. 1796. 494.
Thinks, that they do not possess at once both irritability
Gough on the vegetation of seeds. Manch.
and spontaneous motiorf. M. IV. 310, 488.
Wallier on the motion of sap. Ed. tr. I. 3. Showing the effect of the air on it.

Says, that the sap ascends in the wood, and that in the
Gough on the nourishment of succulent ve-
spring the lower part of the bark receives it before the upper.
getables. Nich. III. 1.
Maj'er on the vessels of plants. A. Berl. 1788. Gough on the use of oxygen in vegetation.

54. Nich. IX. 217.

Mayer on the impregnation of seeds. A. Berl. Chaptal on the juices of vegetables. Ann.-Ch.
1790.61. XXI. 284.
Kolreuter on the" irritability ofthe stamina of Peschier on the irritability of animals and
the barberry. N. A. Petr. 1788. VI. 207- plants. Journ. Phys.XLV. (II.) 343.
St. Martin on the perspiration of plants. Es- Hooper on the structure and economy of
prit des Journ. Apr. 1 790. plants. 8. Oxf. 1797.
Achard on the nourishment of vegetables. A. On the irritability of the pollen of plants.
Berl. 1790.49. Nich. I. 471.
Senebieron the heat of vegetables. Roz. XI. Delametherie on the respiration of plan-ts.
173. Journ. Phys. XLVII. (IV.) 299.
Sen^bier on the green matter found in water. Delametherie on the irritability and organiza-
Journ. Phys. XLVUI. 155. tion of plants. Journ. Phys. LVI. 281,
Senebier's vegetable physiology. 5 v. 8. Ge- 355. LVII. 283.
nev. With some figures.

Ace. Journ. Phys. LI. 354. Brugman de lolio. Join-n. Phys. XLVII.
Hassenfratz on the nutrition of vegetables. (IV.) 388. Ph. M. IIL321.
Asserts, that plants excrete.
Ann. Ch. XIII. 178.
Barton on the stimulant effects of camphor.
Rossi on the fecundation of plants. Soc. Ital.

VII. 369.
Am. tr. IV. 232.
Refreshing flowers when put into the water in which they
Tait on peal mosses. Ed, tr. III. 266.
are kept.
Humboldt on the physiology of plants. 8. on the
Fabricius virinter sleep of animals and.
Leipz. 1794. Noticed. Ph. M. IX. Ph. M. III. 156.
plants.
Knight on grafting trees. Ph. tr. 1795. 290. Rafn on the physiology of plants. 8. Leips.

Knight on fecundation. Fh. tr.'1799. 195. 1798.

Nioh. III. 458, 519- Ph. M. VII. 97.
Ace. B. Soc. Phil. n. 28. Ph. M. V. 233.
Could not produce hybrid plants. Ph. M. IX.
Knight on the ascent ofthe sap. Ph. tr. 1801 . Decandolle on the influence of light upon ve-
333. getables.
B. Soc. Phil, n, 42. Journ. Phys.
Knight on the descent of the sap. Ph. tr. LII. 124.
1803. 277. Decandolle on the structure of leaves. B.
Knight on the motion of the sap. Ph. tr. Soc. Phil. n. 44. Journ. Phys. LII. 130.
1804. 183. Ph. M. IX. 170.
 CATALOGUE. NATURAL aiSTORY, VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGV. 515

Vastel on germination. Extr. B. 3of. Phil.

Account of Mr. Knight's Experiments on the descent of
n. 66. I'll. M. Vlir. 1S7. Gilb. XIV. 364.
the Sap in Trees. From the Journals of the Royal Jnsluy-
Coulomb on the circulation of sap. M. Inst.
tution. I J. 71.
11.246. Journ. Phys. XLIX. 392. Ph. M. Theprincipal object of this paper is to point out the causey

VI. 310. Repert. XII. 356. of the descent of the sap from the leaves through the bark,

Says, that it ascends, with some near the axis of the and of the consequent formation of wood. These causes Mr,
air,

tree. Knight supposes to be gravitation, agitation, and capillary

attraction, combined with some peculiar structure of the
*Mirbel on vegetable anatomy. B. Soc. Phil.
vessels.
n. 60. Journ. Phys. LII. 336. . . With From experiments on vine leaves, it appears that the per-
many figures. Ph. M. XIII. 36.
spiratory vessels of the leaf are confined to its under surface :
MiVie/ An atomic et physiologic vegetales. 2 v. the upper part Mr. Knight considers as serving to receiv«

8. B. B. the influence of light, andas probably emitting oxygen gas;

and he quotes Boniiet'sexperiments, as showing that this sur-

Darwin's phylologia. 4. Lond. 1800. R.I.
face of the leaf, when detached from the plant, is capable
Th. de Saussure on the influence of the soil also of absorbing moisture.
on vegetables. Journ. Phys. LI. 9. Gilb. Mr. Knight removed a portion of the bark of the branch
VI. 459. of a vine which was in an inverted position, and he found that
Seems to think, that plants generate some calcariom new bark and wood were generated at the lip of the wound
earth. which was actually uppermost and from a comparison of
;

this with his former experiments, he infers, that the force

Ik. de Saussure Recherches chimiques sur
of gravitatien is
materially concerned in the circulation of
la vegetation. 8. Par. 1804. R. I.
the sap.
Ace. B. Soc. Phil. n. 86.
By means of bandages, Mr. Knight prevented the agita-
Thinks, that all the solid contents are derived from the tion of some young apple trees in Some parts of their stems,
soil. and in particular directions, while their motion was per-

Miclielotti. Ph. M. IX. 240. mitted in other parts : and it was found that their growth

was the most considerable in the parts, which were freely

Velley on the food of plants. Repert. XII. 32. and that the diameter of the section was
agitated, greater by
Carradori on germination in oxygen. Journ. about one sixth in the direction of the motion. Hence we
Phys. Llll. 253. may understand the greater thickness of the lower parts of

On the effect of light on germination. Journ. the trunk, and of single trees in exposed situations, while
the trees that form a wood, and shelter each otljer, are
Phys. LIV. 3iy.
higher and more slender.
Solom^ on the temperature of vegetables.
If a large tree has been deprived of motion, by cutting off
Ann. Ch. XL. 114. its foliage or otherwise, its growth promoted by removing
is

Fairman engrafting. S. A. XX. 181. Nich. the dry external layers of the bark, which appear to impede
VI. 124. the motion of the sap.
Mr. Knight supposes that the expansion and contraction
Hunter on the nourishment of vegetables.
of the alburnum, from changes of temperature, are partly
Repert. ii. III. 349. communicated to the bark, and assist in propelling its sap :

Jurine on the organization of leaves. Journ. but that the principal cause of this motion is
gravitation,

Phys. LVI. 169. Ph. M. XVI. 3, 147.

which operates more completely in the perpendicular parts

With of the tree, than in the horizontal branches; hence these

figures.
branches are not liable to become top large for their strength,
Edelcrantz's plaster for trees. B. Soc. Phil.
in an unfavourable position.
n. 82.
Leaves of the vine were succesfuUy grafted on the fruit-
B. Prevost on the tracheae of plants. Journ. and the succulent shoot and a branch
stalk, the tendril, ;

Phys. LVII. 112. was nourished by the leafstalk, the tendril, and the fruit-
516 CATALOGUE. — NATURAL HISTORY, PHYSIOLOGY.

stalk. The wood of a leafstalk, supporting a shoot," was de-

on the external sides of the vessels, called by Mr.

Lac6p^de on an arrangement of birds and
posited
but the me-
mammalia. M. Inst. III. 454, 469.
Knight, central vessels, and on the medulla ;

dulla appeared to be inactive in the deposition, nor did any Dumeril on the classification of insects. B.
processes originate in it. When abud is inserted on a stock, Soc. Phil. n. 44. Journ. Phys. LI. 427.
the new wood appears to be generated above the line of Distinguishes the genera by the subdivisions of the tarsus.
union, and to be produced by the bud.
When new bark grows over an exposed surface of albur.
Physiology.
num, the processes called medullary, which constitute the

silver grain of the wood, are seen clearly to originate in the Charlton Physiologia. f. 1654.
bark, and to ttrminate at the lifeless surface of the albur-
Account of 4 men that lived 24 days in a
num.
mine without food. Ph. tr. 1684. XIV.
Mr. Knight is still of opinion, that the sap acquires its

power of generating wood, from its exposure to light and 577.

air in the leaves ;
but he thinks it
possible that the young Robinson's account of Jenkins, a fisherman,
bark a slight degree supply the place of the leaves,
aged 169. Phil. tr. l6yf>. XIX. 265.
may in

when they are removed and he concludes from some ex-

:

when a small part of the wood Seigue on a toad found in an oak 100 years
periments, that is deprived
old. A. P. 1731. H. 24.
of bark, it may be able to transmit a small quantity of sap
Another found in an elm 171a.
from the leaves downwards, through its superficial parts, so
that a little wood may be generated below ; but that this JHa/fs's Statical essays. 2 v. 8. 1731. R. I.

power is confined within narrow limits. Miles on the globules of the blood in the
By immersing the running roots of a polatoe in a coloured
water eft. Ph. tr. 1741. XLI. 725.
fluid, Mr. Knight traced a great number of vessels, pro-
Jurin and Leeuwenhcek found 4 globules of the blood
ceeding, from the parent plant, to lamify minutely between
the cortical and internal parts of the young tuber : these he
equal in diameter to a wire which measured
^ inch : some
were a litile larger.

supposes to convey nourishment, prepared by the leaves,

for the support of the internal parts, conceiving these parts
A Capricorn beetle found in the centre of a
to be analogous to the alburnum of woody, vegetables, tree. Ph. tr. 1741. XLI.861.
which always appears to require the operation of the leaves Mortimer thinks it was nourished by the sap.

for its complete organization. Papers on the fresh water [)olypus. Ph. tr.

1742. XLII. 281.

Maclaurinon the cells of bees. Ph. tr. 1743.
Zoology. In General.
XLIL565.
Ph. tr. abr. II.vi.73G. V. i. l. Lcca/ Traite des sens, 8. Amst. 1744.
*Bufi'on Histoire naturelle. Douglas on the heat of animals. 8. 1747.
A case of long fasting. C. Bon. II. i. 221.

Systems. Kaan Boerhaave on the cohesion of living

solids. N. C. Petr. IV. 343.
Fabricii philosophia entomologia.
llalkr Elementa physiologiae. 8 v. 4. Lau-
Fabricii entomologia systematica.
sanne, 1757. M. B.
Hunter on the identity of the wolf, jackal, and
Tillet on the power of supporting heat. A. P.
dog. Ph. tr. 1787.253.
1764. 186. H. 16.
Pinel's classification of animals from the Found that 130° R. or 337° F. was supported in an oven
lovverjaw. Roz. XLI. 401. for ten minutes. Blagden says 280°.

Brongniart on the classification of reptiles. Fontanaon the laws of irritability. Ac. Sienn.
B. Soc. Phil. n. 35. III. 209.
2
 CATALOGUE. — NATURAL HISTORY, PllYSIOLOGV. 517

BraiiQ on the heat of animals. N. C. Petr. Bonnet on reproduction in lizards. Roz. X.

XIII. 419. 385.
lillis on the division of animalcules. Ph. tr.
.Dicquemare. Ph. tr. 1775.202.
The actinia may be multiplied by dividing its basis.
I7G9. 138.
Polhill on Debraw's culture of bees. Ph. tr.
Hewson on the red particles of the blood.
Ph. tr. 1773.303. 1778. 107.

Asserts the existence of central particles, perhaps from Fontana sopra la fisica animale. 4. R. S.
an optical deception. See Cavallo on factitious airs. Fontana sopra globetti i rossi. 8. R. S.
Macbride and Stuckey Simon on the revivi- Crawford. Ph. tr.' 1781.
Says, that venous blood drawn in the hot bath
scence of being dry 15 years or
is
snails, after
scarlet.
more. Ph. tr. 1774.432.
in a heated room. Ph. Spallanzani on the reproduction of the heads
Blagden's observation
-
of snails. Soc. Ital. I. 526. II. 506.
tr. 1775. 111.

The power of bearing heat owing to life only. Hunter Spallanzani on respiration. Ph. M. XVIII.
found a carp surrounded by water iji the midst of ice. Mar-
tine found a swarm of bees at g?". Vegetables also generate On a toad found in a hole. A. Beil. 1782.
beat.
H. 13.
Blagden's further experiments. Ph.tr. 1775. In a slate quarry. A fissure was found descending towards
484. the hole.

Supported 260° with clothes, 2-20" without. A beef steak Righy on animal heat. 8. Lond. 1785. R. S.
was dressed in 13 minutes in the same room.
Bell's arguments against the generation of
Hunter on the heat of animals and vegetables. cold in the human Manch. M. 1. 1.
body.
Ph. tr. 1775. 446. 1778.7. Explains the power of bearing heat by the frigorific eflfect

Amphibia are generally from 1° to 10° warmer than the of evaporation, joined to the small capacity of the air for

surrounding medium, but not always. Trees may be cooled heat.

to 17" F. without being frozen.
White on the regeneration of animal sub-
Hunteron some parts of the animal economy, stances. Manch. M. I. 325.
4. Lond. 1786. R. S. Mentions a supernumerary thumb, which was removed

Hunter on the extirpation of one ovarium in and grew again.

a sow. Ph. tr. 1787. 233.

A. Fothergiil on longevity. Manch. M. I. S55,
Louisa Truxo, a negrcss in South America, was said to be
Seems to have reduced the numbers of the litters to J.
living in 17 80, at the age of 175, on the authoriiy of the
Hunter on bees. Ph. tr. 1792. 128.
newspapers only. Says that Galen lived to 140 ; but Blair
Dobson's experiments in a heated room. Ph. makes him only On
the authority of the papers
70. only,-
tr. 1775.463. a Russian is said to be living at the age of 180.

At 224°. Percival on the sufferings of a collier.

-

Manch.
Changeux on the experiments of Fordyce M. 11.467.
and Blagden. Roz. VII. 57. He was 7 days without food, and died. Sir W. Hamilton
Debravv on the sex of bees. Ph. tr. 1777. 15. mentions a who lived 1 1 days without food. Fantonus
girl

Asserts, that be made a queen by mentions a woman who ate but twice in 50 days, and then
any female bee may
proper food, and will then breed without any other preli- died. Men can breathe where candles will not burn.

minary. Blumenbach's specimen of comparative phj'-

Bonnet on the reproduction of the heads of siology. C.Gott. 1785. VIII. Ph. 69. 1786.
snails. Roz. X. 165. IX. 108.
518 CATALOGUE. — NATURAL HISTORY, PHYSIOLOGY.
Blumenbach. Ph. ISI. IT. 251. Olivi on the touch of marine worms. Soc.
Asserts the fascination of the rattlesnake, and thinks the Ital. Vn. 478.
noise is concerned in frightening birds.
Gruikshank and Haighton on the
reproduc-
Blumenbach on hereditary mutilations. Ph. tion of nerves. Ph. tr. 1795- 177, 190.
M. IV. 1.
Haighton on animal impregnation- Pli. tr.
Clarke on the mortality of males. Ph. tr. 1786. 1797. 159.
349. Home on muscularmotion.Ph.tr. 1795.202.
Male infants generally weigh 71 pounds females 6f.
;
Home on the teeth of graminivorous
qua-
twins 1 1 pounds together.
Caldanii institutiones physiologicae. 8. Ve- drupeds. Ph. tr. 1799. 237.
Humboldt on the chemical process of vita-
nice, 1786. R. S.
lity. Ann. Ch. XXII. 64. Nich. I. 359.
A case of somnambulism. M. Laus. III. 98.
Wells on the colour of the blood. Ph. tr.
Ford^'ce on muscular motion. Ph. tr. 1788.
1797.416.
23.
Attributes the change of colour produced
Attributes it to the attraction of life. by the air to the
increased opacity of <he lymph.
Tordyce on digestion. 4. Lond. 1790.
Sue on vitality. Journ. Phys. XLVI. (HI.)
Peart on animal heat. 8. Gainsborough,1788. 226.
R. S.
Dumeril on the smelling of insects. Extr. B.
Saint Julien on the heat of warm baths. Roz.
Soc. Phil. n. 5.
XXXir. 51.
Cuvier on the nutrition of insects. Extr. B.
Baronio on reproduction. Soc. Ital. IV. 480.
Soc. Phil.n. 10. Journ. Phys. XLIX.S51.
In warm blooded animals.
Cuvier on the circulation in leeches. B. Soc.
Lavoisier on respiration. A. P. 1789. 566.
Phil. n. i9.
Girtanner on irritability. Roz. XXXVII.
Cuvier on worms with red blood. B. Soc.
139.
Phil. n. 64.
Seguin on respiration and animal heat. Roz.
Cuvier on the comparative anatomy of teetli.
XXXVII. 467. Ann. Ch.'XXI. 225.
B. Soc. Phil. n. 82.
Priestley on respiration. Ph. tr. 1790. 106.
Shows that some azote is absorbed. Murhard on toads found in stones. Ph. M.
Ferriar on the vital principle. Manch. M. HI.
III. 216. Fabricius on the winter sleep of animals. Ph.

Merizies de respiratione. 8. Edinb. 1790. M. III. 156.

Ace. Ann. Ch. VIII. 211. Cavallo on the medical properties of facti-
Observes, after Jutin, that about 40 cubic inches are res- tious airs. 8. Lond. 1798.
pired at once. Gives an accurate account of the globules of the blood.

Currie on the effects of cold. Ph. tr. 1792. L^veille on the nutrition of the foetus. Journ.
199. Phys. XLVIII. 386.
Darwin's zoonomia. 4 v. 8. 1804. R. I. Delametherie on a Spaniard who supported
Vauquelin on the respiration of insects. Ann. gieat degrees of heat. Journ. Phys. LVII.
Ch. XII. 273. 66. Nich. VI. 139. Ph. M. XVI. 357.
Monro on the action of the muscles. Ed. tr. Michelottionthe actionof heatupon animals.
III. 250. Journ. Phys. LVII. 337. Ph. M. XIX. 3.
 CATALOGUE. HISTORY OF TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS, 519

Toplis on the fascination

of snakes. Ph. M. ji. Young's course of experimental agricul-
XIX. 56. ture. R. S.

Peirin. Nich. VIII. 131. A. Young's annals of agriculture. 8.

Found a shark at 88° when the sea was at 76°.
Sylvestre's watering carts and roller. Roz.
Bostock on respiration. S.Liverpool, 1804. XXXVII. 460.
Calculates that 666 cubic feet of air are respired in 24
Bath Socitty's papers. 8. Bath, 1792... R. I.
hours. Makes the whole contents of the lungs 280 cubic
Beraud's machine for fishing coral. Roz.
inches.
Instances of longevity. Ph. M. XX. 373. XLI. 21.
Cours d' architecture rurale pratique. 8. Vien.
1792. R. I.
Cultivation of Natural Productions,
Dutrone sur la canne au sucre. Extr. Roz.
including Agriculture and Horti- XLIII.313.
culture. Knight on grafting trees. Ph. tr. 1795. 290.
Kirwan on manures. Ir. tr. V. 129.
Agricultural machines. See Mechanics, Pe- Communications to the Board of Agriculture.
netration. 4. Lond. 1797. R. I. . .

Tusser's 300 points. 4. Lond. 1573. B. B. General Reports, printed by the Board of
Beale.Ph. tr. 1671. VI. 2143. Agriculture. 4. R. S.
Lewis on grafting roots. 1673. VIII. 60, 67. Farmer's calendar. 1801.
Miller on raising exotic seeds. Ph. tr. 1728. Mawe's dictionary of gardening.
XXXV. 485. Miller's gardener's dictionary by M.artyn.
Ressons on grafting. A. P. 1716. 200.
Forsyth on fruit trees. 4. Lond. 1802. R. I.
Duhamel on grafting, and on the wounds of Wakefield's method of promoting vegetation
trees. A. P. 1730. 102. H. 55. 1731. 357. by steam. Repert. XIV. 235.
H.42. 1746.^19. H.70. On destroying insects. Ph. M. VII. 189.
Marsham on washing fruit trees. Ph. tr. By hepatic solutions.

1759.7. 1777. 12. 1781. 449. Edelcrantz's plaster for trees. B. Soc. Phil.

Fitzgerald on checking the growth of fruit n. 82.

trees. Ph. tr. 176I. 71. Dickson's practical agriculture^ 2 v. 4. Lond.

Falgnel on potatoe bread. 1761. H. 156. 1804. R. I.
Thirty two million bushels of wheat are said to be pro-
Fordyce's elements of agriculture.
duced annually in England.
Dutch apparatus for cod and turbot fishery.

Bailey's Mach. I. 156.

E. M. A. III. Art. Fruitier. Jardinier. VI. History of Terrestrial Physics.
Art. Plantes. Wallis on the claims of the English to the
Pearl Fishery. E. M. A. V. Art. Nacre et discovery of the compass. Ph. tr. I701.
Perles. , XXII. 1035.
Home's gentleman farmer. R. S. Dufay sur I'clectricite. A. P. 1733. 23.

Clarkts theory and practice of husbandry. 4. Uaiisen Novi profectus in historia electricita-
R. S. tis. 4. Leipz. 1734. • •

Saztaiix Art de cultiver la canne, 8. R. S. Gray. Ph. tr. 1735. XXX'lX. 24.
3
520 CATALOGUE. -HISTORY OF TERRESTRIAL PHYSICS.

Observes, that the electric seemed to be of the same

History of opinions respecting the elements.
fire

nature as lightning.
Roz. X, 286.
Liillainand. Ph.tr. 1746.78.
Blagden's history of the congelation of quick-
The first time he felt the shock, he lost the use of his
silver. Ph. tr. 1783. 3I9.
breath for some moments. Musschenbroek says he expe-
Braun was the first that established it.
rienced a most terrible pain.
Falconer on the knowledge of the ancients,
Needhatn. Ph. tr. 1746. 247-
Lemonnier discovered the permanency of the electric Manch. M. I. 261. III. 278.
charge, and NoUet tried its effect on so
1 men at once. Walker on the congelation of quicksilver in
Grahith's history of electricity. Danz. Ge- England. Ph. tr. 1789. 199- .

sellsch. I. 23. Count Ruinford's institution of a prize for

Holhnann's history of attraction. C. Gott. discoveries on heat and light. Ph. tr. 1797.
1754. IV. 271- 215.
The medal was presented to Count Ruraford himself;
fWatsonon thelyncuriinn.Ph.tr. 1759.394. first

the second to Mr. Leslie.

Trombelli and Collinaon the invention of the
Gren on the history of physics, with an ac-
compass. C. Bon. II. iii.333, 372.
of electricity. count of authors. Gilb. I. I67.
Priestley's history
The Society for the Encouragement of Arts still
proposes
Titius de experiinenti Lugdunensis inven-
premiums for improvements in the mode of heating rooms,
tore. 4. Wittcmb. 1771. and for methods of sweeping chimnies by machinery.
Blckmann on the shock. Erfind. 2 ed.

Leips. 1783. I. 57 1 . On the tourmalin. 248.

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COMMUNICATED BY RICHARD BROCKLESBY, M.D, F. R.S.

r FROM THE PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS.

Head before Ihe Ro.yal Society, Mai/ 30, 1793.

It is well kaowp, that the eye, when not accurate ;

but Albinus, in Musscheubroek's
acted upon by any exertion of the mind, con- Introductio, has represented several particu-

veys a distinct impression of those objects lars more correctly. I shall suppose their
only which are situated at a certain distance account complete, except where I mention or
from itself; that this distance is different in delineate the contrary.
different persons, and that the eye can, by The theory that I find of the accom-
first

the volition of the mind, be accommodated modation of the eye is Kepler's.' He sup-
much less distance
to view other objects at a :
poses the ciliary processes to contract. the dia-
but how this accommodation is effected, has meter of the eye, and lengthen its axis, by
long been a matter of dispute, and has not a muscular power. But the ciliary processes
yet been satisfactorily explained. It is neither appear (o contain any muscular fibres,

equally true, and

has indeed already been
it nor have they any attachment by which they
observed by Dr. Porterfield, that no exer- can be capable of performing this action.
tion of the mind can accommodate the eye Descartes imagined the same contrac-
to view objects at a distance greater than that tion and elongation to be effected by a mus-
of indolent vision, a circumstance which cularity of the crystalline, of which he sup-
may easily be experienced by any person to posed the ciliary processes to be the tendons.
whom this distance of indolent vision is less He did not attempt to demonstrate this mus-
than infinite. nor did he enough consider the
cularity,
The principal parts of the eye, and of its connexion with the ciliary processes. He
appertenances, have been described by says, thai the lens in the mean time beconie*
various authors. VVinslovv is
generally very more convex, but does not appear to attri-
524 OBSERVATIONS ON VISION.

bute, in his Dioptrics, any material effect to rence to the sclerotica, in a brownish granu-
this
change: in his Treatise on Man, how- lated substance, not unlike in appearance

he explains theoperation very minutely.

ever, to capsular ligament, common to the uvea
De la Hire maintains, that the eye un- and ciliary processes, but which may be

dergoes no change, except the contraction traced separately from them both. Now at
and dilatation of the pupil. He does not at- the interior ring of the uvea, the appearance

tempt to confirm this opinion by mathema- is not absolutely inconsistent with the pre-
tical demonstration ;
he solely rests it on an sence of an annular muscle. His theory of

experiment, which has been shown by Dr. accommodation to distant objects is in-
Porterfield and by Dr. Smith to be fallacious. genious, but no such accommodation takes
Hallertoo has adopted this opinion, however place. ,
-
,

inconsistent it seems with the known princi- Musschenbroek conjectures, that the relax-
ples of optics, and with the slightest regard to ation of the ciliary zone, so named by Zinn,
hourly experience.
•
which appears be nothing but the cap-
to

Dr. Pemberton supposes the crystalline to
contain muscular fibres, by which one of its
surfaces is flattened while the other is made
more convex. But Dr. Jurin has proved that
a change like this is inadequate to the effect.
Dr. Porterfield conceives, that the ciliary
processes draw forwards the crystalline, and
make the cornea more convex. The ciliary
sule of the vitreous humour where it re-
ceives the impression of the ciliary pro-
cesses, permits the coats of the eye to push
forwards the crystalline and cornea. Such
a voluntary relaxation is wholly without ex-
ample in the animal economy, and were it
to take place, the coats of the eye would not
act as he imagines, nor could they so act un-

processes are, from their structure, attach- observed. The contraction of the ciliary

ment, and direction, utterly incapable of zone equally inadequate and unnecessarj'.
is

this action; and, by Dr. Jurin's calculations, Some have supposed the pressure of the
there is not room for a sufficient motion of external muscles, especially the two oblique
this kind, without a very visible increase in muscles, to elongate the axis of the eye. But
the length of the eye's axis such an increase : their action would not be sufficiently regular,
we cannot observe. nor sufficiently strong; for a much greater
Dr. Jurin's hypothesis is, that the uvea, at pressure being made on the eye, than
they
its attachment to the
cornea, is muscuhu-, can be supposed capable of effectiug, no
and that the contraction of this ring makes sensible difference is
produced in the dis-

the cornea more convex. He says, that the tinctness of vision.

fibres of this muscle may as well escape our Others say, that the muscles shorten the
observation, as those of the muscle of the in- axis these have still less reason on their
:

terior ring. But

such a muscle existed,
if side ;
since such a change would lengthen
it must, to overcome the resistance of the the focal distance, which in fact is
longest
coats, be far stronger than that which is only when the eye is at rest.
destined to the uvea itself ;
and the uvea, at Those who maintain, that the ciliary pro-
this part, exhibits
nothing but radiated fibres, cesses flatten the crystalline, are ignorant of

losing themselve?, before the circle of adhe- their structure, and of the effect required :
 OBSERVATIOXS OST VISION. 5^Z5

these pracesses are yet more incapable of rior. Each of these coats consists of six series

drawing back the crystalhne, and such an of fibres, intermixed with a gelatinous sub-
action is
equally inconsistent with observa- .stance, and attached to six lines, which have

tion. somewhat of a membranous appearance.

Some other suppositions have also been Three of these lines or tendons are anterior,
formed by different physiologists. Zinn ima- three posterior ;
their length is about two

gines the ciliary processes to be distended by thirds of the sernidiameter of the coat; their

a fluid, and to protrude the lens. Sauvages arrangement that of three equal and equi-
is

eOBJectures, that the ring of Petit is inflated distant rays, meeting in the axis of the crys-

by the electric fluid, and alters the form of talline ; one of the anterior is directed to-

^e Jpns: Moulin, .that the cornea is rendered wards the outer angle of the eye, and one of
ipofo convex by its ligaments, which are in the posterior towards the inner angle, so that

fact nerves : Bourdelot, that the contraction the posterior are placed opposite to the middle
of the pupil increases the convexity of the of of the anterior; and planes
tile interstices

lens. But all these opinions are liable to as passing through each of the six, and through
strong objections as those which I have al- the axis, would mark on either surface six re-

ready examined. gular equidistant rays. The fibres arise from

From these considerations, and from the both sides of each line; they diverge till
observations of Dr. Porterfield and others, they reach the greatest circumference of the
that those who have been couched have coat, and having passed it, they again con-
no longer the power of accommodating the verge, till the}' are attached respectively to
eye to different distances, 1 had concluded the sides of the nearest lines of the opposite
that the j'ays of light, emitted by objects at a- surface. The anterior or posterior portion of

small distance, could only be brought to foci the six, viewed together, exhibits the appear-
on the retina by a nearer approach of the ance of three penniformiradiated muscles.
crystalline to a spherical form ;
and I could The anterior lines of attachment of all the

imagine no other power capable of produc- coals are situated in the same planes, and the
ing this change than a muscularit}' of a part, posterior ones in the continuations of tliese
or the whole, of its
capsule. planes beyond the axis. Such an arrange-:
But in closely
examining, with the naked ment of fibres can be accounted for on no
eye, in a strong light, the crystalline from an other supposition than that of muscularity.
ox, turned out of its capsule, I discovered a Thismassis inclosed in a strong membranous
structure, which appears to remove all the capsule,to which it is
loosely connected by mi-
difficulties with which this branch of optics nute vessels and nerves ; and the connexion
has long been obscured. On viewing it with is more observable near its
greatest circum-
a magnifier, this structure became more evi- ference. Between the mass and its
capsule is

dent. found a considerable quantity of an aqueous

The crystalline lens of the ox is an orbicu^ fluid, the liquid of the crystalline.
lar,convex, transparent body, composed of r conceive, therefore, that when the will
a considerable number of similar coats, of isexerted to view an object at a small dis-
which the exterior closely adhere to the inte- tance, the influence of the mind is conveyed ,
 526 OBSXRVATIONS ON" VISION.

fhrougli the lenticular ganglion, formed from to 88O6, and it would collect
parallel rays at
branches oHhe thirdpair of nerves,
and fifth the distance of 1226 thousandths of an inch:

by the filaments perforating the sclerotica, to but the distance of the retina from the
crys-
the orbiculus ciUaris, which may be consi- talline is 550 thousandths, and that of the

dered as an annular plexus of nerves and anterior surface of the cornea 250; hence
vessels ; and thence by the ciliary processes the focal distance of the cornea and aqueous
humour alone must be 2329. ~
to the muscle of the crystalline, which, by Now, suppos-
the contraction of its fibres, becomes more ing the crj'stalline to assume a spherical
convex, and collects the diverging rays to a form, its diameter will be 642 thousandths,
focus on the retina.The disposition of fibres and its focal distance in the eye 920. Then,
in each coat is admirably adapted to produce disregarding the thickness of the cornea, we
thischange for, since the least surface that
; find, that such an eye will collect those rays
can contain a given bulk is that of a sphere, on the retina, which diverge from a point at
the contraction of any surface must bring its the distance of 12 inches and 8 tenths. This
contents nearer to a spherical form. The li- is a greater change than is
necessary for an
quid of the ci'ystalline seems to serve as .1 ox's eye, for be supposed capable of
if it

synovia in facilitating the motion, and to distinct vision at a distance somewhat less
admit a sufficient change of the muscular than 12 inches, yet it
probably is far short of

part, with a smaller motion of the capsule. being able to collect parallel rays. The hu-
remains to be inquired, whether these
It man crystalline is susceptible of a much
fibres can produce an alteration in the form
greater change of form.
of the lens sufficiently great to account for the Tlie ciliary zone may admit of as much
known efl'ects. extension as this diminution of the diameter
In the ox's eye, the diameter of the crys- of the crystalline will require ; and its elasti-

talline is 700 thousandths of an inch, the city will assist the cellular texture
of the vi-

axis of its
segment 223, of its pos-
anterior treous humour, and perhaps the gelatinous
terior 350. In the atmosphere it collects par- of the crystalline, in restoring the indo-
part
allel rays at the distance of 235 thousandths. lent form.
From these data we find, that its ratio ofre- It be questioned, whether the retina
may
iVaction is as 10000 to 0574. Hauksbee makes takes any part in supplying the lens with
it only as 10000 to G832.7, but we cannot nerves; but, from tlie analogy of the olfac-
depend on he says, that
his experiment, since
tory and auditory nerves,
it seems more rea-

the image of the candle, which he viewed, sonable to suppose that the optic nerve serves
was enlarged and distorted a circumstance : no other purpose than that of conveying sen-
that he does not explain, but which was evi- sation to the brain.

dently occasioited by the greater density of Although a strong light and close exami-
the central parts. Supposing, with Hauksbee nation are required, in order to see the fibres
and others, the refraction of the aqueous of the crystalline in its inlire state, yet their
and vitreous humours equal to that of water, direction may be demonstrated, and their at-
thatis, as 10000 to 7465, the ratio of refraction tachment shown, without much difficulty.
;«/i'tlie crystalline in the eye will be as 10t)OQ In a dead eye the radiating lines are discerni-
 OBSERVATION'S OK VISION. 52T

ble through the capsule, and sometimes the be allowed to the faithful description, and
anterior ones even through the cornea and elegant delineation, of the crystallines of
aqueous humour. When
the crystalline falls, various animals, which he has given in

. it very frequently separates as far as the cen- the Philosophical Transactions. (XIV. 780>
tre into three portions, each having aline in and XXIV. 1723). It appears, from hia
its middle. be carefully stripped of its
If it
descriptions and figures, that the crys-

capsule, and the smart blast of a fine blow- talline of hogs, dogs, and cats, resembles

pipe be applied close to its surface in differ- what I have observed in oxen, sheep, and
ent parts, it will be found to crack exactly in horses ;
that in hares and rabbits, the'' raK
the direction of the fibres above described, diating lines on each side, instead of three,
and all these cracks will be stopped as soon are only two, meeting in the axis so as to

they reach either of the radiating lines. The form one straight line; and that in whales

application of a little ink to the crystalline they are five, radiated in the same manner
is also of great use in
showing the course of as where there are three. It is evident that
the fibres. this variety will make no material difference
When first I observed the structure of the in the action of the muscle. I have not yet

crystalline, I was not aware that its muscula- had an opportunity of examining the human
rity had ever been suspected. We have in- crystalline, but from its readily dividing into
deed seen, that Descartes supposed it to be of tliree parts, we may infer that it is similar to
a muscular nature ; he had, however, no til at of the ox. The crystalline in fishes be-
accurate idea of its internal structure. ing nearly spherical, such a change as I atr
But the laborious and accurate Leeuwen- tribute to the lens in quadrupeds cannot take

hoek, by the help of his powerful micro- place in that class of animals.
scopes, has described the course of the fibres of It has been observed that the central part

the crystalline, in a variety of animals ; and of the crystalline becomes rigid by age, and
lie has also called it a muscle* ; but,
proba- this is sufficient to account for piesby»-
bly from, examining only dried preparations, opia, without any diminution ofthehumours ;
he has imagined, that each coat consists of although 1 do not deny the existence of this
circumvolutions of a single fibre, and has in- diminution, as. a concomitant circumstance.

tirely overlooked the attachment of the fibres 1 shall here beg leave to attempt the solu-
resembling tendons. If the fibres were
to lines tion of some optical queries, which have not
continued into each other in the manner that beea much considered by authors.
he describes, the strict analogy to muscle L Musschenbroek asks, What is the cause
would be and their contraction could not
lost, of the lateral radiations which seem to adhere
conveniently have that eflfecton the figure of to a candle viewed with winking eyes? I an-
the lens, which is produced by help of the swer, the most conspicuous radiations are
tendons. Yet much anatomical merit must those which, diverging from below, form,

• each with a vertical line, an angle of about

Now if the cristaline humour (which I have sometimes
seven degrees this angle is
equal to that
called the muscle) in our eyes, *c. Phil. Tram.
crist. ;

XXIV. IfiO'—CrystaUiimm musculum, alias humorem which the edges of the eyelids when closed
cnjstallimim ttictum, 6fc, Leeuwenh. Op. omn. I. ]03. make with a horizontal line and the radia^- ;
^2« OBSEHVATlbNS ON VISION.

tions are ver}' jusdy attributed by Musschen- except that which is

produced by its flexure;
broek to the refraction of the moisture con- and this is so slight on the disc, that the ap-
faiHter than that of the
tiguous to the eyelids. But the lateral radia- parent light there is

tions are produced by the light reflected from rays 'arriving at all other parts
through the
the eyelashes. eyelids. This experiment demonstrates a
2. Some have inquired. Whence arises truth, which may be inferred from many
luminous cross, which seems to proceed
tliat other argtiments, that the sapp6sed rectifica-
from the image of a candle in a lo6king- tion of the inverted image on the retina does

glasi? This
produced by the direction of
is not depend on the direction of the incident
the friction by which the glass is commonly rays; since th6 mind can refer the object to

polished the scratches, placed in a horizon-

: its true relative situation without any a«sist-
tal direction, exhibiting the perpendicular tance from this direction. Newton, in his
part of ihe cross, and the vertical scratches sixteenth query, has described this phantom
the horizontal part, in a manner that may as of pavonian colours, but I ean distinguish
easily be conceived. no other than white ;
and it seems most na-
3. Why do sparks appear to be emitted tural that this, being the compound or aver-
when the eye is rubbed or
compressed in the age of all existing sensations of light, should
dark ? This is Mnsschenbroek's fourth query. be produced when nothing determines to any
When a hroadish pressure, as liiat of the particular colour. This average seems to re-

finger, is made on
the opaque part of the eye semble the middle form, which Sir Joshua
in the dark, an orbicular spectrum appears Reynolds has elegantly insisted on in his dis-
on the part opposite to that which is pressed : courses ;
so that perhaps some principles of
the light of the disc is faint, that of the cir- beautiful contrast of colours may be drawn
cumference much stronger; but when a nar- from hence, it being probable that those co-
row surface is
applied, as that of a pin's lourswhich together approach near to white
head, or of the nail, the image is narrow light willhave the most pleasing effect in ap-
and bright. This
evidently occasioned by
is
position. It must be observed, that the sen-
the irritation of the retina at the part touched, sation of light, from pressure of the eye, sub-
referred by the mind to the place from sides almost instantly after the motion of
whence light coming through the pupil would pressure has ceased, so that the cause of the
fall on this spot ;
the irritation is greatest irritation of the retina is a change,' and not a

where the flexure is

greatest, that is, at the difference of form ;
and therefore the sensa-
circumference, and sometimes at the centre, tion of light appears to
depend immediately
of the depressed part. But in the presence of on a minute motion of some part of the op-
light,whether the eye be open or closed, the tic nerve.
circumference only will be luminous, and the If the anterior part of the eye be repeat-
disc dark ; and if the eye be
viewing any ob- edly pressed, so as to occasion some degree of
ject at the part where the image appears, pain, and a continued pressure be then made
that object will be almost invisible. Hence it on the sclerotica, while an interrupted pres-*
follows, that the tension and compression of sure is made on the cornea ; we shall fre-
of
the retina tend to destroy all the irritation. quently be able to observe an appearance
 OBSERVATIONS OK VISION. 529

luminous lines, branched, and somewhat the veins accompanying the ramifications of
connected with each other, darting from the arteria centralis, after having been de-

every part of the field of view, towards a cen- tained by the pressure which is now inter-

tre a little exterior and superior to the axis of mitted. As such an obstruction and such a
the eye. This centre corresponds to the in- readmission must require particular circum-
sertion of the optic nerve, and the appear- stances, in order to be effected in a sensible
ance of probably occasioned by that
lines is
degree, it
may naturally be supposed that
motion of the retina which is produced by this experiment will not always easily suc-
the sudden return of the circulating fluid, into ceed.

VOL. 11. S T
530 OBSERVATIONS ON TISION,

PLATE 1.

Explanation of the Figures.

Fig. 1. A vertical section of the ox's eye, of twice the natural size.

A. The cornea, covered by the tunica conjunctiva.

BCB. The sclerotica, covered at BB by the tunica albuginea, and tunica conjunctiva.
DD. The choroid, consisting of two laminas.
EE. The circle of adherence of the choroid and sclerotica.
EG. FG. The orbiculus ciharis.
HI, HK. The uvea; its anterior surface the iris; its posterior surface lined with pigmeu-
tum nigrum.
IK. The pupil.
HL, HL. The ciliary processes, covered with pigmentani nigrum.
MM. The retina,
N. The aqueous humour.
O. The crystalline lens.
P. The vitreous humour.
QR, QR. The zona ciliaris.
RS, RS. The annulus mucosus.
Fig. 2. The structure of the crystalline lens, as viewed in front.
Fig. S. A side view of the crystalline. t .,
 PiATE 1 .

Tig.:

2
t?ig.

Fig.S.

/"u^. &K y. Johnson Londmi

,
i
July 1 806.
 II. OUTLINES

OF EXPERIMENTS AND INQUIRIES RESPECTING

SOUND AND LIGHT.

BY THOMAS YOUNG, M.D F.R.S.

IN A LETTER TO EDWARD WHITAKER GRAY, M.D. SEC. R.B.

FROM THE PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS.

Rtad before the RovAL Society, January 16, 1800.

DEAR SIK, III. Ocular evidence of the nature of sound.

IV. The velocity of sound. V. Sonorous ca-
Xt has long been my intention to lay before vities. The degree of divergence of
VI.
the Roya! Society a few observations on the sound. VII. The decay of sound. Vlll. The
subject of sound ; and I have endeavoured to harmonic sounds of pipes. IX. The vibra-
collect as much information, and to make as tions of different elastic fluids. X. The ana-

many experiments, connected with this in- logy between light and sound. XI. The
quiry, as circumstances enabled
me to do ; coalescence, of musical sounds. XII. The
but the further I have proceeded, the more frequency of vibrations constituting .a givea
widely the prospect of what lay before me note. XIII. The vibrations of chords. XIV.
has been extended ; and, as 1 find that the
The vibrations of rods and plates. XV. The
investigation, in all magnitude, will oc-
its
human voice. XVI. The temperament of
cupy the leisure hours of some years, or per- musical intervals^
haps of a hfe, I am determined, in the mean
time, lest any unforeseen circumstances I. Of the Quantity of Air discharged through
should prevent my continuing the pursuit, to an Aperture.
submit to the Society some conclusions A piece of bladder was tied over the end
which I have already formed from the results of the tube of a large glass funnel, and
of various experiments. Their subjects are, punctured with a hot needle. The funnel
I. The measurement of the quantity of air was inverted in a vessel of water ;
and a gage,
discharged through an aperture. IL The de- with a graduated glass tube, was so placed
termination of the direction and velocity of a as to measure the pressure occasioned by the

stream of air proceeding from an oritice. different levels of the surfaces of the water.
532 EXPEHIMEISTTS AND INQUIRIES
As the air escaped through the puncture, it
was sup[)lied by a phial of known dimensi- Table in.

ons, at equal intervals of time ;

and accord-
ing frequency of this supply, the ave-
to the

rage height of the gage was such as is ex-

pressed in the first Table. It appears that the
quantity of air, discharged by a given aper-
ture, was nearly in the subduphcate ratio of
the pressure. The second, third, and fourth
Tables show the result of similar experiments
made with some variations in the apparatus.

Tabic I.

A
 RESPECTING SOtTNI) AND LIGHT. 535

yield to the slightest impression

of air. The position, the ordinates of a curve may
results are coiiectefl in Tables v and vi. be takenreciprocally in the subdupll-
(Phite -2.
Fig. 4. .
15.) In order to measure, cate ratio of the pressure marked by the se-
with greater certainty and precision, the ve- cond gage to that indicated by the first, at
locity of every part of the current, a second the various distances represei;ted by the ab-

cavity, furnished with a gage, was provided, scisses, and the solid, described by the revo-

and pieces perforated with apertures of dif- round its ax's, will nearly
lution of thi» curve

ferent sizes were adapted to its orifice the :

represent the magnitude of the current in
axis of the current was directed as accu- all its parts. (Plate a. Fig. l6. .
2(i.) As
rately as possible to the centres of these aper- the central particles must be supposed to
tures, and the resullsof the experiments, with be less impeded in their motion than the
various pressures and distamjes, are inserted superficial ones, of course, the smaller the
in Tables vii, viii, and ix\ The velocity aperture opposed to the centre of the current,

of a stream being, both according to the the greater the velocity ought to come out,

commonly received opinion, and to the expe- and the ordinate of the curve the smaller ;
riments already related, nearly in thesubdu- but where the aperture was not greater ihan

plicate ratio of the pressure occasioning it, it that of the tube, the difference of the veloci-
was inferred, that an equal pressure would be ties atthe same distance was scarcely per-

required to stop its progress, and that the ve- ceptible. When the aperture was larger than

locity of the current, where it struck against that of the tube, distance was very small,
if the

the aperture, must be in the subdupllcate ra- of coursethe average velocity came out much
tio of the pressine marked by the gage. smaller than that which was inferred from a

Having thus ascertained the velocity of the smaller aperture ; but, where the ordinate of
stream at different distances from the aper- the internal curve became nearly equal to
ture, we must adopt, in order to infer from this aperture, there was but little difference
it the magnitude of the stream, some suppo- between the velocities indicated with differ-
sition respecting the mode in which its mo- ent apertures. Indeed, in some cases, where
tion retarded, and the simplest hypothesis
is the diameter of the aperture was a little

appears to be, that the momentum of the greater than that of the stream striking on it,
particles contained at first in a given small it
appeared to indicate a greater velocity than
length of the stream, together with that of a smaller aperture this might have arisen
:

the particles of the surrounding air, which in some degree from the smaller aperture not
they drag along, remains always constant, having been exactly in the centre of the
so that the area of tlie transverse section may current ;
but there is
greater reason to sup-
be inversely as the square of the velocity ; pose, that was occasioned by some resist-
it

and the diameter inversely as the velocity it- ance derived from the air returning between
self ;
the particles of the stream occupj'ing a the sides of the aperture, and the current en-
section as much wider as the velocity is tering it. Where this took place, the exter-
smaller, and carrying with them as many nal curves, which are so constructed as that
more particles as will require a space still their ordinates are reciprocally in the subdu-
larger in the same proportion. On this sup- plicate ratio of the pressure observed in the
53i EXPERIMENTS AND INQUIRIES

second cavity, with apertures equal in semi- side of the stream, and the place of the dim-
diameter to their initial ordinate, approach, ple will inmiediately show that the current is

for a short distance, nearer to the axis than inflected towards the body ; and, if the body
the internal curve ; after this, they continue be at liberty to move in
every direction, it
their course very near to this curve. Hence will be urged towards the current, in the

it no observable part of the

appears, that
motion diverged beyond the limits of the so-
lid which would be formed by the revolution
of the internal curve, deduced from observ-
ations on a small aperture, which is seldom
same manner as, in Venturi's experiments, a
fluid was forced up a tube inserted into the
side of a pipe through which water was flow-
ing. A similar interposition of an obstacle,
in the course of the wind, is probably often

inclined to the axis in an angle so great as the cause of smoky chimneys. One circum-
ten degrees. A similar conclusion may be stance was observed in these experiments,

made, from observing the flame of a candle which it is

extremely difficult to explain, and
subjected to the action of a blowpipe there : which yet leads to very important conse-
is no divergency beyond the narrow limits quences :
may be made distinctly per-
it

of the current ; the flame, on the contrary, ceptible to the eye, by forcing a current of
is
every where forced by the ambient air to- smoke very gently through a fine tube.
wards the current, to supply the place of When the velocity is as small as possible,

that which it has carried away by its friction. the stream proceeds for many inches with-
The lateral communication of motion, very out any observable dilatation ; it then imme-
in water diately diverges at a considerable angle into
ingeniously and accurately observed
by Professor Venturi, is
exactly similar toitie a cone, (Plate 3. Fig. 27) ; and, at the point
motion here shown to take place in air ; and of divergency, there is an audible and even
these experiments fully justify him in reject- visible vibration. The blowpipe also affords
ing the tenacity of water as its cause : no a method of observing this phenomenon as :

doubt it arises from the relative situation of far as can be judged from the motion of the

the particles of the fluid, in the line of the flame, the current seems to make something
current, with respect to that of the particles in like a revolution in the surface of the cone,

thecontiguous strata, which, whatever mpy be but this motion is too rapid to be distinctly
the supposed order of the single particles with discerned. When the pressure is increased,

respect to each other, must naturally

lead to the apex of the cone approaches nearer to
a communication of motion nearly in a pa- the orifice of the tube (Fig. 28, 29) ; but no

degree of pressure seems materially

and to alter
rallel direction ;
this may properly be
termed friction. The lateral pressure which its ultimate divergency. The distance of
not proportional
urges the flame of a candle towards the the apex from the orifice is

stream of air from a blowpipe, is probably to the diameter of the current; it rather ap-
the smaller the cur-
exactly similar to that pressure which causes pears to be the greater
the inflection of a current of air near an ob- rent, and is much better defined in a small

stacle. Mark
the dimple which a slender current than in a large one. Its distance in

stream of air makes on the surface of water ; one experiment is expressed in Table x.

bring a convex body into contact with the from observations on the surface of a liquid ;
3
 RESPECTING SOUND AND tlCKT. 535

in other experiments, its

respective distances Table ti.
were sometimes considerably less with the
same degrees of pressure. It may be in-
ferred, from the numbers of Tables vii and
VIII, that in several a greater
instances
a
height of the first
gage produced less height
of the second : this arose from the nearer

approach of the apex of the cone to the ori-

ficeof the tube, the stream losing a greater

portion of itsvelocity by this divergence

than it
gained by the increase of pressure.
sight, tlie form
At first of the current bears
some resemblance to the vena contracta of a

jet of w-dter : but Venturi has observed, that

in water an increase of pressure increases,
instead of diminishing, the distance of the
contracted section from the orifice.

Table T.

A
5156 EXPERIMENTS AND INQUIRIKS

Table Vlll.

A
 RESPECTING SOUND AND LIGHT.

nerve the sensation of a continued sound, On V. Of sonorous Cavities.

forcing a current of smoke through the tube, M. De la Grange has also demonstrated,
the vibratory motion of the stream, as it that all impressions are reflected by an ob-
passed out at the lateral orifice, was evident stacle terminating an elastic fluid, with the
to the eye ; although, from various circum- same velocity with which they arrived at that
stances, the quantity and direction of its mo- obstacle. When the walls of a passage, or
tion could not be subjected to exact mensu- of an unfurnished room, are smooth, and per-
ration.This species of sonorous cavity seems
fectly parallel, any explosion, or a stamping
susceptible of but few harmonic sounds. It
with the foot, communicates an impression to
was observed, that a faint blast produced a the air, which is reflected from one wall to
much greater frequency of vibrations than the other, and from the second again to-
that which was appropriate to the cavity a :
wards the ear, nearly in the same direction
circumstance similar to this obtains also in
with the primitive impulse this takes place :

large organ pipes but several minute ob-

;
as frequently in a second, as twice the
servations of this kind, although they might breadth of the passage is contained in 1130
assist informing a theory of the origin of vi- feet ; and the ear receives a perception of a
brations, or in confirming such a theory musical sound, thus determined in its pitch
drawn from other sources, yet, as they are
by the breadth of the passage. On making
not alone sufficient to aflPord any general the experiment, the result will be found ac-
conclusions, are omitted at present, for the
curately to agree with this explanation. If
sake of brevity.
the sound predetermined, and the fre-
is

quency of vibrations such, that each pulse,

IV. Of the Vtlocily of Sound. when doubly reflected, m;iy coincide with the
It has been demonstrated, by Isl. De la subsequent pulse proceeding directly from
Grange and others, that any impression the sounding body, the intensity of the sound

whatever, communicated to one particle ofan will be much increased by the reflection ;
elastic fluid, willbe transmitted through that and also, in a less degree, if the reflected

fluid with a uniform velocity, depending on pulse coincides with the next but one, the
the constitution of the fluid, without refer- next but two, or more, of the direct pulses.
ence to any supposed laws of the continua- The appropriate notes of a room may readily
tion of that impression. Their theorem for be discovered by singing the scale in it ; and

ascertaining this velocity is the same as New- they will be found to depend on the pro-
ton has deduced from the hypothesis of a portion of its
length or breadth to 1 130 feet.
particular law of continuation : but it must The sound of the stopped diapason pipes of
be confessed, that the result differs somewhat an organ is
produced in a manner somewhat
too widely from experiment, to give us full similar to the note from an explosion in a
confidence in the perfection of the theory. passage; and that of its reed pipes to the
Corrected by the experiments of various ob- j.esonance of the voice in a room the :

servers, the velocity of any impression trans- length of the pipe in one case determining
mitted by the common air, may, at an aver- he sound, in the other, increasing itg
age, be reckoned 1 1 30 feet in a second. strength. The frequency of the vibrations
VOL. II. 3 z
538 EXPERIMENTS AND INQUIRIES

does not at all immediately depend on the m a contrary direction. It must have oc-
diameter of the pipe. It must be confessed, curred to every one's observation, that a
that much lemailis to be done in explaining sound, such as that of a mill, or a fall of
the precise manner in which the vibration of water, has appeared much louder after turn-
the air in an organ pipe is generated. M. ing a corner, when the house or other ob-
Daniel Bernoulli has solved several difficult stacleno longer intervened ; and it has been

problems relating to the subject: yet some already remarked by Euler, on this head,
of his assumptions are not only gratuitous, that are not acquainted with any sub-
we
bwt contrary to matter of fact; stance perfectly impervious to sound.

Many solid bodies even appear to conduct

sound better than the air : as in the well
VI. Of the Divergence of Sound.
known experiment of scratching a long
has been generally asserted, chiefly on
It beam with a pin; and in discovering the ap-

the authority of Newton, that if any sound proach of cavalry, by applying the ear to the
be admitted through an aperture into a ground. Indeed, as Mr. Lambert has very
chamber, it will diverge from that aperture truly asserted, the
whole theory of the speak-

equally in ail directions. The chief argu- ing trumpet, supported

as it is by
practical
ments in favour of this opinion are deducetl would fall to the ground, if it
experience,
from considering the phenomena of the pres- were demonstrable that sound spreads equally
sure of fluids, and the motion of waves ex- in every direction. In windy weather it
may
cited in a pool of water. But the inference often be observed, that the sound of a dis-
seems to be too hastily drawn : there is a tant bell varies almost instantaneously in its

very material difference between impulse and strength, so as to appear at least twice as re-
pressure ; and, in the case of waves of water, mote at one time as at another an observa- ;

the moving force at each point is the power tionwhich has also occurred to another gen-
of gravity, which, acting primarily in a per- tleman, who isuncommonly accurate in ex-

pendicular direction, is
only secondarily amining the phenomena of nature. Now,
converted into a horizontal force, in the di- if sound diverged equally in all directions,
rection of the progress of the waves, being at the variation produced by the wind could
each step disposed in some measure to spread never exceed one tenth of the apparent dis-
in every direction : but the impulse, transmit- tance ; but, on the supposition of a motion
ted by an elastic fluid, acts primarily in the it
may happen that
nearly rectilinear, easily
direction of its
progress. It is well known, a slight change, in the direction of the wind,
that if a person calls to another with a may convey a beam of sound, either directly
speaking trumpet, he points it towards the or after reflection, in very different degrees

place where his hearer stands. 1 am assured of strength, to the same spot. From the ex-
a very respectable Member of the Royal
\>y periments on the motion of a current of air,
Society, and it was indeed long ago observed already related, it would be expected that a
by Grimaldi, that the report of a cannon sound, admitted at a considerable distance
appears many times louder to a person to- from its
origin through ao aperture, would
wards whom it is fired, than to one placed proceed, with an almost imperceptible in-
 RESPECTING SOUND AND LIGHT. 5S9

cfease of divergence, in the same direction ; of conical pipes lead to a similar conclusion.

for, the actual velocity of the pa tides of air, i The same inference follows from a comple-
in the strongest sound, is incomparably less tion of the reasoning of Dr. Helsham, Dr.

than that of the slowest of the currents in Matthew Young, and Professor Venturi. It

the experiments related, where the beginning has been very elegantly demonstrated by
of the conical divergence took place at the Maclaufin, and may also be proved in a
greatest distance. Dr. Matthew Young
has ob- much more simple manner, that, when mo-
jected, not withoutsome reason, to M. Hube, tion is communicated through a series of elas-
that the existence of a condensation will ticbodies increasing in magnitude, if the
cause a divergence in sound : but a much number of bodies be supposed infinitely
greater degree of condensation must have great, and their difference infinitely small,
existed in the currents described than in any the motion of the last will be to that of the
sound. There is indeed one difference be- first in the subdupiicate ratio of their respec-
tween a stream of air and a sound ; that, in tive magnitudes ;
and since, in the case of
sound, the motions of different particles of concentric spherical laminae of air, the bulk
4Ur are not synchronous : but it is not demon- increases in the duplicate ratio of the dis-
strable that this circumstance would affect tance, the motion will in this case be directly,
the divergency of the motion, except at the and the velocity inversely, as the distance. It
instant of its commencement, and perhaps may, however, be questioned, whether or no
not even then in a material degree ; for, in the strength of sound is to be considered as

general, the motion is communicated with a simpl)' proportional to the velocity of the

veiy gradual increase of intensity, so that there particles concerned

in transmitting it.

isnosudden condensation nor rarefaction. The

subject, however, deserves a more particular VIII. Of the harmonic Sounds of Pipes.

investigation ; and, in order to obtain a more

solid foundation for the argument, it is pro-
posed, as soon as circumstances permit, to in-
stitute a course of experiments for ascertain-
ing, as accurately as possible, the different
strength of a sound once projected in a given
direction, at different distances
of its motion.
VII. 0/ the Lkcay of Soimd.
Various opinions have been entertained
respecting the decay of sound. M. De la
Grange has published a calculation, by
which its force is shown to decay nearly in
the simple ratio of the distances; and M.
Daniel Bernoulli's equations for the sounds
In order to ascertain the velocity with
whidh organ pipes of different lengths require
to be supplied with air, according to the va-
which they produce,
rious appropriate sounds
a set of experiments was made, with the
same mouth piece, on pipes of the same
from the axis
bore, and of different lengths, both stopped
and open. The general result was, that a
similar blast produced as nearly the same
sound as the length of the pipes would per-
mit ; or at least that the exceptions, though
very numerous, lay equally on each side of
this conclusion. The particular results are
expressed in Table XI, and in Plate 3. Tig.
3 1 . They explain how a note may be made
much louder on a wind instrument by a swell.
540 EXPERIMENTS AND INQUIRIES

than can possibly be by a sudden impres-

it different circumstances : from some very
sion of the blast. It is proposed, at a future slight trials, it seemed to be nearly in the ra-

time, to ascertain, by experiment, the actual tio of the frequency of vibrations of each

compression of the air within the pipe under harmonic.

Tahle xi.

OPEN.
 RESPECTING SOUND AND LIGHT. 541

sound. Bianconi found the velocity of sound,

IX. Of the Vibrations of different elastic at Bologna, to differ at different times, in

Fluids. the ratio of 152 to 157.

All the methods of finding the velocity of

X. Of the Analogy between Light and Sound.
sound agree, in determining it to be, in fluids

of a given elasticity, reciprocally

in the sub- Ever since the publication of Sir Isaac
Newton's incomparable writings, his doctrine
duplicate ratio of the density hence, in
:

pure hydrogen gas it should be 3.6 ^13 = of the emanation of particles of light, from
times as great as in common air ;
and the been almost universally
lucid substances, has

should be a minor fourteenth admitted in this country, and but little op-
pitch of a pipe
higher in this fluid than in the common air. posed in others. Leonard Euler indeed, in
It is therefore probable, that the hydrogen several of his works, has advanced some
but not
gas, used in Professor Chladni's late experi- powerful objections against it, suffi-

ments, was not quite pure. It must be ob- ciently powerful to justify the dogmatical re-
served, that in an accurate experiment of probation with which he treats it ; and he
this nature, the pressure causing the blast
has left that system of an ethereal vibration,

ought to be carefully ascertained. There which Hu^'gens and some others he

after

can be no doubt but that, in the observa- adopted, equally liable to be attacked on
tions of the French Academicians on the ve- many weak sides. Without pretending to de-
which appear have been cide positively on the controversy, con-
locity of sound,
to it is

conducted with possible attention, the

all ceived that some considerations may be
dampness and coldness of the night air must .
brought forwards, which may tend to dimi-

have considerably increased its density : nish the weight of objections to a theory

hence, the velocity was found to be only similar to the Huygenian. There are also
1 109 feet in a second ; while Derham's ex- one or two difficulties in the Newtonian sys-

periments, which have an equal appearance tem, which have been little observed. The
of accuracy, make it amount to 1142. Per- first is the uniform velocity with which light

haps the average may, as has been already issupposed to be projected from all luminous
mentioned, be safely estimated at 1 130. It bodies, in consequence of heat, or other-

may here be remarked, that the well known wise. How happens it that, whether the
elevation of the pitch of wind instruments, in projecting force is the slightest transmission

the course of playing, sometimes amounting of two pebbles,

of electricity, the friction
to half a note, is not, as is
commonly sup- the lowest degree of visible ignition, the

posed, owing to any expansion of the instru- white heat of a wind furnace, or the intense

ment, for this should produce a contrary ef- heat of the sun itself, these wonderful cor-

fect, but to the increased warmth of tlie air puscles are always propelled with one uni-
in the tube. Dr. Smith has made a similar form velocity ?
For, if
they differed in velo-
observation, on the pitch of an organ in sum- city, that difference ought
to produce a dif-

mer and winter, which he found to differ ferent refraction. But a still more insupera-
more than twice as much as the English and ble difhcuity seems to occur, in the partial

JVench experiments on the velocity of reflection from eveiy refracting surface.-

542 EXPERIMENTS AND INQUIRIES

Why, of the same kind of rays, in every cir- the transmission of light by an agitation of
cumstance precisely similar, some should al- the particles of the refracting media them-

ways be reflected, and others transmitted, selves, is liable to strong objections ; accord-

appears in this system to

be wholly inexpli- ing to this supposition, the refraction of the
cable. That a medium resembling, in many rays of light, on entering the atmosphere

properties, that which

has been denominated from the pure ether which he describes,
ether, does really exist, is
undeniably proved ought to be a million times greater than it is.
by the phenomena of electricity ;
and the For explaining the phenomena of partial and

arguments against the existence of such an total reflection, refraction, and inflection,

ether, throughout the universe, have been nothing more is

necessary than to suppose
pretty sufficiently answered by
Euler. The all refracting media to retain, by their at-
rapid transmission of the electrical shock traction, a greater or less quantity of the lu-
shows that the electric medium is
possessed minous ether, so as to make its
density
of an elasticity, as great,
as is
necessary to be greater than that which it
possesses in a va-
supposed for the propagation of light. Whe- cuum, without increasing its
elasticity ;
and
tlier the electric ether is to be considered as that light is a propagation of an impidse
the same with the luminous ether, if such a communicated to this ether by luminous bo-

fluid exists, may perhaps at some future time dies : whether

this impulse is produced
by a
be discovered by experiment ;
hitherto I have partial emanation of the ether, or by vibra-
not been able to observe that the refractive tions of the particles of the body, and whether

power of a fluid undergoes any change by these vibrations, constituting white light, are,

electricity. The uniformity of the motion as Euler supposed, of various and irregular

of light in the same medium, which is a dif- magnitudes, or whetjier they are uniform,
ficulty in the Newtonian theory, favours the and comparatively large, remains to be
admission of the Huygenian ; as all impres- hereafter determined; although the opinion of
sions are known to be transmitted through Euler respecting them seems to be almost the
an elastic fluid with the same velocity. It only one which is consistent with the New-
has been already shown, that sound, in all tonian discoveries. Now, as the direction of
probability, has very little tendency to di- an impulse, transmitted through a fluid, de-

verge in a medium so highly elastic as the

:
pends on that of the particles in synchronous
luminous ether must be supposed to be, the motion, to which it is always perpendicular,
tendency to diverge may be considered as whatever alters the direction of the pulse,

infinitely small, and the grand objection to will inflect the ray of light. If a small elas-

the system of vibration will be removed. It tic body strikes against a larger one, it is

is not
absolutely certain, that the white line well known that the smaller is reflected more
visible in all directions on the edge of a knife, or less powerfully, according to the diflerence
in experiments of Newton and of Mr.
tlie of their magnitudes thus, there is always a
:

Jordan, was not partly occasioned by the reflection when the rays of light pass from a

tendency of light to diverge ; nor indeed has rarer to a denser stratum of ether ; and fre-

any other probable cause been yet assigned quently an echo when a sound strikes against

for its
appearance. Eulcr's hypothesis, of a cloud. A greater body, striking a smaller
 RESPECTING SOUND AND LIGHT. 548

one, propels it, without losing all its motion : the body, (Fig. 35.) It has already been con-

thus, the particles of a denser stratum

of jectured, that the colours of light consist in
ether do not impart the whole of their mo- the different frequency of the vibrations of

tion to a rarer, but, in their effort to proceed, the luminous ether : the opinion is strongly

they are recalled by the attraction

of the re- confirmed, by the analogy between the co-
with force and lours of a thin plate and the sounds of a se-
fracting substance equal ;

thus a reflection is
always secondarily pro- riesof organ pipes, which, indeed, Euler ad-

duced, when the rays of light pass from a daces as an argument in favour of it, al-

denser to a rarer stratum. Let AB, (Plate 4. though he states the phenomena very inac-

of light falling on the re- The appearances of the colours of

Fig. 32,) be a ray curately.

flecting surface ; FG
c d the direction of the thin plates require, in the Newtonian sys-

vibration, pulse, impression, or condensation. tem, a very complicated supposition,, of an

When d comes to H, the impression will be, ether, anticipating by its motion the velo-
either wholly or partly, reflected with the city of the corpuscles of light,
and thus pro-
$aroe velocity as it arrived, and EH will be ducing the fits of transmission and reflection;

equal to DH the angle EIH to DIH or

: and even this supposition does not much as-

CIF ;
and the angle of reflection to that of sistthe explanation. It appears, from the
incidence. Let FG, (Fig. 33,) be a refract- accurate analysis of the phenomena which

ing surface. The portion of the pulse IE, Newton has given, and which has by no
which is the refracting
travelling through
means been superseded by any later observa-

medium, will amove with

greater or less ve- tions, that the same colour recurs, whenever

locity in the subduplicate ratio of the densi-

the thickness answers to the terms of an arith-

ties, and HE ^vill be to KI in that ratio. But metical progression, and this effect appears
HE is, to the radius IH, the sine of the an- to be very nearly similar to the production

gle of refraction ; and KI that of the angle of the same sound, by means of a uniform
of incidence. This explanation of refrac- blast, from organ pipes which are different
tion is nearly the same as that of Rizzetti and multiples of the same length. The greatest
Euler. The total reflection of a ray of light, difficnhy in this system is, to explain the

by a refracting surface, is explicable in the different degree of refraction of differently

same manner as its simple refraction: HE, coloured light, and the separation of white

(Fig- 34,) being so much longer than KI, light in refraction :

yet, considering how
that the ray first becomes parallel to FG, and imperfect the theory of elastic fluids still re-
then, having to return through an equal di- mains, it cannot be expected that every cir-
versity of media, is reflected in an equal an- cumstance should at once be clearly eluci-
gle. When a ray of light passes near an in- dated.^ It may hereafter be considered, how

flecting body, surrounded, as all bodies are far the excellent experiments of Count Rum-
supposed to be, with an atmosphere of ether ford, which tend very greatly to weaken the
denser than the ether of the ambient air, the evidence of the modern doctrine of heat,

part of the ray nearest to the body is retarded, may be more or less favourable to one or the
and of course the whole ray isinflected towards other system of light and colours,
544 EXPERIMENTS AND INQUIRIES

proximations of the numbers expressing the

XI. Of the Coalescence of musical Sounds. proportions of the vibrations. The strength,
or rather the momentum, of the joint sound
It is
surprising that so great a mathema- isdouble that of the simple sound only at the
tician as Dr. Smith could have entertained, middle of the beat, but not throughout its
for a moment, an idea that the vibrations duration ;
and if we estimate the force of

constituting different sounds should be able sound by the momentum of the particles, it
to cross each other in all directions, without may be inferred, that the strength of sound
affecting the same individual particles of air in a concert will not be in exact proportion
by their joint forces
undoubtedly they cross,
:
to the number of instruments composing it.
without disturbing each other's progress but ; Could any method be devised for ascertain-
lliis can be no otherwise effected than by
ing this by experiment, it would assist in the
.

each partaking of both motions. If

particle's comparison of sotind with light but the :

this assertion stood in need of any proof, it establishment of the fact would be no proof

might be amply furnished by the: phenomena of a difference in the nature of sound and
of beats, and of the grave harmonics ob- light for there is no reason to suppose the
;

served by Romieu and Tartini which M. ; undulations of light continuous their inter- :

De Grange has already considered in the

la missions may easily be a million million
same point of view. In the first place, to sim- times greater than the duration of each parcel

plify the statement, let us suppose, what pro- of undulations. In Plate 4. Fig. 36, letP and
bably never precisely happens, that the par- Q be the middle points of the progress or re-
ticles of air, in transmitting the pulses, pro-
gress of a particle
in two successive com-
ceed and return with uniform motions; and, pound vibrations ; then, CP being = PD,
in order to represent tlieir position to the eye, KR = RN, GQ = QH, MS = SO,
and
let the uniform progress of time be repre- twice their distance, 2 RS = 2 RN + 3
sented by the increase of the absciss, and the NM + 2 MS = KN -h NM + NM -I- MO
distance of the particle from its original po- =:KM + NO, is equal to the sum of the

sition, by the ordinate, (Fig. 36. .41). Then, distances of the corresponding parts of the

by supposing any two or more vibrations in simple vibrations. For instance,

if the two

the same direction to be combined, the joint sounds be as 80 81, the joint vibration will
:

motion be represented by the sum or dif-

will be as 80.5; the arithmetical mean between
ference of the ordinates. When two sounds the periods of the single vibrations. The
are of equal strength, and nearly of the same in the pitch of two
greater the difference
pitch, as in Fig. 39,
the joint vibration is sounds, the more rapid the beats> till at last,

alternately very weak and very strong, pro- hke the distinct puffs of air in the experi-
ducing the effect denominated a beat, (Plate ments already communicate the
related, they
5. Fig. 46, B and C) ; which is slower and idea of a continued sound and this is the ;

more marked, as the sounds approach nearer fundamental harmonic described by Tartini.
to each ciher in frequency of vibrations and ; For instance, in Plate 4. Fig. 37. .
40, the
of these beats there may happen to be seve- vibrations of sounds related as 1 :
2, 4 : 5,

ral orders, according to the periodical ap- 9:10, and : 8, are represented ;
where
 RESPECTING SOUND AND LIGHT. 5^5

the beats, if the sounds are not taken too perties of the circle ;
and in the same man-
grave, constitute a distinct sound, which ner if the sounds are related as 7 C 8, or as

corresponds with the time elapsing between 5 : each compound vibration will occupy
7,
two successive coincidences, or near ap- JLj or -i\^ and deducting 5 or 4 vibrations
;

proaches to coincidence ; for, that such a from the whole period, we shall have a re-
tempered interval still produces a harmonic, mainder of y. This explanation is satisfac-

appears from Plate 4. Fig. 41. But, besides tory enough with regard to the concord of a
primary harmonic, a secondary note is
tliis
major third ; but the same harmonic is some-
sometimes heard, where the intermediate times produced by taking the minor sixth

compound vibrations occur at a certain in- below the key note: in this case it might be
terval,though interruptedly for instance, ; supposed that the superior octave, which
in the coalescence of two sounds related to usually accompanies every sound as a se-
each other, as 4 : 5, there is a recurrence of condary note, supplies the place of the ma-
a similar state of the joint motion, nearly at jor third; but I have found that the experi-
the interval of y of the whole period, three of ment succeeds even with stopped pipes,
the joint vibrations occupying ^l and leaving which produce no octaves as harmonics. We
^g hence, in the concord of a major third,
: must therefore necessarily suppose that in
the fourth below the key note is heard as dis- this case, if not in the former, the sound in
as is seen in some
tinctly as the double octave, question is
simply produced as a grave har-
degree in Plate 4. Fig. 38; AB being nearly monic, by the combination of some of the
two thirds of CD. If the angles of all the acute harmonics, which always accompa-
figures resulting from the motion thus assumed ny the primitive notes. It is remarkable>
be rounded off, they will approach more near- that the law, by which the motion of the

ly to a representation of the actual circum- particles is

governed, is
capable of some
stances ; but, as the laws, by which the mo- singular alterations by a combination of
tion of the particles of air is
rvigulated, differ vibrations. If we add to a given sound
according to the different origin and nature other similar sounds, related to it in fre-
of the sound, it is impossible to adapt a de- quency as the series of odd numbers, and
monstration to them all :
however, the
if, in strength inversely in the same ratios, we
particles be supposed to follow the law of the may convert the right lines indicating a uni-
harmonic curve, derived from uniform cir- form motion very nearly into figures of sines,
cular motion, the compound vibration will and the figures of sines into right lines, as in
be the harmonic instead of the arithmetical Plate 4. Fig. 42, 43.
mean and ;
the secondary sound of the inter-

rupted vibrations will be more accurately XII. Of the Frequency of Vibrations consti-
formed, and more strongly marked: thus, in tuting a given Note.
the concord 4 5, instead of -^ of the whole
:
The number of vibrations, performed by a
period, the compound vibration will become given sound in a second, has been variously
J, and three such vibrations, occupying |, ascertained; by Sauveur, by a very in-
firet,
will leave
exactly y. (Plate 5. Fig. 44, 45.) genious inference from the beats of two
The demonstration is deduciblefrom the pro- sounds; and since, by the same observer and
VOL. II.
4 A
546 tXPERIMENTS AND INQUIRIES
several others, by calculation from the this velocityis the same which is inferred

weight and tension of a chord. It was from Dr. Taylor's theorem just as that of ;

thought worth while, as a confirmation, to sound, determined by other methods, coin-

make an experiment, suggested, but coarsely cides with the Newtonian result. But, al-
conducted, by Mersenne, on a chord 200 though several late mathematicians have
inches in length, stretched so loosely as to
given admirable solutions of all possible cases
have its
single vibrations visible; and, by of the problem, yet it has still been
supposed,
holding a quill nearly in contact with the that the distinctions were too minute to be
chord, they were made audible, and were
actually observed. The theorem of Euler and
found, in one experiment, to recur 8.3 times De la
Grange, in the case where the chord
in a second. By lightly pressing the chord is
supposed to be at first at rest, is in effect
at one eighth of its length from the end, this: continue the figure each
way, alter-
and at other shorter aliquot distances, the
nately on dilferent sides of the axis, and in
fundamental note was found to be one sixth
contrary positions; then, from any point of
of a tone higher than the respective octave the curve, take an absciss each in the way,
of a tuning fork marked C hence the fork :
same proportion to the length of the chord
was a comma and a half above the pitch as- as any given portion of time bears to the
sumed by Sauveur, of an imaginary C, con- time of one seinivibration, and the half sum
sisting of one vibration in a second. of the ordinateswill be the distance of that

point of the chord from the axis, at the ex-

XIII. Vibrations of Chords. piration of the time given. If the initial

Of the
figure of the chord be composed of two right
By a singular oversight "in the demonstra- lines, as generally happens in musical in-
tion of Dr. Brook Taylor, adopted as it has struments and experiments, its successive
been by a number of later authors, it is as- forms will be such as are represented in
serted, that if a chord be once inflected info (Plate 5. Fig. 50,51 :) and this result is
fully
any other form than that of the harmonic confirmed by experiment. Take one of the
curve, it will, since those parts which are lowest strings of a square piano forte, round
without this figure are impelled towards it which a fine silvered wire is wound in a
spi-
by an excess of force, and those within it ral form contract the light of a window, so
by ;

a deficiency, in a very short time arrive at that, when the eye is placed in a proper po-
or very near the form of this sition, the image of the light may
precise curve. It appear
would be easy to prove, if this reasoning small, bright, and well defined, on each of
were allowed, that the form of the curve can the convolutions of the wire. Let the chord
be no other than that of the axis, since the be now made to vibrate, and the luminous
lending force is continually impelling the point will delineate its path, like a burninf'
chord towards this line. The case is coal whirled round, and will
present to the
very
similar to that of the Newtonian proposition eye a line of light, w;hich, by the assistance
respecting sound. It
may be proved, that of a microscope, nmy be very accurately ob-
every impulse communicated along a
is served. According to the different ways by
tended chord with a uniform velocity; and which the wire is put in motion, the form of
 RESPECTrXG SOUND AND LIGHT. 547

tliis
path is no less diversified and amusing,
its
proportions, as long as the chord vibrates
than the multifarious forms of the quiescent at all fully confirming the nonexistence of
:

lines of vibrating plates, discovered by Pro- the harmonic curve, and the accuracy of

fessor Chladni ;
and it is indeed in one re- the construction of Eulcr and De la Grange.
spect even more interesting, at
it
appears to At the same tiine, as Mr. Bernoulli has justly
be more within the reach of mathematical observed, since every figure may be infinitely
calculation to determine it ; although liither-
approximated, by considering its ordinates as

to,excepting some slight observations of composed of the ordinates of an infinite

Busse and Chladni, principally on the mo- number of harmonic curves of different mag-
tion of rods, nothing has been attempted on nitudes, it
may be demonstrated, that all

the subject. For the present purpose, the these constituent curves would revert to their

motion of the chord may be simplified, by initial state, in the same time that a similar

tying a long fine thread to any part

of it, chord bent into a harmonic curve would per-
and fixing tliis thread in a direction perpen- form a single vibration and this is in some
;

dicular to that of the chord, without drawing respects a convenient and compendious me-
it so tight as to increase the tension :
by thod of considering the problem. But,
these means, the vibrations are confined when a chord vibrates freely, it never re-

nearly to one plane, which scarcely ever mains long in motion, without a very evir
happens when the chord vibrates at liberty. dent departure from the plane of the vibra-
If the chord be now inflected in the middle, tion ; and, whether from the original obli-
it be found, by comparison with an ob-
will quity of the impulse, or from an interference
ject which marked its quiestfent position, to with the reflected vibrations of the air, or
make equal excursions on each side of the from the inequabiiity of its own weight of
axis ; and the figure which it apparently oc- flexibility, or from the immediate resistance

cupies will be terminated by two lines, the of the particles of air in contact with it, it
more luminous as they are nearer the ends. is thrown into a very evident rotatory mo-

(Plate 3. Fig. 52.) But, if the chord be in- tion, more or less simple and uniform ac-
flected near one of its extremities, (Fig. 53,) cording to circumstances. Some specimens
it will proceed but a very small distance on of the figures of the orbits of chords are ex-
the opposite side of the axis, and will there hibited in Plate 5. Fig. 47. At the middle
form a very bright line, indicating its longer of the chord, its orbit has always two equal
continuance in that place; yet it will return halves, but seldom at any other point. The
on the former side nearly to the point from curves of Fig. 49, are described by combin-
whence it was let go, but will be there very ing together va^'ious circular motions, sup-
faintly visible, on account of its short delay. posed to be performed in aliquot parts of the
In the middle of the chord, the excursions on primitive orbit and some of them approach
:

each side of the axis are always equal ; and, nearly to the figures actually observed. When
beyond the middle, the same circumstances the chord of unequal thickness, or when it
is

take place as in the half where it was in* is

loosely tended and forcibly inflected, the
fleeted, but on the opposite side of the axis ; apsides and double points of the orbits haver
and this apjwarance continues unaltered in a very evident rotator}' motion. The coui-
548 EXPERIMENTS AND INQUIRIES

pound rotations seem to demonstrate to the proper precautions are taken, is not contra-
eye the existence of secondary vibrations^ dicted by examining the motion of the chord
and to account for the acute harmonic with the assistance of a powerful magnifier.
sounds wliich generallj' attend the fundu- Tills
difiiculty occurred very strongly to
mentai sound. There is one fact respecting Elder: and De laGrange even suspects that
these secondary notes, which seems entirely there is some fallacy in the
experiment, and
to have escaped observation. If a chord be that a musical ear judges from
previous as-
inflected at one half, one third, or any other sociation. But, besides that these sounds are

aliquot part of its

length, and tiien suddenly discoverable to a ear destitute of such asso-
left at liberty, the harmonic note, which ciations, and, when the sound is
produced
would be produced by dividing the chord at by two imperfect unison, may be
strings in
that point, is entirely lost, and is not to be verified by counting the number of their

distinguished during any part of the conti- beats, the experiment already related is an
nuance of the sound. This demonstrates, undeniable proof that no fallacy of this kind
that the secondary notes do not depend upon exists. It must be confessed, that
nothing
any interference of the vibrations of the air fully satisfactory has yet occurred to account
with each other, nor upon any sympathetic for the phenomena; but it is
highly proba-
agitation of auditory fibres, nor upon any ble that the slight increase of tension pro-
effect of reflected sound upon the chord, but duced b3' flexure, which is omitted in the

merely upon its initial

flgure and motion. If it calculations, the elasticity or inflexibility of
were supposed that the chord, when inflected the chord, and the unavoidable inequality df
into riglit lines, resolved itself necessarily thickness of its different parts,may, b}- disturb-
into a number of secondary vibrations, ac- ing the isochronism of the suboVdinate vi-
cording to some curves which, when pro- brations, cause all that variety of soumls

perly combined, would approximate to the which is so inexplicable without them. For^

figure given, the supposition would indeed when the slightest diftierence is introduced in
in some respects correspond with the pheno- the periods, there is no difficulty in conceivJ^
menon related; as the cocfiicients of all the ing how the sounds mi>y be distinguished ;
curves supposed to end at the angle of in- and indeed, in soa>e casesi a nice ear ^^ill

flectionwould vanish. But, whether we discover a slight imperfection in the tune of

trace the constituent curves of such a figure harmonic notes: it is- also often observed, in
through the various stages of their vibrations, \tuningan instrument, that some of the single
or whether we follow the more compendious strings produce beating sounds, which uii-
method of Euler to the same purpose, tlie doubtedly arise from their want of perfect
figures resulting from this series of vibrations uniformity; the same circun»stance is the
are in fact so simple, that it seems incon- cause of the motion of the apsides, which "is
ceivable how the ear should deduce the com- often observable in the rotations already de-

plicated idea of a numbei of heterogeneous scribed. It may be perceived that

any par-
vibrations, from a motion of the particles of ticular harmonic is loudest, when the chord
air, which must be extremely and is inflected at about one third of the corre^
regular,
almost uniform a uniformity which, when
;
sponding aliquot part from one of the extre-
 RESPECTING SOUND AND LIGHT. 549

An observation of Dr. these experiments, the bow was strung with

mities of that part.
W allisseems to have passed unnoticed by the second string of a violin.

later writers on harmonics. He says, that

mid- XIV. Of the Vibratiom of Rods and Plates.
if the stringofaviohii be struck in the
it will with the as-
dle, or atany other aliquot part, give Some experiments were made,
either no sound at all, or a very obscure one. sistance of a most excellent practical musi-
This true, not of inflection, but of the a
is cian, on, the various notes produced by
motion communicated by a bow ; and may glass tube, an iron rod, and a wooden ruler;,

be explained from the circumstance of the as much at

and, in a case where the tube was
successive impulses, reflected from the fixed liberty as possible, all the harmonics corre-
each end, destroying each other
at :
to the nmnbers from 1 to 13, were
poitits sponding
an explanation nearly analogous to some ob- distinctly observed ;
several of them at the

servations of Dr. Matthew Young on the mo- same time, and others by means of difTerent

tion of chords. When the bow is

apphed not blows. Tliis result seems to differ from the
but very near it, calculations of Euler and Count Iliccati, con-
exactly at the aliquot point,
ihe correspondingharmontc
is
extremely loud ; firmed as they are by the repeated experi-
/ and tli€ fuudamentat note, especially in the ments of Professor Chladni it is not there- ;

lowestharnionics, scarcely audible thechord :

fore brought forward as sufficiently contro-
assumes the appearance, at the aliquot points, verting those calculations, showing but as
of as many lucid lines as correspond to the the propriety of an inquiry into the sources
number of the harmonic, more nearly ap- of error in such experiments. Scarcely
the bow ap- be heard when a
proachmg to each other as any note could ever
proaches more nearly to the point. (Plate
5. rod was loosely held at its extremity ; noi
Fig. 54.) According to the various modes of when it was held in the middle, and struck
applying the bow, an immense variety
of one seventh of the length from one end. The
very ingenious method
are produced, (Fig. 48.) of Professor Chladni,.
figures of the orbits
more than enough to account for all the dif- of observing the vibrations of
plates by
ference of torte in different performers. In sand over them, and discover-
strewing fine
experiments of a series of harmo- the figures into
ing the quiescent hues by
this kind,

nics is frequently heard in drawing the bow which it is thrown, has hitherto been little
these are
across the siime part of the chorti known in this country: his treatise on the
:

produced by the bow they are however not is s<j

complete, that no other
;
phenomena
the whole length of the neces-
experiments of the kind were thought
to
proportionate
bow, but depend on the capability of the sary. Glass vessels of various descriptions,,

portion oftiie bowstring, intercepted between whether made sound by percussion or

to

its end and the chord, of performing its vi-

friction, were fbun Jto be entirely free from the
brations in times which are- aliquot parts of usual harmonic notes ;
and this observation

the vibration of the chord : hence we may coincides with the experiments of Chladni..

perhaps infer, that the bow takes effecton the

chord but at one instant, or for a very short XV. Of the Human Voice.

time, during each fundamental vibration. la Tlie human voice, which was the object
550 EXPERIMENTS AND INQUIRIES

originally proposed to be illustrated by these its place, or, some other similar change is

researches, of so complicated a nature, and

is produced ; hence, taking a note within the
so imperfectly understood, that it can be on compass of either voice, it may be held, with
this occasion but superficially considered. the same expense of air, two or three times
No person, unless we except M. Ferrein, has as long in a falsetto as in a natural voice 5

published any thing very important on the hence, the difficulty of passing
too, arises

subject of the formation of the voice, before smoothly from the one voice to the other. It
or since Dodart; his reasoning has fully has been remarked, that the larynx is alvvay9
shown the analogy between the voice and the elevated when the sound is acute: but this
vox humana and regal organ pipes but his ; elevation only necessary in rapid transi-
is

comparison with the whistle is unfortunate : tions, ; and then probably be-
as in a shake
nor he more happy in his account of the
is cause, by the contraction of the capacity of
falsetto. A kind of experimental analysis of the trachea, an increase of the pressure of
the voice may be thus exhibited. By draw- the breath can be more rapidly affected this

ing in the breath, and at the same time pro- way, than by the action of the abdominal
perly contracting the larynx, a slow vibra- muscles alone. The reflection of the sounds

tion of the ligaments of the glottis be may thus produced from the various parts of the

produced, making a distinct clicking sound :

cavity of the mouth and nostrils, mixing at
upon increasing the tension, and the velocity various intervals with the portions of the vi-
of the breath, this clicking is lost, and the brations directly proceeding from the larynx,
sound becomes continuous, but of an ex- must, according to the temporary form of
tremely grave pitch may, by a good ear,
: it the parts, variously affect the laws of the
be distinguished two octaves below the lowest motion of the air in each vibration ; or,
A of a common bass voice, consisting in according to Euler's expression, the equa-
that case of about 26 vibrations in a second. tion of the curve conceived to corre- -

The same sound may be raised nearly to the spond with this motion, and thus produce
pitch of the common voice ;
but it is never the various characters of the vowels and se-
smooth and clear,
except perhaps in some mivowels. The principal sounding board
of those persons called ventriloquists. When seems to be the bony palate the nose, ex- :

the pitch is raised still higher, the upper ori- cept in nasal letters, affords but little reso-
fice of the larynx, formed by the summits of nance ;
for the nasal passage may be closed,
the arytaenoid cartilages and the epiglottis, by applying the finger to tiie soft palate,

seems to succeed to the ofiice of the liga- without much altering the sound of vowels
ments of the glottis, and to produce a retro- not nasal. A good ear may distinctly ob-
grade falsetto, which is
capable of a very serve, especially in a loud bass voice, be-

great degree of acuteness. Tlie
ence probably takes place between the natu-
ral voice and the common falsetto the rimula
glottidis being too long to admit of a suffici-
ent degree of tension for very acute sounds,
either the upper orifice of the larynx
supplies
same differ- sides fundamental note, at least four
the
harmonic sounds, in the order of the natural
: numbers ; ^ and, the more reedy the tone of
the voice, the more easily they are heard.
Faint as they are, their origin is bv no means
easy to be explained. This observation is
4
 REStECTIXG SOUND AND LIGHT. 551

in a late dissertation of fection of a comma, in a major third, occa-

precisely confirmed,
M. Kneclit, published in the musical news- sions it to beat very nearly twice as fast as

paper of Leipsic. Perhaps, by

a close atten- that of half a comma. If indeed the im-

tion to the harmonics entering into the con- perfection were great, it
might aflfect an in-
stitution of various sounds, more may be terval so materially as to destroy its charac-
done in their analysis than could otherwise ter; as, in some methods of temperament, a
be expected. minor third diminished by two commas ap-
proaches more nearly to the ratio 6 7, than
:

XVI. Of the Temperament of musical to 5 : 6 ; but, with this limitation, the sum
Intervals.
of harmony is nearly equal in all systems.
would have been extremely conrenient
It Hence, if every one of the twelve major and
for practical musicians, and would have saved minor thirds occurred equally often in the
many warm controversies among theoretical
compositions which are to be performed on
ones, if three times the ratio of 4 to 5, or an instrument, it would be of no great con-
four times that of 5 to 6, had been equal to sequence, to the sum of the imperfections,
the ratio of 1 to 2. As it happens to be other- among which of the thirds they were di-
wise, it has been much disputed in what in- vided and, even in this case, the' opinion
:

tervals the imperfection should be placed. of the best practical authors is, that the dif-
The Aristoxenians and Pythagoreans were ference of character produced by a differ-
in some sense the beginners of the contro- ence of proportions in various keys, would
versy. Sauveur has given very comprehen- be of considerable advantage in the general
sive tables of a great number of systems of effect of modulation. But, when it is con-

temperament and hisown now

;
ranks among sidered, thatupon an average of all the mu-
the many that are rejected. Dr. Smith has sicever composed, some particular keys oc-
written a large and obscure volume, which, cur at least twice as often as others, there
for every purpose but for the use of an im- seems to be a very strong additional reason
leaves the whole sub- for the the most perfect in
practicable instrument, making harmony
it found it.
ject precisely where Kirnberger, those keys which are the most frequently

Marpurg, and other German writers, have used ; since the aggregate sum of all the im-
almost every which occur must by
disputed with great bitterness, perfections, in playing,

one for a particular method of tuning. It these means be diminished in the greatest
is not with any confidence of success, that possible degree, and the diversity of charac-
one more attempt is made, which rests its ter at the same time preserved. Indeed, in
chief claim to preference, on the similarity practice, this method, under different modi-
of its theory to the actual practice of the best fications, has been almost universal for, ;

instrument makers. However we estimate although many have pretended to an equal

the degree of imperfection of two tempered temperament, yet the methods which they
concords of the same nature, it will appear, have usually employed to attain it have been
thatj the manner of dividing the tempera- evidently defective. It appears to me, that

ment between them does not materially alter every purpose may be answered, by
making
its
aggregate sum for instance, the imper-
; the third C : E too sharp by a quarter of a
5J2 EXPERIMENTS AND INQUIRIES

comma, which will not offend the nicest ear; perfect fifths. (Plate 5. Fig. 55.) If the un-
E C*, and A*
: : C, equal; F« : A« too avoidable imperfections of the fourths be

eharp by a comma ;
and the major thirds of such as to incline them to sharpness, the
all the intermediate keys more or less per- temperament will approach more nearly to
fect, as they approach more or less to C in equality, which is preferable to an inaccu-
the order of modulation. The fifths are per- racy on the other side. An easy method of
fect enough in
every system. of The results comparing different systems of
temperament
this method are shown in Table xii. In is exhibited in PlateFig. 56, which may
fi.

practice, nearly the same effect may be very readily be extended to all the
systems that
simply produce«l, by tuning from C, to F, have ever been invented. For the guitar,
Bi, E*, G«, C*, F«, six perfect fourths; the frets can scarcely be better fixed thaa
and C, G, D, A, E, B, F*, six equally im- according to the equal temperament.

Table xTi.

A
 RESPECTING SOUXD AND LIGHT. 55S

EXPLANATION OF THE FIGURES.

Plate 2. Fig. 4. . 9. The section of a stream of air fjom a tube .07 inch in diameter, as
ascertained by measuring the breadth of the impression on the surface of a liquid. The pres'

sure, impelling the current, was in Fig. 4, 1 inch. Fig. 5, 2. Fig, G, 3. Fig. 7, 4. Fig.
8, 7. Fig. 9, 10.
Fig. 10. .15. A
similar section, where the tube was .1 in diameter, compared with the

section as inferred from the experiments with two gages, which is represented by a dotted
line. From this comparison it appears, that where the velocity of the current was small, its
central parts only displaced the liquid ;
and that, where it was great, it
displaced, on meet-

ing with resistance, a surface somewhat greater than its own section. The pressure waS iu

Fig. 10, 1.
Fig. 11,2. Fig. 12, 3. Fig. 13, 4. Fig. 14, 7. Fig. 15, 10.
^
Fig. l6. .23. A, the half section of a stream of air from a tube .1 in diameter, as in-
ferred from experiments with two water gages. The pressure was in Fig. l6, .1. Fig. 17, .2.
10- Tlie fine lines,
Fig. 18, .5. Fig. 20, 3. Fig. 21, 5. Fig. 22, 7- Fig. 23,
Fig. 19, 1.

marked B, show the result of the observations with an aperture .15 in diameter opposed to
the stream ; C with. 3; and]) with .5.
Fig. 24. . 26. A the half section of a current from a tube diameter, with a pressure
.3 in

of .5, of 1, and of 3. B shows the course of a portion next the axis of the current, equal
in diameter to those represented by the last figures.

Plate 3. Fig. 27. The appearance of a stream of smoke forced very gently from a fine
tube. Fig. 28 and 29, the same appearance when the pressure
is
gradually increased.
Fig. 30. A mouth piece
sonorous cavity.
for a

The perpendicular lines over each division of the horizontal line show, by their
Fig. 31.
length and distance from that line, the extent of pressure capable of producing, from the

respective pipes, the harmonic notes indicated by the figures placed opposite the beginning
of each, according to the scale of 22 inches parallel to them. The larger numbers, oppo-
site the middle of each of these lines, show the number of vibrations of the corresponding

sound in a second.
Plates. Fig. 32. .35. Illustrations of the affections of light.
Fig. 36. The combination of two sounds.
Fig. 37. The combination of two equal sounds constituting the interval of an octave

supposing the progress and regress of the particles of air equably Fig. 38, 39, 40, a simi-
lar representationof a major third, major tone, and minor sixths"

Fig. 41. A fourth, tempered about two commas.

Fig. 42. A vibration of a similar nature, combined with subordinate vibrations of the same
kind in the ratios of 3, 5, and 7-

Fig. 43. A by a curve of which the ordinates are the sines of circular
vibration aepresented
arcs increasing uniformly, corresponding with the motion of a cycloidal
pendulum, com-
bined with similar- subordinate vibrations in the ratios of 3, 5, and 7.
VOL. II. 4 B
 554 EXPERIMENTS RESPECTING SOUND AND LIGHT.

Plate 5. Fig. 44. and 45. Two different positions of a

major third, composed of similar
vibrations, as represented by figures of sines-

Fig. 46. A contracted representation of a series of vibrations. A, a simple uniform sound.

B, the beating of two equal sounds nearly in unison, as derived from rectilinear figures. C,
the beats of two equal sounds, derived from figures of sines. D, a musical consonance,
making by its
frequent beats a fundamental harmonic. E, the imperfect beats of two
unequal
sounds. F, the beats of two equal sounds, supposing the strength of the sound to be as the
square of the velocity this figure agrees much better with the audible effect of a beat than
:

the former.

Fig. 47. Various forms of the orbit of a musical chord, when

inflected, and when struck.

Fig. 48. Forms of the orbit, when the sound is

produced by means of a bow.
Fig. 49. Epitrochoidal curves, formed by combining a simple rotation or vibration with
other subordinate rotations or vibrations.

Fig. 50 and 51. The successive forms of a tended chord, when inflected and let
go, ac-
cording to the construction of De la Grange and Euler.

Fig. 52. The appearance of a vibrating chord which had been inflected in the middle, the
strongest lines representing the most luminous paits.

Fig. 53. The appearance of a vibrating chord, when inflected at any other point than the
middle.

Fig. 54. Tlie appearance of a chord, when put in motion by a bow applied nearly at one
third of the length from its end.

Fig. 55. The method of tuning recommended for common use.

Plate 6. Fig. 56. A comparative view
of different s^'stems of temperament. The whole cir-
cumference represents an octave. The inner circle L isdividedinto 30103
parts,corresponding
with the logarithmical parts of an octave. The next circle R shows tlie magnitude of the

simplest musical and other ratios. Q

is divided into twelve equal parts,
representing the semi-
tones of the equal temperament described by Zarlino, differing but little from the system of

Aristoxenus, and warmly recommended by Marpurg and other late writers. exhibits the Y
system proposed in this
paper as the most desirable ;
and P the practical method nearly ap-
proaching to it, which corresponds with the eleventh method Marpiwg's enumeration, in

except by beginning with C instead of IS, the practical effect of tlie temperament is
that,

precisely inverted. This system differs little from that which was formerly proposed by
Romieu. K is the system of Kirnberger and Sulzer; which is derived from one perfect
third, ten perfect, and two equally imperfect fifths. M
the system of mean tones, the
is

sistema participato of the old Itahan writers, still

frequently used in tuning organs, approved

also by Dr. Smith for common use. S shows the result of all the calculations in Dr. Smith's
harmonics, the system proposed for his changeable harpsichord, but neither in that nor

any other form capable of practical application.

 roiJi-r.^.'4

PXATE 2.

JPuh.hv J.Johnson, London x JidyidoC. Jrsepfc

SkcU.
 rolM.f.554-

PLATE 3 .

Fig. 3o.
 VoiJi.r. sp4.

Plate 4

I'l/h. hy ./. JoTuhson .loTidon 2 July. i8o6. Joseph Skdtan, srAtlfJ.

 Sl-V

f-
 rolJ[.t•ci.^.

TLA.TE 5.

Ti R- 44-
. •

Fub.bv J.Jy^hruim .Zondan x JvJ^ 1806 Josmh .STcrff^'n •ruff^.

 Tel.a.P.:

Plate 6.

Fig. 56.

AJf .iy J. XifTuisim. JLondorv July ido6

u. .
JoJCph Sfu'lJoiV
sculp.
 III. AN ESSAY

ON

CYCLOIDAL CURVES,
WITH INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS.

From the British Magazine, for April 1800.

nothing of the needless incumbrances of new

ON MATHEMATICAL SYMBOLS. methods of variations, of combinatorial ana-

Many of the most celebrated mathema- lyses, and of many other similar innovations,
the strong inclination which has been shown,
ticians of the present day have been disposed
to pride themselves on the very great supe- especially on the continent, to prefer the al-

riority, which they altribiUe to the mo- gebraical to the geometrical form of repre-
dern methods of calculation, over those sentation, is a sufficient proof, that, instead
which were known to the ancients. That, of endeavouring to strengthen and enliglitea
in the course of so many centuries, mathe- the reasoning faculties, by accustoming thetn
matical sciences, hke all others, should have to such a consecutive train of argument as
been very considerably advanced, is no more can be fidly conceived by the mind, and
than must have been expected, from the great represented with all its links by the recol-

number of persons who have employed iheir lection, they have only been desirous of spar-
talents in the cultivation of those sciences. ing themselves as much as possible the pains

But, if we examine the matter impartially, of thought and labour, by a kind of mecha-
we shall have reason to believe, not only nical abridgment, which at best only serves
that mathematics have been as slow in their the office of a book of tables in facilitatinar
real advancement as any other part of phi- computations, but which very often fails
losophy, but that themoderns have very fre- even of this end, and is, at the same time,
quently neglected the more essential, for fri- tlie most circuitous and the least
intelligible.
volous and superficial advantages. To say These philosophers are like the
young^Eng-
556 AX ESSAY OX CyCLOIDAL CURVES.
lishman on his travels^ who visits a country progress of all the sciences, if some diligent
by drivingAvith all possible speed from place and judicious collector would undertake to
to place by night, and refreshing
his fatigues compile a complete system of mathematics ;

in the day time, by lounging half asleep at not as an elementary treatise, nor as a mere
his hotel. Undoubtedly there are some coun- index of reference, but to contain every pro-
tries through which one may reasonably wish position, with a concise demonstration, that
to travelby night, and uiidoubiodly there are has ever yet been communicated to the pub-
Bome cases where algebraical symbols areniore lic. Until this is done, nothing is left but for
convenient than geometrical ones : but every individual, who is curious in the search
when we see an author exerting inge- all his of geometrical knowledge, to look over all
nuity in order to avoid every idea that has the mathematical authors, and all the literary
the least tincture of geometry,' when he memoirs, of the last and present centuries.:

obliges us to toil through immense volumes for without this, he

may very easily fancy he
filled with all manner of literal characters, has made discoveries, when the same facts
without a single diagram to diversity the have been known and forgotten long before

prospect, we may observe

with the less sur- he existed. An instance of this has lately

prise, that such an "author appears to be con- occurred to ayounggentlemanin Edinburgh,

fused in his conception of the most elemen- a man who certainly promises, in the course

tary doctrines, and that he fancies he has of time, to add considerably to our know-
made an improvement of consequence, when, ledge ol' the laws of nature. The tractory,
in fact, he is only viewing an old object in a tractrix, or equitangential curve, was first

new disguise.
It happens frequently in the described by Huygens, and afterwards more
description of curves, and in the solution of fully by Mr. Bomie, (Mem. Acad. ]712,)and
problems, that
the geometrical construction by Mr. Perks. (Ph. tr. XIX. n. 345, Abr.
is very simple and easy, while it almost ex- IV. 456.) Bomie and Perks have shown
ceeds the powers of calculus to express the many remarkable properties belonging to it ;

curve or the locus of the- equation in a man- and one in particular, which may be briefly
ner strictly algebraical :, and, indeed, the demonstrated, that it is the involute of the

astonishing advances that were n;ade, in a catenaria: for since the equation of the ca-

comparatively short time, by Euclid, by Apol- tenaria is zz r: 2«x + xx, wq have zz — ax

lonius, and above all, by Archimedes, are -f XX, and x : z :: 2 : a + x, therefore the

sufficient to prove, that the method of repre- vertex of the right angled triangle, •bf which
sentation which they employed could not be the base is the evolved radius, and the hypo-
and the pre- tenuse a line to the axis of the curve,
very limited in its
application :
paralhel
cision and elegance, with which the method describes a right hue ;
and the perpendicu-
of geometrical fluxions is treated by Newton lar of this triangle is
always =
a, and is the
and Maclaurin, form a strong contrast to the constant tangent of the curve described by
tedious affectation of abstraction an(l obscu- the evolution. Cotes has also, in his Logo-

rity which unfortunately

pervades the writings metria, investigated the properties of the
of many great mathematicians of a later date. tractrix of the circle. Bernoulli observed
It would be of inestimable
advantage to the in 1730, that the tractrix was one of the
 AN ESSAY ON CYCLOIDAL CURVES. 557

tautoclironous curves in a resisting medium. is

absolutely necessary for the purposes of the
In 1736 it was the subject of a dispute be- higher geometry to extend, in some measure,
tween MM. Clairaut and Fontaine : it is not the foundations which the ancients laid in

yet entirely forgotten on that spot of acade- their postulates. Perhaps the most material
mic Giroiind which srave birth to the discove- addition may be comprehended in this form:
of Newton; and " Let
ries equation is to be
its it be granted that any curve line may
found in a work no less common than F.nier- be drawn whenever an indefinitely great
son's Fluxions, nearly in the same form as number of points maybe geometrically found
that which is published as new in the Philoso- in, or indefinitely near to, that line." No.
phical Transactions for 17'98. find in We doubt is lAathematically
it impossible to
the same paper a new method of dividing an comply with this postulate; but it must be

elliptic area in a given ratio

but the curve ; remembered, that it is also impossible to

which the author calls a cycloid is the' com- dr.iw, with mathematical accuracy,
strictly

panion of a trochoid, and is only a distortion a right line or a circle ; but in both cases we
of the figure by which Newton had very simply can approach sufficiently near to the truth for
and elegantly solved the same problem. It practice: and itappcars to be more convenient
is unnecessary to compare the altenijit tode- to consider such curves as arc thus described
mon'^trate the incommensuruhility of an oval as belonging to geometry, than to limit the

with the Newtonian method since Dr. ; number of geometrical curves, according to

Waring's proof, deduced from the nature of Descartes, to those of which the ordinate and
the equation of is
limits, decidedly more sa- absciss are comparable by an algebraical
tisfactory than any other hitherto made cquiition. This postulate forms the connect-
known. On the whole, it
appears that this ing link between rational and irrational quan-
ingenious gentleman has been somewhat un- tities, between the infinite an<I the indefinite,

fortunate in the choice of those problems between perfect resemblance and identity;
which he has selected as sf)ecimens of the and the irrational "eometrv, which has lonij,
elegance of the modern mode of demonstra- been tacitly built on it, exhibits the principal

tion; whether those, which he has l^rought advantages of analytical calculus in a more
forwards without proof, would have furnished elegant form. The groundwork of this irra-
him with a more favourable opportunity for tional geometry is found in the method of
the display of neatness and accuracy, may exhaustions of Euclid and Archimedes, and
be more easily determined,
whenever he may it has been
employed more or less generally
think proper to lay before the public their by Descartes, Newton, Cotes, Roberval, Va-
analysis, construction, and demonstration at rJgnon, Delahire, Maclaurin, and many
full length. But, allowing the superiority of other mathematicians. In the annexed es-
the modern calculations in many cases, their say on cycloidal curves, the geometrical form
great advantage appears to be derived from of fluxions, or more
properly speaking, the
the methods of series and approximations ; Newtonian method of ultimate ratios, has
indeed, however we may wish to adhere to principally been adopted; and it is
presumed,
the rigour of the ajicient demonstrations, it that by a comparison witli algebraical cal-
55« AN ESSAY oy CYCLOIDAL CURVES.
tr. 169?, n. 2i29,) to Cardinal
attributed by Wallis, (Ph.
eolations on the same subjects, the superior but seems
Cusanus, who wrote about the year 1450 ;
it to
of this method
perspicuity and conciseness be at least as probable that the curve, which appears in Cu-
Tvill readily appear. sanus's figure, was meant for the semicircle employed in

finding a mean proportional. Bovillus, in 1501, has a

juster claim to the

merit of the invention of the cycloid and
ON CYCLOIDAt CCKVES.
trochoid, if it can be any merit to have merely imagined
such curves to exist. In 1599, Galileo gave a name to the
Definition t. When a circle is made to
common cycloid, and attempted
its quadrature, but hav-
rotate on a rectilinear basis, the figure de- on
ing been accidentally misled by repeated experiments
scribed -on the plane of the basis by any the weight of a flat substance, cut into a cycloidal form, he

is called a fancied tliat the area bore an incommensurable ratio to that

point in the plane of the circle, Mer-
of the and desisted from the investigation.
trochoid. A circle concentric witli the ge- circle,

scnnus described the cycloid, in 1615, under the name of

the de-
nerating circle, and passing through la trochoide, or la roulette, but he went no further. Ro-

called the xlcscnbing

SCribing point, may be be.r\al seems to have first discovered the comparative qua-

drature and rectification of the cycloid, and the content of

i'ircle.
a cycloidal solid, about the year 1635, but hit treatise was
Definition ii. If the describing point
not printed until 16>)5, Torricelli, in 1644, first pub-
is circumference of the rotating circle,
in the and the method of drawing a tangent,
lished the quadrature
the two circles coincide, and the curve is both of which had been investigated by Descartes in I63'g.

called a cycloid. Wallis gave, in 1670, a perfect quadrature of a portion of

Definition hi. If a circular basis be the cycloid. The epicycloid is said to have been invented
by Roemer : its rectification and evolute were investigated
substituted for a rectilinear one, the trochoid
in 1&87. In 1695
by Newton in the Trincipia, publisVied
will become an epitrochoid,
and the cycloid
Mr. Caswell showed the perfect quadrabrliiy of a portion of
an epicycloid. the and Dr. Halley immediately published an
epicycloid,
Scholium l. These terms have bten too pro-
"hitherto extension of Caswell's discovery, together with a compari-
terms and trochoid have M. Varignon
epitrochoidal with circular
miscuously employed ; the cycloid son of all areas.

been used indifferently ; and the term epicycloid has com- is also said to have reduced the rectification of the epitro-

the terms prolate and contracted ellipsis, in the same De-

prehended the epitrochoid, choid to that of the year. Nicole,
that the desciibing point Reaumur, Maclaurin, the Bernoullis, the
being sometimes added, to imply lahire, Pascal,

is within or without the generating circle. The interior

epicycloid and epitrochoid may very properly be distin-
and hypotrochoid, when-
guished by the names hypocycloid
ever they are the separate objects of consideration. The
commentators on Newton, and many others, have contri-
buted to the examination of cycloidal curves, both in
and Waring, the most pro-
planes and in curved surfaces;
dif-
found of modern algebraists, tias considerably extended his

ferent species of epicycloids maybe denominated according researches upon the nature of those lines which are gene-
combined with that of the en- In the pre-
to the nurobe;r of their cusps, rated by a rotatory progression of other curves.
revolutions wiich they comprehend: for instance, the most remarkable properties of cycloidal
tire sent essay, the

epicycloid described by a circle on an equal basis is a simple curves are deduced io a simpler and more general manner

unicuspidate epicycloid ;
and if the diameter of the generat- than appears to have been hitherto done, the equations o
the basis as 5 to 2, the figure will be are investigated, and a singular property o
ing circle be to that of several species
a quintuple bicuspidate epicycloid. If the describing .circle the quadricuspidate hypocycloid is demonstrated. Those
cf a trochoid or cycloid be so placed as to touch the middle who wish for further information respecting the history of
/)f the curve, and each of the ordinates parallel to the basis these curves, may consult either Carlo Dati's essay on the
be diminished by the corresponding ordinate of the circle, mathematics.
subject, or Montucla's Historyofthe
the curve thus generated has been denominated the com- 1. Theokem. (Plate7.Fig-
PitoposiTioN
of and
panion of the trochoid or cycloid, the figure sines,
rotation of
57.) In any curve generated by the
the harmonic curve.
been antjther on any basis, the right Hnejoiningthe
Sc^ioLiUAi 2. The invention of the cycloid lias
 AN ESSAY ON CYCLOIDAL CURVES. S59

describing poinf, and the point of contact Let C be the centre of the basis VP, K that of the rotat.

of the generating curve and the basis, is al- ing circle PR, and of the describing circle GL, P the point

to the curve described.

of contact, and M the describing point. Then joining
ways perpendicular VX to be
MXC, and supposing an element representing the
If may by some be deemed sufficient to consider the ge-
motion of the point P, in cither the basis or the generating
nerating curve as a rectilinear polygon, of an infinite num-
ber of sides
circle, draw the arc MN
on the centre C, and join CVN :

since, in this point of view, the proposition

;
then NM motion of the point
will represent the M as far as
requires no further demonstration ; and, indeed, Newton
it is
produced by the revolution round the centre C : take
and others have not scrupled to lake it for granted but it :

MO to VX as GR to PK, then MO will be the motion of

is presumed, that a more proof will not be considered
rigid
M arising from the revolution round K, and NO will be the
as superfluous. Let M be the describing point, and P the
element of the curve produced by the joint motion. Let
point of contact : and let LO, MP, and NQ, be succes.
CII be parallel to PM, then CX or CP CM::VX : :
MN,
sive positions of the same chord of the generating curve at
andPK:MK::CP:HM::VX:M0, therefore, CM; HM
infinitely small distances : then it is obvious, and easily de-
OP and PQ,. described by the
:!MN:MO, and these lines being perpendicular to CM,
monstrable, that the arcs
HM, the triangle NMO similar to CMH, and MN NO is r

point P of the generating curve, in its passage from O to P,

and from P
::CM:CH, hence CP.:CH::VX: NO. Take PY to CP
to Q, will be perpendicular to the basis at P,
asPK to CK, thenCHtCP::PM:PY::NO:VX. On L
and will therefore touch each other. Let the arcs L, LMK,
describe the circle PfB, and draw IMLF: let FD be per-
and N, be described with the radius PM, on the centres O,
pendicular to PRB, take DE to DF as PG to PL, and E will
P, and S. Then the curve described by M will touch
be always in the ellipsis BEP let AE and AF be tangent* :

IMK ; for since O and Q lie ultimately in the same direc-

to the ellipsis and circle at E and F then the increment of
tion from P, if L be above IMK, N will also be above
;

it,
the arc BF will be to MO as PL to GL, and to VX as PL to
since these points L and N, and
must be in the circles
PR. Join GM, and parallel to it draw PI then PIL is a
infinitely near to M ; and if L be below IMK, N, for the
;

and IL1'=AFD, and IM ILXPG: PLXDE

same reason, must be below it and M is common to the
light angle, :
;

;,
DF, by construction ;
therefore the figure IPML is similar
circle and the curve, therefore the curve touches the circle
to DAEF, and as PL to PM, so is AF to AE, and so is the
IMK at M, and perpendicular to the radius PM.
is
increment of the arc BF to that of BE ;
but the increment
Proposition ii. Problem. To draw a cf BF Is toVX as PL to PR, therefore the increment of BE
tangent to a cycloidal curve at aay given is to VX PM to PR. Now was proved that NO: VX.
as it

::P.M : PY therefore the increment of BE to NO as PY

; is
point.
On the given point, as a centre, describe a circle equal to to PR, or as CP to 2 CK ; and the whole elliptic arc BE it

the desaribing circle of the curve, and from the intersection to the whole SM as the radius of the basis to twice the dl''_

of this circle, with the line described by the centre of the tance of the centres.

generating circle, let fall a perpendicular on the basis ; the C0K01.1AUY 1. The fluxion of every cycloidal arc Is

point thus found will be the point of contact, and the tan- proportional to the distance of the describing point from

gent will be perpendicular to the right line joining this the point of contact.

point of contact and the given point, by the first proposi- CoHOLLARY 2. Fot the epicycloid, the ellipsis coincides

tion. It will be obvious, from inspection, which of the two with its axis HP, and the arc BE with BD, which is double
intersections of the circle to be described, with the track of the versed sine of half the arc GM, in the describing or

the centre, is to be taken as the place of that centre cor- generating circle ; therefore the length of the curve is to

this versed sine as four times the distance of the centres to

responding to the given point.
Scholium. The tangents of cycloids and epicycloids the radius of the basis.

may be diawn from any given point without them bj means Proposition iv. Problem. (Plate 7.
of curves, which are described by the intersection of two
Fig. 58, 59.) To HikI the centre of cur-
lines revolving on given points, with proportionate angular
velocities, and in the case of the bicuspidate epicycloid, the vature of an epitrochoid.
curve becomes an equilateral hyperbola. Let PY be, as in the last proposition, to CP as PK to CK,
Proposition hi. Pkobleru (Plate 7. and on the diameter PY describe the circle PZY, cutting

Fig. 38.). To find the length of an ephro- PO In Z : take OW a third proportional to OZ and OP, and
choid.
W will be the centre of curvature.. For let QP::zVX be
 ;C0 AN ESSAY ON CYCLOIDAL CURVES.
the space desrribed by P, while NO is described by O : it
PWH, 3Q will be always equal to SW, and W in a curve
is obvious, from prop. 1, that the intersection of NA and ©WS similar to SM, of which it is the evolute.
OP must be the centre of curvature. Let QF be perpendi-
Proposition vi. Problem. (Plate 7.
cular to PO, and TA parallel to QN ; then, by prop. 3,
To find the area of an epitrochoid.
Fig. Ol )
NO VX : or QPXPO :
PY, but by similar triangles QP:
On the centre C describe a circle touching the epitrochoid
Or::PY:PZ; therefore NO: QFV.PO :
PZ, and by
in S, take GFI to GC as PR to PC, and let the circle G*!!
division, NO : AOI'.OP :
OZ, and by similar triangles;:
describe on the basis SG the epicycloid S*. Then taking
OW : or or OP.
GM to G* as GL M will be in the epitro-
When Z O OW always to Gn,
Corolla BV 1. coincides Vifith or M, is
choid SM ;
for the angular motion of the chord G<I>, is the
infinite ;
therefore whenever PZY intersects the describing

ciiele, the cpittochoid vsill have a point of contrary flexure

same as that of GM in the primary epitrochoid. Let SJi

at the same distance from C as this intersection ;

and the be the evolute of S<t>, and GWS its generating circle. On
circle PZY is given when the basis and generating circle are SG, SL, and Sn, describe
diameters equal to three circles,

given, whatever the magnitude of the describing circle AD, AE, and AF, touching the light line AB in A;
may be. If the basis be a straight line, PY will be equal let the angl» BAD be always equal to GHO, and it is evi-
toPK. dent that AD, AE, and AF, will be equal respectively to
CoHOLLiRY 2. By means of this proposition, we may W*. WG oft
WG, WM, and But the angular motion of
find the curve which any given curve by
will produce toll-
W being equal to the sum of the angular motions of GM
ing on a given basis or having the two curves, we may G
; on and CG on C, is to that of GM, or half
AF, or of
find the basis. When the basis is given, supposing NO a
that of KM, in the ratio of CIl to CG, or CR to CP ;
small portion of the given curve, of which W is the centre
of the areas SWG, SWM and SW* •
therefore the fluxions
of curvature, VP being the circle of equal curvature with
we OZ a third proportional
are to those of the segments AD, AE, and AF, in the
the basis at the point P, if take
same ratio and that ratio being constant, the whole
to OW and OP, draw the perpendiculars PY and ZY, and
;

areas, and their differences, are also respectively to eax;h

take CP—PY : PY::PY :
YKj then K will be the centre
other as CR toCP.
of curvature of the generating curve CP ;
for by addition :

Scholium. The quadrable spaces of Halley are those

PY::PK:YK, CP:PK::PY:YK, and CP:CK::PY:
which comprehended between the arc of the epitro-
are
PK, as before. When the basis is a right line, Y is the
choid, that of the describing circle, and that of a circle
centre of curvature of the curve required.
concentric with the basis, and cutting the describing circle
Scholium. Hence we may easily find the curvature
at the extremities of its diameter.
necessary in the tooth of a wheel for impelling a pallet
without by
friction, determining the curve which will ge- Proposition VII. Problem. (Plate 7.
nerate, by rolling on the face of the pallet, a circle passing Fig. 62.) To find a central ecjuation for the

through the axis of the wheel ; but the tooth could never
epic^'cloid.
be disengaged from the without an escapement in-
pallet, Let CT be perpendicular to RT, the tangent at the point
troduced for the purpose.
M, then PMR will be a right angle, and PM parallel to

Proposition v. Problem. (Plate 7. CT. On the centre C describe through M the circle MNO,
and let MG be perpendicular to RO. Then the rectangle
Fig. 60.) To find the evolute of
an epicycloid.
OQN=PQil, OQ PG::GR GN, by addition OQ PQ
SM, the point M being in the circum-
: : :

In the epicycloid
::0R PN hence by division OP PQ::IR PN, and : :

PZ will be to PM in the constant ratio of

:
;
ference of PIVIR,
PY to PR, and MZ to PM as RY to PR, and PM to MW PQ ^2m-p^. IK.
But PM,=PR X PQ=^^X
IK.
INP :

in the same ratio; hence PM:PW::RY PYIICR: CP, :

and by similar triangles CT CR PM

: : : :
PR, whence Cfj
therefore the point W is always in a circle PWH of which
CR(7 „ INP
the radius is to PK in that proportion, and which touches Let MZ and RY be tan-
^£gxPM,=CR,Xj^.
SP in P. On the centre C describe a circle AS© touch-
then INP=MZ^, and IRP^RYj, CT=:CR
gents to SP,
ing PWH in S; then, since CR CP::PR
: :
PH, we have MZ and CT will be to MZ in the constant ratio of CR
by division CR CPX.CP ;
;
VS, and the circle PWS being RY
to A20 as PMR to SP, the arc PM being equal to SP, the to RY. Putting CP=a, CR=b, CMzzs, CT=u, thea uit

similar arc PW will be equal to AS, and taking AS0=: as — aa

=i:b
I'L'—aa
 Vol.lLI.sbo

Plate 7
Fig. 60.
Fig. 5 J.

Fig. 58. Fig.6x.

Fig. 62.

Fig. 69.

Pub. by J. Johnson. Zondon x 16 oS. '

.^uly Joseph. Skelton. sculp.
 AN ESSAr OX CVCLOIDAL CURVES. 561

Peoposition viii. Problem. (Plate 8. = 1

PCA=ADP=:APS, and the triangles APS and APB
are similar and equal.
Fig. 63.) To find a geometrical equation for
SC=o, SF=.t, FM=:y, and Ixt
SB=r. Then SA SP::SP: SD, and SP^v' (ar). Draw
;

tbe conchoidal epitrocboid.

PE perpendicular to BP ; then BE—SDzz'ia, BC=:o— r,
Let CP:=PK. On the centre C describe a circle equal to
£0=30— r, and by similar triangles, CP: CR'.IEC : CG
GM, cutting SC in Z. Join MZF, then the arc DZ=:GM, =1 EC=:a— ir; therefore GB=:ii- : but BE BG :: BP
MZ
: .-

and is parallel to CK, therefore EF is also equal to

DZ or GM, CF is
parallel to KM, arid MF=CK : there- BM or
2a:|r:: v" [ary.r —^Z («r)=:BM ; again, BP: BM :;
fore this epitrochoid is the curve named by Delahire the
conchoid of acircular basis, as was first observed by Reau- BA: BF, or v'(ar) :
-^*/(ar):;.I- -.
IL, andSF=:x=r_
3a 2 6a
mur
CK,
in 1708, and afterwards by Maclaurin, in 1720.

a, DE, b, ZII, r, HM, y, ZM, s ; and let ZI be

Call
—
rr
, 6ax=:6ar~rr, andrZZ3a± ./ {gaa — 6ax). But

perpendicular to CK ; then FZzza — s, CI— - and MFq=BUq — BVg, 0Ty'=:

r' r'
, and »/«=:
36a'- •'
'

<Ja 36aa
l<

CIZ and ZHM being similar, CZ Clr.ZM ZH,

: : or iar'—r'. By adding to this the square of the former equa-
tion,and proceeding in the same manner to exterminate
a— 5 — r,
——:'.s:x; hence /i^as ss, bx4-ssZlas, /I'a'+Shs'' we obtain an equalion of the value of x and
2 •
. y, which,
— when the surds are brought to the same and the
+j*z:dV, and by substituting for s', I'-l- it-r' o'J^'' + side,

6'I'^-2.T'J'-^- ibxy' -^ y' — a'y':ZO.

square of tlie whole is taken, is at last reduced to x'~'^r.x'

Corollary +'ix'y' — \iaxy'+y' + iiay=:o, a regular equation of

1. Join FN, and complete the parallelo-
the fourth order.
gram MFNL; then since EFzzDZizEN, FN is perpendicu-
Scholium. The equation of the corresponding
cular to EK, and ML to NL, and, NL being always equal liypotro-

to FM or CK, L i» always in a circle described on the cen-

choids may be investigated nearly in the same manner, by
LM a tangent to that circle, and ZM a perpendicu- dividing PR and PM in a given ralio, but the process will be
tre N,
somewhat more tedious.
lar to that tangent drawn from the point Z.
Corollary 2. (Plate 8. Fig. 64.) Tlie unicuspi- Proposition x. Problem. (Plate 8.
date admits of a peculiar central
epicycloid equation, Fig. 66.) To find a geometrical
equation for
with respect to the point S. Call SM, s, and let ST:=u be
the bicuspidate epicycloid.
perpendlcular to the tangent MT, then k= { — j
i
For IP Let CPzzPR. Join RMT, PM, PD draw CT perpen- ;

dicular U) TE to CR, and EG, MB, RA, to SC. Then

RT,
being half of SM, or s, SP =: v^ (—) and the trian- the angle DRP=iMKP=SCP, and by equal
triangles, RA

gles SIP andMTS being similar, SP5 :

SMi/XIPj
• =CT, and RD=:CD, and by similar triangles RM RP:: :

ST.?,
RE RT, and RP RD::RT RC therefore RM RU::
— :
: : :
:

or : i';;— :
«', and 2at/^s'. RE RC, and ME is parallel to SC, and EG=BM. Put
:

Corollary 3. The unicuspidate epicycloid is one of CI'=:a, BC=x, BM=:y, CM:=s, Cr=u ; then by prop. ;,
the caustics of a circle. For making the angle CllY u'-i ^^'=^'-0'; but RC CT::CT CE
{s''—a'); or : .

= MRC = JMKP=iSCP, the triangle CRY is isosceles,

:;CE :
EG, or y, hence 2/=- 16aY, -^u^zz
'
and CY is constant; so that all rays in the direction of the

tangent MR will be reflected by the circle QR towards Y, o<y'=(si—aa)'=:(j-x-t-i/y— as)'; whence by involution the
SM will be the caustic of a radiant point equation of the sixth order may
be had at length.
and consequently
atY. Corollary. Since CRM^SCR, a ray in the direction

Proposition i.x. Peoble.m. (Plate 8.

of the tangent MR will be reflected, by a circle FR, always
parallel to SC ;
therefore SM is the caustic of the circle
Fig. 65.) To find a geomeliical equation for
the incident rays are parallel to CS.
FR when
the tricuspidate hypocycloid.
PA and MF be Proposition xi. Problem. (Plate 8.
Let perpendicular to CS. Join PMB, KM,
Fig. 67.) To
Then the angle APB is equal to the dif-
and PD. find a geometrical equation for
RMG,
APC and MPR, or to that of their complements
ference of tbe quadricuspidate hypocycloid.
PRM, PCA but PRM=i PKM=:|PCA, therefore AP
:
Let CR=:PR, then the angle PRM 1PKM=2PCS. =
VOL. II. 4C
S63. AH; ^XSSAY ON CTCLOIDAL CURVES.
EAC=ACR, RA=RC=:RB=RP, ABrJSC, and drawing tional to IP and PM. Call CP, a, and PM, .r, tficn the
the perpendkulars CT, TD, TE, and MF, RM=;RT, AM
=BT, AF=EC, FC=AE, and FM=BD. Let SCzza, fluxion of SM is '— ; but the rectangle contained
by
FCizr, FM=y, CM=s, CT=« ; then AB AC AC : : : : half PM and the fluxion of SM is the fluxion of the area
at:: AT :
AE, whence ATzz{axx)i, and in the sameman-
^^^i'^yyH andCT beingamean proportional between
"^"^ j
PSM, or PSMz: /_! = —.
t/ 6a
2tt
The epitrochoid described

AT and TB, u^—{a'x'y-')L, and u'~a''x''y\ Butbyprop. 7, by the point C of the generasin.e; plane will be
the'spiral of
3u'=a-— s% therefore
27a'j?'j/'=:(a«_s»j'z=(a"— x'— Archimedes, since CN is
always equal to PM=PS:i:QV ,

y')' whence the equation may be had at length by involu- the angular motion of CN PM
and; since
;
and are also
tion. The same result may be obtained by Dr. Wariilg's
equal, the area CON = PSM=z— . Instead of the ellipsis
method of reduction, from
(a.r.x)'+{nyij)'<—a.
CoROLiABY. Since tlic portion of the tangent AB inter-
of prop. 3, let PX be a parabola, of which IP is the parame-
•ccptcd between the perpendiculars AC, BC is a constant
and continuing
ter, NM to X, the arc PX will be equal to

quantity, this hypocycloid CON. For making LH=CP, it is well known that tlie
may in tliat sense be called an
equitangcntial curve and the rectangular corner of a
;
fluxion of PX varies as XH, or as PN, which represents
pas-
sage must be rounded ofT into the form of this the fluxion of COX. For the curvature, PY, in prop. 4,
curve, in
order to admit a beam of a
given to be carried becomcs^zzCP, and the radius is a third proportional to
length
round it. NZ and NP.

Proposition XII. Problem. To

Ca.'x: 3.
Supposing now the generating circle to become
inves-
again finite, but to have its concavity turned towards the
tigate those cases in which the geiieral
pro- basis, the same cunre will be described as would be de-
position.s either fail or require
peculiar mo- scribed by the rotation of a third circle on the same basis in
difications. a contrary direction, and
equal in diameter to the difTcr-
Case 1.
(Plate 8. Fig. es.) If the generating circle be con- ence of those of the two first circles.
«idered as
infinitely small, orthe basis as infinitely large, so as Case 4. If the circles be of the same with their
si^e,
to become a straight line, the concavities turned the same way, no curve can be
epicycloid will become a com- described;
mon cycloid, and the ratio of CP to CK in prop. 3, cor. but if tlie
geneiating circle be still further lessened, a
2, hypo-
becoming that of equality, the length of the arc SM will cycloid will be produced, of the figure as that which. same
be four times the versed sine of half
PM, and VM twice wouM be described by a third circle
equal in diameter to the
tlie chord RM or VX, therefore the square of the arc VM diflfcrence of the two first. All the general
propositions are
is always as the absciss VZ. The evolute is an equal cy- equally applicable to bypocycloids with other
epicycloids,
cloid, and the circles in prop. 6 as might easily have been understood from an
being as 1 to 4, the area inspection of
of the cycloid is to that of the figuresj if there had beenroom for a double series.
generating circle as a to'l.
its

The properties of the cycloid as a'n isochronous and as a Case 5. (Plate s^Fig. 70.) If the diameter of the
generat-
brachistochronous curve belong to
mechanics, and it is de- ing circle be half that of the busts, the hypocycloid will be-
monstrated by writers on opfics that its caustic is come a right line, and the hypotrochoid an
composed ellipsis. For since
of two cycloids. the angle PKM=:2 PCS, PCM,
being half PKM, coincides
Case 2. '(Plate 8. Fig.
69.) If the
concentrating circle be
with PCS, and M is
always in CS. Let GNL be the de-
supposed to becomeinfinite while the base remains scribing circle of the hypotrochoid, and join GNO; then NL
finite, the
epicycloid will become the involute of a circle ; and the
is
parallel, and ON perpendicular, to SC, and ON=:HL,
fluxion of the curve
being always, by prop. 3, cor. 1, to that
which is
always to GO as CL to CG ; therefore AN is an
of PM as PM to CI', its
)eng.th SM will be a third propor- ellipsis : and the centre K will evidently describe a cird«.
 Vol.Jl.pti/fc St'z.
Plate 8.

Fia-.63. Hg-. 67.

Tig. 64.
Pig-. 68.

Tig-. 6g.

¥i^.65.

GA FB C

Pig-. 66. Fig. 70.

A^. iy J. Johnson. London, x.Jtdy. 1S06.

Jojeph ^keiton. Jcuip.
 IV. AN ESSAY

ON MUSIC.
From the Britisli Magazine for October 1800.

of rhythm, or of the periodical recurrence of

1. OF MUSIC IN GENERAL.
the same or similar sensations at equal inter-

.1 HE agreeable effect of melodious sounds, vals of time, may be derived from thehabit of a
not only on the human ear, but on the feel- certain equality and recurrence in the motions
so universal and
ings and on the passions, of the body, such as walking, or in children
is

so powerful, as deservedly to excite the at- who cannot yet walk, from the passive mo-
tention of the psychological philosopher. For tion of gestation
;
this predilection for the re-

what ultimate end a susceptibility for this turn of customary sensations appears to be

peculiar pleasure
has been implanted by na- an innate and fundamental tendency of the
is not easy to be ascer-
ture in the mind, human system, to which physiologists and
tained ;
but setting aside the well known metaphysicians have been obliged ultimately
pleasing sensation of a delicate titillation, to refer many properties, both of body and
wherever the nerves are possessed of great mind. But be this as it
may, the love of
sensibilitj',
and the associations of an in- rhythm, which is, perhaps, the lowest ingre-

teresting voice, giving expression to poeti- dient musical taste, is, if possible, still
in

cal and impassioned diction, it is

probable more universal than the love of harmony and
that the taste for all
complicated and scienti- melody. Poetry, or rather metrical compo-
fic music is
wholly acquired. sition, distinguished from prose only by
is

Music may be considered as consisting of the regularity of its rhythm; and the know-
three component parts, rhythm, melody, and ledge of metre and prosody, however high it
harmony. Rhythm is an agreeable succes- may rank in the critic's estimation, is a sub-
sion of sounds considered with respect to the ordinate and comparatively insignificant
time of their whole duration. Melody is an branch of musical science. The natural
in respect to the pitch, fondness for rhythm is the principal founda-
agreeable succession
V or the frequency of vibrations of each sound. tion of the pleasure of dancing, an amuse-

Harmony is an agreeable combination of se- ment intimately connected with music, and
veral sounds at the same time. It is evident no less popular. The rhythm of a musical
that rhythm and melody are almost insepa- composition is almost always nt least two-
rable but that harmony is by no means ne-
;
fold, often three or fourfold, consisting of
cessary to the existence of music. In the subordinate divisions or bars, and jjcrio'dical

first place, it is
easy to conceive that a love returns of larger' members, cither phrases or
564 AN ESSAY ON WUSIC.

strains, containing equal numbers of tliose our power to count the single vibrations of
divisions. All this is
perfectly natural, but musical sounds numerically, yet we are evi-

perhaps, not so necessary to music as Mr. dently able to compare with ease such
Walter Young, in his excellent essay, printed sounds as are related to each other in the
in the Edinburgh Transactions, appears to simplest numerical ratios. For instance, if
imagine; for those who are already expe- a treble and a tenor voice sing the same part,
rienced musicians are generfiliy observed to there is scarcely an ear so inaccurate as not

delight in recitative, where the rhythm is al- to perceive their resemblance, which is
pro-
most entirely lost ;
and still more in fugues, duced by the recurrence of two vibrations of
where two or three series of rhythms, almost the treble note at the same interval of time

independent of each other, are carried on at with one of the tenor. The same love of or
the same time, one part beginning its subdi- der may easily be extended to the compari-
visions when another h;is made some pro- son of fifths and fourtlis, where the propor-
gress, and a third is still to follow. But the tions are as two to three, and as three to
pleasure derived from such compositions is, as four. This is
enough to account in some de-
Kirnberger has observed, more intellectual gree for the pleasure derived from melody,
than sensual, arising in a great measure from or the succession of sounds bearing certain
the consciousness of proportions to each other, in respect to gra-
bting able to compre-
hend which " caviare
that is to the general." vity and acuteness: besides that the same
Rhythm is
generally marked in performance intervals, which are most melodious in suc-

by a slight increase of force at the beginning cession, are found also to form the most
of each subdivision or bar; sometimes, and '

pleasing combination of harmony when co-

in some instruments always, the change of
sounds, in point of acuteness and gravity,
or the interruption of the same sound, is a
sufficient distinctionand sometimes, after
; temporar}' with the succeeding, and perhaps
the rhythm has already been firmly impressed
on the mind, neither change of sound nor of
is
strength perpetually repeated
tamporary ; for since the preceding sound is
very frequently continued by reflection from
surrounding objects, so as to become co-
always remains fixed in the imagination, it
is obvious that sounds, in order to be per-
the imagi- fectly melodious, must also be harmonious.
;

nation alone being sufficient to conceive the Add the im|)ression

to tliis
generally made
continuation of the rhythm: but this consti- in infancy by the more or less melodious dit-
tutes a kind of tempo rubato, where the ties of the nurse's voice, and the connexion
per-
re()tion of measure is
intentionally weakened of refined and chromatic melodies with the
or suspended. The Aeolian harp pleases in- natural expression of the moans of grief, or
deed without rhythm, but the pleasure would the exclamations of J03' : and from the union
soon be exhausted by repetition. of all these causes it may easily be conceived
The next constituent part of music is me- from whence the love of melody, as an ac-
lody. Melody may in some sense be said to quhed faculty, may, without much difficulty,
please on the same principle as rhythm, the be derived.
partiality of the mind to a regular recurrence The pleasure arising from harmony is not
of intervals : for though we have it not in so simple and universal as that which is
pro-
 AN ESSAY bN MUSIC. J65

tluccd by a combination of ibj thm and me- instrument, it is seldom considered in treat-

lody. Harmony requires for its execution ing of the theory of music. Tlie various

and perception a greater degree of cultiva- combinations of the stops of the organ and
tion both in the performer and in the hearer harpsichord, the use of the harmonics of the
than melody alone. Colemporary sounds harp and violin, the bowing nearer to or fur-

niav, from the due proportion of the times of ther from the bridge, the application of
muffles of various kinds, the
their vibrations, give a similar pleasure to change of the
that of melod3', when the mind, considering aperture of the lips in wind instruments, the
'

them in succession, finds them capable of a choice of vowels and consonants more or less
But the characteristic of adapted to the powers of the voice; and in
ready comparison.
harmony the regular, and at the same lime
is full pieces, the judicious introduction of dif-

diversified, motion of the air, which arises ferent voices and instruments, as subservient

from the combined vibrations, and which to the general effect ;

all this relates to the

appears to be well calculated

to produce the quality of sound, and whoever adequately re-
that the mind derives from the per- lishes tiie works of the great modern masters,
pleasure
In this point of view, will be fidiy competent to judge of its prac-
ception of symmetry.
a concord may be considered as a single tical importance.
sound, distinguished from a discord by a su- Be the causes what they may, natural or

perior qualiiy of tone ;

in the same manner habitual, simple or compHcated, it is certain
as the tone of the harmonica is more agree- that a very great majority of mankind
expe-
able than that of a newsman's horn, as the riences pleasure from music : this pleasure is

note of a nightingale is sweeter than that of a social pleasure, and, connected as it is with
a frog, and a smooth rich voice more pleas- sentiment and passion, it is a rational plea-

ing than a hoarse and nasal croaking.

Thus sure. The pursuit of musical excellence, if

the harshness and disagreeable quality of a properly conducted, an>ply exercises the fa-
single sound may also,
on a more nice exa- culties, at the same time that it forms a de-

niination, be sometimes found to consist in a sirable variety, when intermixed with lite-

want of harmonious proportion in those se- rary or professional employments. To call

condary notes, which generally enter into its it an amusement betrays an ignorance
onl}',

composition. This quality of sound, some- of the nature and difliculty of the
study; so
times called its tone, register, colour, or i'an- far is the science of music from
being of a
bre, might be considered as a fourth compo- light and superficial nature, that, in its wliole
nent part of music ; it depends on the law by extent, it is
scarcely less intricate or more
which the parts of the sounding body, and easily acquired than, the most profound of
the particles of the air, are governed with re- the more regul.tr occupations of the schools :

spect to the velocity of their progress and re- and even practical perfection in music re-
gress in each vibration, or in different succes- quires so much intense and laborious appli-
sive vibrations. No doubt, much
of the plea- cation, such a minute accuracy of
percep-
sure derived from music depends on it; but as tion, and so rapid an association of various
it is capable of little
diversity on the same sensitive ideas, with other ideas and mecha-
566 X.'S ESSAT ON MUSIC.

tiical motions, that it is inconceivable how the first, or more probably its fifth and fourth'

men, who have no appearance of superior as it would be easy to sing the octave with

briiliancj^inanyoUieraccompiisiimentjShould
the accompaniment of the primitive note
•be able to attain a conception and execution only. The melody might be either always in
in music, which seem almost to require the unison with one of the strings, resembling a
faculties of a superior order of beings. An very simple modem bass part; or the inter-
intemperate and dissipated attachment might be occasionally
to vals filled up by the
music may indeed often be productive of voice, without accompaniment. We have, in
evils; but probably the same individuals, modern music, a specimen of a pleasing air,

who have been its victims, would have been by liousseau, formed on three notes alone,
equally idle and irregular if they
had been the key note with its second and third bnt ;

destitute of this accomplishment. A consider- there can be little doubt that the earliest me-
able share of the pleasure of practical music lodies must have had a greater compass than
arises from causes perfectly distinct from the this; although some suppose the three strings
sensual : the consciousness of of the oldest lyre to have been successive notes
perceptions
hav.iii"' overcome difficulties, tl>e laudable of the scale. The trumpet is said to have
satisfaction of entertaining others, and the been invented about the same time : a little

interest and emulation produced by a con- experience might have taught the Egyptians
currence of others in the same pursuits; to produce from it the octaves, the 12th,
all these entirely outweigh the
temporary 17th, 23d, and other harmonics of the primi-
Amusement of and wholly remove
the ear, tivesonnd, which are related to it in the ra-
the objection, which might be made, to the tioof the integers from 1 to 9, and the same

enervating effect of a continued devotion to sounds might have been observed by a deli-
sensations. Tiie ancient [ihilo- cate ear among the secondary notes of a
pleasurable
sophers, with
the manliness and dignity
all
long chord ;
and then, by descending three
of character to which they aspired, were not octaves from the 23d, and two from the 17th,
ashamed music as an indispensa-
to consider they miglit have added to their lyre the se-
ble part of a liberal education and Plato ; cond and major third of the principal note.
devotes three of the earlier years of his young But it does not appear that this method ever
citizens entirely to the study of the lyre: nor occurred to the ancients they seem rather
:

are we without examples in modern times, of to have attended to the intervals of the notes

philosophers, and princes,

and heroes, who within the octave, than to the union of simi-

have excelled as much in musical perform- lar notes in the natural harmonics; and, be-

ances, as in literature and in arms. sides, the series of natural harmonics would
never have furnished a true fourth or sixth,
U. 01- THE ORIGIN OF THE SCALE. ll is uncertain when, or by whom, the fourth

strimr was added but the merit of increas-

The first lyre, with three strings
is said to :

have been invented in Egypt by Hermes, ing the number to seven is attributed to
the year 700 befoi'e Christ,
xmder Osiris, between the years 1800 and Tcrpander, about
1.500 before Christ. The second and third two centuries after Ff omer although some :

the octave and fifth of Ixave asserted that he only brought the
string were, perhaps, persons
 A^' ESSAY ON iiusrc. 667

improvement from Egypt, and that Hermes at once, and not in unison. Pollux, in the
was also the inventor of the l^'re with seven time of Commodus, describes, under the

strings. Pythagoras, or Simonides, about name of the Tyrrhene pipe, exactly such an
the year 500, added an eighth, and Timo- organ as is
figured by Hawkins,composed of
theus a ninth string the number was after-
: brass lubes, and blown by bellows nor does :

wards extended to two octaves ;

and Epigo- he mention it as a new discovery : it
apjiears,
nus is said so have used a lyre of forty from other authors, to have been often fur-

strings, or rather a harp, as he played with- nished with several registers of pipes; and it
out a plectrum but the theory of the an-
: is
scarcely possible that the performer, wiio
cient music soon became more intricate than is
represented by Julian as having consider-
interesting. The lyre of eight strings com- able execution, should have been contented

prehended an octave^ corresponding pretty without occasionally adding harmony' to his

accurately with the notes of our natural melody. That the voice was accompanied
scale, beginning with e : the key note was a, by thorougii bass on the lyre, is undeniably
so that tliemelody appears to have borne proved by a passage of Plato: and that the
usually a minor third, which has also been ancients had some knowledge of singing in

observed to be the case in the airs of most three puns, is evident i'rom Macrobius.
uncultivated nations ; but there was a con- Martini, who
one of die strongest oppo-
is

sideraljlc diversity in tlie manner of tuning nents of that opinion, which attributes to the

the4}'re, according to the great variety of ancients a knowledge of counterpoint, ob-

mod€8 and genera tlwit were introduced. serves, that " they allowed no concords bul

These modes were of a nature totally differ- the octave, fourth, and fifth, or at most very
ent from the modern modulations into vari- rarely the thin! yet tiiey were not without
;

oas keys, but they must have afforded a more a knowledge of concord of harmonious
paits.
copious fund of striking. If not of pleasing It is known with
certainty, that two parts,
melodies, than we have at present. In some whether vocal or instmniental, or mixed,
of the genera, intervals of about a qiiaiter besides unison, performed at the same time
tone were employed ; but this practice, on the same melody, either always in octaves
ac'countof its difficulty, was soon abandoned; or pj'obably always in fifths, or
always in
a difficulty which is not easily overcome by foiirllis which was called a
;
symphony :

the most experienced of modern singers ; al- perhaps also, they changed in the course of
though some great masters have been said to the performance from one interval to an-
introduce a progression of quarter tones, in other, add this might be done by more than
pathetic passages, with surprising effect. two parts at the same time." It is not im-
The tibia of the ancientsj as it
appears evi- probable that this statement mav be accu-
dently from I'heophrastus, although, not rate nor is it necessiiry to suppose a very
:

from the misinterpretations of his commenta- exquisite and refined skill in the intricacies
torsand of Pliny, had a reed mouth piece of composition,, to produce all the effects
about three itjches long, and therefore was that have with any probability been altri-
more properly a clarinet than a flute ;
and the . buted to music. It is well known thatllousseau
same performer generally played on two and others have maintained, that
harmony
568 AJJ ESSAY OX MUSIC.
is rather detrimental than advantageous to an III. PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE SCALES.
iDteresting melody, in which ^true music
The simplest proportions of two sounds to
consists ; and be observed, that
it
may easily
each other, next to unison, is whenr the fre-
an absolute solo, whether a
passage or a
quency of their vibrations are related as one
cadence, is
universally received, even by cul-
to two such sounds bear a
:
resem-
tivated hearers, with more attention and verystrong
ap-
blance to each other, and when named,
plause, than the richest riiodulalions of a they
are denoted by the same letter, and are
powerful harmony. only
The minor distinguished by the appellations in alt, in al-
scale being the most commonly
used by the ancients, tissimo, on the one side, and double, and
it was natural for Pope
double double, on the other. The Germans,
Gregory, who in the
year 6()0 is said to have
with great propriety, make use of small let-
marked the notes
by the Roman letters, to
ters or
capitals, with one, two, or more lines
begin with A, the key note of that scale : al-
over or under them. The note marked
though if, as there is some reason to suppose, by
the B was the tenor cliff
originally flat, A was not the key
is called ~, the octaves
above,
note, but its fifth, until the B natural was
c, c, as far as six lines, which
introdiieed, and denoted by a square b in-
is,perhaps,
the highest note used in music : the octaves
stead of a round one.
By degrees the chro-
matic scale was
below c, are c, C, C, C C
: is
probably not
filled
up, and the five added
intervals were denoted by the letter belonging-
audible, vibrating but eight times in a se-
to the note. abbve them, with the addition of
•cond.C with six lines below it, would denote
the round b, or
by the note below, with the a sound, of which the
complete vibrations
addition of four lines
crossing each other, im- should last
precisely a second. The series
plying a half note, as of fourcomposed of natural notes is this. A, B, C, D, E, F, G
commas. A simple cross would, however, at A, B, .The subjoined table will
c, d. .
b, c, d. .

present, be much more convenient, as more show the absolute frequency and the dimen-
readily distinguishable from the square b, sions of each vibration of the octaves of
c
which is used to signify a natural
note, and the length of the
in simplest organ pipe
opposition to these ffotS; and siiarps. that produces it but, according to the
:
dif-
This is the historical account of the ferent temperature of the air, and the
pitch
origin of the scale ; but, according to the of the instruments, these numbers
modern theory and practice of may vary
music, the somewhat from perfect accuracy: and it
subject may be more easily understood, by must be observed, that the usual
pitch of con-
beginning with an explanation of the major
certs, in
London, is somewhat higher than this
Bcale.
standard ; and in
Germany, perhaps a httle
lower.
 AN ESSAY ON MUSIC. 569

Sound moves in a second

5f0 AN'IfiSAT ON MOSIC.

tiiad, C, E, G ; G, B, D : or F, A, C ; nntl that they bear to C when thus considered.

the succession of these triads, in various forms, They are denominated nearly in the Ger-
is sufficient for the accompaniment of any man manner, the addition of the syllable

simple melody. A
regular melody always "is" signifying what the
English call sharp,
terminates by aa ascent or descent of one and the French dike, and that of " es," flat,
degree to the key note the last note but one;
or bcmol.
must therefore be alwa^'s B or D ami both :

Notes.
of tliese being in the triad of G, G is Called
the governing note, or the dominant of C ;

and F, being in the same manner governed by

C, is called its snbdominaut. And it is usual,
in regular compositions of any length, to
all

depart for a short time from the principal

harmony of the key note, and to modulate
into the key of the dominant, then to re-

turn, and to modulate for a still shorter time

into the subdominant, before the final close
in the tonic or key note. It is
necessary there-
fore, 'for greater variety, to complete the
scaleof the dominant, as well as that of
every other note which may be occasionally
introduced as a principal key note ; but to do
this with mathematical accuracy, in'the same

proportions as have beeti explained, would

be practically impossible, and even theoreti-

cally inconvenient hence arises the neces-

:

sity of tempering some intervals, to make the

others more tolerable, without too much in-
creasing the number of sounds. It has been
found sufficient in practice, to add five
notes to the seven which have been enume-
rated but the best proportions of these have
;

not yet been some

absolutely determined :

have made all the twelve intervals

equal :

others have left C perfect

the whole scale of :

others again have taken a middle

path, and
have introduced a slight imperfection into
this key, in order to make the neighbouring
ones the less
disagreeable. The least circuit-
ous introduction of these notes in is shown
the third table, with the
together proportion
 AV E,SSAy ON MUglC.

mary a view. But it

may be leujaikecl in tion of the performer, and tor the habits of
general, that by far tbe most common dis- the audience ;
but this no reason why time
is

cord is tiie note which constitutes the dis- might not be niitch more accurately noted,
tinction of the scale of the key from that of than by the vague terms which are usiially
its dominant ;• for instance, F with tlie triad adopted. Tt woiiirfbe easy to prefix to each
of G, which is called the accord of the flat movement a munber, signifying how many
seventh of G ;
and F, not being in the scale bars are to be performed in a minute, whicli
of G, considered, as a regular preparative
is might be ascertained by.the.help of a
at first

to the final accord of C ; in which that part stop watch, and would soon become perfectly
or instrument by which the F is. introduced, familiar both to composers and performers,

must necessarily descend to E, the third of even without this assistaitce.

According to
the key. The second, kind of discords are Quanz, the nuQiber whidh should bp substi-
suspended discords, when one or more notes tuted for Allegro assai, in common time, is

of any preceding accord are continued after about 40 ;

.for Allegretto, (20 ; for, Lurghetto,
the commencement of a different harmony 10 ;
and Adagio assai,_ 5. But it^ is usual
for

in otber parts of the composition. The third, to perform modern music much mord rapidly
which is rare, and less uni|Versally
adopted, than this ;
or at least the style of composition
consists in an anticipaiipn of a subordinate tl^iat the terms are very differ-
is so changed,

note of an accord which isj to follow, as in ently applied. An allegro, or even an alle-
the case of f;he added sixth of the French gretto, in common time, without semiquavers,
school. The fourth kind are passing discords, is often performed as fast as 60;. seldom
where a note^ forming only a melodious step sl9wer than 30.
between two others, is inserted without any jA very superficial attempt, to affix a deter-

regard to its harmonious gelations. minate meaning to the words denoting musi-
cal time, may be seen in the table .
subjoined
IV. OF THE TERMS- JiXPRBSSIVB-OF-TlMEi which, if it were more completely arid accu-

Tlie notation of music, as has been rately filled up, might be of considerable use
it,
established for more thaii two centuries, is
to young musicians ; although it will appear,
in general admirably
from inspection of this table, that composers
adapted for its
purpose:
but there have hitherto employed those terms in very
one great deficiency, which
is ;

indefinite significations. But it must be con-

might very easily be remedied, and that is,
the total omission of any character much latitude must necessarily be
fessed, that
expres-
the ear and taste of a judicious
left for
sive of the absolute duration of each note, per-
however accurately the relative value of the former, and that it is impossible for human
art, to describe on paper every delicacy of
, notes may be prescribed. It is true, some
finished execution.
little allowance must be made for the execu-
572 AN ESSAY ON MUSIC.
 V. ON THE

MECHANISM OF THE EYE.

BY
/
THOMAS YOUNG, M.D. F.R.S.

FROM THE PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS.

Read before the Royal Society, November 27, 1800.

I. XN the year 1793, I had the honour of of Mr. Ramsden, whose recent loss this So-
laying before the Royal Society some ob- ciety cannot but lament, continued the
servations, on the faculty, by which the eye inquiry which Mr. Hunter had begun ; and
accommodates itself to the perception of ob- the results of his experiments appeared very

jects at different distances*. The opinion satisfactorily to confute the hypothesis of the
which then entertained, although it had
1 muscularity of the crystalline lens J. I there-
never been placed exactly in the same light, fore thought it incumbent on me, to take the
was neither so new, nor so much forgotten, earliest opportunity of testifying my persua-
as was supposed by myself, and by most of sion of the justice of Mr. Home's conclusions,
those with whom I had any intercourse on which I accordingly mentioned in a Disser-
the subject. Mr. Hunter, who had long tation published at Gottingen in 1796 §, and
before formed a similar opinion, was still less also in an Essay presented last year to this
aware of having been anticipated in it, and Society About three months ago, I was
||.

was engaged, at the time of his death, in an induced to resume the subject, by perusing
investigation of the facts relative to it "I- ; an Dr. Porterfield's paper on the internal mo-

investigation for which, as far as physiology tions of the eye ^ ;

and
have very unex-
I

was concerned, he was undoubtedly well pectedly made some observations, which, I
qualified. Mr. Home, with the assistance think I may venture to say, appear to be

• Phil. Trans. 1793.169. § De Corporis humani Viribus conservatricibus, p. (58.

t Phil. Trans. 1794. 21. II

Phil. Trans. 1800. 148.

jPhil. Trans. 1795. 1. f Edinb. Med. Essays. IV. 13*.

 67 i ox THE MECPANISM OF THE EYE.

finally conclusive
in favour of my former III. Of all
the external senses, the eye is

opinion, as far as tiiat opinion attributed to generally supposed to be by far the best uir- •

the lens a pojver of changing its figure. At derstood ; yet so complicated and so diversi-
the same time, I must remark, thatever^^ per- fied areits
powers, that many of them have
son, who has been engaged in experiments been hitherto uninvestigated and on others, :

of this nrMne, will be siwinre of ^he extreme much, laborious rese^sirch has been spent in
delicacy and precaution requisite, both in vain. It cannot indeed be denied, that we
conducting tliem, and in drawing inferences are capable of cvplaining the use and opera-
from them ;
and will also readily allow, that tion of its different parts, in a far more satis-
no apology is necessary for the fallacies factory and interesting manner thata those of
vvhiah have misled man}' others, as well as the ear, which is the only organ that can be

myself, in the application of 'those experi- strictly com{)ared with it; since, in smell-
ments to optical and physiological determi- ing, tasting, and
feeling, the objects to be
nations. examined come, almost unprepared, into im-
II. Besides the inquiry, respecting the ac- mediate contact with the extremities of the
commodation of eye to different dis-
tlie nerves; and the only difficulty is, in conceiv-
.tanees, I shall have occasion to notice some ing the nature of the effect produced by them,
other particulars relative to its fu«ctiujis;and andof its communication to the sensorium. But
1 shall begin with a general consideration of the eye and the ear are merely preparatory
the sense of vision. I shall then describe an organs, calculated for transmitting the im-
instrument for readily ascertaining the focal pressions of light and sound, to the retina, and
dist.%>ce of the eye ; and with the assistance to the termination of the soft auditory nerve.
ef this instr«me-nt, I shall investigate the In the eye, light is conveyed to the retina,
'dimensions and refractive powers of the without any change of the nature of its pro-
human eye in its quiescent state; and the
pagation : in the ear, it is
'very probable,
form and magnitude of the picture, which is that instead of the successive motion of dif-
delineated on the retina. I shall next inquire, ferent parts of the same elastic medium, the
how great are' the changes which the eye ad- small bones transmit the vibrations of sound,
mits, and what degree of alteration in itspro- as passive hard bodies, obeying the motions
fKjrtions will be necessary for these changes, of the air nearly in their whole extent at the
on the varioussuppositions that are principal- same instant. In the eye, we judge very pre-
ly deserving of comparison. Ishall proceed of the direction of from the
•

cisely light,
to relate a variety of
exi^eriments, which ap- part of the retina on which it impinges; in
,pear to be the most proper to decide on the the ear, we have no other criterion than t^e
truth ofeach of these and toexa- '
difference of motion in the small
suppositions, slight
mine such arguments> have been brought
as bones, according the part of the tyiupa-
to'

forwards, against the opinion which 1 shall num on which the sound, concentrated by
endeavour to maintain and I shall conclude
; different reflectionsy first strikes ; hence, the
with some apatomical illustrations of the ca- idea of direction is
necessarily very indistinct;
pacity of the organs of various classes of ani- and there is no reason to suppose, tljat dif-
mals, for the functions attributed tothem. ferent parts of the auditory nerve axe ejcclu-
 ox THE JIECIIANISM OF THE EYfi. .575

sively affected by sounds in different direc- capable of receiving the impression of each
of the very great diversity of tones that we
tions. Supposing the rye capable of con-
a distinct idea of t\Vo points subtend- can distinguish, in the same manner as each
veying
which is, perhaps, sensitive point of the retina receives a dis-
ing an angle of e^ minute^

tinct impression of the colour, as well' as of

nearly the smallest interval at which two ob-
the strength, of the light which on
jects can be distinguished, although a line,
falls

subtending onl*one tenth of a minute in it ; although extremely probable, that

it is

bre&dth, may sometimes be perceived as a all the different parts of the surface, ex-

single object ;
there must, on this supposi- posed to the fluid of the vestibule, are

tion, be about 36O thousand sentient points, more or less affected by every sound, but
for a field of view of 10 degrees in diameter, in different degrees and succession, accord-
and above 60 millions for a field of 140 de- ing to the direction and quality of the vibra-

But, on account of the various sen- tion. Wl^ether or no, strictly speaking, we
grees.
the retina, to be explained here- can hear two sounds, or see two objects, in
sibility of

after, it is not necessary to suppose, that the same instant, cannot easily be determined;
there are more than 10 million sentient but it is sufficient, that we can do
both, with-

points, nor can there easily be less than one

out the intervention of any interval of time
million the optic nerve may, therefore, be
:
perceptible to the mind and indeed we could ;

judged to consist of several millions of dis- form no idea of magnitude, without a com-
tinct fibres. By a rough experiment, I find, parative, and therefore nearly cotemporary,
that can distinguish two similar sounds
I perception of two or more parts of the same
proceeding from points which subtend an object. The extent of the field of perfect vi-

angle of about five degrees. But the eye can sibn, for each position of the eye, is
certainly
discriminate, in a space subtending every way not very great ; although it will
appear here-
five about 90' thousand different after, that Its refractive powers are calcu-
degrees,
points. Of such spaces, there are more than a lated to take in a moderately distinct view of

thousand in ahemisphere so that the ear can a whole hemisphere the sense of
:
heaiing is
:

convey an impression of about a thousand equally perfect in almost every direction.

different direetions. The ear has not, how- IV. Dr. Porterfield has applied an ex-

ever, in all cases, quite so nice a discrimi- periment, first made by Scheiner*, to the de-
nation of the directions of sounds : the rea- termination of the focal distance of the
eye;

son of this difference between the eye and and has described, under the name of an op-
ear is obvious ; each point of the retina has tometer, a very excellent instrument, founded

only three principal colours to perceive, since on the principle of the phenomenon f. But
the rest are probably composed of various the apparatus capable of considerable im-
is

proportions of these but there being many

; provement and 1 shall beg leave to de-
;

thousands or millions of varieties of sound scribe an optometer, simple in its construc-

audible in each direction, it was impossible tion, and equally convenient and accurate in
that the number of distinguishable directions its
application.
should be very large. not absolutely cer-
It is •
Priestley's opt. 113.

tain, that every part of the auditory nerve is t Edinb. Med. Ess. IV. I8i.
676 ON THE JIKCHANISM OF THE EYE.

Let an obstacle be interposed between a
radiant point Plate 15. Fig. 109j) and any
(11,
refracting surface, or lens (CD), and let this
obstacle be perforated at two points (A and
B) onl3'. Let the refracted rays be inter-
The same happens when we look at any
object through two pin holes, within the li-
mits of the pupil. If the object be at the
point of perfect vision, the image on the re-
tina will be single; but, in every other case,

cepted by a plane, so as to form an image on the image being double, we shall appear to
it. Then it is evident, that when this plane see a double object and, if we look at a line
:

passes through the focus of refracted

(EF) pointed nearly to the e3'e,
it will appear as
rays, the image formed on it will be a single two lines, crossing each other in the point

point. the plane be advanced for-

But, if of perfect vision. For this purpose, the
wards (to GH), or removed backwards (to boles may be converted into slits, which ren-

IK), the small pencils, passing through the der the, images nearly as distinct, at the same

perforations, will no longer meet in a single time that they admit more light. The num-
but will fail on two distinct spots of ber may be increased from two to four, or
point,
the plane (G, ; I,
H K
:) and, in either case, more, whenever particular investigations
form a double image of the object. render it necessary.
Let us now add two more radiating points, This instrument has the advantage of show-
(S and T, Fig. 110,) the one nearer to the lens ing the focal distance correctly, by inspec-
than the first point, the other more remote ; tion only, without sliding the object back-

and, when the plane, which receives the wards and forwards, which is an operation
images, passes through the focus of rays com- liable to considerable uncertainty, especially

ing from the first point, the images of the se- as the focus of the eye may in the mean
cond and third points must both be double time be changed.

(« s, t t ;) since the plane (EF) is without the The optometer may be made of a slip of
focal distance of rays coming from the fur- card paper, or of ivory, about eight inches
thest point, and within that of rays coming in length, and one in breadth, divided lon-
from the nearest. Upon this principle. Dr. gitudinally by a black line, which must not
Porterfield's optometer was founded. be too strong. The end of the card must be

But, if the three points be supposed to be cut as is shown in Plate 9. Fig. 71, in order

joined by a line, and this line to be some- that it

may be turned up, and fixed in an in-
what inclined to the axis of the lens, each clined position by means of the shoulders or :

point of the line, except the first jKiint (K, a detached piece, nearly of this form, maybe

Fig. 1 1 have a double image; and each

1,) will applied to the optometer, as it is here engrav-
pair of images, being contiguous
to those of ed (Fig. 72.). A hole about half an inch square
the neijiibouring radiant points, will form must be made in this part ; and the sides so
with them two continued lines ;
and the cut as to receive a slider of thick paper, with

images being ntore widely separated as the slits of different sizes, from a fortieth to a

point which they represent is further fron^ tenth of an inch in breadth, divided by
the first radiant point, the lines (s t, s t,) will spaces somewhat broader so ; that each ob-

convergeon each side towards (r) the image of server may choose that which best suits the

this point, and there will intersect each other. aperture of his pupil. In order to adapt the
 ON THE MECHANISM OF IIHE ETE. 57

instrument to the use of presbyopic eyes, the will perhaps be the most proper for placing
other end must be furnished with a lens of the numbers on the scale. The optometer
four inches focal length; and a scale inpst should be applied to each eye ; and, at the
be made near the line on each side of it, di- time of observing, the opposite eye should
vided from one end into inches, and from not be shut, but the instrument should be
the other according to the table here calcu- screened from its view. The place of inter-
lated,by means of which, not only diverging, section may be accurately ascertained, by
but also parallel and converging rays from means of an index sliding along the scale.
the lens are referred to their virtual focus. The optometer is
represented in Plate 9-
If ivory be employed, its surface must be left Fig. 72 and 73 ;
and the manner in which
without any polish, otherwise the regular re- the lines appear, in Fig. 74.
flection of light will create confusion ; and in

this respect, is much Table i. For extending the scale by a lens of

paper preferable.
The instrument 4 inches focus.
easily appUcable to the
is

purpose of ascertaining the focal length of 412.00 3.06 70 3.76 -40 4.44 — 11 6.^9
S 2.22 3.11 80 3.61 -3S 4.51 — 10 6.67
spectacles required for myopic or presbyopic 2.40 3.16 100 3.85 -30 4.62 — 9.5 6.90
2.55 3.33 200 3.92 -25 4.76 —
eyes. Mr. Gary has been so good as to fur-
2.671 3.4 00 4.00 -2o!5.00 — 9 7.20
8.5
nish me with the numbers and focal lenu;lhs 3.52 —200 — 8.0 7.5s
2.77
2.88 3.64 — 100 4.08 -15^5.45
-14 5.60
S.OOi

of the glasses commonl}' made and I have 2.93 — 50 4.17

calculated the distances at which those
;

num- 3.00
3.70
3.7 — 45 4.35
4.39
-13|5.78
-I2|C.00i

bers must be placed on the scale of the opto-

Table u. For placing the numbers indicating
meter, so that a presbyopic eye may be en-
the focal length of convex
glasses.
abled to see at eight inches distance, by

using the glasses of the focal length placed Foe.

opposite to the nearest crossing of the lines ;

and a myopic eye, with parallel rays,by

using the glasses indicated by the number
that stands opposite tlieir furthest crossing.
It cannot be expected, that every person, on
the will fix precisely upon that
first trial,

power which best suits the defect of his sight.

Few can bring their eyes at pleasure to the

state of full action, or of perfect relaxation ;

and a power two or three degrees lower than

that which is thus ascertained, virill be found
sufficient for ordinary purposes. I have also
added to the second table, such numbers as
will pointout the spectacles necessary for a

presbyopic eye, to see at twelve and at

eighteen inches respectively: tli« middle series
57S ON THE MECHANISM OF THE EYE.

Ihble III. For concave slasses.

Number.
 ON THE MECHANISM OF THE EYE. 579

ject at seven inches distance. For, if I hold tance from the cornea. Now the versed sine
the plane of the optometer vertically, the of the cornea being 1 1 hundredths, and the

images of the line appear to cross at ten uvea being nearly flat, the anterior surface of
inciies; if horizontally, at seven. The dif- the lens must probably be somewhat behind
ference is
expressed hy a focal length of 23 the chord of the cornea ; but by a
very in-
inches. I have never experienced "any in- considerable distance, for l.he uvea has the
convenience from this imperfection, nor did substance of a thin membrane, and the lens
I ever discover it till I made these experi- approaches very near to it : we will there-
ments ;
and I helieve I can examine minute fore call this distance 12 hundredths. The

objects wiih as much accuracy as most of axis and proportions of the lens must be
those whose eyes are differently formed. On estimated by comparison with anatomical
mentioning it to Mr. Gary, he informed me observations ; since they affect, in a small
that he had frequently taken notice of a degree, the determination of its focal dis-
similar circumstance ; that many persons tance. M. Petit found the axis almost al-
were obliged to hold a concave glass ob- ways about two lines, or 18 hundredths of an
liquely, in order with distinctness,
to see inch. The radius of the anterior surface was
counterbalancing, by the inclination of the in the greatest number 3 lines, but oftener
glass, the too great refractive power of the eye more than less. We will suppose mine to be
in the direction of thatinclination, and 3^, or nearly -rV of an inch. The radius of
finding
but little assistance frotn common spectacles the posterior surface was most
frequently 2i
of the same focal length. The difference is lines, or 1^
of an inch*. The optical centre
not in the cornea, for it exists when the effect ^^x^° —\
will be therefore ( about one tenth
of the cornea is removed, by a method to be \30+'22 /

described hereafter. The cause without of an inch from the anterior surface : hence
is,

doubt, the obliquity of the uvea, and of the

we have 22 hundredths, for the distance of
which the centre from the cornea. Now, taking 10
-crystalline lens, is
nearly parallel to it,

with respect to the visual axis this obliquity inches as the distance of the radiant
:
point,
will appear, from the dimensions the focus of the cornea will be llo^hun-
already
diedths behind the centre of the lens. But
given, to be about 10 degrees. Without en-
tering into a very accurate calculation, the
the actual joint focus is (gi 22 ) 69 be- — =
difference observed is found to require an in- hind the centre hence, disregarding the
:

clination of about 13 degrees; and the re- thickness of the lens, its
principal focal dis-
tance is 173 hundredths. For the index of
maining three degrees may easily be added,
by the greater obliquity of the posterior sur-
its refractive power in the eye, we have
face of the crystalline opposite the pupil. 4 j4- Calculating upon power, this refractive

There would be no difficulty in fixing the with the consideration of the thickness
also,
wc find that requires a correction, and
it
glasses of spectacles, or the concave eye
of a comes near to the ratio of 14 to 13 lor the
glass telescope, in such a position as to
remedy the defect. sines. It is well known that the refractive

In order to ascertain the focal distance of powers of the humours are equal to that of
the lens, we must assign its
probable dis- * Mam. cle I'Acad. de Paris. 1730. 6. Ed. Amst.
580 ON THE MECHANISM OF THE EYE.

water; and, that the thickness of the cornea to consist of two segments of the external por-
is too equable to
produce any, effect on the tions of such a sphere, the refractive density

focal distance. at the 'centre of this lens must be as 18 to 17.

For determining the refractive power of On the whole, it is

probable that the refrac-
the crystalline lens by a direct experiment, I tive power of the centre of the human crys-
made use of a method suggested to me by talline, in its living state, is to that of water

Dr. Wollaston. I found the refractive power nearly as 18 to 17; that the water, imbibed
of the centre of the recent human crystal- after death, reduces it to the ratio of 21 to

line to that of water, as 21 to 20. The dif- 20 but that, on account of the unequable
;

ference of this ratio from the ratio of 14 to 13, density of the lens, its effect in the eye is
ascertained from calculation, is i)robably equivalent to a refraction of 14 to 13 for its

owing to two circumstances. The first is, whole size. Dr. Wollaston has ascertained,
that, the substance of the lens being in some the refraction out of air, into the centre

degree soluble in water, a portion of the of the recent crystalline of oxen and sheep,

aqueous fluid within its

capsule penetrates to be nearly as 143 to 100; into the centre of

after death, so as sdmewhat to lessen the the cr^'stalline offish, and into the dried crys-

density. When
dry, the refractive power is talline of sheep, as 152 to 100. Hence, the
little inferior to that of crown glass. The refraction of the crystalline of oxen, in water,
second circumjtance is the unequal density should be as 15 to 14: but the human cry-
of the lens. The ratio of 14 to 13 is founded on stalline, when recent, is
decidedly, less re-
the supposition of an equable density: but, the fractive.

central part being the most dense, tlie whole These considerations will explain the in-
acts as a lens of sm.iller dimensions: and it
consistency of different observations on the
may be found by calculation (M. E. 465.) refractive power of the crystalline ; and, in
that if the central portion of a sphere be sup- particular, how the refraction which I for-

posed of uniform density, refracting as 21 to me^Jy calculated, from measuring the focal
20, to the distance of one half of the radius, length of the lens*, is so much greater than
and the density of the external parts to de- that which determined by other means.
is

crease gradually, and at the surface to be- But, for direct experiments. Dr. WoUaston's
come equal to that of the surrounding me- method exceedingly accurate.
is

dium, the sphere, thus constituted, will be When look at a minute lucid point, such
I

equal in focal length to a uniform sphere of as the image of a candle in a small concave

the same size, with a refraction of 16 to 15 speculum, it

appears as a radiated star, as a
nearly. And
the effect will be nearly the cross, or as an unequal line, and never as a

same, if the central portion be supposed to perfect point, unless I apply a concave lens,
be smaller than this, but the density to be inclined at a proper angle, to correct the
somewhat greater at the surface than that of unequal refraction of my eye. If I
bring
the surrounding medium, or to vary more ra- the point very near, it
spreads into a surface

pidly externally than internally. Or, if a nearly circular, and almost equably illumi-
lens of equal mean dimensions, and nated, except some faint lines, a
equal fo- nearly la
cal length, with the crystalline, be • Phil. Trans. 1793.
supposed 174.
 OK THE MECHANISM OF THE EYE. 581

radiating direction. For this purpose, the
best object is a candle or a small speculum,
viewed through a minute lens at some
distance, or seen by reflection in a larger
lens. If any pressure has been applied to the
central part remaining always considerablj
consequence of the same flat-
brightest, in
little
tening of the vertex which before made it
faintest. Some of these figures bear a consi-
derable analogy to the images derived from

e^'e, such as that of the finger keeping it the refraction of oblique rays, and still more

shut, the sight is often confused for a short strongly resemble a combination of two of
time after the removal of the finger, and the them in opposite directions so as to leave ;
-

image is in this case spotty or curdled. The no doubt, but that both surfaces of the lens
radiating lines are probably occasioned by are oblique to the visual axis, and cooperate
some slight inequalities in the surface of the in distorting the focal point. This may also

kns, which is very superficially furrowed in be verified, by observing the image delineated
the direction of its fibres: the curdled. ap- by a common glass lens, when inclined to the

pearance will be explained hereafter. When incident rays. (Plate 12. Fig. 92. n. 28. .40.)
the point is further removed, the
image be- The visual axis being fixed in any direc-
comes evidently oval, the vertical diameter tion, I can at the same time see a luminous

being longest, and the lines a little more dis- object placed laterally at a considerable dis-
tinct than before, the being strongest
light tance from it; but in various directions the
in the neighbourhood of the centre ; but im- angle is
very different. Upwards it extends
mediately at the centre there is a darker spot, to 50 degrees, inwards to 60, downwards to
-owing to such a slight depression at the ver- 70, and outwards to QO degrees. These in-
tex as is often observable in examining the ternal limits of the field of view nearly cor-
lens after death. The situation of the rays respond wjjh the external limits formed by
is constant, though not regular; the most the different parts of the face, when the eye

conspicuous are seven or eight in number ; is directed forwards and somewhat down-
sometimes about twenty fainter ones may be wards, which is its most natural position ;

counted. point a little fur-

Removing the jflthough the internal limits are a little more
ther, the image becomes a short vertical extensive than the external : and both .are
line ; the rays that diverged horizontally be- well calculated for enabling us to perceive,

ing perfectly collected, while the vertical the most readily, such objects as are the most

rays are still

separate. In the next stage, likely to concern us. Dr. VVollaston's eye has
which is the most perfect focus, the line a larger of view, both vertically and ho-
field

spreads in the middle, and approaches nearly rizontally, but nearly in the same propor-
to a square, with projecting angles, but ip tions, except that it extends further
upwards.
marked with some darker lines towards the It is well known, that the retina advances

diagonals. The
square then flattens into a further forwards towards the internal angle

rhombus, and the rhombus into a horizontal of the eye, than towards the external angle ;
,
line unequall}' bright.At every greater dis- bi^tupwards and downwards its extent is
tance, the line lengthens, and acquires also nearly equal, and is indeed e^very way greater
breadth, by radiations shooting out from it, than the limits of the field of view, even if

but does not become a uniform surface, the allowance is made for the refraction of the
582 ON THE MECHANISxM OF THE EYE.

cornea only. The sensible portion seems to ab()uf55 degrees in every direction so that :

coincide more nearly with the painted cho- t'le field of perfe^^t vision, in succession, is
by
roid of quadrupeds but the whole extent of
: this motion extended to 1 10 d.egrees.

perfect vision is little more than 10 degrees; But the whole of the retina is of such a
or, more
strictly speaking, the iniperfection form as to receive the most perfect image, on
begins within a degree or two of the visual ever3' part of its surface, that tlie state of
axis, and at the distance of 5 or 6 degrees each refracted pencil will admit ; and the va-
becomes nearly stationar}', until, at a still
rying density of the crystalline renders that
greater distance, vision is
wholly extin- state more capable of delineatiirg such a pic-

guished. The
imperfection is partly owing ture, than any other imaginable contrivance
to the unavoidable aberration of oblique could have done. To illustrate this, I have

rays, but principally to the insensibility constructed a diagram, representing the suc-
of the retina: for, if the image of the sun cessive images of a distant object filling the

be received on a part of the retina re-

itself whole extent of view, as they would be
mote from the axis, the inipression will not formed by the successive refractions of the
be sufficieiitly strong to form a permanent different surfaces. Taking the scale of my
spectrum, although an object of very mode- own eye, I am obliged to substitute, for a
rate brightness will produce this effect when seriesof objects at any indefinitely great dis-
It has been said, that a tance, a circle of 10 inches radius; and it is
directly viewed.
faint light, like the tail of a comet, is more most convenient to consider only those mys
observable by a lateral than by a direct view. which pass through the anterior vertex of the

Supposing the fact certain, the reason pro- lens; since the actual centre of each pencil

bably is, that general masses of light and must be in the ray which passes
through the
shade -are more distinguishable when the centre of the pupil, and the short distance of

parts are somewhat confused, than when the the vertex of the lens, from this point, will
whole rendered perfectly distinct; thus I
is always tend to correct the unequal refrac-
have often obiierved the pattern of a paper os tion of oblique rays. The first curve (Plate
floor cloth to run in certain lines, when I 10. Fig. 80) is the image formed by the
viewed it without my glass ;
but these lines furthest intersection of rays refracted at the

vanished as soon as the focus was rendered cornea; the second, the image formed by
perfect. would probably have been
It in- the nearest intersection ;
the distance, be-
consistent with the economy of nature, to tween these, shows the degree of confusion
bestow a larger share of sensibility on the re- in the image and the third curve, its
;

tina. The optic nerve is at present very brightest part. Such must be the form of
large and the delicacy of the organ renders
; the image which the cornea tends to deli-

it, even at present, very susceptible of injury neate in an eye deprived of the crystalline
from slight irritation, and very liable to in- lens; nor can any external remedy properly
flammatory afiections; and, in order to make correct the imperfection of lateral vision.

the sight so perfect as it is, it was necessary The next three curves show the images
to confine that perfection within narrow li- formed after the refraction at the anterior
mits. The motion of the eye has a range of surface of the lens, distinguished in the same
 OV THE MECHANISM OF THE EYE. 583

manner; uml t'le three

following, the result and their difference was exactly one fifth of
of all the successive refractions. The tenth an inch. To this we must add a fiftieth, on
curve is a repetition of the ninth, with a account of the eccentricity of the pupil in

slight correction near the axis, at F, where, the uvea, which in the eye that I measured
from the breadth of the pupil, some perpen- was not great, and the distance of the cen-
dicular rays must fall.
By comparing this treof the nerve from the point opposite the
with the eleventh, which is the form of the pupil will be 11 hundredths. Hence it ap-
retina, it will aj)pear that notliing more is
pears, that the visual axis is five hundredths,
wanting for their perfect coincidence, than or one twentieth of an inch, further from the
a moderate diminution of density in the late- optic nerve than the point opposite the pu-
ral parts of the lens. If the law, by which pil. It is possible, that this distance be may
this density varies, were more accurately as- different in different
eyes : in mine, the obli-
certained, its effect on the image might quity of the lens, and the eccentricity of the
easily be estimated ; and probably
the image, pupil with respect to ir, will tend to throw a
thus corrected, would approach very nearly direct ray upon it, without much inclination

to the form of the twelfth .curve. of the whole eye and it is not
;
improbable,
To find the place of the entrance of the that the eye is also turned
slightly outwards,

optic nerve, I fix two candles at ten inches when looking at any object before it, although
distance, retire sixteen feet, and direct my the inclination is too small to be subjected to
or left of measurement.
eye to a point four feet to the right
the middle of the space between them It must also be observed, that
very dif-
:
.they it is

are then lost in a confused spot of light; but the proportions of the
ficult to ascertain
eye
any inclination of the eye brings one or the so exactly, as to determine, with
certainty,
other of them into the field of view. In Ber- the size of an image on the retina ; the situ-

noulli's eye, a greater deviation was required ation, curvature, and constitution of the lens,
for the direction of the axis* ;
and the ob- make so material a difference in the result,

scured part appeared to be of greater extent. that there may possibly be an error of al-

From the experiment here related, the dis-
tance of the centre of the optic nerve from
the visual axis is found to be \6 hundredths
of an inch ;
and the diameter of the most
insensible part of the retina, one thirtieth of
an inch. In order to ascertain the distance
of the optic nerve from the point opposite to
the pupil, I took the sclerotica of the human
eye, divided it into segments,
from thie centre
of the cornea towards the optic nerve, and
extendedjt on a plane. I then measured
the longest and shortest distances from the
cornea to the perforation made by the nerve,
* Cprora.
Petrop. 1,
most one tenth of the whole. In order, there-
fore, to obtain some confirmation from ex-
periment, t placed two candles at a small
distance from each othei-, turned the eye. in-
wards, and applied the ring of a key so as to
produce a spectrum, of which the edge
coincided with the inner candle; then, fixinn-
my eye on the outward one, I found that the
spectrum advanced over two sevenths of the
distance between them. Hence, the same
portion of the retina that subtended an angle
of seven parts at the centre of motion of the
eye, subtended an angle of five at the sup-
314, posed intersection of the principal rays ;
584 ON THE MECHANISM OF THE EYE,

(Plate 9. Fig. 75.) and the distance of this well ;

but it would have been
less adapted to

intersection from the retina was 637 thou- oblique pencils of rays: and the eye must
sandths. This nearly corresponds with tlie also have been encumbered with a mass of

former calculation ;
nor can the distance of much greater density than is now required,
the centre of the optic nerve from the point even for the central parts ; and, if the whole
of most perfect vision be, on any supposition, lens had been smaller, it would also liave ad-

much less than that which is here assigned. miltod too little
light. It is possible too, that
And., in the eyes of quadrupeds, the most Mr. Ramsden's observation-^-, on the advan-
strongly painted part of the choroid is further tage of having no reflecting surface, may be
from the neiVe than the real axis of the eye, well founded but it has not been demon-
:

I have endeavoured to express, in four strated, that less light is lost in passing"

figures, the form of every part of" my eye, as through a medium of variable density, than
in a sudden transition frona one
nearly as I have been able 19 ascertain it ; part of that
the first (Plate 1 1.
Fig. 81 ) is a vertical sec- medium to another although such a con-
;

tion ;
the second (.Fig. 82.) a horizontal sec- clusion may certainly be inferred, from the
tion ;
the third and fourth are front views, in only hypothesis which affords an explanation
different states of the pupil. (Fig. 83 and 84.) of the cause of a partial reflection in any

Considering how little inconvenience is case. But neither this gradation, nor any
experienced from so material an inequality in other provision, has the effect- of ren-
the refraction of the lens, as I liave described, dering the eye perfectly achromatic. Dr.
we have no reason to expect a very accurate Jurin had remarked this, long ago;}:, from
provision for correcting the aberration of the observing the colour bordering the image of
lateral rays. But, as far as can be ascer- an object seen indistinctly, Dr, W oliaston
tained by the optometer, the aberration pointed out to me, on the optometer, the red
arising from figure is completely corrected; and blue appearance of the opposite inter-
since four or more images of the same line nal angles of the crossing lines; and men-

appear to meet exuctly in the same point, tioned, at the same time, a very elegant ex-
which they would not do if the lateral ray.s periment for proving the dispersive power of
were materially more refracted than the the eye. He looks through a prism at a
rays' near the axis.
The figure of the sur- small lucid point, which of course becomes
faces is sometimes, and perhaps always, a linear spectrum. But the eye cannot so
more or less hyperbolical* or elliptical : in adapt itself as to make the whole spectrum
the interior laminae indeed, the solid angle of appear a line ; for, if the focus be adapted to
the margin is somewhat rounded off; but the collect the red rays to a point, the blue will

weaker refractive power of the external parts be too much refracted, and expand into a
must greatly tend to correct the aberration, surface ;
and the reverse will happen if the

arising from the too great curvature towards eye be adapted to the bliie rays; so that, in

the margin of the disc. Had the refractive either case, the line will be seen as a tri-

power been uniform, it might have collected angular space. The observation is confirmed,
the lateral rays of a direct pencil nearly as by placing a small concave speculum in dif-

• Mem. del'Acad. 172s. 20.

Petit. t Phil. Trans. 1795. a. J Smith, e. 90.
 OV TME MECHANISM OF THE EYE. 585

ferent parts of a prismatic spectrum; and as- greater accuracy than by the e.vperiment
certaining the utmost distances, at wliich the here related. Had the dispersive power of
eye can collect the rays of different colours the whole eye been equal to that of flint
to a focus. B}' these means I find, that the glass, the distances of perfect vision would
red rays, from a point at 12 inches distance, have varied from 12 inches to 7, for different
are as much refracted as white or yellow ra3s, in the same state of the mean refrac-

light at 11. The difference is equal to the tive powers.

refraction of a lens 132 inches in focus. But VI. The faculty of accommodating the eye
the aberration of the red rays, in a lens of to various distances appears to exist in
very
crown glass, of equal mean refractive power different degrees in different individuals. The

with the eye, would be equivalent to the ef- shortest distance of perfect vision, in
my eye,
fect of a lens 44 inches in focus. ]f, there- is 26 tenths of an inch for horizontal, and 29
fore, we can depend upon this calculation, for vertical rays.This power is equivalent to
the dispersive power of the eye, collectively, the addition of a lens of 4 inches focus. Dr.
is one third of the dispersive power of crown WoUaston can see at seven inches, and with
glass, at an equal angle of deviation. 1 can- rays slightly converging; the difference an-
not observe much aberration in the violet swering to 6 inches focal length. Mr. Aberne-
rays. This may be, in part, owing to their thy has perfect vision from 3 inches to 30, or a
faintness ;
but yet I think their aberration power equal to that of a lens 3^ mches in fo-
must be less than that of the red rays. I be- cus. A young lady of my acquaintance can
lieve it was Mr. ilamsdeii's opinion, that see at 2 inches and at 4 ;
the difference being
since the separation of coloured rays is
only equivalent to 4 inches focus a middle
:
aged
observed where there is a sudden change of lady at 3 and at 4 ; the power of accommo-
density, such a body as the lens, of a density dation being only equal to the effect of a

gradually varying, would have no effect lens of 12 inches focus. In general, I have
whatever in separating the rays of different reason to think, that the faculty diminishes,
colours. If this hypothesis should appear to in some measure, as persons advance in life;
be well founded, we should be obliged to but some also of a middle age appear to pos-
attribute the whole dispersion to the aqueous sess it in a very small degree. I shall take

humour ; and its dispersive power would be the range of my own eye, as being probably
half that of crown glass, at the same devia- about the medium, and inquire what changes
tion. But we have an instance, in the at- willbe necessary, in order to produce it ;

mos[>here, of a very gradual change of den- whether we suppose the radius of the cornea

sity
and yet Mr. Gilpin informs me, that
;
to be diminished, or the distance of the lens

the stars, when near the horizon, appear very from the retina to be increased, or these two

evidently coloured and Dr.Herschel has even

;
causes to act conjointly, or the figure of the

given us the dimensions of a spectrum thus lens itself to undergo an alteration.

formed. At a more favourable season of the 1. We have calculated, that when the

year, it would not be difficult to ascertain, by eye is in a state of relaxation, the refraction
means of the optometer, the dispersive power of the cornea is such as to collect rays di-
of the eye, and of its different parts, with verging from a point ten inches distant, to
VOL. u. 4f
 586 ON THE MECHANISM OF THE ETE,

a focus at the distance of IS^ tenths. In or- the radius of the anterior must become
der that it may bring, to the same focus, rays about 21, and that of the posterior 15 hun-
diverging from a point distant 29 tenths, we dredths.
shall find that its radius must be diminished VII. I shall now proceed to inquire, which
from 31 to 25 hundredths, or very nearly in of these changes takes place in nature ; and
the ratio of five to four. I shall begin with a relation of
experiments,
2. Supposing the change from perfect vi- made in order to ascertain the curvature of
sion at ten inches, to perfect vision at 29 the cornea in all circumstances.
tenths, to be effected by a removal of the re- The method, described in Mr. Home's
tina to a greater distance from the lens, this Croonian Lecture for 1795*, appears to be
will require an elongation of 135 thousandths, far preferable to the
apparatus of the pre-
or more than one seventh of the diameter of ceding yearf for a difference in the dis-
:

the eye. In Mr. Abernethy's eye, an elon- tance of two images, seen in the cornea,

gation of 17 hundredths, or more than one would be far greater, and more conspicuous,
sixth, is
requisite. than a change of its prominency, and far
3. If the radius of the cornea be dimi- lessliable to be disturbed
by accidental
nished one sixteenth, or to 29 hundredths, causes. and perhaps totally, im-
Ii is nearly,

the eye must at the same time be possible to change the focus of the eye, with-
elongated
97 thousandths, or about one ninth of its dia- out some motion of its axis. The eyes sym-
meter. pathize perfectly with each other ; and the
4.
Supposing the crystalline lens to change change of focus is almost inseparable from a
,
its form if it became a sphere, its diameter
; change of the relative situation of the optic
would be 28 hundredths, and, its anterior axes so much, that, in my
;
eye this sympa-
surface retaining situation, the eye would
its thy causes a slight imperfection of sight ; for,
have perfect vision at the distance of an inch if I direct both
my eyes to the same object,
and a half. This is more than double the even if it is
beyond their furthest focus, I can-
Jictiial
cliange. But impossible to deter-
it is not avoid contracting, in some
degree, iheir
mine precisely, howgreat an alteration of focal distance: now while one axis moves, it

form is necessarv, without ascertaining the isnot easy to keep the other
perfectly at rest;
nature of the curves into which its surfaces and, besides, it is not impossible, that a
may be changed. were always a sphe-
If it
change in the proportions of some
eyes may
roid, more or less oblate, the focal length of render a slight alteration of the
position of
each surface would vary the axis absolutely These consi-
inversely as the necessary.
.squareof the axis: but, if the surfaces be- derations may partly explain the trifling dif-
came, from spherical, portions of hyperbolic ference in the place of the cornea that was
conoids, or of oblong observed in 1794. It appears that the
spheroids, or changed expe-
from moie obtuse to more acute riments of 1795 were matie with considerable
figures of
this kind, the focal
length would vary more accuracy, and no doubt, with excellent in
Disregarding the elongation of struments ; and their
rapidly. failing to ascertain the
the axis, and supposing tlie curvature of existence of any change induced Mr. Home
each surface to be *-Phil. Trans.
cli;«)ged proportionally. 1798. 2. f Thil. Trans. 1795. 13.
 ON TirU MECHANISM OP THE EYE, 587
and Mr. Kainsdcn to abandon, in great the least variation in the distance of the
measure, the opinion which suggested them, images.
and to suppose, that a change of the cornea Finding a considerable difficulty in a pro-
produces only one third of the effect. Dr. per adjustment of the microscope, and being
Olbers, of Bremen, who in the year 1 780 pub- able to depend on my naked eye in measur-
lished a most elaborate dissertation on the ing distances, without an error of one 500th of
internal changes of the eye*, which he an inch, I determined to make a similar ex-

lately presented to the Royal Society, had periment without any magnifying power. I
been equally unsuccessful in his attempts to constructed a divided eye glass of two por-
measure this change of the cornea, at the tions of a lens, so small, that
they passed be-
same time that his opinion was in favour of tween two images reflected from my own
its existence. eye and, looking in a glass, I brought the
:

Room was however still left for a repeti- apparent places of the imai^es to coincide,
tion of the experiments; and I began with and then made the change requisite for view-
an apparatus nearly resembling that which ing nearer objects ; but the images still coin-
Mr. Home has described. I had an excel- cided. Neither could I observe any change
lent achromatic microscope, made by Mr. in the
images reflected fiom the other eye,
Ramsden for my friend Mr- John Ellis, of where they could be viewed with greater con-
five inches focal length, magnifying about venience, as they did not interfere with the
20 times. To adapted a cancellated
this I eye glass. But, not being at that time
micrometer, in the focus of the eye not em- aware of the perfect sympathy of my eyes,
I thought it most certain to confine my ob-
ployed in looking through the microscope ;
itwas a large card, divided by horizontal and servation to the one with which I saw. I must
vertical lines into fortieths of an inch. When remark that, by a little habit, I have acquired
the image in the microscope was compared a very ready command over the accommoda-*
with this scale, care was taken to place the tion of my eye, so as to be able to view an

head of the observer so that the relative motion object with attention, without adjusting my
of the image on the micrometer, caused by the eye to its distance.
unsteadiness of the optic axes, should always I also stretched two threads, a little in-

be in the direction of the horizontal lines,

clined to each other, across a ring, and di-

and that there could be no error from this vided them, by spots of ink, into equal spaces,
I then fixed the ring, applied
motion, in the dimensions of the image taken my eye close
vertically. I
placed two candles so as to e.v- behind.it, and placed two candles in proper
hibitimages in a vertical position in the eye situations before me, and a third on one side,

of Mr. Konig, who had the goodness to as- to illuminate the threads. Then, setting a
sist me; and, having brought them into the small looking glass, first at four inches dis-

field of the microscope, where

they occupied tance, and next at two, I looked at the
35 of the small divisions, I desired him to fix images it, and observed at what
reflected in

his eyeon objects at different distances in part of the threads they exactly reached
the same direction but I could not perceive
:
across in each case ; and with the same result
* De Oculi Miitationibus intemis, as before.
4. Gotting. 1780.
.588 ON THE MECHANISM OF THE EYE.

I next fixed the cancellated micrometer change the images reflected from the cor-
in

at a proper distance, illuminated it

strongly, nea, although the change be much smaller
and viewed through a pin hole, by which
it than that which is requisite for the accom-
means it became distinct in every state of the modation of the eye to different distances.

eye ; and, looking with the other eye into

a On the whole, I cannot hesitate to conclude,
small glass, I compared the image with the that if the radius of the cornea were dimi-

micrometer, in the manner already described. nished but one tvvencieth, the change would
I then changed the focal distance of the eye, be very readily perceptible by some of the
so that the lucid points appeared to spread experiments related ; and the whole altera-
into surfaces, from being too remote for per- tion of the eye requires one fifth.

fect vision ;
and I noted, 6n the scale, the But a much more accurate and decisive
distance of their centres ;
but that distance experiment remains. I take, out of a small

jvas invariable. botanical microscope, a double convex lens,

I drew a diagonal scale, with a of eight tenths radius and focal distance,
Lastly,
diamond, on a looking glass, (Plate 9. Fig. fixed in a socket one fifth of an inch in

76.) and brought the images into contact depth ; securing its
edges with wax, I
drop
with the lines of the scale. Tlien, since the into the socket a little water, nearly cold,

image of the eye occupies, on the surface of till three fourths and then apply it to my
full,

a glass, half its real dimensions, at whatever eye, so that the cornea enters half way
distance it is viewed, its true size is always into it, and is every where in contact with
double the measure thus obtained. I illumi- the water. (Plate 9. Fig. 77). My eye
nated the glass strongly, and made a perfo- immediately becomes presbyopic, and the
ration in a narrow slip of black card, which refractive power of the lens, which is re-
I held between the images ;
and was thus duced by the water to a focal length of
enabled to compare them with the scale, al- al)oul 16 tenths, is not sufficient to
sup-
though their apparent distance was double ply the place of the cornea, rendered in-
that of the scale. I viewed them in all states efficacious by the intervention of the water ;
of the eye ; could perceive no variation
but I but the addition of another lens, of five
in the interval between them. inches and a half focus, restores my eye to
The sufficiency of these methods may be its natural state, and somewhat more. I
thus demonstrated. a pressure alongMake then apply the optometer, and I find the
the edge of the upper eyelid with any small same inequality in the horizontal and verti-
cylinder, for instance a pencil, and the op- cal refractions as without the water ;
and I

tometer will show that ihc focus of horizontal have, both directions, a power of accom-
in

rays is a little
elongated, while that of verti- modation equivalent to a focal length of four
cal rays is shortened ; an eifeet which can inches, as before. At first
sight indeed, the
only be owing to a change of curvature in accommodation appears to be somewhat less,
the cornea. Not only the apparatus here and only able to bring the eye from the
described, but even the eye unassisted, will state fitted for parallel rays to a focus at five
be capable of discovering a considerable inches distance; and this made me once
 ON THE MECHANISM OF THE EYE. 589

imagine, that the cornea might have some ing glass, in the manner already described j
slight effect in the
natural state ; but, con- but neither of them indicated any diminution

sidering that the artificial cornea was about of the distance, when the focal length of the
of an inch before the place of the
-a tentli eye was changed.
natural cornea, I calculated the effect of this Another test, and a much more delicate
difference, and found it
exactly sufficient to one, was the application of the ring of a key
at the external angle, when the
account for the diminution of the range of eye was
vision. I cannot ascertain the distance of turned as much inwards as possible, and
the glass lens from the cornea to the hun- confined at the same time by a strong oval
dredth of an inch ; but the error cannot be iron ring, pressed against
it at the internal

much greater, and it

may be on either side. angle. The key was forced in as far as the
After this, it is almost necessary to apo- of the integuments would admit,
sensibility

logize for having stated the former experi- and was wedged, by a moderate pressure,
ments ; but, in so delicate a subject, we can- between the eye and the bone. In this situ-
not have too great a variety of concurring ation, the phantom, caused by the pressure,
evidence. extended within the field of perfect vision,
VIII. Having satisfied myself, that the and was very accurately defined ; nor did it,

cornea is not concerned in the accommoda- as I formerly imagined, by any means pre-

tion of the eye, my next object was, to in- vent a distinct perception of the objects ac-

quire if any alteration in the length of its tually seen in that direction ;
and a straight
axis could be discovered ; for this appeared line, coming within the field of this oval

to be the only possible alternative :

and, phantom, appeared somewhat inflected to-

considering that such a change must wards its centre; (Plate 9- Fig. 78.) a dis-

amount to one seventh of the diameter tortion easily understood by considering the
of the eye, I flattered myself with the ex- effect of the pressure on the form of the re-

pectation of submitting it to measurement. tina. Supposing now the distance between

Now, if the axis of the eye were elongated the key and tiic iron ring to have been, as it
one seventh, its transverse diameter must really was, invariable, the elongation of the
be diminished one fourteenth, and the semi- e3'e must have been either totally or very

diameter would be shortened a thirtieth of an nearly prevented and, instead of an increase

;

inch, of the length of the eye's axis, the oval spot,

I therefore placed two candles so that when caused by the pressure, would have spread
the eye was turned inwards, and directed to- over a space at least ten times as large as the
wards its own image in a glass, the light re- most sensible part of the retina. But no such
flected from one of the candles by the scle- circumstance took [dace the power of ac-
.

rotica appeared external margin, so

upon its commodation was as extensive as ever; and
as to define it distinctly by a bright line and : there was no perceptible change, either in
the image of the other candle was seen in the size or in the figure of the oval spot.
the centre of the cornea. I then applied the Again, since the rays which pass through
tlouble eye glass, and the scale of the look- the centre of the pupil, or rather through
590 0N THE MECHANISM OF THE EYE.

the anterior vertex of tlie lens, may be con- visiblespace. (Plate 9- V\g. 79.) But this
sidered as delineating the image ; and, since did not happen the apparent place of the
:

the divergence of these rays, with respect to obscure part was precisely the same as be-
each other, is but little affected by the refrac- fore. I will not undertake to say, that I could
tion of the lens, they may still be said to di- have observed a very minute difference either

verge from the centre of the pupil ; and the way but I am persuaded, that I should have
:

image of a given object on the retina must discovered an alteration of less than a tenth
be very considerably enlarged, by the remo- part of the whole.
val of the retina to a greater distance from It
may be inquired, if no change in the

the pupil and the lens. To ascertain the real magnitude of the image is to be expected
magnitude of the image, with accuracy, is on any other supposition aud it will ap-;

not so easy as at first sight appears ; but, be- pear be possible, that the changes of cur-
to

sides the experiment last related, which vature may be so adapted, that the magni-

might be employed as an argument to this tude of the confused image may remain per-

purpose, there are two other methods of es- fectly constant. Indeed, to calculate froin
timating it. The first is too hazardous to be the dimensions which we have hitherto used,
of much use; but, with proper precaution?, it would be
expected that the image should
it
may be attempted. I fix my eye on a brass be diminished about one fortieth, by the ut-
circle placed in the rays of the sun, and, af- most increase of the convexity of the lens.
ter some time, remove it to the cancellated But the whole depends on the situation of
micrometer ; then, changing the focus of my the refracting surfaces, and the respective in-

eye, while the micrometer remains at a crease of their curvature, which, on account

given distance, I endeavour to discover whe- of the variable density of the lens, can '

ther there any difference in the apparent

is
scarcely be estimated with sufficient accuracy.
magnitude of the spectrum on the scale ; but Had the pupil been placed before the cornea,
J can discern none. I have not insisted on the magnitude of the image must, on any
the attempt ; especially as I have not been sujiposition, have been very variable at pre- :

able to make the spectrum distinct enough sent, this inconvenience is avoided by the
without inconvenience ;
and no light is suf- situation of the pupil; so that we have here
cause a permanent impres-
ficiently strong to an additional instance of the perfection of
sion on any part of the retina remote from this admirable organ.

the visual axis. 1 therefore had recourse to P'lOin the experiments related, it
appears
another experiment. I placed two candles so to be highly improbable that any material
as exactly to answer to the extent of the ter- change in the length of the axis actually
mination of the optic iierve, and, marking takes place: and it is almost impossible to
accurately the point to which my eye was di- conceive by what power such a change could
rected, I made
the utmost change in its fo- be effected. The straight muscles, with the

adipose substance lying under them, would

cal length; expecting that, if there were
any
elongation of the axis, the external candle certainly, when acting independently of the
would appear to recede outwards upon the socket, tend to flatten the eye :
for, since

1
 ON THE MECHANISM OF THE EYE. m
their contraction would
necessarily lessen want of accommodation was not at all ac-
the circumference or superficies of the mass curately ascertiii ned . I measured, in the hu-
that they contain, and round off all its
pro- man eye, the distance of the attachment of
minences, their attachment about the nerve the inferior oblique muscle from the insertion
and the anterior part of the eye must there- of the nerve: it was one fifth of an inch ;

fore be brought nearer together. (Plate 11. and from the centre of vision, not a tenth of
Fig. 85, 86.) Dr. Olbers compares the mus- an inch ;
so that, although the oblique mus-
cles and the eye to a cone, of which the cles do, in some positions, nearly form a part
sides are protruded, and would by contrac- of a great circle round the eye, their action
tion be brought into a straight line. But this would be more fitted to flatten than to elon-
would require a force to preserve the cornea gate it. We
have therefore reason to agree
as a fixed point, at a given distance from the with VVinslow, in attributing to them the of-

origin of the muscles ;

a force which cer- fice of helping to support the eye on that side
does not exist. In the natural situa- where the bones are most deficient:
tainl}' they
tion of the visual axis, the orbit being coni- seem also well calculated to prevent its
being
cal, the eye might be somewhat lengthened, drawn too much backwards by the action of
although irregularly, by being forced further the straight muscles. And, even if there
into it but, when turned towards cither
;
were no difficulty in supposing the muscles
side, the same action would rather shorten its to elongate the eye in every
position, yet at
axis :
any thing about the human
nor is there least some small difference would be expectjed
eye that could supply its place. In quadru- in the extent of the change, when the
eye is
peds, the oblique muscles are wider than in ill different situations, at an interval of more
man ;
and
many in might situations assist in than a right angle from each other ; but the
the effect. Indeed a portion of the orbicu- optometer shows that there is none.
lar muscle of the globe is attached so near to Dr. Ilosack alleges that he was able, by
the nerve, that it
might also cooperate in the making a pressure on the eye, to accommo-
action : and I have no reason to doubt the date ita nearer object * it does not ap-
to :

accuracy of Dr. Olbers, who states, that lie pear that he made use of very accurate means
effected a considerable elongation, b}' tying for ascertaining the fact; but, if such an el-

threads to the muscles, in the eyes of hogs fect took place, the cause must have been an ,

and of calves yet he does not say in what

; inflection of the cornea.

position the axis was fixed ; and the flacci- unnecessary to dwell on the opinion
It is

dity of the eye after death might render such which supposes a joint operation, of changes
a change very easy, as would be impossible in the curvature of the cornea, and in the
in a living eye. Dr. Olbers also mentions an length of the axis. This opinion had derived
observation of Professor Wrisberg, on the eye very great respectability, from the most in-
of a man whom he believed to be destitute of genious and elegant manner in which Dr.
the power of accommodation in his life Olbers had treated it, and fro t;n
time, being the
and whom he found, after death, to have last result of the
investigations of Mr.
wanted one or more of the muscles : but this * Pliil, Trans.
1794. in.
592 ON THE MECHANISM OF THE ETE.
Home and Mr, Ramsden. But either of the six only, with the same glass. He saw the
seriesof experiments, which have been re- double lines meeting at three inches, and al-
lated, appears to be sufficient to confute it.
ways at the same point but the cornea was
;

IX. It now remains to inquire into the pre- somewhat irregularly prominent, and his vi-
tensions of the crystalline Jens to the power of sion not very distinct; nor had I, at the time

altering the focal length of the eye. The that I saw him, a convenient apparatus.
grand objection, to the efficacy of a change of I afterwards provided a small
optometer,
ligure in the lens, was derived from
the ex- with a lens of less than two inches focus, add-

periments, in which those, whohavebeen de- ing a series of letters, not in alphabetical

prived of it, have appeared to possess the fa- order, and projected into such a form as to, be

culty of accommodation. most legible at a small inclination. The ex-

My friend Mr. Ware, convinced as he was cess of themagnifying power had the advan-
of ihe neatness and accuracy of the experi- tage of making the lines more divergent, and
mems iclated. in the Croonian Lecture for tlieircrossingmore conspicuous; and theletters
179.3, yet could not still
help imagining, served fur more readily naming the distance of
iVoin the obvious advantage ail his patients the intersection, and, at the same time, for

found, after the extraction of the lens, in judging of the extent of the power of distin-

using two kinds of spectacles, that there must, guisiiing objects, too near, or too remote, for
in such cases, be a deficiency in that faculty. perfect vision. (Plate 11. Fig. 87.)
This circumstance, combined with a consi- 2. Mr.had not an eye very proper for
J.

deration of the directions very judiciously the experiment but he appeared to distin-
;

given by Dr. Porterfield, for ascertaining guish the letters at 24^ inches, and at less
the point in question, first made me wish to than an inch. This at first persuaded me,

repeat the experiments upon various indivi- that he must have a power of the changing
duals, and with the instrument which i have focal distance: but I afterwards recollected
above described, as an improvement of Dr. that he had withdrawn his eyeconsiderablv, to

Porterfield's optometer and I must here ac-

: look at the nearer letters, and had also partly

knowledge my great obligation to Mr. Ware, closed his eyelids, no doubt contracting at

for the readiness and liberality, with which he the same time the aperture of. the pupil ; an
introduced me to such of his numerous pa- action which, even in a perfect eye, always

tients, as he thought most likely to furnish a accompanies the change of focus. The
satisfactory determination.
It is
unnecessary slider was not applied.
to enumerate every particular experiment ;
3.Miss H. a young lady of about twenty,
but the universal result is, c-ontrarily to the had a veiy narrow pupil, and I had not an

expectation with which lentered on the in- opportunity of trying the small optometer;
quiry, tliat, in an eye deprived
of the crystalline but when she once saw an object double

lens, the actual focal distance is

totally un- through the slits, no exertion could make it

changeable. This will appear from a selec- appear single at the same distance. She
tion of the most decisive observations. used for distant objects a glass of 4i inches
1, Mr. R. can read at four inches and at focus; with this she could read as far off as
 O'S THE MECHANISM OF THE EYE. SB'S

12 riiclies, nnd as near as five: for nearer can by any exertion, bring the two-
she,

oljects she added another of equal focus, and images nearer together, although the exer-
could then read at 7 inches, and at 2^. tion makes them more distinct, no doubt bv
4. Hanson, a carpenter, ageil 63, iiad a contracting the
pupil. The
experiment
cataract extracted a few years since from one with the optometer was conducted, in the

eye : the pupil was clear and large, and he presence of Mr. Ware, with patience and
saw well to work with a lens of 2^- inches perseverance ; nor was any opinion given to
focus; and coi;!d read at 8 and at 5 inches, J make her report partial.
but most conveniently at 1 1. With the same Considering the difficulty of finding an
glass, the lines of tlie optometer appeared eye perfectly suitable for the experiments,
to meet at 11 inches; but he could these proofs may be deemed tolerably satis-
always
not perceive that thev crossed, the line be- factory. But, since one positive argument
ing too strong, and the intersection too distant. will counterbalance many negative ones,
The experiment was afterwards repeated provicjed that be equally grounded on fact,
it

with the small optometer he read the letters

: it becomes necessary to inquire into the com-
from 2 to 3 inches; but the intersection was petency of the evidence employed to ascer-
always at 24- inches. He now fully under- tain the power of accommodation, attributed,

stood the circumstances that were to be no- in the Croonian Lecture for 1794, to the
ticed, and saw the crossing with perfect dis- eye of Benjamin Clerk. And it
appears, that
tinctness at one time, he said it was a tenth
: the distinction long since very properlj- made
of an inch nearer ;
but! observed that he had by Dr. Jurin, between distinct vision and
removed hiseye two or three tenths from the perfect vision, will readily explain away the

glass, a circumstance which accounted for whole of that evidence.

this small difference. It is obvious that vision miiy be made dis-

5. Notwithstanding Hanson's age, I consi- tinct to any given extent, by means of an

der him as a very fair subject for the experi- aperture sufficiently small, provided, at the
ment. But a still more unexceptionable eye same time, that a sufficient quantity of light
was that of Mrs. Maberly. She is about 30, be left, while the refractive powers of the
and iiad the crystalline of both eyes extracted eye remain unchanged. And it is relnark-
a few years since, but sees best with her able, that in those experiments, when the

right. She walks without glasses and, ; comparison with the perfect eye was made,
with the assistance of a lens of about four the aperture of the imperfect eye only was

inches focus, can read and work with ease. very considerably reduced. Benjamin Clerk,
She could distinguish the letters of the with an aperture of -^\ of an inch, could read

small optometer from an inch to2f inches; with the same glass at If inch,' and at 7
but the intersection was invariably at the same inches*. With an equal aperture, I can

point, about ly tenths of an inch distant read at ly inch and at SO inches and I can :

A portion of the capsule is stretched across retain the state of perfect relaxation, and

the pupil, and causes her to see remote ob- read with the same aperture at 2|r inches,

jects double, when without her glasses nor without any real change of refractive power,.
• Phil.Trau». 1795. 0.
VOL. II,
4 o
594 ©* THE MECHANISJt OF THE EYE.

and this is as great a difference as was observ- of the slits, while the eye is relaxed, are
ed in Benjamin Clerk's eye. It is also a perfectly straight, dividing the oval either
fact of no small importance, that Sir Henry way into parallel segments: (N, 4'2, 44.)

Englefield was much astonished, as well as but, when accommodation takes place,
the
'theother observers, at the accuracy with they immediately become curved, and the
which the man's eye was adjusted to the more so the further they arc from the centre
'same distance, in the repeated trials that of the image, to which their concavity is
were made with itf. This circumstance directed. (N. 43, 45.) If the point be
alone makes it
highly probable, that its bn)ught much within the focal distance, the

perfect vision was confined within very nar- change of the eye will increase the illumina-
row limits. tion of the centre, at the expense of the mar-
Hitherto I have endeavoured to show the gin. The same appearances are equally
inconveniences attending other suppositions, observable, when the effect of the cornea is

and to remove the objections to the (-pinion removed by immersion in water ;

and the
of an internal change of the figure of the only imaginable way of accounting for the
lens. I now state two experiments,
shall diversity, is to suppose the central parts of
which, in the first place, come very near to a the lens to acquire a greater degree of curva-
mathematical demonstration of the exist- ture than the marginal parts. If the refrac-
ence of such a change, and, in the second, tion of the lens remained the same, it is ab-
explain in great measure its origin, and the solutely impossible that any change of the
manner in which it is effected. distance of the retina should produce a cur-
I have already described the appearances vature in those shadows, which, in the re-
of the imperfect image of a minute point at laxed state of the eye, are found to be in all

different distances from the eye, in a state parts straight ; and, that neither the form
of relaxation. For the present purpose, I nor the relative situation of the cornea is

Hvill only repeat, that if the point is

beyond concerned, appears from the application of
the furthest focal distance of the eye, it water already mentioned.
assumes that appearance which is generally The truth of this explanation is
fully con-
described by the name of a star, the central firmed by inspection of the
optometer. When [
part being considerably the brightest. (Plate look through four narrow slits, withoutexer-
12. Fig. 92. n. 36. .39-) But, when the focal tion, the lines always appear to meet in one
<listance of the eye is shortened, the
imperfect point: but when I make the intersection ap-
image is of course enlarged ; and, besides proach me, thetwo outer lines meet considera-
necessary consequence, the light is also
this' beyond the inner ones, and the two lines
bly
very differently distributed; the central part of the same side cross each other at a still
becomes faint, and the margin strongly illu- greater distance. (Plate 1 1.
Fig. 88.)
minated, so as to have almost the appear- The experiment will not succeed with
ance of an oval ring. (N. 41.) If I ap- every eye ;
nor can
it be
expected that such
ply the slider of the optometer, the shadows an imperfection should be universal, but
• Phil. Trans. 1795. 8. one case is sufficient to establish the
argu-
 ox THE MECHANISM OF THE EYE. 595

lent, even if no other were found. I do ing nearly as represented in Fig. 89. Should,
not however doubt, that in those who have a however, the rigidity of the internal and
large pupil, and great power of changing more refractive parts, or any other consider-
the focus, the iiherration may 1)6 very fre- ations, render it convenient to .suppose the
quently observable. In Dr. Wullaston's eye, anterior surface more changed, it would still
the diversity of appearance is im[)erceptible ; have room, without interfering with the
but Mr, Konifi: described the intersections uvea or it might even force the uvea a little
;

exactly as they appear to me, altliough he forwards, without any visible alteration of
had received no hint of what I had observed. the external appearance of the eye.
The the most easily ascer-
lateral refraction is
Why, and in what cases, such an imperfec-
tained, by substituting for the slits a taper- tion must exist in the lateral refraction, is

ing piece of card, so as to cover all the cen- easily understood, from the marginal attach-
tral partsof the pupil, and thus determining ment of the lens to its capsule. For,if the cur-
the nearest crossing of tlie sliadovvs trans- vature at the axis be increased in any consi-
mitted through the
marginal parts only. derable degree, it cannot be continued far to-
When the furthest intersection was at S8, I wards the margin, without lessening the dia-
could bring it to 22 parts with two narrow meter of the lens, and tearing the ramifications
slits; butwiih the tapered card only to 29. which enter it from the
ciliary processes. Nor
From these data we may determine pretty does there appear to be any other reason

nearl}', into wluit

form ihc lens must be for the very observable contraction of the

changed, supposing both the surfaces to un- pupil, which always accompanies the effort
dergo propor(ional alterations of curvature, to view near objects, than that by this
and taking for granted the dimensions al- means the lateral rays are excluded, and
ready laid down :
for, from the lateral aber- the indistinctness is
prevented, which would
ration thus given, we may find the subtan- have arisen from the insuflSciency of their re-

gents at about one tenth of an inch from the fraction.

axis; and the radius of curvature, at each ver- From this investigation of the change of
tex, already determined to be about 21
is the figure of the lens, it
appears that the ac-
and 15 hundredths of an inch. Hence, the tion, which I
formerly attributed to the exter-
anterior surface must be a portion of a hy- nal coats, cannot afford an explanation of

perboloid,
of which the greater axis is al out the phenomenon. The necessary effect of
50; and the posterior surface will be nearly such an action would be, to produce a fi2;ine

parabolical.
In this manner, the change approaching to that of an oblate spheroid ;
will be eflected, without any diminution of and, to say nothing of the inconvenience at-
the transverse diameter of the lens. The tending a diminution of the diameter of the
elongation of its axis will not exceed the lens, tlie lateral refraction would be much more
fiftieth of an inch and, on the supposition
; increiised than the central; nor would the
with whieii we set out, the protrusion will
slight change of density, at an equal distance
be chiefly at the posterior vertex. The form from the axis, be at all equivalent to the in-
of the lens, thus changed, will be nea:iy that crease of curvature : we must therefore sup-
of Platen. Fig. 90; the relaxed state be- pose some different mode of action in the
596 OV THE MECHANISM OF THE EVK.

power producing the change. Now, whether come thicker at each vertex, and to form the
we call the lens a muscle or not, it seems de- whole lens into a spheroid somewhat oblong ;
monstrable, that such change of figure
a and here, the lens being the only agent in
takes place as can be produced by no exter- refraction, a less alteration than in other ani-
nal cause ; and we may at least illustrate it mals would be sufficient. It is also worthy of

by a comparison with the usualj_ action of inquiry, whether the state of contraction may
muscular fibres. A mnscle never contracts, not immediately add to the refractive pov/er.
without at the same time swelling lateraih', According to the old experiment, by which
and it is of no
consequence whicli of the ef- Dr. Goddard attempted to show that muscles
•

fects we consider as primary. I was induced, become more dense as they contract, such an
an occasional opacit}', to give the name
b^' eflcctmight naturally be expected. That ex-
of membranous tendons to the radiations periment is, however, very indecisive, and the
from the centre of the lens; but on a more opinion is indeed
generally exploded, but
accurate examination, nothing really analo- perhaps too hastily ; and whoever shall ascer-
gous to tendon can be discovered. And, if tain the existence or nonexistence of such a
it were
supposed that the parts next the axis condensation, will render essential service to
were throughout of a tendinous, and there- physiology in general. Some interesting ex-
fore unchangeable nature, the contraction periments, on this subject, have been pro-
must be principally effected by the lateral mised to the public by a very ingenious phy-
parts of the fibres so that the coats would who has probably employed a more
;
siologist,
become thicker towards the margin, by their decisive method of investigation in his re-
contraction, while the general alteration of searches. Swammerdam professes to have
form would require them to be thinner; and found such a condensation in the contrac-
there would be a contrariety in the actions of muscle; but it is obvious, that what
tion of a

the various parts. But, if we compare the he has attributed to the heart properly be-
central parts of each surface to the belly of longed only to the air which it contained,
the muscle, it is easy to conceive their thick- and one of his experiments, which was free
ness to be immediately increased, and to from source of fallacy, does not ap-
this

produce an immediate elongation of the axis pear to have shown any satisfactory result,
and an increase of the central curvature .

although conducted with some accuracy, by

while the lateral parts cooperate more or less inclosing a muscle in a bottle filled with
according to their distance from the centre, water, communicating with a narrow open
and in different individuals in somewhat dif- tube *.
ferent proportions. On this supposition, we Dr. Pemberton, in the year 1719, first
sys-
have no longer any difficulty in attributing a
tematically discussed the opinion of the mus-
to the crystalline of fishes. He refer-
power of change cularity of the crystalline lens f .
M. Petit, in a great number of observations, red to Leeuwenhoek's microscopical obser-

uniformly found the lens of fishes more or vations ; but he so overwhelmed his subject
less flattened but, even if it were not, a
:
* Book of Nature, II. 126, 157.
slight extension
of the lateral part of the super-
t De f acultate Oculi qua ad diversas rerum distantiai
ficial fibres would allow those softer coats to be- K accommodat. L. B, 1719. Ap. Hall.Disp. Anat. IV. 30i.
 ON THE MECHANISM OF THE EYE. 597

with intricate calculations, that few have periment which he had suggested, for ascer-
attempted to develope it: he groundeil the taining how far such a contraction might be
whole on an experiment borrowed from Bar- observable. My apparatus (Plate 11. ^Fig.
row, which, with me, has totally failed ; and 91.) was executed by Mr. Jones. It con-
I cannot but agree with Dr. Olbers in the of a wooden vessel, blackened within,
sisted

remaris, that it is easier to confute him than which was to be filled with cool, and then
. to understand him. He argued for a partial with warmer water: a plane speculum was

change of the figure of the lens; and per- placed under it ; a perforation in tlie bottom
haps the opinion was more just than the rea- was with a plate of glass; proper rings
filled

«ons adduced for its

support. Lobe, or ra- were fixed for the reception of the lens, or
ther Albinus *, decidedly favours a similar of the whole eye, and also wires for trans-

theory ; and suggests the analogy of the mitting electricity above these, a piece of
:

lens to the muscular parts of pellucid ani- ground and painted gla.ss,
for receiving the

mals, in which he says that even tlie best image, vvas supporlect
by which
a bracket,

microscopes can discover no fibres. Cam- was moved by a pinion, in connexion witii
per also mentions the hypothesis with consi- a scale divided into fiftieths of an inch. With
derable approbation •]. Professor Reil pub- this apparatus I made some experiments,

lished, in 1793, a Dissertation on the Struc- assisted by Mr. Wilkinson, whose residence
ture of the Lens
and, in a subsequent pa-
;
was near a slaughter house but we could ob- :

per, annexed to the translation of my for- tain, by this method, no satisfactory evi--

mer Essay in Professor Gren's Journal J, he dence of the change nor was our expecta-
;

discussed the question of its

muscularity. I tion much understand also,
disappointed. I

regret that I have not now an 0[)portunity of that another gentleman, a member of this

referring to this publication but I do not ; Society, was equally unsuccessful, in at-

recollect, ihat Professor lleil's objections are tempting to produce a conspicuous change
different from those which 1 have already no- in the lens by electricity.
ticed. X. In man, and in the most common qua-
Considering the sympathy of the crystal- drupeds, the structure of the lens nearly si-
is

line lens with the uvea, and the delicate na- milar. '1 he number of radiations is of little
ture of the change of its
figure, there is lit- consequence ; but I find that, sometimes at
tle reason to expect, that any artificial sti- least, in the human crystalline, there are
mulus would'be more successful in
exciting ten on each Fig. 93.) not
side, (Plate 12.
a contractive action in the lens, than it has three, as I once, perhaps from a too hasty
hitherto been in the uvea ;
much less would observation, concluded *. Those who find
that contraction be visible without art. Soon any difficulty, in discovering the fibres, must
after Mr. Hunter's death, I pursued the e.x- have a sight very ill adapted to microscopi-
cal researches. I have laboured with the
• De quibusdam Oculi Partibus, L. B. 1746. Ap. Hall.

Disp. Anat. IV. 301.

most obstinate perseverance to trace nerves
f De Oculo Huraano, L. B. ] 74a. Ap. Hall. Disp. Anat. into the lens, and 1 have sometimes iraa-
VH. ii. 108, 109.
• De Hum. Vir. Cons. 08.
J 1794. 35a, 354. Corp.
598 ON THE MECHANISM OF THE EVE.

had succeeded but I cannot scarcely an

argument against their existence:
gined, that I ;

positively go
further than to state my full they must naturally ba delicate and trans-
conviction of tlicir existence, and of the pre- parent and we have an instance, in the
;

cipitancy of those who have absolutely de- cornea, of considerable sensibility, where
nied it. nerves, which are very
Tbe long no nerve has yet been traced.
capsule The
conspicuous between the choroid
and sclero- adheres to the ciliary substance, and the lens
tic coats, divide each into two, three, or to the capsule, principally in two or three

more branches, at the spot where tbe ciliary points ; but, I confess, I have not been able
xone begins, and seem indeed to furnish the to observe that these points are exactly op-
choroid with some fine filaments at the same posite to the trunks of nerves ; so that, pro-

place. The branches often reunite, willi a bably, the adhesion is chiefly caused by those
slight protuberance, that scarcely
deserves vessels which are sometimes seen passing to

the name of a ganglion : here they are tied the capsule in injected eyes. ma3', how- We
down, and mixed with the hard whitish ever, discover ramifications from some of
brown membrane, that covers the compact these poiutb', upon and within the substance
of the of the lens, (Plate 1?. Pig. 95.) generally
spongy substance, in which the vessels
ciliary processes
anastomose and subdivide. following a direction near to that of the
(Plate 12. Fig. 94.) The quantity
of the fibres, and sometimes proceeding i'iom a
nerves, which proceeds to the iris, appears to point opposite to one of the radiating lines of
he considerably smaller than thai which ar- the same surface. But the principal vessels
rives at the place of division; hence there of the lens appear to be derived from the
can be doubt, that the division is cal-
little central artery, by two or three blanches at

culated to supply the lens with some minute some little distance from the posterior ver-

branches ;
and it is not improbable, from the tex ;
which I conceive to be the cause of the

appearance of the parts, that

some fibres may frequent adhesion of a portion of a cataract
pass to the cornea; although
it
might more to the capsule, about this point
they fol- :

naturally be expected, that the tunica con- low nearly the course of the radiiiiions, and

jmictiva would be supplied from then of the fibres but there often a
v\ iihout. ;
is
s-ujier-

But the subdivisions, which probably pass to ficial subdivision of one of the radii, at the

the lens, enter immediately into a mixture of spot where one of them enters. The vessels

ligamentous substance, and of a tough coming from the choroid appear principally
brownish membrane ;
and I have not hither- to supply a substance, hitherto unobserved,
tobeen able to develope them. Perhaps ani- which fills
up the marginal part of the cap-
mals may be found, in which this substance sule of the crystalline, in the form of a thin
is of a different nature ;
and I do not despair zone, and makes a slight elevation, visible
that, with the assistance of injections, for even through the capsule. (Fig. 96. 98.) .

more readily distinguishing the blood vessels, It consists of coarser fibres than the lens, but
and of an acid for whitening the nerves, in a direction nearly similar ; they are often
it may still be possible to trace them in qua- intermixed with small globules. In some

drupeds. Our inability to discover them is animals, the margin of the zone is crenated.
 ON THE MECHANISM OF THE EYE. 599

esj)eciiUIy behind, vvliere it is shorter: this 13. Fig. 100.) In quadrupeds, the fibres at
is observable in the partridge ; and, in the their angular meeting are certainly not con-
same bird, the whole surface of the lens is tinued, as Leeuwenhoek imagined, across
seen to be covered with points, or rather the line of division: yet there does not ap-

globules, arranged in
regular lines, (Plate pear to be any dissimilar substance inter-
13. Fig. 99.) so as to have somewhat the ap- posed between them, except that very minute
trunks of vessels often mark that line.
pearance of a honeycomb, but towards the But,
vertex k^ss uniformly disposed. This regu- since the whole mass of the lens, as far as

larity is
a sufficient proof that there could he it moveable, is probably endued with a
is

no optical deception in the appearance ;

al- power of changing its figure, there is no
though it
requires a good microscope to dis- need of any strength of union, or place of
cover it distinctly ; but the zone may be attachment, for the fibres, as the motion
easily peeled off under water, and hardened can meet with little or no resistance. Every
in spirits. Its use is uncertain but it may : common muscle, as soon as its contraction

possibly secrete the liquid of the crystalline; ceases, returns to its natural form, even
and it as much deserves the name of a gland, without the assistance of an antagonist; and
as the greater part of the substances usually the lens itself, when taken out of the eye,
so denominated. In peeling it off, I have in its
capsule, has elasticity enough to re-
very distinctly observed ramifications, which assume its
proper figure, on the removal of
were passing through it into the lens (Plate ;
a force that has compressed it. The capsule
12. Fig. 97.) and indeed, it is not at all dif- is
highly elastic ; and, since it is
laterally
ficult detect the vessels connecting the
to fixed to the ciliary zone, it must cooperate
margin of the lens with its capsule; and it in restoring the lens to its flattest foi'm. If
is
surprising that M. Petit should have it be
inquired, why the lens is not
capable of
doubled of their existence. I have not yet becoming less convex, as well as more so,

clearly discerned this crystalline gland in the it

maybe answered, that the lateral parts
hunvan eye ;
but I infer the existence of have probably little contractive power; and
something similar to the globules, from tlie if they had more, they would have no room
spotted appearance of the image of a lucid to increase the size of the disc, which they

point already mentioHed; for which I can no must do, in order to shorten the axis ; and
otherwise account, than by attributing it to the parts about the axis have no fibres so

aderangement of these particles, produced by arranged as to shorten it by their own con-

the external force, -and to an unequal impres- traction.
sion made by them on the surface of the lens. I consider myself as being partly repaid
In birds and in fishes, the fibres of the for the labour lost in search of the neives

crystalline radiate equally, becoming finer of the lens, by having acquired a more ac-
as they approach the vertex, till
they are curate conception ofllie nature and situation
lost in a uniform substance, of tiie same de- of the ciliary substance. It had alrea<ly been
gree of firmness, which appears to be perfo- observed, that in the hare and in the wolf,
lated in the centre by a blood vessel. (Plate the ciliary processes are not attaclied to the

3
 600 ON THE MECHANISM OF THE EYE.

capsule of the lens; and if by the ciliary concileable w ith muscularity ; and their be-

processes we understand those fihmients which ing considered as muscles attached to the
are seen detached after tearing away tlie capsule, is therefore
doubly inadmissible.
capsule, and consist of ramifying vessels, the Their lateral union with the capsule com-
observation is equally true of the common qua- mences at the base of their posterior smooth

drupeds, and even of the human eye*. This surface, and is continued ueariy to the point
remark has indeed been made by Leroi, Aibi- where they are more intimately united with the
nus, and others, but the circumstance is not termination of the uvea; so that, however this

generally understood. It is so difficult to ob- portion of the base of the processes were flis-

tain a distinct view of these bodies, undis- posed to contract, it would be much loo short
turbed, that I am partly indebted to acci-
toproduce any sensii>le effect. What tiuir use
dent, for having been undeceived respecting maj' be, cannot easily be determined if it :

them but, having once made the observa-

: were necessary to have any peculiar organs
tion, I have learnt to show it in an un- for secretion, we might call them glands,
questionable manner. I remove the posterior
for the percolation of the aqueous humour;
hemisphere of the sclerotica, or somewhat but there is no reason to think them re-
more, and also as much as possible of the quisite for this purpose.
vitreous humour, introduce the point of a The marsupium nigrum of birds, and the
pair of scissors into the capsule, turn out the horseshoe like appearance of the choroid of
lens, and cut off the greater part of the pos- fishes, are two substances which have some-

terior portion of the capsule, and of the rest limes, with equal injustice, been termed mus-
of the vitreous humour. I next dissect the cular. All the apparent fibres of the marsu-
choroid- and uvea from the sclerotica; and, pium nigrum are, as Haller had very truly as-
dividing the anterior part of the capsule into serted,merely duplicatures of a membrane,
segments from its centre, I turn them back which,when its ends are cut off, may easily be
upon the ciliary zone. The ciliary processes
unfolded under the microscope, with the as-
then appear, covered with their pigment, and sistance of a fine hair pencil, so as to leave

perfectly distinct both from the capsule and no longer any suspicion of a muscular texture.
from the uvea; (Plate 13. Fig. 101.) and The experiment related by Mr. Home*, can
the surface of the capsule is seeij. shining, scarcely be deemed a very strong argument
"ind evidently natural, close to the base of for attribuiing to this substance a faculty
these substances. I do not deny that the which its appearance so little authorises us to

separation between the uvea and the pro- expect in it. The red substance, in the cho-

cesses, extends somewhat further back than roid of fishes, (Plate 13. Fig. 102.) is more
the separation between the processes and the capable of deceiving the observer ;
its colour

capsule ; but the difference is inconsiderable, gives it some little pretension, and I began
and, in the calf, does not amount to above to examine with a prepossession in favour
it

half the length of the detached part. The of its muscular nature. But, when we recol-
appearance of the processes is wholly irre- lect the general colour of the muscles of

• Vid. Hall, • Phil.TraiM. ireS. is.

Phyfiol. V. 433. It Duvemey, ibi citat
 ON THE MECHANISM OF THE EYE. 601

fishesjthc consideration of its redness will no supported by any strength in the orbit,
longer have any weight. Stripped of the against the various accidents to wliich the

membrane which loosely covers its internal mode of life and rapid motion of those ani-
surface, (Fig- 103.) it seems to have trans- mals must expose and they are much less
it ;

verse divisions, somewhat resembling those of liable to fracture than an entire bony ring

muscles, and to terminate in a manner some- of the same thickness would have been. The
what simihir; (Fig. 104.)but, when viewed in marsupium nigrum appears to be intended to
a microscope, tlie transverse divisions ap- assist in
giving strength to the eye, to prevent
and the whole mass is evi- an J' change in the place of the lens, by exter-
pear to be craciis,
of a uniform texture, without the nal force : so situated as to intercept but
it is
dently
least fibrous appearance and; if a particle : little
light, and that little is principally what
of any kind of muscle is compared with it, would have fallen on the insertion of the
the contrast becomes very striking. Besides optic nerve: and it seems to be too firmly
tied to the lens, even to admit
it is fixed down, throughout its extent, to any consider-
the posterior lamina of the choroid, and has able elongation of the axis of the.
eye, al-
no attachment capable of directing its cflcct; though it
certainly would not impede a pro-
to say nothing of the diflSculty of conceiving trusion of the cornea.There is a singular ob-
what that effect would be. Its use must servation of Poupart, respecting the eyes of

remain, in common with that of many other insects, which requires to be mentioned here.

parts of the animal frame, entirely' concealed He remarks, that the eye of the libellula is

from our curiosity. hollow; that it communicates with an air

of the eyes of birds, which

The bony scales vesselplaced longitudinally in the trunk of
were long ago described in the Memoirs of the body; and that it is capable of being in-

the Academy, by Mery *, in the Philosophi- flated from this cavity : he supposes that
cal Transactions, by Mr. Ranby fj -Tid by the insect is
provided with this apparatus,
Mr. Warren ;|:, afterwards in two excellent in order i'or the accommodation of its eye

Memoirs of M. on the eye of the tm-

Petit to the ])erception of objects at different dis-

key and of the owl ^, and lately by Profes-

tances*. no difficulty in supposing
There is

sor Blumenbach Mr. Pierce Smith ^, and

||,
that the means of producing the change of
Mr. Home
**, can, on any supfiosition, have the refractive powers of the eye, may be, in
butlittle concern in the accommodation of the different classes of animals, as diversified as

to different distances they rather seem their habits, and the general conformation
eye :

of their organs. But an examination of the

to be necessary for the protection of that
~

organ, large and prominent as it is, and un- eyes of libellulae, wasps, and lobsters, in-
duces me
not only to reject the suggestion of
«n. 15. but to agree with those naturalists,
Poupart,
t Phil. Trans. XXXIII. 223. Abr. VII. 435.
who have called in question the. pretensions
: Ptiil. Trans. XXXIV. 113. Abr. VII. 43?.
of these organs to the name usually a[)plied
§ Mem. de Acad. 1735.
1' 163. 1730. 166. Ed. Amst.

II
Comm. Gott. VII. 62. to them. Cuvicr has given a very fair state-
^ Phil. Trans. 1795. 263.
• rhil. Trans. XXII. 673.
•• Phil. Trans. 1786. 14.
.\br. II. 762.

VOL. II. 4H
6"02 ox THE MECHANISM OF THE EYE.

ment of the case, in his valuable work on com- to a retina, and there can be no formation
parative anatom3' and bis descriptions, as of such an image, as is depicted in the
;
eyes
well as those of Svvamnierdam, agree in ge- of all other animals, not
excepting even the
neral with what I have observed. We are vermes: nor does there appear to be room to

prejudiced in favour of their being eyes, by allow with Bidloo that there is a perforation,
their situation and general apjjearance. The admitting light, under the centre of each
copious supply of nerves seems to prove, at hexagon. If they are eyes, their manner of
least, that they must be organs of sense. In perceiving light must rather resemble the
the hermit crab, Swamiiierdam says, that sense of hearing than that of
seeing, and they
their nerves even decussate, but this is not must convey but an iinperfect idea of the
the case in the crawfish. The external form of objects. And it
maybe remarked
coat is
always transparent; its divisions are that beetles, which have no other eyes, fly
usuallymore or less leniiculur. Many insects much by night, and are proverbially dull-
have no other organs at all resembling eyes; sighted. The stemniata, which are usually 3,
and wImju these eyes have been covered, the 6, 8, or 12 in number, have much more in-
insects appear to have been either wholly disputably the appearance of eyes. In the
or partially blinded*. Hut, on the other wasp, they consist externally of a thick
hand, nnany insects are without tliese eyes, double convex lens,
firmly fixed in the shell,
and of tiiose who have them, many have perfectly transparent, an<l externally very
others also, more unquestionably fitted for hard, but internally softer; behind this ap-
vision. The neighbouring parts of the hard pears to be a vitreous hutnour, and probably
skin or shell are often equallv tr;inspa- behind that, there is a retina. Here we
rent with these, when the crust lining them must consider the crystalline lens as united
is removed. In the apis longicornis, the an- to the cornea, without
any uvea or aqueous
tennae, as Mr. Kirby first iiifornved me, have humour. In the reticulated there is
eyes,
somewhat of the same reticulated appearance nothing resembling a. crystalline lens. The
but not enough for the foundation of stemmata have never any motion, but
any they
argument respecting its use. This reticu- are capable of
comprehending, conjointly, a
lated coat is always
completely lined by an very extensive field of view and it is possi-
;

obscure and opaque mucus, which ble that the of the lens
appears j)osterior part may
perfectly unfit for the transmission of light ;
have a power of changing its
convexity for
nor there any thing like a
transparent hu-
is the perception of objects at different dis-
mour in the whole structure: and the con- tances.
vexity of the lenticular portions is bv no XI. shall now
finally recapitulate the
I

means sufticiently great, to bring the rays of principal objects and results of the investiga-
light to a very near focus; indeed, in lobsters, tion, which I have taken the liberty of detail-
the cxteruid surface is and
perfectly equable, ing so fully
to the Royal Society. First, the
tlic internal surface is divided into det'ermitvuiooof tiie refractive power of a va-
only
squares by a cancellated texture adhering to riable medium, (M.E. 465.)and itsapplication
iU There is
nothing in
any way analogous to the constitution of the
crystalline lens. Se-
• Hooke Microgr. ijg. condly, the construction of ao instrument for
 ON THE MECHANISM OF THE EYE. 603

ascertaining,upon inspection, the exact focal
distance of every eye, and the remedy for
its
imperfections. Thirdly, to show the ac-
curate adjustment of every part of the eye,
for seeing with Tjistinctness the greatest pos-
sible extent of objects at the same instant.
on persons deprived of the lens ; to pursue the
inquiry, on the principles suggested by Dr.
Porterfield ;
and to confirm his opinion of
the utter inability of such persons to change
the refractive state of the organ. Eighthly,
to deduce, from the aberration of the lateral

Fourthly, to measure the collective disf)ersion a decisive argument in favour of a

of coloured rays in the eye. Fifthly, by
immerging the eye in water, to demonstrate
that its accommodation does not depend on
ra_ys,
change in the figure of the crystalline; to
from the quantity of this aberration,
ascertain,
the form into wliich the lens appears to be

any change in the curvature of the cornea. thrown in my oWn eye, and the mode by
Sixthly, by confining the eye at the extre- which the change must be produced in that

mities of its axis, to prove that no material of every other person. And I flatter myself,
alteration of length can take place. Se-
its that I shall not be deemed too precipitate,

venthly, to examine what inference can be in denominating this series of experiments-

drawn from the experiments hitherto made satisfactorily demonstrative.
604 ON THE MECHANISM OF THE EVf..

EXPLANATION OF THE FIGURES.

Plate 9. Fig. 71. The form of the ends of the optometer, when made of card. The

Apertures in the shoulders are for holding a lens the square ends turn under, and are
:

fastened together.

Fig. 72. The scale of the optometer. The middle line is divided, from the lower end, into
inches. The right hand column shows the number of a concave lens requisite for a short
sighted eye; by looking through the slider, and observing the number opposite to which the in-
tersection appears when most remote. At the other end, the middle line is graduated for ex-

tending the scale of inches, by means of a lens four inches in focus the negative numbers :

implying that such rays, as proceed from them, are made to converge towards a point on the
other side of the lens. The other column shows the focal length of convex glasses, re-

quired by those eyes, to which the intersection appears, when nearest, opposite to the respec-
tive places of their numbers.

Fig. 73. A side view of the optometer, half its size.

Fig. 74. The appearance of the lines through the slider.

Fig. 75. Method of measuring the magnitude of an image on the retina.

Fig. 76. Diagonal

scale drawn on a looking glass.

Fig. 77. The method of applying a lens with water to the cornea.
Fig. 78. The appearance of a spectrum occasioned by pressure; and the inflection of

straight lines seen

within the limits of the spectrum.

Fig. 79- -An illustration of the enlargement of the image, which would be the conse-
quence of an elongation of the eye: the images of the candles, which, in one instance, fall
on the insertion of the nerve, falling, in the other instance, beyond it.
Plate 10. Fig. 80. The successive forms of the image of a large distant
object, as it
would be delilieated by each refractive surface in the eye ; to show how that form at last

coincides with the retina. £G is the distance between the foci of horizontal and vertical

rays in my eye.
Plate H. Fig. 81. Vertical section of my right eye, seen from without; twice the
natural size.

Fig. 82. Horizontal section, seen from above.

Fig. 83. Front view of my left eye, when the pupil is contracted ;
of the natural size.

Fig. 84. 'J he same view when the pupil is dilated.

Fig. 8.5. Outline of the eye and its

straight muscles when at rest.
 ON THE MECHANISM OF THE EYE, 606

Fig. 86. Change of which would be the consequence of the action of those
figure,
muscles upon tlie eye, and upon the adipose substance behind it.
Fig. 87. Scale of the small optometer.
Fig. 88. Appearance of four images of a line seen by my eye when its focus is shortest.
Fig. 89- Outline of the lens, when relaxed from a comparison of M. Petit's measures with
;

the phenomena of my own eye, and on the supposition that it is found in a relaxed state
after death.

Fig. 90. Outline of the lens sufficiently changed to produce the shortest focal distance.

Fig. 91. Apparatus for ascertaining the fooal length of the lens in water.
Plate 12. Fig. 92. n. 28. Various forms of the image depicted by a cylindrical pencil of
rays obliquely refracted by a spherical surface, when received on planes at distances pro-

gressively greater.
Fig. 92. n. 29. Image of a minute lucid object held very near to my eye.
Fig. 92. n.30. The same appearance when the eye lias been rubbed.

Fig. 92. n. 31...37- Different forms of the image of a lucid point at greater and greater
distances ; the most perfect focus being like n. ,'J3, but much smaller.

Fig. 92. n. 38. Image of a very remote point seen by my right eye.
Fig. 92. n. 39. Image of a remote point seen by my left eye being more obtuse ;
at one
end, probably from a less obliquity of the posterior surface of the crystalline lens.
Fig. 92. n. 40. Combination of two figures similar to the filth variety of n. 28; to
imitate n.38.

Fig. 92. n. 41. Appearance of a distaiil lucid point, when the eye is
adapted to a very
near object.

Fig. 92. n. 42, 44. Shadow of parallel wires in the image of a distant point, when the
eye is relaxed.

Fig. 92. n. 43, 45. The same shadows rendered curved by a change in the figure of the

crystalline lens.

Fig. 93. The order of the fibres of the hum^n crystalline.

Fig. 94. The division of the nerves at the ciiiary zone ; the scleiotica being removed.
One of the nerves of the uvea is seen passing forwards and subdividiiig. From the calf.
Fig. 95. Ramifications from the margin of the crystalline
lens.

Fig. 9(5. The zone of the crystalline faintly seen through the capsule.

Fig. 97. The zone raised from its situation, with the ramifications passing through- it into
the lens.

Fig. 98. The zone of the crystalline detached.

Plate 13. Fig. 99. The crenated zone, andglobules the regularly arranged on
the crystalline of the partridge.

Fig. 100. The order of the fibres in the lens of birds and fishes.
Fig. 101. The segments of the capsuleof the crystalline lurneJ back, to show the detached

ciliary processes. From the calf.

606 OK THE MECHAKISM OF THE EYE.

Fig. 102. Part of the choroid of the cod fish, with its red substance. The central aiterj

hangs loose from the insertion of the nerve.

Fig. 103. The membrane covering this substance internally, raised by the blowpipe.
Fig. 104. Th« appeaianceofthe Ted substance, after the removal of the membrane.
 Vol.U.P. I"

Plate 9

1^.72
Pig:. 71.

9 P.o..^3.

ox
Tig-. 76
1
Lg-.74.
oz
51

ot

a OJ
OT
09
6
001

Fig-.^S.
ot- x3
o«-

x8

19

9^

Joseph.
SkeWm, saJ^.
Puh.hy J. Johnson. Zandon. x JuZy 3.80S .
 VoiJis.eob.

FLATE 10.

Fig' 80.
.

Jo-ieph
Sh-U^n J<:ulfi

liJi.ly J.JohnjonXonimiJvlitxeoe.
V .
'r
 Voijar. 6oe.

Fig:. 8

Fig. 85.

Fig-. 88.

_3

.To^fj^li Shelton. scuJf.

^h. hy J.Johihfon .Zondon z
Jui^ ido6 .
 YollL.T.606.

PXAXE 12.

Fig-. 92

Tig-.94- Pig-. 95
Kg-.^i .

Fig-.9T
Fig; .
96

Ftth. by J. Johnson Xondon 3.

July x8o6 .

SJcclt^Tn. .Pailfi.
Jo^fcph
 Toin.I.baH

PLATE l3 .

Tig.i
T'ig- 99-

^i^^ ^^s^
Tig-. 102
Pig-.ioi.
k

K.g-.104.

J^. bv J. Johnson Zcndon i July .1 Soo .

Jojephj SkeUin^ jnjlp.
 VI. A LE'n'ER TO MR. NICHOLSON.

FROM THOMAS YOUNG, M.D. F.R.S.

PROFESSOR OP NATURAL PHILOSOPHY IN THE ROYAL INSTITUTION,

RESPECTING SOUND AND LIGHT,

AND IN REPLY TO SOME OBSERVATIONS OF PROFESSOR ROBISON.

From Nicholson's Journal, for August 1801.

2. A current of air, forced by a moderate

SIR,
j)ressure through a cylindrical pipe, diverges
J.N the supplement of the Encyclopaedia the less as its
velocity is less. Sect. II.

Biitannica, are inserted several excellent ar- 3. At a certain point the divergency of

ticles by Professor Robison, of Edinburgh : such a current increases suddenly, and the
one of them appears to require some public current mixes with the surrounding an".
notice on mj' part, and I consider your valu- Sect. II.

able Journal as the most eligible channel for 4. So far is such a motion from spreading
such a communication, especially as you equally directions, that on every side
in all

have lately done me the honour of re- of the current the air is urged more towards

printing the paper which gave rise to the

it than from it, Sect. 11.

Professor's animadversions. But in the first 5. Sound, admitted through an aperture,

place, I shall beg leave to recall the atten- does not by any means diverge equally in all

tion of your readers, by a summary enume- directions, and is

probably very weak except;
ration, to the principal positions which I in directions nearly rectilinear. From posi-
have in that paper endeavoured to establish. tion 1 and 4, and from experience. Sect. VI.
Sound, as transmitted through the at-
1. 6. Sound probably decays in the
duplicate
mosphere, consists in an undulatory motion ratio of the distance. Sect. VII.
of the particles of the air, Sect. III. This is 7. A similar blast of air produces nearly a
generally admitted ; but as the contrary
has similar sound, in organ pipes properly com-
even very lately been asserted, it is not su- mensurate, Sect. VIII.

perfluous to have decisive

evidence of the 8. Light is
probably the undulation of an
fact. Professor Robison's experiment with elastic medium, Sect. X.
a stopcock, furnishes *an argument nearly A. Because its
velocity in the same me-
•imiliir. dium is
always equal.
603 LETTER RESPECTING SOUND AND LIGHT.

B. Because all refractions are attended with 11. A noise returning every second, if
A partial reflection. audible, would be a C. From Sauveur ;
with

C. Because there is no reason to expect an experiment. Sect. XII.

that such a vibration should diverge equally 12. A chord retains always the form of its

in all directions, and because it is probable initial, vibration. experiments, From in fa-

that it does diverge in a small degree in every vour of Euler's theorem, against the simple
direction. harmonic curve. Sect. XIII.
Because the dispersion of differently
I). l;]. The vibration of a chord is
scarcely
coloured rays is no more incompatible with ever performed in the same plane. Its revo-
common and subordinate vibrations,
system than with the may
this lutions, its
opinion,
which only assigns for it the nominal cause be rendered distinctly visible under the mi-
-of different elective attractions. croscope, Sect. XII J.
E. Because refraction and reflection in 14. If a chord be inflected at any point of

general are equally explicable on both sup- aliquot division, the

secondary harmonic

.positions.
note corresponding to that division will not
F. Because inflection is as well, and, it be audible ; an experiment contradictory to

may be added, even much better explained some andof the insepa-
theories of the origin

by this theory. rable nature of harmonic sounds, Sect. XIII.

G. Because all the phenomena of the co- 15. The human voice is
analogous to the
lour* of thin plates, which are in realitj' to- organ pipe denominated from it, which con-

tally unintelligible on the common hypothe- sists of a tongue piece without any commen-
sis, admit a very complete and simple ex- surate tube : and the falsetto is
probably
planation by this supposition. The analogy, formed by the upper orifice of the trachea, as-

which is here superficiall}' indicated, will pro- suming the functions of the glottis. Sect. XV.
bably soon be made public more in detail ;
16. A temperament of progressive imper-
and will also be extended to the colours of fection is the most convenient for
practical
thick plates, and to the fringes produced
by music, and is
easily approximated by tuning
inflection, affording, from' Newton's own six perfect, and six equally imperfect fifths.

elaborate experiments, a most convincing ar- Sect. XVT.

gument in favour of this system. From the detached nature of the subjects
9. The particles of air may be jointly ac- which I have here enumerated, and live im-
tuated by two or more sounds; and in this perfect state of those branches of the mathe-
case, the several motions are to be added or matics to which they refer, it would have
subtracted, in order to find the actual joint been in vain to attempt a very perspicuous
motion, Sect. XI. and detailed discussion of them. My re-
10. The grave harmonic produced by a searches on these subjects have been much

interrupted, and probably will not be very

major third
accompanied by a very audi-
is

ble twelfth.This circumstance is explained, shortly resumed ; but, if they be of no fur-

and the effect of subordinate notes and sub- ther use to any person, I shall not think ray
iiltern on the quality of sounds,
stops, is labour lost for I that the in-
;
flaj^ter myself
shown by figures. Sect. XI. ferences, which they have led me to draw, re-
 LETTER RESPECTING SOUND AND LIGHT. .009

specting the theory of colours, will throw imagine, from the polite manner in which
new light on all the most interesting piutsof Professor Robison is pleased to speak of mj'

optics, while, by a comparison with the obvi- essay, he will not hesitate to allow, that I
ous inferences from Dr. Herschel's important have understood it. I took it
up with great
discoveries, they will also lead to some ma- expectations; those expectations having been
terial illustrations of the phenomena of heat. completely disappointed, I
thought it
right to
I shall now trouble you with some remarks state my cool and unprejudiced opinion of
in reply to Professor Robison : the passage its merits, in order to prevent a similar dis-
to which I allude is this :
appointment in others. It is
impossible,*
" We are surprised to see this work of Dr. therefore, that an " attention" to any " ad-
Stnitlf greatly undervalued, by a most inge- monitions" of a general nature, wherever they
nious gentleman, in the Philosophical Trans- may be found, can influence such an opi-
actions for 1800, and called a large and ob- nion and so far only as I am supposed to be
;

scure volume, which leaves the matter just as an incompetent judge on the subject of har-
it was, and its results useless and impracti- monics, can it be asserted, that it W9,s either
cable. We are sorry to see this : because we biameable or superfluous for me to express
have great expectations from the future la- that opinion. As a mathematician, and an
bours of this gentleman in the field of harmo- optician, I value Dr. Smith highly, but I
nics, and his late work is rich in refined and must still
beg leave to affirm, that his whole

valuable matter. We presume humbly to re- book of harmonics contains far, far less in-

commend to him, attention ad- to his own formation, than either of the articles Tem-
monitions to a very young and ingenious perament and Trumpet, in the Supplement of
gentleman, who, he thinks, proceeded too the Encyclopaedia.
far in animadverting on the writings of New- I do no\ mean to be understood, that this

ton, Barrow, and other eminent mathemati- work is so contemptible, as not to contain

cians." Encyclop. Brit. Suppl. Art. Tempe- the least particle of important matter ; but

rament, p.(i52. itappears to me, that its errors counterba-

According therefore to the author of this lanceits merits. The only improvement on
article, I have in the first
place taken the li- which Professor Robison himself "seems to
berty of giving severe advice, to a young a high value, is the application of the
.set

mathematician wlio had never asked it ;

se- phenomena of beats to tuning an instrument :
condly, this advice is
equally applicable to on the other hand, 1 conceive tliat the mis-

my own presumption ;
and thirdly. Dr. statement, relative to the noninterierence of
Smith's treatise on harmonics is a work in- different sounds, an inaccuracy which far
is

titled to the highest praise. outweighs the merit of Dr. Smith's share of
1 did, in fact, endeavour toshow, that the that improvement. I have asserted, that Dr.

gentleman in question had overlooked the Smith has written a large and obscure vo-
labours of some former authors relative to which, for
" but for
lume, every purpose, the
but remarks " use of an
his subject, I
accompanied my impracticable instrument, leaves
" the whole
nothing iike admonition. I have read
witli subject of temperament precisely
Dr. Smith's work with attention, and I
" where it found it " the
;" and that system,
VOL. II. 4 I
610 lETTER RESPECTING SOUND AND LIGHT.
• beats, will ever practically
proposed for his changeable harpsicliord, compensate the
" is neither in thatj nor in
any other form, tediousness of the process.
" of Pro- It remains to be considered, whether Dr.
capable practicable application."
on the
" We Smith's changeable harpsichord or
fessor Robison, contrary, says, is, is not,
" do not see how it can be disputed, that an impracticable instrument; for, whatever
' Dr. Smith's
theory of the beating of im- Signor Doria might exclaim, Dr. Smith
" consonances, is one of the most himself does not recommend his scale for
perfect
" common
important discoveries both for the practice use. It is the opinion of many un-
" and the science of music, that have been prejudiced all occa-
practical persons, that
" oifered to the We are inclined to sional introduction of different semitones is
public.
" consider it as the most
perfectly impracticable; and some, who have
that
important
" has been made since the
days of Galileo. heard the effect of Dr. Smith's instrument,
" We are to call it his discovery. have declared, that to them it was by no
obliged
" Mersennus, indeed, had taken means agreeable. And if we pay
particular indeed,
" notice of this undulation of
imperfect sufficient attention to the passages and mo-
" consonances, and had offered conjectures dulations of the greatest composers, we shall
" as to their causes be convinced,
; conjectures not iinwor- that, granting all
possible dex-
" Mr. Sauveur the performer, would be abso-
thy of his great ingenuity. terity in it

" also takes a still more

particular notice of lutely impracticable to adapt them to an in-
" this and makes a most inge- strument, so different from that for which they
phenomenon,
" iiious use of it for the solution of a very were composed, as Dr. Smith's is from the
**
important musical problem." P. Gj2 and common harpsichord. It may easily be con-
65 1. Why then are we obliged to call it Dr. ceived, that an organ, very correctly tuned,
Smith's discovery, or indeed any discovery at as Mr. Watt's probably was, for a particu-
Sauveur had already given directions for lar key, might appear "
all ?
sopra modo bellis-
tuning an organ pipe, by means
of the rapid- simo" in that key; but the sequel of the
ity of its beating with
others. Mem.de I'Ac. story shows literally what Dr. Smith has al-

1701. 475, ed. Amst. Dr. Smith ingeniously lowed, that his temperament is inapplicable
enough extended the method : but it
ap- to our instruments, since it was
utterly im-

pears to me, that the e.vtension was perfectly possible to sing with it in the' key of Ees, or
obvious, and wholly undeserving of the name E flat, a key of exceedingly frequent occur-

either of a discovery or of a theory. If Pro- rence. I have been informed, on the best

fessor llobison thinks otherwise, there is no- authority, that Dr. Smith restricted the or-

thing further to be said ; but, in all proba- ganist of Trinity College to such keys and
bility. Dr. Smith considered this improve- modulations, as were best suited to the sys-
ment as constituting a very small part of the tem by which the organ was tuned; and that
merit of his treatise. No doubt an organ may organ, as well as the instruments which
be more accurately tuned by counting the w-ere made for Dr. Smiili, has long been

beats, than by any other method, although tuned according to the more common me-
it
may be questioned, whether the advantage thod.
©f counting the absolute frequency of the I spoke of Dr. Smith's system with flat-
 LETTER RESPECTING SOUND AND LIOIIT. 6U
tciied major thirds as of no value, not be as much less perfect. In
system, themy
wiih regard to its intrinsic merits, but be- only thirds perceptilily greater than those of
cause it was not intended for any instrument the equal tempeiaaient, are the major third*

in common use ; since, in these instruments, on E, Acs, 13, C sharp, or Cis, and Fia,
the difficulty is not so much how to divide and the minor on C, Cis, F, Gis, Besi
the imptrtection among the thirds and fii"ths and F,es. Of these none can be said to oc-
of the same scale, as to profiortion properly cur frequently, except the major third on E,

the impeffections of the thirds of different and the minor on C. The sixths require no

keys. Yet 1 do not mean it to be under- separate consideration. Now, since the mi-
stood, that I can agree to the solidity of those nor chord is intended to be less completely
foundations on which Dr. Smith lias built his harmonious than the major, its character will
although to Stan- be by no means materially impaired by this
system for a single scale :

ley and foDoria it

might be pleasing, because imperfection, which it would be somewhat
its imperfections are far too small to offend difficult to remove. The third on E is noi
the ear. Professor llobison justly observes, sharp enough to be very offensive, but in-

that different persons differ exceedingly in compliance with the usual practice of malc'-

their estimation of the effect of the same ing this third somewhat more perfect than
and that the intervals of Aes and C, I have, in the
temperament on different concords,

much of this arises from their different dis- method recommended for common use,
positions ;
it
appears, therefore, that Dr. made it equal to the third of the equal tem-
Smith was too precipitate in laying down his perament. The directions given for tuning,

principle for the comparison of the effects of in§ (is. and in § 80, of the article, are liable

temperament. to far greater objections. For instance, the

With respect to the system which I have temperament of the lllds on Aes and Fis,
proposed. Professor Robison thinks, that the in the latter, is about .00880, or more than a

temperanrents of several of the thirds which comma and a half; which Professor Robi-
occm- frequently are much too great. If we son will readily allow to be " much too great"
wish to form a judgment of any system of forany thirds ; since he has asserted, •
witli

temperament, it must be by comparison with Dr. Smith and others, that the error of a
some other. It does not appear with what comma would be intolerable. Mr. Maxwell
system Professor Robison would wish the has, however, very decidedly proved, in his

comparison to be made, but he rather seems Essay on Tune, that the greatest harmonists,
to incline to the
equal temperament, al- Corelli, Tartini, and Giardini, have admitted
though he gives directions for tuning by an- very frequently the error of a comma, in
other. At any rate, no temperament of an their most refined compositions. I And
interval can be said to be much too great, have the authority of sev<;ral celebrated per-
unless it be greater than that of the same in- formers on stringed and wind instruments,
terval in the system of equal temperament ;
for asserting, that they take of choice the
for, if
any be made more perfect
interval characteristic semitone, leading into the key
than this, some other similar interval must note, considerably sharper than the same
613 lETTER RESPECTING SOUND AND LIGHT.

note is tuned on any keyed instruments, mak- in this case, the harmony is somewhat im-
ing an imperfection of nearly two commas, paired, inorder to improve the melody. The
in tiie relation as third of the dominant, semitone is considered only in its relation to
which is the fundamental note of the chord : the key note the interval of 15 to l6
: is far

while, in the time, our theorists have

mean too small to be distinctly conceived as com-
been labouring, by the most complicated mensurate, it
possesses, therefore, no melody
contrivances, to introduce notes into keyed in virtue of the perfection of its ratio; and a

instruments, which shall have exactly a con- certain elegance of expression is added, by

trary effect, by making

the ascending semi- approaching to the natural and colloquial
as-

tone as wide a step as possible. On asking cent of a voice by imperceptible degrees. It

very lately the opinion of a practical musi- must, however, be confessed, that some ex-
cian of great eminence, and one, who in cellent musicians prefer a purer harmony ;

every respect does honour to his profession, he and in this, as in all other matters of taste,

decidedly agreed in the superiority of such a considerable latitude must be allowed for the
diminished semitone, and observed that the habits and predilections^of individuals.

key of E derived a very elegant character I am, Sii-,

from the usual method of tuning Dis as
Ees, a minor third to C : hence the Illds With great respect.
on Ees and G being very little tempered, the Your obedient humble servant,
Illd on the dominant B must be about a
^°'
comma and half too sharp. The factis, that \l' IIJjTwi.""''
THOMAS YOUNG.
 VII. ON THE

THEORY OF LIGHT AND COLOURS.

BY .

THOMAS YOUNG, M. D. R R. S.
PROFESSOR OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY IN THE ROYAL INSTITUTION.

FROM THE PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS.

Read before the Royal Society, November 12, 1801.

.A-LTHOTJGH the invention of plausible hy- a great number of diversified facts, which

potheses, independent of any connexion have hitherto been buried in Obscurity, Nor
with experimental observations, caa be of would it have been absolutely necessary, in

very little use in the promotion of natural this instance, to produce a single new experi-
knowledge ; yet the discovery of simple and ment; for of experiments there is
already an
uniform principles, by which a great num- ample store, which are so much the more un-
ber of apparently heterogeneous phenomena exceptionable, as they must have been con-
are reduced to coherent and universal laws, ducted without the least partiality for the
must ever be allowed to be of considerable system by which they will be explained ; yet
importance towards the improvement of the some facts, hitherto unobserved, will be
human intellect; and in proportion as more brought forwards, in order to show the per-
and more phenomena are found to agree with fect agreement of that system w ith the multi-
any principles that are laid down, those prin- farious phenomena of nature, which are
ciples must be allowed to acquire a stronger connected with it.

right to exchange the appellation of hypo- The optical observations of Newton are yet
theses for tliat of fundamental laws of nature. unrivalled ; and, excepting some casual inac-
The object of the present dissertation is curacies, they only rise in our estimation, as
not so much to propose any opinions we compare them with later attempts to im-
which are absolutely new, as to refer some prove on them. A further consideration of
theories, which have been already advanced, the colours of thin plates, as they are de-
to their original inventors; to support them scribed in the second book of Newton's op-

by additional evidence, and to apply them to tics, has converted that prepossession which
 614 ON THE THEORY OF LIGHT AND COLOURS.
I before entertained for the stow on these considerations so
undulatory sys- much the
tem of iightj into a very more of
strong conviction of their attention, as
they shall appear to
its truth and sufficiency ;
a conviction which coincide more nearly with Newton's
opinion.
has been since mosi For this reason, after
striiiingly contirmed, by
having briefly stated
an analysis of the colours of striated sub- each particular
position of my theory, 1
stances. The phenomena of thin plates are shall collect, from Newton's
various
hideed so singular, that their writings,
general com- such passages as seem to be the
most favour-
plexion is not without great difficulty recon- able to its admission
; and, although I shall
cileable to any
theory, however complicated, quote some papers which may be
that has hitherto been
thought to
applied to them ; and have been partly retracted at the publication
some of the principal circumstances have of the optics,
yet I shall borrow nothing
never been explained by the most gratuitous from them that can be
supposed to militate
assumptions but it will appear, that the mi-
;
against his maturer judgment.
nutest particulars of these phenomena are not Hypothesis
i. A
luminiferous Ether per-
only perfectly consistent with the
theory, tades the Universe, rare and elastic in a
hiTh
which will now be detailed, but that they are
degree.
all
necessary consequences of that theory, PASSAGES FKOM NEWTON.
without any auxiliary suppositions: and this
'i The hypothesis has a
by inferences so simple, that they become
certainly much
greater affinity with his o«n," that is. Dr.
particular corollaries, which sciucely requue "
Hooke's, hypothesis, than he seems to be
a distinct enumeration.
aware of; the vibrations of the ether
A more extensive examination of New-
as
being
useful and necessary in this, as in liis."
ton's various writings has shown me, that he
(Phil. Trans. VII. 5087. Abr. I. 145. Nov.
was, in reality, the first that suggested such a
1672.)
theory as I shall endeavour to maintain ;
"To proceed to the hypothesis: first, it
that his own opinions varied less from this is to be supposed
therein, that there is an
theory, than is now almost universally sup- ethereal medium, much of the same consti-
posed ; and that a
variety of arguments have tution with but far rarer,
air,
been advanced, as if to confute hmi, which subtler, and
more strongly elastic— It is not to be
may be found nearly in a similar form in his sup-
posed, that this medium is one uniform mat-
own works ;
and this, by no less a mathema-
ter, but compounded,
tician than Leonard Euler, whose system of partly of the main
phlegmatic body of ether, partly of other
light, as far- as it is
worthy of notice, either various ethereal spirits, much after the
man-
was, or might have been, wholly borrowed ner that ah- is
from Newton, Hooke, Huygens, and Male- compounded of the phlegma-
tic
body of air, intermixed with various va-
branche.
pours and exhalations: for the electric and
Those who are attached, as they may be
magnetic effluvia, and gravitating principle,
with the greatest justice, to
every doctrine seem to argue such
which is stamped with the Newtonian variety." (Birch Hist.
ap- R. S. HI. 249. Dec. 1675.)
probation, will probably be disposed to be- " Is not the heat (of the warm room) con-
 ON THE THEORY OF LIGHT AND COLOURS. 6h
eyed through the vacuum by the vibrations Scholium. I use the word undulation, in
of a much subtiler medium than air ? And — preference to vibration, because vibration is
is not this nT^dium the same with that me-
generally understood as implying a motion
dium by which light is refracted and re- which is continued alternately backwards and
flected, and by whose vibrations hght com- forwards, by a combination of the momen-
municates heat to bodies, and is put into fits tum of the body with an
accelerating force,
of easy reflection, and easy transmission ? and which is naturally more or less
perma-
And do not the vibrations of this medium in nent ; but an undulation is supposed to con.
hot bodies, contribute to the intenseness sist in a vibratory motion, transmitted succes-
and duration of their heat ? And do not hot sively through different parts of a medium,
bodies communicate their heat to contiguous without any tendency in each
particle to
cold ones, by the vibrations of this medium continue its motion, except in consequence
propagated from them into the cold ones ? of the transmission of succeeding undula-
Aiid is not this medium exceedingly more tions, from a distinct vibrating body ; as, ia
rare and subtile than the air, and exceed- the the vibrations of a chord produce the
air,

ingly more elastic and active? Aijd doth it undulations constituting sound.
not readily pervade all bodies ? And is it
not by its elastic iorce, expanded through all PASSAGES FROM NEWTON.
the heavensf —
May not planets and comets,
" Were I to assume an liypothesis, it

and all gross bodies, perform their motions

should be this, ifpropounded more generally
in this ethereal medium? —And may not its so as not to determine what light is, further,
resistance be so small, as to be inconsider- than that it is
something or other capable of
able? For instance, if this ether (for so I exciting vibrations in the ether; for thus it will

will call should be supposed 700 000 times

It) become so general, and comprehensive of
more elastic than our air, and above 700 000 other hypotheses, as to leave little room for
times more rare, its resistance would be new ones to be invented." (Birch, III. 249>
about tiOOOOOOOO times less than that of wa- Dec. 1675.)
ter. And so small a resistance would scarce
" In the second it is to be
place, supposed,
make any sensible alteration in the motions that the ether is a vibrating medium, like air,
of the planets, in ten thousand years. If only the vibrations far more swift and mi-
any one would ask how a medium can be so nute ; those of air, made by a man's ordinary

rare, let him tell me how an — electric body voice, succeeding one another at more than
can by fricfticm emit an exhalation so rare half a foot, or a foot distance; but those of
and subtile, ami yet so potent ?
— And how the ether at a less distance than the hundred
efHuvia of a magnet can pass through a thousandth part of an inch. And, as in ain

plate of glass, without resistance, and yet the vibrations are some larger than others'
turn a magnetic needle beyond the glass r" but yet all equally swift, (for in a ring of bells

(Optics, Qu. 18, 22.) the sound of every tone is heard at two or

Hypothesis three miles distance, in the same order that

ii. Undulations are excited
in this Ether whenever a beeomes lumi- the bells are struck,) so, I suppose, the ethe-
Body ,

real vibrations difter in bigness, but not in

nous.
616 ON THE THEORY OF LIGHT AND COLOURS.

swiftness. Now, these vibrations, beside their air cause a sensation of sound, by beating
use in reflection and refraction, may be sup- against the organs of hearing. Now, the
posed the chief means by which the parts of most free and natural application of this hy-
fermenting or putrifying substances, fluid pothesis to the solution of phenomena, I take

liquors, burning, or other hot

or mehed, to be this : that the agitated parts of bodies,

bodies, continue in motion." (Birch, III. according to their several sizes, figures, and
G51. Dec. 1675.) motions, do excite vibrations in the ether of
" When various depths or bignesses, which, being pro-
a ray of hght upon the sur-falls

face of any pellucid body, and is there re- miscuously propagated through that medium
fracted or reflected, may not waves of vibra- to our eyes, effect in us a sensation of
light
tions, or tremors, be thereby excited in the of a white colour ;
but if by any means those
refracting or reflecting mediuui ? And are — of unequal bignesses be separated from one
not these vibrations propagated from the another, the largest beget a sensation of a
point of incidence to great distances? And red colour, the least or shortest of a deep
do they not overtake the rays of light, and violet, and the intermediate ones of interme-

by overtaking them successively, do they not diate colours ; much after the manner that

put thein into the fits of easy reflection and bodies, according to their several sizes,

easy transmission described above ? (0|)tics, shapes, and motions, excite vibrations in the
Qu. 17.) air, of various bignesses, which, according to
" is in fits of easy reflection and those bignesses, make several tones in a
Light
its incidence on sound that the largest vibrations are best
easy transmission, before :

transparent bodies. And probably it

put is able to overcome the resistance of a refract-
into such fits at its first emission from lu- ing superficies, and so breakthrough it with,

minous bodies, and continues in them dur- least refraction ;

whence the vibrations of se-
ing all its
progress." (Optics, Second Book, veral bignesses, that is, the rays of several co-
Part iii.
Prop. 13.) lours, which are blended together in light,
must be parted from one another by refrac-
Hypothesis iii. The Sensation of differ-
tion, and so cause the phenomena of prisms,
ent Colours depends on the dijferent frequency
and other refracting substances; and that it
of Vibrations, excited bj/ Light in the Re-
tina.
depends on the thickness of a thin transpa-
rent plate or bubble, whether a vibration ,

passages from NEWTON. be reflected at its further superficies, or

shall
" The
objector's hypothesis, as to the fun- transmitted ;
so that, according to the num-
damental part of it, is not against me. That ber of vibrations, interceding the two super-
fundamental supposition is, that the parts of ficies, they may be reflected
or transmitted

bodies, when briskly agitated, do excite vi- for nianv successive thicknesses. And, since
brations in the ether, which are propagated the vibrations which make blue and violet,

every way from those bodies in straight lines, are supposed shorter than those which make
and cause a sensation of ligiit,by beating and red and yellow, they must be reflected at a
dashing against the bottom of the eye, some- less thickness of the plate: which is sufficient

thing after the manner that vibrations in the to all tlie ordinary phenomena of
explicate
 ON THE THEORY OF LIGHT AND COLOURS. 617

those plates or bubbles, and also of all natu- logy of nature is to be observed." (Birch. III.
ral bodies,whose parts are like so many frag- 262. Dec. 1675.)
These seem most "
ments of such plates. to be Considering the lastingness of the mo-
])1ain, genuine, and necessary conditions of tions excited in the bottom of the eye by

this hypothesis. And they agree so justly light, are they not of a vibrating nature?
—
with my theory, that ifthe animadversor Do not the most refrangible rays excite the
think fit to apply them, he need not, on that shortest vibrations, —
the least refrangible the

account, apprehend a divorce from it. But largest? May not the harmony and discord

yet, how he will defend it from other

of colours arise from the
difficul-
proportions of the
ties, I know not." (Phil. Trans. VII. 5088. vibrations propagated through the fibres of

Abr. I. 145. Nov. 1672.) the optic nerve into the brain, as the har-

"To
explain colours, I suppose, that as mony and discord of sounds arise from the
bodies of various sizes, densities, or sensa- proportions of the vibrations of the air f"

tions, do, by percussion or other action, excite (Optics, Qu. 16, 13, 14.)
sounds of various tones, and consequently Scholium. Since, for the reason here
vibrations in the air of different bigness; so assigned by Newton, it is
probable that the
the rays of light,by impinging on the stiff" re- motion of the retina is rather of a vibratory

fracting superficies, excite vibrations in the than of an undulatory nature, the frequency

ether,
— of various bigness; the biggest, of the vibrations must be dependent on the

strongest, or most potent rays, the largest constitution of this substance. Now, as it

vibrations; and others shorter, according to is almost impossible to conceive each sensi-
their bigness, strength, or power: and there- tive point of the retina to contain an infinite

fore the ends of the capillamenta of the optic number of particles, each capable of vibrat-
nerve, which pave or face the retina, being ing in perfect unison with every possible
such refracting superficies, when the raj's undulation, it becomes necessary to suf)pose

impinge upon them, the}' must there excite the number limited ;
for instance, to the
these vibrations, which vibrations (like those three principal colours, red, yellow, and blue,
of sound in a trunk or trumpet) will run of which the undulations are related in mag-

along the aqueous pores or crystalline pith nitude nearly as the numbers 8, 7, and 6 ;
of the capillamenta, through the optic nerve and that each of the particles is capable of
into the sensorium ;
—and there, I suppose, being put in motion less or more fprcibly,
affect the sense with various colours, accord- by undulations difliering less or more from
ing to their bignessand mixture; the biggest a perfect unison lor instance, the undula-
;

with the strongest colours, reds and yellows ; fions of green light, being
nearly in the ratio
the least with the weakest, blues and violets; of 64jwill afl'ect equally the particles in uni-

the middle with green ;

and a confusion of son with yellow and blue, and produce the
all with white, much after the manner that, same efl'ect as a light composed of those two
in the sense of hearing, nature makes use of species: and each sensitive filament of the
aerial vibrations of several bignesses, to ge- nerve may consist of three portions, one for

nerate sounds of divers tones ;

for the ana- each principal colour. Allowing this state-

VOL. II. 4 K
618 ON THE THEORY OF LIGHT AXD COLOURS.

ment, it appears that any attempt, to produce pears to be the simplest and best of any that
a musical eftcct from colours, must be un- have occurred to me.
successful, or at least that nothing more Proposition i. All Impulses are propa-
than a very simple melody could be imitated gated in a homogeneous elastic Medium with

by them ; for the common period, which in an equable Velocity.

fact Constitutes the harmony of any concord, Every experiment, relative to sound, coin-

being a multiple of the periods of the single cides with the observation already quoted
undulations, would in this case be wholly from Newton, that all undulations are pro-
without the limits of sympathy of the retina, p.igated through the air with equal velocity ;
and would lose its eflecl ; in the same man- and this is further confirmed
by calculations.
ner as the harmony of a third or a fourth is
(Lagrange. Misc. Taur. I. 91. Also, much
destroyed, by depressing it to the lowest more concisely, in my Syllabus of a Course of
notes of the audible scale. In hearing, Lectures on Natural and Experimental Phi-
there seems to be no permanent vibration of losophy, about to be published. Article 289.)
any part of the organ. [See the Account It is
surprising that Euler, although aware of
of some cases of the production of colours.] the matter of fact, should still have main-
Hypothesis iv. All mattrial Bodiesare to tained, that the more frequent undulations
be considered, with respect to the Phenomena of are more rapidly propagated. (Theor. luus.

Light, as consisting oj Particles so remote from and Conject. phys.) It is probable, that the
tach other, as to allow the ethereal Medium actual velocity of the particles of the lumini-
to pervade them with perfect freedom, and ferous ether generally bears a much smaller
either to retain it in a stale of greater den- proportion to the velocity of the undulations,
iity and of equal elasticity/, than is usual in the case of sound ; for light
or to constitute,
with the Medium, an Aggregate, which may be excited by the motion of a
together body
may be considered as denser, but not more moving at the rate of only one mile, in the
elastic. time that light moves a hundred millions.
It has been shown, that the three former And if our sun's light reaches some of the re-
hypotheses, which may be called essential, motest fixed stars, the utmost absolute ve-
are literally parts of the more complicated locity of the particles of the ethereal medium
Newtonian system. This fourth hypothesis must be reduced to less than one thousandth
differs in some degree from any that have part of an inch in a second.
been proposed by former authors, and is, in Scholium 1. It has been demonstrated,
some respects, diametrically opposite to that that in different mediums, the
velocity vaiies
of Newton ; but, both being in themselves in the subduplicate ratio of the force di-

equally admissible, the opposition is merely rectly, and of the density inversely. (Misc.
accidental ; and it is onl}' to be inquired, Taur. 1. 91. Young's Syllabus, Art. 294.)
which the most capable of Scholium 2. It is obvious, from the phe-
is
explaining the
phenomena. Other suppositions might, per- nomena of elastic bodies and of sounds, that
haps, be substituted for this, and therefore I tlie undulations may cross each other witli-
do not consider it as fundamental, yet it
ap- out interruption. But there is no necessity
 OK THE THSOIIT OI' tieHT AN» COtOCBS. 6l^

that the vavioiw colours of white %ht should ture ;

on the contrai'y, in 4 circular wave of
saine in-
intermix their undulations; for, supposnig water, every part is, usually, at the
the vibrations of tlie retina to continue but a sUmt either elevated or depressed. It may
five hundredth of a second after their excite- be difficult to show mathematically the
ment, a m^illion uadula^itms of each of a mode, in which
intquahty of force is pre-
this

million colours B»ay arrive, iu distinct succes- served: but the inlerence from the matter of

sion, within this inteival of time, and produce fact ajipears to be unavoidable. The theory
the same sensiole effect, as if ail the colours of Huygens indeed explains the cireitin-
arrived precisely at the same instant. stance in a manner tolerably satisfactory ;

Proposition ii. Jn Uudnlation, conceived he supposes every particle of the medium to'
to originate from the libralton of a single propagate a distinct undulation in all direc-
JPurticle, must erpaitd through a homogeneous tions and that the general effect is only
;

Medium in a spherieal Form, hut zeith dif- perceptible where a portion of each undula-
ferent Quantities of Motionin different
Parts. tion conspires in direction at the same in-

For, since every imijulse, considered as slant ;

and it is easy to show that sucli a ge-

potiiiive
or negative, is
propagated with a neral undulation, would, in all cases, proceed'

constant velocity, each part of the undula- rectilineavly, with proportionate force ; but,
tion must, in equal times, have past through upon seems to follow,
this supposition, it

equal distance-i from the vibrating point, that a greater quantity of force must be lost

And, sui)posing the vibrating particle,

in the
by the divergence of the partial undulations,
course of its motion, to proceed forwards to than apj)ears to be consistent with the pro-
a small distance in "a
given direction, the pagation of the effect to any considerable
principal strength of the undulation will na- distance. Yet it is obvious, that some such
turally be straigh' before it ; behind it, the limitation of the motion must naturally be
motion will be equal, in a contrary direction; expected to take place ; for, if the intensity
and, at right angles to the line of vibration, of the motion of any pai'ticular part, instead
the undulation will be evanescent. of continuing to be propagated straight for-
Now, in order that such an undulation wards, were supposed to affect the intensity
may continue its
progress to any consider- of a neighbouring part of the undulation, an
able distance, there must be, in each part of impulse must then have travelled from an in-
it, a tentlency to preserve Us own motion in ternalto an external circle, in an oblique di-
a right line from the centre ; for, if the ex- rection, in the same time as in the direction
cess of force at any part were communicated of the radius, and consequently with a
to the neighbouring particles, there can be greater velocity ; against the first proposition.
no reason why it not very soon be
should In the case of water, the velocity is by no

equalised throughout, or, in other words, be- means so rigidly limited as in that of an elas-
come wholly extinct, since the motions in tic medium. Yet it is not necessary to sup-

contrary directions would naturally destroy pose, nor will the phenomena of light even
each other. The origin of sound from the allow us to admit, that there is absolutely not
ribratioa of a chord is evidently of this na- the least lateral communication of the force of
620 ON THE THEORT OF LIGHT AND COLOURS.

the undulation, but in highly under these circumstances in it is cer-

it
appears that, light,

elastic mediums, this communication is al- tain that, whatever may be the cause, it
by no
most insensible. In the air, if a chord be means wholly retains a rectilinear direction.

as to propagate ex- Let the concentric lines in Fig. 105. .(Plate

perfectly insulated, so
have been described, the situa-
actly such vibrations as 14.) represent contemporaneous
will, in fact, be much less forcible, than tion of similar parts of a number of succes-
they
if the chord be placed in the
neighbourhood sive undulations diverging from the point
of a sounding board, and probably in some A ; they will also represent the successive

measure, because of this lateral communica- situations of each individual undulation :

tion of motions of an opposite tendency. And let the force of each undulation be repre-
the different intensity of different parts of the sented by the breadth of the line, and let the
same circular undulation may be observed, cone of light ABC be admitted through the

by holding a common tuning fork at arm's aperture BC ;

then the principal undulations

length, while sounding, and turning it,

from will proceed in a rectilinear direction towards
a plane directed to the ear, into a position Gil, and the faint radiations on each side
will diverge from B and C as centres, with-
perpendicular to that plane.
Proposition hi. A Portion of a sphe- out receiving any additional force from any
rical Undulation, admitted ihrough an Aper- intermediate point D
of the undulation, on
ture into a quiescent Medium, tcill proceed to account of the inequality of the lines DE and
be further propagated rectilinearly in con- OF. But, if we allow some little lateral

centric Superficies, terminated laterulhj hy divergence from the extremities of the undu-
weak and irregular Portions of newly diverg- lations, it must diminish their force, with-

ing Undulations. out adding materially to that of the dissi-

Ax. the instant of admission, the circum- pated light ; and their termination, instead
ference of each of the undulations may be of the right line BG, will assume the form

supposed to generate a partial unduhilion, CH ; since the loss of force must be more

filling up the nascent angle

between the considerable near to C than at greater dis-
and the surface terminating the me-
radii tances. This
corresponds with the
line
dium but no sensible addition will be made
; boundary of the shadow in Newton's first ob-

to strength by a divergence of mo-

its
servation. Fig. 1
;
and it is much more pro-
tion from any other parts of the undulation, bable that such a dissipation of light was the
for want of a coincidence in time, as has cause of the increase of the shadow in that
already' been explained with respect to the observation, than that it was owing to the
various force of a spherical undulation. If action of an inflecting atmosphere, or of an
indeed the aperture bear but a small propor- attractive force, which must have extended
tion to the breadth of an undulation, the a thirtieth of an inch each way in order to
uewly generated undulation may nearly ab- produce it; especially when it is considered
sorb the whole force of the portion admitted; that the shadow was not diminished by sur-
and this Newton in
the case considered by medium
rounding the hair with a denser
is

the Principia. When an experiment is made than air, which must in all probability have
 OV THE THEOnV OF LIGHT AND COLOURS, 621

weakened its attractive forccj or have con- middle of an undulation admitted, "densiu*
tracted its
inflecting atmosphere. In other est,quam in spatiis hinc inde,dilatabitscse torn
circumstances, the lateral divergence might versus spatia utrinquc sita, quani versus pul-
appear to increase, instead of diminishing, suum rariora intervalla; eoque pacto —pulsus
the hreadth of the beam. It is said that a eiidemfere celeritate sese inmedii partes qui-
beam of light, even passing through a va- escentes hinc indc relaxare debent; ideoque
—
cuum, is visible in all directions, and if the va- —
spatiumtotinn occupabunt. ^Hoc experimur
cuum were as perfect as it is
possible to make in sonis." (Princip. Lib. II. Prop. 42.)
the experiment would afford a strong ar-
" Are not all in
it, hypotheses erroneous,
gument against the projectile system. which light is supposed to consist in pression
The whole of the phenomena described or motion, propagated through a fluid me-

by Grimaldi, under the very proper denomi-

—
dium? If it consisted in pression or motion,
nation " diffraction," afford us examples of propagated cither in an instant, or in time, it
the deviation of light from rectilinear motion, would bend into the shadow. For pression or
nor have we the slightest evidence that an motion cannot be propagated in a fluid in
attractive force is concerned
producing in right lines, beyond an obstacle which stops
these effectson the contrary the experiment
; part of the motion, but will bend and spread
already mentioned, in which the refractive every way into the quiescent medium which
density of the substance concerned appears lies beyond the obstacle. —The waves on the
to be indifferent to the result, renders the surface of stagnating water, passing by the

supposition of such an inflecting force ex- sides of a broad obstacle which stops part of

tremely improbable. them, bend afterwards, and dilate them-

As the subject of this proposition has al- selves gradually into the quiet water behind
ways been esteemed the most diflicult part the obstacle. The waves, pulses, or vibra-
of thcundulatory system, it will be proper to tions of the air, wherein sounds consist, bend
examine here the objections which Newton manifestly, though not so much as the waves
has grounded upon it. of water. For a bell or a cannon may be
" To which intercepts the
me, the fundamental supposition heard beyond a hill,

itself seems impossible; namely, that the sight of the sounding body ; and sounds arc
waves or vibrations of any fluid can, like the propagated as readily through crooked pipes
rays of light, be propagated in straigiit lines, as straight ones. But light is never known
without a continual and very extravagant to follow crooked passages, nor to bend into

spreading and bending every way into the the shadow. For the fixed stars, by the in-

quiescent medium, where they are termi- terposition ofany of the planets, cease to be
nated by it. I mistake, if there be not both seen. And so do the parts of the sun, by
experiment and demonstration to the con- the interposition of the moon, i\Iercury, or

trary." (I'hil. Trans. VTI. 5089. Abr. I. 14G. Venus. The rays, which pass very near to
Nov. lf)72.) the edges of any body, are bent a little by
" Motus omnis
per fluidum propagatus di- the action of the body; —
but this bending is

rergit a recto tramile in spatia immota." not towards but from the shadow, and is
" Quoniam medium
ibi," that is, in the performed only in the piissagc of the ray by
6«2 ©N THE THEORY OF LIGHT AND COXOURS.

the body, and at a very small distance from ing it. Such a light has, however, often been
it. So soon as the ray is past the body, it seen attached to the moon in a. solar eclipse,
as could not be attributed to a lunar atmo-
goes right on." (Optics, Qu. 28.)
Now tlie proposition quoted from the sphere only. What Newton here says, of in-

Principia, even supposing it to be strictly flection, h inconsistent, as Mr. Jordan has

demonstrated, does not directly contradict already remarked, with some of his own ex-
this proposition ; for it does not assert that periments.
such a motion must diverge equally in all To the argument adduced by Huygens, in
directions ; and the admission of the term favour of the rectilinear propagation of undu-
" almost" is sufficient to invalidate the chain Newton has made no
lations, reply; perhaps,
of reasoning : neither can it with truth be because of his own misconception of the na-

maintained, that the parts of an elastic ture of the motions of elastic

mediums, as de-
medium, communicating any simple motion, pendent on a peculiar law of vibration,
must propagate that motion equally in all di- which has been corrected by later mathema-
rections. (Phil. Trans. 1800. lOg. .112.) All ticians. (Phil. Trans. 1800. 116.) On the
tbat can be inferred by reasoning is, that the whole, it is
presumed, that this proposition
marginal parts of the undulation must be may be safely admitted, as perfectly consist-
somewhat weakened, and that there must be ent with analogy and with experiment.
a faint divergence in every direction but : Proposition iv. When an Undulation
whether either of these effects might be of arrives at a Surface which is the Limit
of Me-
sufficient magnitude be sensible, with re-
to diums of different Densities, a partial Re-
spect to light, could not have been concluded flection takes place, proportionate in Force to
from argument, if the affirmative had not the Difference oftlie Densities.

been rendered certain by experiment. This maybe illustrated, if not demon-

As to the analogy with other fluids, the strated, by the analogy of elastic bodies of
most natural inference from it is this " The different sizes.
" If a smaller elastic
:
body
waves of the air, wherein sounds consist, strikes against a larger one, it is well known
bend manifestly, though not so much as the that the smaller is reflected more or less

waves of water;" water being an inelastic, and powerfully, according to the diflierence of
air a moderately elastic medium: but the ether their magnitudes :
always a re-
thus, there is

being most highly elastic, its waves bend flection when the rays of light pass from a

very far less than those of the air, and there- rarer to a denser stratum of t-ther;- and fre-
fore almost imperceptibly. Sounds are pro- quently an echo when a sound strikes against
pagated through crooked passages, because a cloud. A greater body striking a smaller
their sides are capable of one, propels it, without losing all its motion:
reflecting sound,
just as light would be propagated through a thus, the particles of a denser stratum of
bent tube, if
perfectly polished within. ether do not impart the whole of then- mo-
The light of a star is
by far too weak to tion to a rarer, but in their eflort to
proceedj
faint
they are recalled by the attraction of the re-
produce, by its
divergence, any visible
illiimination of the margin of a
planet eclips- fracting substance with equal force ; and
 ON THE THEORr OF LIGHT AVD COLOims. 625

ihoB a reflection is
always secondarily pro- undulation arris'e at the reflecting sur-

duced, wiien the ra)'S of light pass from a face, is sufficient to determine the angle of
denserto a rarer stratum." (Phil. Trans. 1800. reflection ;
in the same manner as when a

127.) not necessary to suppose an

But it is bird is
swimming in a stagnant piece of wa-
attraction in the latter case, since the effort ter, we see a rectilinear wave diverging at a

to proceed would be propagated backwards certain ano;le on each side. The total re-

without it, and the undulation would be re- flection seems to require tiie assistance of
versed, a rarefaction returning in place of the particles of the rarer medium, to which
a condensation ; and this will perhaps be the motion of the preceding portion of the
found most consistent with the phenomena. undulation has been partly communicated,
Proposition v. When an Undulation without being able to produce any other ef-
is transmitted through a Surface terminating fect than that of urging them in the direc-

different Mediums, it proceeds in suck a tion of the surface, and enabling them to re-

Direction, that the Sines of the Angles of sist the force of the direct undulation, which
Incidence and Refraction are in the con- tends to remove them from the surface.
stant Raiio of the Felocity of Propagation in Proposition vit. If equidistant Undula-
tlie two Mediums. tions be supposed to pass through a Medium,
(Barrow Lect. Opt. II. 4. Huygens de of which the Parts are susceptible of perma-
la Lum. cap. 3. Euler Conj. Phys. Phil. nent vibrations somewhat slower than (he Un-

Trans. 1800. 128. Young's Syllabus, Art. dulations, their Velocity will be somewliat

582.) lessened by this

vibratory Tendency and, in ;

Corollary 1. The same demonstration the same Medium, the. more, as the Undula-

prove the equality of the angles of reflection tions are more frequent.
and incidence. For, as often is the state of the undulation
Scholium. appears from experiments
It requires a change in the actual motion of the
on the refraction of condensed air, that the particle which transmits it, that change will
difference of the sines varies simply as the be retarded by the propensity of the particle

density. And the same is

probably true in to continue its motion somewhat longer and :

other similar cases. this retardation will be more frequent, and

Proposition vi. When an Undulation more considerable, as the difference between

falls on the Surface of
a rarer Medium, so the periods of the undulation and of the -na-
cannot be regularly refracted, tural vibration is
obliqueli/ tltat it greater.
it is totally reflected,
at an Angle equal to Corollary. It was long an established
that of its Incidence. opinion, that heat consists in vibrations of
This phenomenon appears to favour the the particles of bodies, and is capable of be-

supposition of a gradual increase and

di- ing transmitted by undulations through an
minution of density at the surface terminat- apparent vacuum.
(Newt. Opt. Qu. 18.)
has been of late very much
ing two mediums, (Phil. Trans. 1800, 128.) 'thisopinion
although Hwygens has attempted to ex- abandoned. Count llumford and Mr. Davy,

plain it somewhat differently. The velocity, are almost the only modern authors who have
with which the successive parts of the appeared to favour it; but it seems to have
624 OK THE THEORY OF I-IGTIT AND COLOURS.

been vejected without any good grounds, Mr. Short, when he found by observation

and will probably very soon recover its po- the equality of the velocity of light of all co-

lours, felt the objection so forcibly, that he

pularity.
Let us suppose, that these vibrations are immediately drew an inference from it in

less frequent than those of light; all bodies favour of the undulatory system. It is as-

therefore are liable to permanent vibrations sumed in the proposition, that when light is

slower than those of light; and indeed almost dispersed by refraction, the corpuscles of the
all luminous vibrations, either
are liable to refracting substance are in a state of actual
when in astate of ignition, or in the circum- alternate motion, and contribute to its trans-

stances of solar phosphori ;

but much less mission ;
but must be confessed, that we
it

easily, and in a much less degree, than to

cannot at present form a very decided and
the vibrations of heat. It will follow from accurate conception of the forces concerned

these suppositions, that the more frequent lu- in maintaining these corpuscular vibrations.
minous undulations will be more retarded The proposition is not advanced as adding
than the less frequent and consequently,
; weight to the evidence in favour of the un-
that blue light will be more refrangible than dulatory system, but as explaining in some
red, and radiant heat least of all ;
a conse- degree a difficulty wjiich is common to all

quence which coincides exactly with the systems; and there is still room for other il-
highly interesting experiments of Dr. Her- lustrations of the subject. The principal ar-
schel. (Phil. Trans. 1800.284.) It may also gument in confirmation of the system is

be easily conceived, that the actual exist-

built on the next proposition, which appears
ence of a state of slower vibration may tend to be equally new and important.
still more to retard the more frequent undu- Proposition viii. JV/ien two Undula-
lations, and that the refractive power of so- tions, from different Origins, coincide either

lid bodies may be sensibly increased by an perfect/}/ or very nearh/ in Direction, their

increase of temperature, as it
actually appears joint effect is a Combination of the Motions
to have been in Euler's experiments. (Acad. belonging to each.
de Berlin. 1762. S28.) Since every particle of the medium is
Scholium. If, notwithstanding these con- affected by each undulation, wherever the

«iderations, this proposition should appear to directions coincide, the undulations can pro-
be insufficiently demonstrated, they must be ceed no otherwise, than by uniting their mo-
allowed to be at least equally explanatory of tions, so that the joint motion may be the
the phenomena with any thing that can be sum or difference of the separate motions,
advanced on the other side, from the doc- accordingly as similar or dissimilar parts of
trineof projectiles ; since a supposed accele- the undulations are coincident.

rating force must act in some other propor- I have, on a former occasion, insisted at
tion than that of the bulk of the particles; on the application of this principle to
large
and, if we call this an elective attraction, harmonics; (Fhil. Trans. 1800. 130.) and
only veiling, under a chemical term, our
it is it will
appear to be of still more extensive
incapacity of assigning a mechanical cause. utility
in explaining the phenomena of co-
 ON THE THEORY OF LIGHT ANp COIOURS. €2$
lours. The undulations which are now to be of reflecting in all directions. Let one of the
compared are those of
equal frequency. points be now depressed below the given plane ;

When the two series coincide exactly in tten the whole path of the light, reflected
point of time, it is obvious that the united from it, will be lengthened by a line which is
velocity of the particular motions must be to tiie depression of the
point as twice the
greatest; and also, that it must be smallest, cosine of incidence to the radius. (Plate 14.

and, the undulations are of equal strength,

if
Fig. tOG.)
totally destroyed, when the time of the If, therefore, equal undulations of given

greatest direct motion, belonging to one un- dimensions be reflected from two points,
dulation, coincides with that of the greatest situated near enough to
appear to the eye
retrogtade motion of the other. In inter- but as one, wherever -this line is
equal to
mediate states, the joint undulation will be half the breadth of a whole undulation, tiifc
of intermediate strength but by what laws reflection ftom the depressed
;
point will so
this interinediate strength must vary, cannot interfere with the reflection from the fixed
be determined without furthej- ,data. It is
point, that the progressive motion of the one
well known that a similar cause produces, will coincide with the
retrograde motion of the
inbound, that effect which is called a beat; other, and they will both be destroyed ; but,
two seriesof undulations of nearly equal when equal to the whole breadth
this line is

magnitude cooperating and destroying each of an undulation, the eflecc will be doubled-
other alterijaitely, as they coincide more or and when to a breadth and a half, again de-
less perfectly the limes of performing
in stroyed ; and thus for a considerable number
their respective motions. of alternations ; and, if the reflected undu-
CoRouhATiy i, Qf t/ie iJolours afUriattd lations be oi" dilfereijt kinds, they will be va-f
Surfaces. riously aftected, according to their propori-

J3oyle appears to hav<2 beien the first that tions to the various lengths of the line which

observed the colours of scratches on po- is the difference between the lengths of their
lislred surfaces. Nicwton lias not noticed two paths, and which may b denominated
them. Mazieas and Mr. Brougham have ihe interval of retardation.
•Blade some psperinients on the subject, yet In order that the effect may be the more
.yrjthout deriving any satisfactory conclusion. perceptible, a numlier of pairs of points must
liM »|l the vsriiejies of these jjolours are be united into two parallel lines ; and, if

very easily deduced from this proposition. several such pairs of lines be placed near
JL^t there be, in a given plane, two reflect- each other, they will facilitate the observa-
ing points very near each other, and let the tion. If one of the Jines be made to revolve

plane be so situated that the reflected iuiage lound the other, ?w an .axi^, t\ie djepressioa
i)f a luminous object seen in it may appcaj- below the given plane will be as the sine of
^ocojjncide with the points; then it is obvious the and
iuclina.,tiou ; wijila thp eye and lu-
that the ler^ih of the incident and irefltict^d piinous object remain £,xed, the difference of
jay, taken together, is equal with respect thelengthsof the paths will vary iis this sine.
to both points, considering them a:j capable The i)cst subjects for the experiment aj:e
vol.. IJ. 4l
<)26' -ON THE THEORY OF LIGHT AND COLOURS.

Mr. Co-rentry's exquisite micrometers;

such ConoLtARY n. Of the G&lours of thin
•of tliem as consist of parallel lines drawn on Platen.

glass, at the distance of

one five hundreth When abeam of light falls on two parallel
t)f an inch, are the most convenient. refracting surfaces, the partial reflections

Each of these lines appears under a micro- coincide perfectly in direction ; and, in this

scope to consist of two or more finer lines, case, the interval of retardation, taken' between

exactly parallel, and at the distance of some- tlie surfaces, is to. their distance as twice the

what more than a twentieth of that of the cosine of the angle of refraction to the raJ-

adjacent lines. I placed one of these so

as dius. For, in Plate 14. Fig. 107, drawing AB
to reflect the sun's light at an angle of 45°, and CD perpendicular to the rays, the times
and fixed it in such a manner, that while it of passing through BC and will be equal, AD
revolved round one of the lines as an axis, I and DE
will be half the interval of retarda-

could measure its angular mtKion ;

and I tion ;
but DE is to CE as the sine of DCE to
found, that the brightest red colour occured the radius. Hence, in order that DE rnay
at tlie inclinations 10^:°, 20^°, 32°, and 45°; be constant, or that the same colour may be
of which the ^ihes are as the numbers 1, 2, 3, reflected, the thickness CE must vary as the
and 4. At all other angles also, when the secant of the angle of refraction CED :

sun's light was reilcclcd from the surface, the which agrees exactly with ISewton's experi-
colour vanished with the inclination^' and ments; for the correction which he has intro-
was equal at equal inclinations on either side. duced is
perfectly inconsiderable.
This experiment affords a very strong con- Let the medium between the surfaces be,
firmation of the theory. It is
impossible to riirer than the surrounding mediums ; then

deduce any exi)lanation of it from any hy- the impulse reflected at the second surface,

pothesis hitherto advanced ;

and I believe it meeting a subsequent undulation at the first,
would be invent any other that
difficult to willrender the particles of the rarer medium
account for it. There is a striking the motion of the
would capable of wholly slopping
analogy between separation of colours,
this denser, and destroying the
reflection, (Prop.

and the production of a nmsieal note by suc- 4.) while they themselves will be more
cessive echos from equidistant iron palisades; propelled
than if they had been at
strongly
which I correspond pretty ac-
have found to
rest; and the transmitted light will be in-

curately with the known velocity of sound, creased. So that the colours by reflection
and the distances of the surfaces. will be destroyed, and those by transmission

not improbable that the colours of the

It is rendered more vivid, when the double thick-

integuments of some insects,

and of some nesses, or intervals of retardation, are any
other natural bodies, exhibiting in different multiples of the whole breadths of the undu-

lightsthe most beautiful versatility, may be lations; and at intermediate thicknesses the
found to be of this description, and not to be eflects will be reversed :
according to the
derived from thin plates. In some cases, a Newtonian observations.
or furrow similar If the same proportions be found to hold
single scratch may produce
good with respect to thin plates of a denser
effects, by the reflections of its opposite edges.
 ON THE THEORY OF LIGHT AND COLOURS. 527

medium, which is indeed nol improbable, it related in magnitude as the numbers 8, 7, and
willbe necessary to adopt the corrected de- 6 so that the interval from red to blue is a
;

monstration of Prop. 4. but, at any rate, if fourth. The absolute frequency expressed

a thin plate be interposed between a rarer and in numbers is too great to be distinctly con-

a denser medium, the colours by reflection ceived, but limy be better imagined by a
it

and transmission may be expected to change comparison with sound. If a chord sounding

places. the tenor could be continually bisected 40

c,
From Newton's measures of the thicknesses
times, and should then vibrate, it would afford
the breadth
reflecting the different colours, a yellow green light this being denoted by
:

and duration of their respective undulations

c, the extreme red would be a, and theblued.
may be very accurately determined. The The absolute length and frequency of each
whole visible spectrum appears to be com-
vibratioii is expressed in the table suppos- :

the ratio of tiiree to five, which

prised within
and the ing light to travel in 8| minutes 500 000'
is that of a major sixth in music ;
and 000 000 feet.
undulations of red, yellow, blue, to be
ffaar .MP T1I<X THEORY t>F LIGHT A N D C ItCTUTl 9,

e^e cniinat dwciriminate them from one,) ehkwigp of the

re<iwi!re skich effects frolffl tlier

this contused or duplicated pulse, whose angle of incidence, as are contrary, to the ef-
strongest part precedes, and whose weakest fects observed ; or they are equally deficient

follows, does produce on the retina, tiie with respect to both these circumstances,
sensation of a yeUow. If tiiese surfticBs are atid are inconsistent with the most moderate

furtherremoved asunder, the weaker pulse attention to the principal phenomena.

may become coincident with the" reflection of
the " or next from Corollary hi. OftJie Colours of thick
second," following pulse,
"
the first surface, and lagg behind thatalso, Plates.

and be coincident with the third, fourth, When a beam of light passes through a re-
fifth, sixth, seventh, or eighth ;
so that, if — fracting surface, especially if
imperfectly po-
there be a thin transparent body, that from lished, a portion of it is irregularly scinterod^
the greatest thinness requisite to produce co- and makes the surface visible in all directionsv

lours, does by degrees grow to the greatest but most conspicuously in directions not far

thickness, —the colours shall be so often re- distant from that of the light itself: and, if

peated, as the weaker pulse does lose paces a reflecting surface be placed parallel to the
with its primary or first pulse, and is coinci- refracting surface, this scattered light, as
" And this, well as the principal beam, will be reflected,
dent with a" sub^equeiu pulse.
as it is coincident, or follows from tiie first and there will also be a new dissipation of

hypothesis, 1 took of colours, so upon expe- light, at the return of the beam through the
riment have I found it in multitudes of in- refracting surface. These two portions of
stances that seem prove to 6?.) it." (P. 65. . scattered light will coincide in direction;
This was printed about seven years before and, if the surfaces be of such a form as to

any of Newton's experiments were made. We collect the similar effects, will exhibit rings of

are informed by Newton, that Hooke was colours. The interval of retardation is, here,
afterwards disposed to adopt his
" the difference between the paths of the prin-
sugges-
tion" of the nature of colours ; and yet it cipal beam and of the scattered light be-
does not appear that Hooke ever applied tween the two surfaces ;
of course, wherever
that improvement to his explanation of these the inclination of the scattered light is equal

phenomena, or inquired into the necessary to that of the beam, although in diflerent

consequence of a change of obliquity, upon planes, die interval will' vanish, and all the
his original supposition, otherwise he could undulations will conspire. At other inclina-
not but have discovered a striking coinci- tions, the interval will be the differerice of
dence with the measures laid down by New- the secants from the secant of the inclination
ton from experiment. All former attempts, or angle of refraction of the principal beam.
to explain the colours of thin plates, have From these causes, all the colours of con-
either proceeded on suppositions which, like cave mirrors, observed by Newton and others,
Newton's, would lead us
ex[)ect the to are necessary consequences : and it
appears
greatest irregularities in the direction of the that their production, though somewhat simi-
refracted rays ; or, like Mr. Michell's, would lar, is by no means, as Newton imagined.
 ON^ tH^B flrtl^onT OF LTGWT A'WI>C<)tO'UK9: 02^

idteM1!tcul with production of those 6f thirt

tlife tibflsof ahv MIetilidulation- at tM'0's»t?cdsst^'itf

plates-.
It is indeed stirprisittg', that it did ribl &mt>iy ai<# ri'siJ*,' hy sdind^i lisefe dravtri

occur to so accurate a reasoner, tliat the aertoss, the pjittfe

vt'here the intervals of ret
colours of thin plates are always lost in tardation are in arithmeticid pro2;ressioH,
white light, after ten or twelve alternations, and where similar colours' will be exhibited at
while, in this case,, they are supposed-to bft different distances from the inflecting sub-
distinguishable itftfir
utariy thousiinds. stance. The lesult agrees sufficiently with
the observations of Newton's thiril book, and
GonoLLARY IV. Of Colours by inflection. with those of later writers. But 1 do nW
. VVhatever may be the cause of the inflec- consider the existence of such an atmosphere
tion of light passing through a small aper- as necessar}' tb the explanation of the phe-

ture, the light nearest its centre must be the nomena; the siinple opinion ofGrimaldi andi
least diverted, and the nearest to its sides Hooke, who supposed that inflection arises
the most: another portion of light, falling from the natural tendency of light to diverge,
ver3^ obliquely on the margin of the aper- appearing equally probable.
ture, will be copiously reflected in various
some of which will either Proposition i.x. liadiant Light consists
directions; per-
or very nearly coincide in direction in Undulations of the luminifirous Ether.
fectly'
with the unreflecled light, and having taken This proposition is the general conclusion
a circuitous route, will so interfere with it, as from all the preceding; and it is conceived
to cause an appearance of colours. The that they conspire to prove it, in as satisfac-

length of the two tracks will differ the less, tory a manner, as can possibly be exjiccted
as the direction of the reflected light has been from the nature of the subject, [t is clearly
less changed by its reflection, that is, in the granted by Newton, that there are ethereal
light passing nearest' to tl>e margin; so that .
undulations, y6t he denies that they constitute
the blues will appear in the light nearest the light; but it is shown in the Corollaries
ihadow. The effect will be increased and oi' the last Proiwsition, that all cases of
modified, when the reflected light falls the increase or diminution of light are refer-
within the influence of the opposite edge, so able to an increase or diminution of such un-
as to interfere with the light simply inflected dulations, and that all tiie affections, to

by that also. which the undulations would be liable, are

On
the supposition that inflection is pro- distinctly visible in the phenomena of light;
duced b}' the effect of an ethereal atmosphere, it
may therefore be very logically inferred,

varying as a given power of the distance from that the undulations are light.
a centre, I have constructed a diagram, (Plate A few detached remarks will serve to ob-
14. Fig. 108.) with the assistance of calcula- viate some objections which may be raised
tions similar to those by which the effect of at- against this theory.
determined, show- 1. Newton has advanced the
mospherical refraction is singular re-
ing, by the two pairs of curves, the relative fraction of the Iceland crystal, as an argu-

position of the reflected and unreflected por- ment that the particles of light must be pro-
630 ON THE THEORY OF LIGHT AND COLOURS.

jected corpuscles ; since he thinks it proba- Mr. Bennet has repeated the experiment,
ble that the clifFerent sides of these particles with a much more sensible apparatus, and
are diRercntly attracted by the crystal, and also in the absence of air and very justly in-,
;

since Hiiygens has confessed his inability to fers, from its total failure, an argument in fa-i

account in a satisfactory manner for all the . vour of the uridulatory system of light. (Phil.

phenomena. But contrariiy to what might
have been expected from Newton's usual
accuracy and candour, he has laid down a
new law for the refraction, without giving a
reason for rejecting that of Huygens, which
Mr. Haliy has found to be more accurate
than Newton's ; and, without attempting to
Trans. 1792. 87.) for, granting the utmost
imaginable subtility of the corpuscles of
light, their effects might naturally be ex-
pected to bear some proportion, to the effects
of the much less rapid motions of the electrical
fluid, which are so easily perceptible.
There are some phenomena of the light
3.

deduce from his own system any explana- of solar phosphori, which at first sight might
tion of the more universal and striking ef- seem to favour the corpuscular system; for
fects of doubling spars, he has omitted to instance, its remaining many months as if
observe, that Huygens's most elegant and in- in a latent state, and its subsequent reemis-
genious theory perfectly accords with these sion by the action of heat. But, on further
general effects, in all
particulars, and of consideration, there is no difficulty in sup-
course derives from them additional preten- posing the particles of the phosphori, which
sions to truth this he omits, in order to point
: have been made to vibrate by the action of
out a difficulty, for which only a verbal so- light, to have this action abruptly suspended
lution can be found in his own theory, and by the intervention of cold, whether as con-
which will probably long remain unexplained tracting the bulk of the substance or other-
by any other. wise and again, after the restraint is re-
;

2. Mr. Michell has made some expe- moved, to proceed in their motion, as a
riments, appear to show that the
which spring would do, which had been held fast
rays of light have an actual momentiun, by for a time, in an intermediate stage of its vi-

means of which, a motion is produced when bration ;

nor is it
impossible that heat itself

they fall on a thin plate of copper delicately may, in some circumstances, become in a
suspended. (Priestley's Optics.) But, tak- similar manner latent. (Nicholson's Journal-
ing for granted the exact peipendiculaiity of 11- 399-) But the affections of heat may,
the plate, and the absence of any ascending perhaps, hereafter be rendered more intelli-
current of air, yet since, in every such expe- gible to us ; at present, it seems highly pro-
riment, a greater quantity of heat must be bable, that light differs from heat only in the
communicated to the air, at the surface on frequency of its undulations or vibrations ;
which the light falls, than at the opposite those undulations which are within certain
surface, the excess of expansion must neces- limits, with respect to frequency, being ca-
sarily produce an excess of pressure on the pable of affecting the o])tic nerve, and con-
first surface, and a
very perceptible recession stituting light; and those which are slower,
«f the plate in the direction of the light. and probably stronger, heat
constituting
 ON THE THEORY OF LIGHT AND COLOURS. 631

fonly that light and heal occur to us, each

; presumed, that henceforth the second and
in two predicanients, ilie vibiatoiy or per- third books of Newton's 0[)tics will be con-

manent, and the undulatory or transient sidered as more fully understood than the

state; vibratory light being the minute mo- first has hitherto been ; but, if it should ap-
tion of ignited bodies, or of solar phospbori, pear impartial judges, that additional
to

and undulatory or radiant light, tbe motion evidence is

wanting fur the establishment of
of the ethereal medium excited by these vi- the theory, it will be easy to enter more mi-

brations; vibratory iieat being a motion, to nutely into the details of various experiments,
M'hich all material substances are liable, and to show the insuperable dilhculties at-
and w hich is more or less permanent ;
and tending the Newtonian doctrines, which,
iindnlHtory heat that motion of the same without necessity, it would be tedious and in-
ethereal medium, which has been shown by vidious to enumerate. The merits of their

Hoffmann, Buftbn, Mr. King, and M. Pic- author, in natural philosophy, are great be-

tet, to be as capable of reflection as light, yond all contest or comparison ; his optical
ind by Dr. Herschel to be capable of sepa- discover}' of the com])osition of white light
rate refraction. (Phil. Trans. 1800. 284.) would alone have immortalised his name ;

How much readily heat is communi-

more and the very arguments, which tend to over-
cated by the free access of colder substances, throw his s}'stem, give the strongest proofs
than either by radiation or by transmission of the admirable accuracy of his experi-
through medium, has been shown
a ([uiescent ments.

by the valuable experiments of Count llum- Sufficient and decisive as these arguments
ford. It is easy to conceive that some sub- appear, it cannot be superfluous to seek for
stances, permeable to liglit, may be unfit for further confirmation ; which may with con-
the transmission of heat, in the same manner siderable confidence be expected, from an
as particular substances may transmit some experiment very ingeniously suggested by
kinds of light, while they are opaque with .
Professor Robison, on the refraction of the

respect to others. light returning to

us from the opposite mar-
On tiie whole it
appears, that the few op- gins of Saturn's ring for, on the corpuscu-
;

tical phenomena which admit of explanation lar theory, the ring must be considerably

by the corpuscular system, are equally con- distorted when viewed through an achroma-
sistent with this tlieory ; that many others, ticprism a similar distortion ought also to
:

which have long been known, but never be observed in the disc of Jupiter ; but, if it
understood, become by these means perfectly be found that an equal deviation is produced

intelligible ;
and that several new facts are in the whole light reflected from these planets,

found be thus only reducible to a perfect

to there can scarcely be any remaining hope to

analogy with other facts, and to the simple exjdain the aflTections of light, by a compa-
principles of the undulatory system. It is rison with the motions of projectiles.
 J

PLATE 14.

Fig. 105. The progress of a series of undulations admitted through an aperture.

Fig. 106. Tiie difference of the paths of the light reflected from two points situated near
each other.

Fig. 107. The difference of the paths of tlie light reflected from the opposite surfaces of a
thin plate.

Fig. 108. The paths of two portions of hght supposed to pass through an inflecting atmo-
sphere.
 Voi..a.p.ff3i.

PLATE 14.

Pia?. io5.

J*ub. by J. JohnsmL .London, ijuly i8o0'.

Joseph SkeieaTt sculp.
 VIII. AN ACCOUNT OF SOME CASES
OP THE

PRODUCTION OF COLOURS,
NOT HITHERTO DESCRIBED.
BY

THOMAS YOUNG, M. D. F. R. S.

PROFESSOR OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY IN THE ROYAL INSTITUTION.

FROM THE PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS.

Read before the Royal Society, Juli/ 1, 1802.~^^

W HATEVER
opinion may be entertained
of the theory of light and colours which I
books of Newton's Optics, as well as some
others not mentioned by Newton. But it is
have hitely had the honour of submitting to still more satisfactory to observe its con-
the Royal Society, it must at any rate be al- formity to other facts, which constitute new
lowed, that it has given birth to tlie discovery and distinct classes of phenomena, and which
of a simple and general law, capable of ex- could scarcely have agreed so well with an}'

plaining a number of the phenomena of co- anterior law, if that law had been erroneous
loured light, which, without this law, would or imaginary these are, the colours of fibres,
:

remain insulated and unintelligible. The and the colours of mixed plates.
law " wherever two As
is, that portions of the I was observing the appearance of the
same light arrive at the eye by different fine parallel lines of light which are seen upon
routes, either exactly or very nearly in the the margin of an olyect held near the eye, so
same direction, the light becomes most in- as to intercept the greater part of the light of a

tense when the difference of the routes is

any distant luminous object, and which are pro-
multiple of a certain length, and least intense duced by the fringes caused by the inflection
in the intermediate state of the interfering of light already known, I observed that they

portions; and this length is different for light were sometimes accompanied by coloured
of different colours." fringes, much broader and tnoredistinct; and
I have already shown, in detail, the suf- I soon found, that these broader fringes were
of this law, for explaining all the
ficiency occasioned by the accidental interposition of a

phenomena described in the second and third hair. In order to make them more distinct.

VOL. II. 4 M.
634 ACCOUNT OF SOME CASES
I employed a hmse liair ; but they were then
no longer visible. With a fibre of- wool,
on the contrary, they became very large
and conspicuous: and, with a single silk-
worni's thread, their magnitude was so much
into a surface, of which the breadth was de-
termined by the distance of the hair and the
magnitude of the hole, independently of the
temporary aperture of the pupil. When
the hair approached so near to the direction

increased, that two or three of them seemed of the margin of a candle that the inflected
to occupy the whole field of view. They ap- light was suflSciently copious to produce a
peared to extend on each side of the candle, sensible effect, the fringes
began to appear;
inthe same order as the colours of thin plates, and it was easy to estimate the proportion of

seen by transmitted light. It occurred to me their breadth to the apparent breadth of the
that their cause must be sought in the inter- hair, across the image of which they ex-
ference of two portions of light, one reflected tended. I found that six of tlie
brightest red
from the fibre, the other bending round its fringes, nearly at equal distances, occupied
opposite side, and at last coinciding nearly the whole of that image. The breadth of the
in direction with the former portion; that, aperture was tIoo^, and its distance from the
accordingly as both portions deviated more hair —, of an inch ; the diameter of the
from a rectilinear direction, the difference of hair was less than-;-!-^ of an inch ;
as nearly

the lengths oftheir paths would become gra- it was

as I could ascertain, ^^. Hence, we
dually greater and greater,
and would conse- have Tws^ for the deviation of the first red
quently produce the appearances
of colour .at the distance 4^5 and, as t^oI
fringe ;

•usual in such cases ; that, supposingthem to be To^ro- '•g'o-o •it-soooo*. or fxTTT '^r the dif-
inflected at right angles, the difference would ference of the routes of the red light, where
amount nearly to the diameter of the fibre, it was most intense. The measure deduced
and that this difference must consequently be from Newton's experiments is t^s^- I
smaller as the fibre became smaller and, the ;
thought this coincidence, with only an error
number of fringes within the limits of a right of one ninth of so minute a quantity, suffi-
angle becoming smaller, that their angular ciently perfect to warrant completely the ex-
distances would Consequently become greater,
planation of the phenomenon, and even to
and the whole appearance would be dilated. render a repetition of the experiment un-
It was easy to calculate, that, for the light necessary for there are several circum-
;

least inflected, the difference of the paths stances which make it difircult to calculate
would be to the diameter of the fibre, very much more what ought to be th^ re-
precisely
nearly as the deviation of the ray, at any sult of the measurement.
point, from the rectilinear direction, to its dis- When a number of fibres of the same kind,
tance from the fibre. for instance, those of a uniform lock of wool,
I therefore made a rectangular hole in a are held near to the eye, we see an appear-
card, and bent its ends so as to support a hair ance of halos surrounding a distant candle ;

parallel to the sides of the hole :

then, upon but their brilliancy, and even their existence,

applying the eye near the hole, the hair of depends on the uniformity of the dimensions
course appeared dilated by indistinct vision of the fibres; and they are larger as the fibres
 OF tHE PRODUCTION OF COLOURS. 63i

are smaller. obvious that they are the

It is
by reflection, I found that these new fringes
immediate consequences of the coincidence were always in the same direction as the other
of a number of fringes of the same size, fringes, but many times larger. By examin-
which, as the, fibres are arranged in all ima- ing the glasses with a magnifier, I
perceived
ginable directions, must necessarily surround whei'ever these fringes were visible, the
th.-jt

the luminous object at equal distances on all moisture was intermixed with portions of air,
sides, and constitute circular fringes. producing an appearance similar to dew. I
There can be little doubt that the coloured then supposed that the origin of the colours

atmospherical halos are of the same kind ;

was the same as that of the colours of halos;
their appearance must depend on the exist- but, on a more minute examination, I found
ence of a number of particles of water, of that the magnitude of the portions of air and
equal dimensions, and in a proper position, Wfiterwas by no means uniform, and that
with respect to the luminary and to the eye. the explanation was therefore inadmissible.
As there is no natural limit to the magnitude It was,however, easy to find two portions of
of the spherules of water, we may expect light sufficient for the production of these
these halos to vary without limit in their dia- fringes; for, the light transmitted through
meters"; and, accordingly, Mr. Jordan has the water, moving in it with a velocity dif-
observed that their dimensions are exceed- ferent from that of the light passing through

ingly various, and has remarked that they tlie interstices filled onlj' with air, the two

frequently change during the time of obser- portions would interfere with each other, and
vation. Mr. Jordan supposes that they de- produce effects of colour according to the

pend on the joint effect of two neighbouring general law. The ratio of the velocities, in
but it has been shown that a unifor- water and in air, is that of 3 to 4; the fringes
drops;
mity of dimensions is necessary for their pro- ought therefore to appear where the thickness
duction, and no such uniformity can possibly is 6 times as
great as that which corresponds
exist in the distances of the drops from each to the same colour in the common case of
other. thin plates ; and, upon making the experi-

The lines, which are seen within the
of a hair, are produced nearly in the same
manner as these colours of fibres, or rather
they are the beginning of the series, derived
from two portions of light inflected into the
shadow, instead of one inllected and one re-
shadow ment with a plain glass and a lens slightly
convex, I found the sixth dark circle actually
of the same diameter as the first in the new
fringes. The colours are also very easily pro-
duced, when butter or tallow is substituted
for water; and the rings then become smaller,

flected portion. on account of the greater refractive density

1 first noticed the colours of mixed plates, of the oils : but, when water is added, so as to

in candle through two pieces of

at a fill
up the interstices of the oil, the rings are
looking
very mucfi enlarged ; for here
between the diff"erence
plate glass, with a httle moisture
them. I observed an appearance of fringes only of the velocities 'n\ water and in oil is to

common colours of thin be considered, and this is much smaller thaa

resembling the
for the fringes the diifereuce between 'an- and water.
plates; and, upon looking
636 ACCOUNT OP SOME CASES
It appears to be necessary for theproduc- of light the greater, the rarer the medium ;
is

toon of these colours, that the glasses be held and there is also a condition annexed to this
nearly in a right line between the eye and explanation of the colours of mixed plates, as
the common termination of a dark and lu- as well as to that of the colours of simple thin

minous object: the portion of the rings, seen plates, wli ich involves
another part of the same
on the dark ground, is then more distinct theory; that is, where one of the portions
that

than the remaining portion ; and, instead of of light has been reflected at the surface of a

being continuations of the rings, they exhi- rarer medium, it must be supposed to be re-

bit every where opposite colours, so as to re- tarded one half of the appropriate interval ;
semble the colours of common thin plates for instance, in the central black spot of a
seen by reflection, and not by transmission. soap bubble, where the actual lengths of the
In order to understand this circumstance, paths very nearly coincide, but the effect is
we must consider, that where a dark object the same as if one of the portions had been
(as A, Plate 15. Fig. 1 1 2.) is placed behind the so retarded as to destroy the other. From
glasses, the whole of the light, which comes to considering the nature of this circumstance,
the eye, is either refracted through the edges I ventured to predict, that if the two reflec-

of the drops, (as the rays B, C,) or reflected tions were of the same kind, made at the
(as D, E ;) while the
from the internal surface, surfaces of a thin plate, of a density inter-

light,which passes through those parts of the mediate between the densities of the me-
glasses which are on the side opposite to diums containing it, the effect would be re-
the dark object, consists of rays refracted versed, and the central spot, instead of black,
as before through the edges, (as F, G,) would become white; and I have now the
or simply passing through the fluid (as pleasure of stating, that I have fully verified
H, J..)
The respective combinations of this conclusion, by interposing a drop of oil
these portions- of light exhibit series of of sassafras between a prism of flint glass and
colours in diflierent orders, since the inter- a lens of crown glass the central spot seen
:

nal reflection modifies the interference of the by reflected light was white, and surrounded
jays onthe side of the dark object, in the
by a dark ring. It was however necessary to

same manner as in the common colours of use some force, in order to produce a con-
thin plates, seen by reflection. When no tact sufficiently intimate ;
and the white
dark object near, both these series of co- the same de-
spot differed, even at
is in
last,
lours are produced at once ; and since
they gree from perfect whiteness, as the black
are always of an opposite nature at
any spot usually does from perfect blackness.
given thickness of a plate, they neutralise There are also some irregularities attending
each other, and constitute white light. the exhibited in this manner by
phenomena
In applying the general law of interfer- different substances,
refracting especially
ence to these colours^ as well as to those of when the reflection is total, which deserve
thin plates already known, further investigation.
it is
impossible to
avoid a supposition, which is a part of the The colours of mixed plates suggested to
undulatory theory, that is, that the velocity me an idea, which appears to lead to an ex-
 OF THE PRODUCTION OF COLOURS. 637

of colours by re- he necessary, in order lo warrant our con-

planation of the dispersion
fraction, perhaps more simple and satisfactory clusions, to be provided with accurate mea-
than that which I advanced in the last Bakerian sures of the refractive and dispersive jjowers
lecture. We may suppose that every refrac- of various substatices, for rays of all de-
tive medium transmits the unduhitions coii- scriptions.

stitutin*^ hght two separate portions, one

in Dr. Wollaston's very interesting observa^

passing tlirough its ultimate

particles, and tions would furnish very great assistance in
ihe other through its pores and that these
: this inquiry, when compared with the sepa-

portions reunite continually, after each suc- ration of colours by thin plates. I have re-
cessive separation, the one having preceded peated experiments on the spectrum will*
his

the other by a very minute but constant in- perfect success, and have made some at-
terval, depending on the regular arrange- tem[)ts procure comparative measures
to

ment of the particles of a ho:.iogeneous me- from thin plates; and I have found that, as
dium. Now, if these two portions were al- Sir Isaac Newton lias already observed, the

ways equal, each point of the undulations, re- blue and violet light is more dispersed by re-

sulting from their reunion,

would always be fraction, than in proportion to the differ-
fourid lialF way between tlie places of the ence of the appropriate dimensions deduced

corresponding point in the separate portions; froui the phenomena of thin plates. Hence
but, supposing the preceding portion to be it
happens, that when a Une of the light, pro-
the smaller, the newly combined undulation ceeding to form an image of the rings of co-
will be less advanced than if both had been lours of thin plates, is
intercepted by a prism,
difference of its place
equal, and the and an actual picture
will formed, resembling
is

depend, not only on the difference of the- the scale delineated by Newton from theory,

lengths of the two routes, which will be con- for estimating the colours of particles of

stant for all the undulations, but also on the given dimensions, the oblique spectrums,
law and magnitude of those undulations ;
so formed by the different colours of each series,
that the larger undulations will be somewhat are not straight, but curved, the lateral re-
further advanced after each reunion than the fraction of the prism separating the violet end
smaller ones, and, the same operation re- more widely than the red. The thicknesse?,

curring at every particle of the medium, the corresponding to the extreme red, the line of
whole progress of the larger undulations vvill yellow, bright green, bright blue, aiid ex-
be more rapid than thatol'the smaller; hence treme violet, I found to be inversely as the
the deviation, in consequence of the retard- numbers 27, 35, 40, and 45, lespectively.
.30,

ation of the motion of light in a denser me- Ir» consequence of Dr. Wollaston's correc-

dium,, will of course be greater for the tion of the description of the prismatic spec-

smaller than for the larger undulations. As- trum, compared with these observations, it
suming the law of the harmonic curve for beconses necessary to modify the supposition
the motions of the particles, we might with- that 1 advanced in the last Bakerian lecture,
out much
difficulty reduce this conjecture to respecting the proportions of the sympathe-
a comparison with experiment ; but it would tic fibres of the retina ; substituting red,
63S ACCOUNT OF SOME CASES OF THE PRODUCTIOy OF COLOURS.
caiion of light and experiments upon this
green, and violet, for red, yellow, blue, and, ;

aud the numbers 7, G, and 5, for 8, 7, and 6. subjectmight te«d greatly to establish the
The same prismatic analysis of
the colours Newtonian opinion, that the colours of all
of thin plates appears to furnish a satisfac- natural bodies are similar in their origin to
subdivision of the those of thin plates ; an opinion which ap-
tory explanation of the
lightof the lower part of a candle for, in :
pears to do the highest honour to the saga-
fact, the light, transmitted tlirough every part city of its author, and indeed to form a very
of a thin plates is divided in a similar man- considerable step in our advances towards an
ner into distinct portions, increasing in num- acquaintance with the intimate constitution
ber with the thickness of the plate, until they and arrangement of material substances.
become too minute to be visible. At the I have lately had an
opportunity of con-
thickness corresponding to the ninth or tenth firming my former observations on the dis-

portion of red hght, the number of portions persive powers of the eye. 1 find that, at the

of different colours is five ;

and their pro- respective distances of 10 and 15 inches, the

portions, as exhibited by refraction, are extreme red and extreme violet rays are si-
a
nearly the same as in the light of candle, milarly refracted, the difference being ex-
the violet being the broadest. have only We pressed by a focal length of 30 laches. Now
to suppose each particle of tallow to be, at the interval between red and yellow;!* about

evaporation, of such dimensions iis to

its first one fourth of the whoJe spectrum; conse-

produce the same effect as the thin plate of quently, a focal length of 120 inches ex-
air at this point, where it is about —o Jts^ of presses a power equivalent to the dispersion
an inch in thickness, and to reflect, or per- of the red and yellow, and this differs but
little from 132, which was the result of the
haps rather to transmit, the mixed light pro-
duced by the incipient combustion around it, observation already described.
•
I do not
and we shall have a light completely resem- know that the^e experiments are more accu-
blinsthat which Dr. VVollaston has observed. rate than the former one ;
but I have repeated
There appears to be also a fine line of strong them several times under different circum-
and have no doubt that the
yellow light, separate from the general spec- stances, I dis-

trum, prin(;ipal!y derived from the most su- persion of coloured light in the human eye is
perficial combustion at the margin of the nearly such as I have stated it. It may also

flame, iind increasing in quantity as the be ascertained very accurately, by looking,

flame ascends. This yellow light is rendered through an aperture of known dimensions, at
much more conspicuous by putting a few the image of a point dilated by a prism into

grains of salt ou the wick of the candle, and a spectrum, and measuring the angle formed
it is, not
improbably, always derived from by its sides on account of the difference of
some salt contained in the tallow. Similar refrangibility of the rays ;
and this method
circumstances might undoubtedly be found seems to indicate a greater dispersive power
ju other cases of the production or modifi- than the former.
 IX. EXPERIMENTS AND CALCULATIONS
RELATIVE TO

PHYSICAL OPTICS.
BY

THOMAS YOUNG, M.D. F.R.S.

FROM THE PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS.

Read before the Royal Society, November 24, 1803.

shutter, and covered it with a piece of thick

1. EXPERIMENTAL DEMONSTRATION OF paper, which I perforated with a fine needle.
THE GENERAL LAW OF THE INTERFER- For greater convenience of observation, t
ENCE OF LIGHT. placed a small looking glass without the win-
dow, shutter, in such a position as to reflect
JLn making some experiments on the fringes the sun's light, in a direction nearly hori-
of colours accompanying shadows, I have zontal, upon the opposite wall, and to cause
found so simple and so demonstrative a proof the cone of diverging light to pass over a

of the general law of the interference of two table, on which were several little screens of

which have already en- card paper. 1 brought into the sunbeam a
portions of light,
I

deavoured to establish, that I think it

right slip of card, about
one thirtieth. of an inch
to lay Royal Society a short
before the in breadth, and observed its shadow, either
statement of the facts, which appear to me on the wall, or on other cards held at dif-

to be thus decisive. The proposilion, on which Besides the fringes of co-

ferent distances.

1 mean to insist at present, is simply this, lours on each side of the sh^idow, the shjidow

that fringes of colours are produced by the itself was divided by similar parallel fringes,
interference of two portions of light; and I of smaller dimensions, differing in number,
think it will not be denied by the most preju- according to the distance at which the sha-
diced, that the assertion is
proved by the dow was observed, but leaving the middle of
I am about to relate, which may the shadow always white. Now these fringes
experiments
be repeated with great ease, whenever the were the joint effects of the portions of light
sun shines, and without any other apparatus passing on each side of the slip of card, and
than is at hand to every one. inflected, or rather diflracted, into the sha-

Exper, 1 . 1 made a small hole in a window dow. For, a little screen being placed either
'«40 EXPERIMENTS AND CALCULATIONS.
before tlie cavil, or a few inches behind it, fringes are also the joint effect of the light
tlie edge of its shadow
«o as either to throw whigh is inflected directly towards the sha-
on the margin of the card, or to receive on dow, from each of the two outlines of the
its own margin the extremity of the shadow object. For, if a screen be placed within a
of the card, all the fringes which had be- few inches of the object, so as to receive
fore been observed in the shadow on the only ene of the edges of the shadow, the
wall immediately disappeared, although whole of the fringes will disappear. If, on
vthe light inflected on the other side was the contrary, the rectangular point of the
allowed to retain its course, and screen be opposed to the point of the sha-
although
this light must have undergone any modi- dow, 60 as barely to receive the angle of the
fication tliat the proximity of the other edge shadow on extremity, the fringes will re-
its

of the slip of card might have been ca- main undisturbed.

pable of occasioning. When the interposed
II. COMPARISON OF MEASURES, DEDUCED
screen was at a greater distance behind the
FROM VARIOUS EXPERIMENTS.
narrow card, it was necessary to plunge it

more deeply into the shadow, in order to If we now proceed to examine the dimen-
extinguish the parallel lines; for here the sions of the fringes, under different circum-

ligiit,
diffracted from the edge of the object, stances, we may calculate the differences of
had entered further into the shadow, in its the lengths. of the paths described
by the
way towards the fringes. Nor was it for portions of light, which have thus been
want of a sufficient intensity of light, that proved to be concerned in producing those
one of the two portions was incapable of pro- fringes ; and we shall find, that where tlie

ducing the fringes alone; for, when t:hey lengths are equal, the light always remains
were both uninterrupted, the lines appeared, white; but that, where either the brightest
ijvenif the intensity was reduced to one tenth light, or the light of any given colour, disap-
or one twentieth. peiurs and reappears, a first, a second, or a

iixjKr. 2. The crested fringes, described by third time, the differences of thelengths of
the ingenious and accurate Grimaldi, afford the paths of the two portions are in arithme-
an elegant variation of the preceding expe- tical progression, as
nearly as we can expect
riment, and an interesting example of a experiments of this kirwl to
agree with each
calculation grounded on it. When a sha- other. compare, in this point of
I shall

dow formed by an object which has a rec-

is view, the measures deduced from several ex-

tangular terminiaion, besides the usual ex- periments of Newton, and from some of my
ternal fringes, there are two or three alterna- own.
.tions of colours, beginning from the line In the eighth and ninth observations of
which bisects the angle, disposed on each the third book of Newton's
Optics, some ex-
side of it, in curves, which are convex to- periments are related, which, together with
wards the bisecting line, and which converge the third observation, will furnish us with
insome degree towards it, as they become the data necessary for the calculation. Two
more remote liom the angular poini. These knives were placed, with their edges meeting
 RELATIVE TO PHYSICAL OPTICS. 641

at a very acute angle^ in a beam of the sun's the first

disappearance of the brightest light,
light, admitted through
a small aperture; as it is
expressed in the fourth line. The se-
and the point of concourse of the two first cond Table contains the results of a simi-
dark bordering the shadows of the re-
lines, lar calculation, from Newton's observations

spective knives, was observed at various dis- on the shadow of a hair and the third, ;

tances. The results of six observations are from some experiments of my own, of the
expressed in the first three lines of the first same nature ;
the second bright line being
Table. On the supposition that the dark line supposed to correspond to a double interval,
is produced by the first interference of the the second dark line to a triple interval,

light reflected from the edges of

the knives, and the succeeding lines to depend on a con-
with the light passing in a straight line be- tinuation of the progression. The unit of all
tween them, we may assign, by calculating the Tables is an inch.
the difference of the two paths, the interval for

Table I. Obi. g. N.

Distance of the knives from the aperture JOh

Distances of the paper from the
knives . .
\\, 3\, 8TJ 32, 96, 131.
Distances between the edges of
the knives, opposite to the

point of concourse . .012, .020, .034, .057, .081 .087.

Interval of disappearance .0000122, .0000155, .0000182, .00001G7, .0000166, .0000166.

Table Obs. 3. N.

Breadth of the hair .

Distance of the hair from the aperture

. ..... II.

2.

144
To"

Distancesof the scale from the aperture 150, 252.

*
(Breadths of the shadow .
T4» y)
Breadth between the second pair of bright lines
Interval of disappearance, or half the difference of the paths .0000151, .0000173.
4
Breadth between the third pair of bright lines 7T»
Interval of disappearance, i of the difference .0000150, .0000143.

Table III. Eiper. 5.

Breadth of the object . . . . ; .4r,4.

Distance of the object fiorn the aperture 125.

Distance of the wall from the aperture 250.
Distance of the second pair of darkUnjes from each other 1.1 67.

Interval of disappearance, 4-
of the difference . , .0000149.

vol. If. 4 o
6i2 EXPERIMENTS AND CALCULATIONS

Exper. 4.
Breadth of the wire .083.
Distance of the wire from the aperture .32.
Distance of the wall from the aperture 250.
(Breadth of the shadow, by three measurements .815, 826, or .827 ; mean, .823.)
Distance of the first pair of darlv hues 1.165, 1.170, or 1.160; mean, 1.165.
Tnterval of disappearance .0000194.
Distance of the secontl pair of dark lines 1.402, 1.395, or 1.400 ; mean, 1.399-
Interval of di:^appearance .0000137.
Distance of the third pair of dark lines
Interval of disappearance .... 1.594, 1.580, or 1.585
. \ . ...
; mean, 1.586.
, .0000128.

It appears, from five of the six observations opinion but I conjecture that it is a devia-
;

of the first Table, in which the distance of tion of some of the light concerned, from the

the shadow was varied from about 3 inches rectilinear direction assigned to it, arising
to 1 1 feet, and the breadth of the fringes either from its natural diffraction, by which
was increased in the ratio of 7 to 1, that the the magnitude of the shadow is also enlarged,

diiference of the routes, constituting the in- or from some other unknown cause. If we
terval of disappearance, varied but one imagined the shadow of tbp wire, and the
eleventh at most and that, in three out of
; fringes nearest it, to be so contracted, that
the five, it
agreed with the mean, either ex- the motion of the light bounding the sha-

actly, or within t4o part.

Hence we are dow might be rectilinear, we should thus
warranted in inferring, that the interval, ap- make a sufficient compensation for this de-

propriate to the extinction of the brightest viation ;

but it. is difficult to point out what
light, is either accurately or very nearly con- precise track of the light would cause it to

stant. require this correction.

But it
may be inferred, from a compari- The mean of thfc three experiments, which
son of all the other observations, that when appear to have been least affected by this un-
the obliquity of the reflection is
very great, known deviation, gives .0000127 for the in-
some circumstance takes place, which causes terval appropriate to the disappearance of

the interval thus calculated to be somewhat the brightest light ;

and it
may be inferred,

greater: thus, in the eleventh line of the that if they had been wholly exempted from
third Table, it comes out one sixth greater its effects, the measure would have been
than the mean
of the five already mentioned. somewhat smaller. Now the analogous in-
On the other hand, the mean of two of terval, deduced from the experiments of
Newton's experiments and one of mine, is a Newton on thin plates, is .00001 12, which is

result about one fourth less than the former. about one eighth less than the former result ;

With respect to the nature of this circum- and this appears to be a coincidence fully
stance, I cannot at present form a decided sufficient to authorise us to attribute these
 RELATIVE TO PHVSICAL OPTICS. 643

two classes of phenomena to the same cause. fringes ;

and this conclusion agrees perfectly
It isvery easily shown, with respect to the with the observation. But it must be re-
colours of thin plates, that each kind of light marked, that the parts near the outlines of the
disappears and re^ippears, where the differ- shadow are so much shaded off, as to render
ence of the routes of two of its
portions are the character of the curve somewhat less de-
in arithmetical progression ; and we have cidedly marked where it approaches to its
seen, that the same law may be in general axis. These fringes have a slight resemblance
inferred from the phenomena of diffracted to the hyperbolic fringes observed by New-
light, even independently of the analogy. ton ;
but the analogy is only distant.
The distribution of the colours is also so
similar in both cases, as to point immedi- HI. APPHCATION TO THE SUPERNUME-
RARY RAINBOWS.
ately to a similarity in the causes. In the
thirteenth observation of the second part of The repetitions of colours, sometimes ob-
the first book, Newton relates, that the in-
served within the common rainbow, and de-
terval of the glasses where the rings appeared scribed in the Pliilosophical Transactions, by
in red light, was to tlie interval where they Dr. Langvvith and Mr. Daval, admit also a
appeared in violet light, as 14 to 9 ; and, in the
very easy and complete explanation from the
eleventh observation of the third book, that same principles. Dr. Pemberton has at-
the distances between the fringes, under the
tempted to point out an analogy between
same circumstances, were the 22d and 27th these colours and those of thin plates; but
of an inch. Hence, deducting the breadth of the irregular reflection from the posterior
the hair, and taking the squares, in order to surface of the drop, to which alone he attri-
find the relation of the difference of the butes the appearance, must be far too weak
routes, we have the proportion of 14 to 9|, to visible effects. In order to
produce any
which scarcely differsfrom the proportion understand, the phenomenon, we have only
observed in the colours of the thin plate. to attend to the two portions of
light which
We may readily determine, from this ge- are exhibited in the common diagrams ex-
neral principle, tlie form of the crested
planatory of the rainbow, regularly reflected
fringes of Grimaldi, already described; for from the posterior surface of the drop, and
it will
appear that, under the circumstances of
crossingeach other in various duections, till, at
the experiment related, the points in which
the angle of the greatest deviation, they.coin-
the differences of the lengths of the paths cide with each other, so as to produce, by the
described by the two portions of light are
greater intensity of this redoubled light, the
equal to a constant quantity, and in which, common rainbow of 41 degrees. Otherparts of
therefore, the same kinds of light ought to these two portions will quit the drop in direc-
appear or disappear, are always found in tions parallel to each other ;
and these would
equilateral hyperbolas, of which the axes exhibit a continued diffusion of fainter light,
coincide with the outlines of the shadow, and for .23° within the bright termination which
the asymptotes nearly with the diagonal line. forms the rainbow, but for the general law
Such, therefore, must be the direction of the of interference, which, as in other similar
644 iXPEHlMENTS AVD CAJXUXATIONS

<tises, divides the light into concentric lower to a more dusky green under this :

rings; magnitude of these rings de-

the were alternately two arches of reddish purple,

pending on that of the drop, according to and two of green under all, a faint appear-
:

the difference of time occupied in the pas- ance of another arch of purple, which va-
which thus proceed nished and returned several times so quick,
sage of the two portions,
in parallel directions tothe spectatoi-'s eye, that \jc could not readily fix our
eyes upon
after having been differently refracted
and it. Thus the order of the colours was, i. Red,
reflected within the drop. This difl'erence
orange colour, yellow, green, light blue, deep
varies at first, nearly as the square
of the an- blue, purple, n. Light green, dark green,

gular distance from the primitive rainbow: and, purple, in. Green, purple. <v. Green, faint
if the first additional red be at the distance vanishing purple. You see" we had here foiu-
of 2° from the red of the rainbow, so as to orders of coloui-s, and perhaps the
beginning
interfere a with the primitive violet, the
little of a fifth for I make no question but that
:

fourth ad.litional red will be at the distance what I call the purple, is a mixture of the
of nearly 2° more ;
and the intermediate co- purple of each of the upper series with the
lours will occupy a space nearly equal to the red of the next below it, and the
green a
original rainbow. In order to produce this mixture of the intermediate colours. I send

effect, the drops must

be about of an inch, ^ you not account barely upon the credit
this

or .013, in diameter: it would be sufficient of my own

eyes ; for there was a clergyman
ifthey were between yV and^.
The reason, and fourother gentlemen in company, whom
that such supernumerary colours are not often 1 desired to view the colours attentively, who

seen, must be , that it does not often happen all

that drops so nearly equal are found together:
but, that this may sometimes happen,
is not
agreed, that they appeared in the manner
that I h ave now described There are two.
things
which well deserve to be taken notice of, as

in itself at all improbable: we measure even they may perhaps direct us, in some mea-
medicines by dro[>ping them from a phial, sure, to the solution of this curious pheno-
and it may easily be conceived that the drops, menon. The first is, that the breadth of the
formed by natural operations, may sometimes first series so far exceeded that of any of the
be as uniform, as any that can be produced rest, that, as near as I could judge, it was

by art. How theory coincides

accurately this equal to thein all taken together. The se-

with the observation, may best be deter- cond is, that I have never observed these in-

mined from Dr. Langwith's own words. ner orders of colours in the lower parts of the

"August the 21st, 1722, about half an rainbow, though they have often been incom-
hour evening, weather tem-
past five in the parably more vivid than the upper parts, un-
der which the colours have appeared. I have
perate, wind at north east, the appearance
was as follows. The colours of the primary taken notice of this so very often, that 1 can
rainbow wer-e as usual, only the purple very hardly look upon it to be accidental; and,
much inclining to red, and well defined : if itshould prove true in general, it will bring
under this was an arch of green, the upper the disquisition into a narrow compass ; for

part of which inclined to a bright yellow, the it will show that this effect depends upon
 KELATIVE TO PHYSICAL OPTICS. 6*5

some property vvliit^h the drops retain, whilst happen to be united ;

that these qualities

they are in the upper part of the air, but lose succeed each other alternately in successive
as they come lower, and are more mixed with concentric superficies, at distances which
•one another." Phil. Trans. XXXII. 243. are constant for the same light, passing

From a consideration of" the nature of the through the same medium. From the agree-
secondary rainbow, of 54°, it may be in- ment of the measures, and from the simi-
ferred, that if any such supernumerary co- larity of the phenomena, we may conclude,
lours were seen attending this rainbow, they that these intervals are the same as are con-

would necessarily be external to

it, instead cerned the production of the colours of
in

of internal: and Mr. Dicquemare has actually thin plates ; but these are shown, by the ex-

recorded an observation of this kind. The periments of Newton, to be the smaller, the
circles, sometimes seen encompassing the denser the medium ; and, since it may be
observer's shadow in a mist, are perhaps presumed, from the impossibility of imagining
more neai'ly related to the common colours any way in which their number can be
of thin plates as seen by reflection. changed, that it must necessarily remain un-
altered in a given quantity of light, it follows
IV. AKGUMENTATIVE INFERENCE RESPECT- of course, that light moves more slowly in
ING THE NATURE OF LIGHT. a denser, than in a rarer medium and thiri :

The experiment of Grimaldi, on the

being granted, must he allowed, that re-
it

crested fringes within the shadow, together fraction is not the efltct of an attractive force
with several others of his observations, equal- directed to a denser medium. The advocates
ly important, has been left unnoticed by New- for the projectile hypothesis of light must
ton. Those who are attached to the New- consider, which link in this chain of reason-
tonian theory of light, or to the hypotheses of ing they may judge to be the most feeble;
modern opticians, founded on views still less for, hitherto, I have advanced in this paper
enlarged, would do well to endeavour to no general hypothesis whatever. But, since
imagine any thing an explanation of
like we know that sound diverges in concentric
these experiments, derived from their own superficies, and that musical sounds consist
doctrines; and, if fail in the attempt, '
of opposite
they qualities, capable of neutralising
to refrain at least from idle declamation each other, and succeeding at certain equal
is founded on the
against a system, which intervals, which aredifterent according to the
of its application to all these facts, difference of the note, we are fully authorised
accuracy
and to a thousand others of a similar nature. to conclude, that there must be some strong
From experiments and calculations
the resemblance between the nature of sound and
which have been premised, we may be al- that of light.
lowed to infer, that homogeneous light, at Ihave not, in the course of these investiga-
certain equal distances in the direction of its tions, found any reason to suppose the pre-
motion, is possessed of opposite qualities, ca- sence of such an inflecting medium, in the

pable of neutralising or destroying each other, -neighbourhood of dense substances, as I. was

and of extinguishing the light, where they formerly inclined to attribute to them; and,
646 EXPERIMENTS AND CALCULATIONS

upon considering the phenomena of theaber- whether or no the figures of the globules of
ation of the stars, I am disposed to believe, blood, delineated by Mr. Hewson in the Phi-
tliatthe luminiferous ether pervades the sub- losophical Transactions (LXIII, for 1773,)
startce of all material bodies with little or no might not in some measure have been influ-
resistance, as freely perhaps as the wind enced by a deception of this kind. As far
l)asses through a grove of trees. as I have hitherto been able to examine the
The observations on the effects of diffrac- globules, with a lens of one fiftieth of an inch
tionand interference may perhaps sometimes focus, I have found them nearly such as Mr.
be applied to a practical purpose, in making Hewson has described them Mr Cavallo
:

us cautious in our conclusions respecting the has, however, published, in his essay on fac-
appearances of minute bodies viewed in a titious airs, some observations which strongly
microscope. The shadow of a fibre, how- confirm the suspicion of an optical fallacy,
ever opaque, placed in a pencil of light, ad- and which agree precisely whh the theory
mitted through a small aperture, is always here advanced.
somewhat less dark in the middle of its

breadth than in the parts on each side. A V. REMARKS ON THE COLOURS OF NATURAL
similar effect may also take place, in some
BODIES.

degree, with respect to the image

on the re- Exper. 5. I have already adduced, in illus-

tina, and impress the sense with an idea tration of Newton's comparison of the colours

of a transparency which has no real exist- of natuifil bodies with those of thin plates, Dr.
ence: and, if a small portion of light be Wollaston's observations on the blue light
really transmitted through the substance,
this of the lower part of a candle, which appears,

may again be destroyed by its interference when viewed through a prism, to be divided
with the diffracted light, and produce an ap- into five portions. I have lately observed a

pearance of partial o|)acity, instead of uniform similar instance, still more strongly marked,
semitransparency. Thus, a central dark spot, in the light transmitted by the blue glass sold
nnd a light spot, surrounded by a darker circle, by the opticians. This light is separated by
may respectively be produced in the imagesof the prism into seven distinct portions, nearly
a semitransparent and an opaque corpuscle, equal in magnitude, but somewhat broader,
and impress us with an idea of a complication and less accurately defined, towards the vio-
of structure which does not exist. In order to let end of the spectrum. The first two are red,
detect the fallacy, we may make two or three the third is
yellowish green, the fourth green,
fibres cross each other, and view a number the fifth blue, the sixth bluish violet, and the
of globules contiguous to each other ;
or we seventh violet. This division agrees very nearly

may obtain a still more effectual

remedy, by with that of the light reflected by a plate of

changing the magnifying power; and then, air s-^-fo of an inch in thickness, correspond-
if the appearance remain constant in kind 1 1th series of red, and the 18th of
ing to the
and in degree, we may be assured that it violet. A similar plate of a metallic oxid
truly represents the nature of the substance would perhaps be about t-totto of an inch in
to be examined. It is natural to inquire thickness. But it must be confessed, that
 nELATlVE TO PHYSICAL OPTICA. 647

there are strong reasons for believing the co-
louring particles of natural bodies in general
to be incomparably smaller than this
is
probable that the analogy, suggested by
Newton, is somewhat less close than he ima-
appear to extend beyond the violet rays of
the prismatic spectruin, through a space
;
and it
nearly equal to that which is occupied by the
violet. In order to complete the comparison
of their properties with those of visible light,

gined. The by a plate of air,

light reflected
I was desirous of examining the effect of
at any thickness nearly corresponding to the their reflection from a thin plate of air, ca-
1 1 th red, appears to the eye to be very pable of producing the well known rings of
nearly white; but, under favourable circum- colours. For this
purpose, an I formed
stances, the 1 Ith red and the neighbouring image of the rings, by means of the solar

celours may still be distinguished. The light microscope, with the apparatus which I have
of some kinds of coloured glass is, pure red; described in the Journals of the Royal Insti-
that of others, red wiUi a little
green : some tution, and I threw this image on paper
hitercept all the light, except the extreme di])ped in a solution of nitrate of silver, placed
red and the blue. In the blue light of a at the distance of about nine inches from the

candle, expanded by the prism, the portions microscjpe. In the course of an hour, por-
tions of three dark
of each colour appear to be narrower, and rings were very distinctly
the intervening dark spaces wider, than in visible, much smaller than the brightest rings
the analogous spectrum derived from the of the coloured image, and
coinciding very
light reflected from a thin plate. Perhaps nearly, in their dimensions, with the rings of
their origin may have some resemblance to violet light that
appeared upon the interposi-
that of the different harmonics of a single tion of violet
glass. I
thought the dark rings
vibrating substance. The light of burning al- were a little smaller than the violet rings, but
cohol appears to be green and violet only. the difference was not
sufficiently great to be
The pink dye sold in the shops, which is a accurately ascertained ; it might be as much
preparation of the carlhamus, aflbrds a good
»s ^or ~'s of the diameters, but not greater.

specimen of a yellow green light regularly It is the less

surprising that the difference
reflected, and a crimson probably produced should be so small, as the dimensions of the

by transmission. coloured rings do not by any means

vary at
the violet end of the so
spectrum, rapidly as
VI. EXPERIMENT ON THE DARK RAYS OF at the red end. For performing this experi-
UITTER.
ment with very great accurac)', a heliostate
Exper. 6. The existence of solar rays ac- would be necessary , since the motion of the
companying more refrangible than sun causes a slight change in the
light, place of the
the violet rays, and cognisable by their che- and leather, impregnated with the
image ;

mical effects, was first ascertained by Mr. muriate of silver, would indicate the eflfect
Ritter: but Dr. Wollaston made the same with greater delicacy. The experiment,
experiments a very short time afterwards, however, in its
present state, is sufficient to
without having been informed of what had
complete the analogy of the invisible with
been done on the Continent. These rays the visible rays, and to show that thev are
0'48 EXPERIMENTS RELATIVE TO PHYSICAL OPTICJ.

equally liable to the general law, which is the with respect to the rays of invisible heat

principal subject of this paper. If we had discovered by Dr. Herschel ; but at present
thermometers sufficiently delicate, it is
pro- there is great reason to doubt of the practi-
bable that we might acquire, by similar cabiUty of such an experiment.
means, information still more interesting.
 X. AN ESSAY
ON THE

COHESION OF FLUIDS.
BY

THOMAS YOUNG, M. D. FOR. SEC. R. Sw

Read Dece7nber 9.0, 1804.

to the ex-
I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. It will perhaps be most agreeable
less con-
perimental philosopher, although
It has already been asserted, by Mr. Monge sistent with the strict course of logical argu-
and others, that the phenomena of capillary ment, to proceed in tlie first place to the
tubes are referable to the cohesive attraction comparison of this theory with
the pheno-
of the only of the fluids
superficial particles mena, and to afterwards for its foun-
inquire
employed ;
and that the surfaces must conse- dation in the ultimate properties of matter..
into curves of the nature
quently be formed But it is necessary to premise one observation,
of linteariae, which are supposed to be the which appears to be new, and which is equally
results of a uniform tension of a burlace, re- consistent with theory and with experiment;

sisting the pressure

of a fluid, either uniform, that is, that for each combination of a solid
or varying according to a given law. Seg- and a an appropriate angle of
fluid, there is
that
ner, who appears to have been the first contact, between the surfaces of the fluid,
maintained a similar opinion, has shown in exposed to the air, and to the solid.
This
what manner the principle may be deduced angle, for glass and water, and in all cases
from the doctrine of attraction, but his de- where a solid is
perfectly wetted by a fluid,,
monstration is complicated, and not per- i& evanescent : for glass and mercury, it is
and in applying the law about 140°, in common and
fectly satisfactory; temperatures,
to forms
the of drops, he has neglected when the mercury is moderately clean.
to consider the very material effects of the
II. FORM OF THE SURFACE OF A FLUID.
double curvature, which is evidently the
cause of the want of a perfect coincidence It is well known, and it results immediately

of some of his experiments with his theory. from the composition of forces, that where
Since the time of begner, little has been done a line is equably distended, the force that
in investigating accurately and in detail the it exerts, in a direction perpendicular to

various consequences of the principle. its own, is directly as its curvature; and
VOL. II. 4 o
650 ON THE COHESION OF VLVIDS.
the same is true of a surface of simple the radius of each proportional to the recipro-

curvature; but where the curvature is cal of the height of its middle point, above or

double, each curvature has its approjjri- below the general surface of the fluid, go on

ate effect, and the joint force must be as to add portions of circles joining each other,
the sum of the curvatures in any two perpen- until they have completed as much of the

dicular directions. For this sum is equal, curve as is

required. In the second case, it is

whatever pair of perpendicular directions may only necessary to consider the curve derived
be employed, as is easily shown by calculat- from a circular basis, which is a solid of re-

ing the versed sines of two equal arcs taken volution; and the centre of that circle of
at right angles in the surface. Now when curvature, whicii is
perpendicular to the sec-
the surface of a fluid is convex externally, its tion formed by a plane passing
through the
in the axis itself,
tension produced by the pressure of the
is axis, is
consequently in the
particles of the fluid within it, arising from point where the normal of the curve inter-
their own weight, or from that of the sur- sects the axis we must therefore here make
:

rounding fluid ;
but when the surface is con- the sum of this curvature, and that of the
cave, the teiK^ion is
employed in counteract- generating curve, always proportional to the
ing the pressure of the atmosphere, or where ordinate. This may be done mechanically,
the atmosphere is excluded, the equivalent by beginning at the vertex, where the two
pressure arising from the weight of the par- curvatuies are equal, then for each succeed-
ticles suspended from by means of their
it ing portion, finding the radius of curvature,
cohesion, in the same manner as, when water by deducting the proper reciprocal of the
is supported by the atmospheric pressure in normal, at the beginning of the portion,
an inverted vessel, the outside of the vessel from the ordinate, and taking the reciprocal
sustains a hydrostatic pressure proportionate of the remainder. In
this case the
analysis
to the height ; and this pressure must re- leads to fluxional equations of the second or-

main unaltered, when the water, having der,which appear to afford no solution bv
been sufficiently boiled, is made to retain its means hitherto discovered but the cases of
;

situation for a certain time b}' its cohesion simple curvature may be more easily sub-
only, in an exhausted receiver. \'\'hen, jected to calculation the curvature varying
:

therefore, the surface of the fluid is termi- always as the ordinate, the curve belongs to
nated by two right lines, and has only a the general description of an elastic curve.

simple curvature, the curvature must be 111. ANALYSIS OF THE SIMPLEST FORMS.
every where as the ordinate ; and where it Let the greatest ordinate of the curve (AB,
has a double curvature, the sum of the cur-
Plate 15. Fig. 113.) be called a, the arc of the
vatures in the different directions must be as
circle of curvature at the vertex
the ordinate.
(AC) z, and
In the
first case, the curve
let us suppose.that whilethiscirde is
be constructed by approximation, if we uniformly
may increased, the curve(AD) tlows with an equal
set out from a point at which it is either ho-
angular velocity, then the fluxion of the
rizontal or vertical,and divide the height
curve, being directly as the radius of curva-
into a number of small portions, and
taking ture, will be inversely as the ordinate y, and
 ON THE COHESION OP FLUIDS. 651

be expressed that r and a may be readily found from it:

will by— ;
the fluxion of the
it is also equal to the square of the ordinate
absciss will therefore be —
ry
, t
o the co-
being at the vertical point, where yy^aa — lar.
sine of the arc z, and r the radius, and the If we describe a circle (ABCD Plate 15.

fluxion of the area will be —

r
But —T is the
Fig. 114.) of which the diameter is a, the
chord of the arc of this circle (AC, AB,) cor-
fluxion of the sines of the arc z in the circle
responding in angular situation to the curve,
to which it
belongs; consequently, the area will be
equal to the ordinate (EF, GH,) at
is
expressed by is as, and
equal to the rect- the respective point for the versed sine in
;

angle contained by the initial ordinate, and be 2c, and the chord
this circle will will be a
the sine corresponding to each
point of the mean proportional between a and a —2r ;
in
•curve in the initial circle of curvature. Hence this case therefore, where the curve is infi-
it follows, that the whole area (ABEF or EF nite, the ordinate varies as the sine of half
GH) included by the ordinates where the curve
the angle of elevation.
is vertical and where it is horizontal, is For determining the absciss,
equal it would be
to the rectangle contained by the ordinate and
necessary to employ an infinite series ; and
the radius of curvature. the most convenient would perhaps be that
Inordertofindtheordinatey,corresponding which is
given by Euler for the elastic curve,
to a given angular direction, and to a given in the second part of the third volume of the
_ _
,
ave +i/= — , or, since
— is the Acta Petropolitana.

fluxion of the versed sine v, y=: , and

IV. APPLICATION TO THE ELEVATION OF
:^yy—av, vihence yy=b-:+.9.av. But at the PARTICULAR FLUIDS.
summit of the curve, when v — 0, y=-a,
therefore b=:aa, and yy=.aa Q.av\ and — The simplest phenomena, which aflbrd us

where the curve meets the absciss, y=0 and data for determining the fundamental pro-
a=2». lfa=4r, when 3^=0, t) will be 2r, perties of the superficial cohesion of fluids,
and the curve will touch thehorizontallineat are their elevation and depression between
an infinite distance, since its curvature must jjlates and in ca[)illary tubes, and their ad-

be if a be greater than 4r, hesion to the surfaces of solids, which are

infinitely small;
the least ordinate will he\/{{ia — Aar). When raised, in a horizontal situation, to a certain

the curve is vertical, vzzr, and yy=.aa — licight above the general surface of the
2«r. The
rectangle, contained by the ele- fluids. When the distance of a pair of
vation above the. general surface, and the plates, or the diameter of a tube, is very mi-
diameter of the circle of curvature, which nute, the curvature may be considered as
is here lar, is constant in all circumstances uniform, and the appropriate rectangle may
for the same fluid, and may therefore be readily be deduced from the elevation, recol-
called the appropriate rectangle of the fluid ; lecting that the curvature in a capillary tube
and when the curve is infinite, and a = 4ar, is double, and the height therefore twice as

this rectangle is
equal to 8rr, or to \^aa, so great as between two plates. In the case of
^5^ ON THE COHESION OP FLUIDS.
the elevation of a fluid in contact with a ho- depress the solid, which is therefore simply
rizontal surface, tiie ordinate may be deter- the hydrostatic pressure o^ a column of wa-
mined from the weight required to produce ter equal height to the elevation, in this
in

Aseparation ; and the appropriate rectangle case one of an inch, and standing on
fifth

may be found in this manner also, the angle the given surface. The weight of such a co-
of contact being properly considered, in this lumn will be 50^ grains for each square
as well as in tlie former case. It will ap- inch; and in Taylor's well known experi-
pear that these experiments by no means ex- ment, the weight required was 50 grains.
hibit an immediate measure of the mutual But, when the solid employed is small, the
attraction of the solid and fluid, as some curvature of the horizontal section of the wa-
authors have supposed. ter, which is convex externally, will tend to

Sir Isaac Newton asserts, in
that water ascends between two plates of glass
at the distance of one hundredth of an inch,
to the height of about one inch ;
of the distance and the height being about
.01 ; but this appears to be much too little.
In the best experiment of Musschenbroek,
with a tube, half of the product was .0196;
in several of VVeitbrecht, apparently very ac-
his Queries, counteract the vertical curvature,, and to di-
minish the height of separation ; thus, if a
disc of an inch in diameter were employed,
the product the curvature in this direction would perhaps
betquivalent to the pressure of about one
hundredth of an inch, and might reduce the
height from .2 to about .19, and the weight
in the same proportion. There is, however,
as great a diversity in the results of diflferenl

curate, .0214. In Monge's experiments on experiments on the force required to elevate

plates, the product was 2.6 or 2.7 lines, or a solid from the surface of a fluid, as in those
about .0210. Mr. Atwood says, that for tubes, of the experiments on capillary tubes ; and
the product is .0530, half of which is .0265. indeed the sources of error appear to be here
Until more accurate experiments shall have more numerous. Mr. Achard found that a
been made, we may be contented to assume disc of glass, l^- inch French in diameter,
.02 for the rectangle appropriate to water, required, at 69° Fahrenheit, a weight of 91
and .04 for the product of the height in a French. grains to raise it from the surface of
tube by its bore. Hence, when the curve water; thisonly 37 English grains for
is

becomes infinite, its greatest ordinate is .2, each square inch ; at 44^° the force was -^
and the height of the vertical portion, or the greater, or 39^ grains ; the difference being
height of ascent against a single vertical plane, each degree of Fahrenheit. It might
yjT^ for
• 14, or nearly one seventh of an inch. be inferred, from these experiments, that
Now when the horizontal surface of a so- the height of ascent in a tube of a given
lid is raisedfrom a vessel of water, the sur- bore, which varies in the duplicate ratio
face of the water is formed into a of the height of adhesion, is diminished
lintcaria,
to which the solid is a about -rr^ for every degree of Fahrenheit
tangent at its highest
point, and if the solid be still further raised, that the temperature is raised above 50°;
the water will separate: the surface of the there was, however, probably some consider-
water, being horizontal at the point of con- able source of error in Achard's experiments,
tact, cannot add to the weight to for I find that this diminution does not ex-
tending
 ON THE COHESION OF FLUIDS. 653

ceed TTOo'' The experiments of Mr. Dutour ponent parts of the glass ;
but in barometers
make the quantity of water raised equal to constructed according to the usual methods,
44.1 grains for each square inch. Mr. the angle of the mercury will be found to dif-
Achard found the force of adhesion of sulfu- fer little from 140° : and in other
experiments,
ric acid to glass, at 69° of Fahrenheit, 1.26, when proper precautions are taken, the in-

that of water being 1, hence the height was clination will be nearly the same. The de-
as .69 to 1, and its square as .47 to 1, which termination of this angle is
necessary for find-
is the corresponding proportion for the ascent ing the appropriate rectangle for the curvature
of the acid in a capillary tube, and which of the surface of mercury, together with the
does not very materially differ from the observations of the quantity of depression in

assigned by Barruel tubes of a given diameter. The table pub-

proportion of .395 to I,

for this ascent. Musschenbroek found it .8 lished by Mr. Cavendish, from the experi-
to 1, but his acid was probably weak. For ments of his father. Lord Charles Cavendish,
alcohol the adhesion was as .593, the height appears to be best suited for this purpose.
as .715, and its square as .510 : the observed I have constructed a diagram, according to

proportion in a tube, according to an expe-

the principles already laid down, for each
riment of Musschenbroek, was about .550, case, and I find that the
rectangle v^iich
according to Carre from .400 to .440. The agrees best with the phenomena is .01. The
experiments on sulfuric ether do not agree mean depression always .015, divided by
is

quite so well, but its quality is liable to very the diameter of the tube in tubes less than
:

considerable variations. Dutour found the half an inch in diameter, the curve is
very
adhesion of alcohol .58, that of water being 1. nearly elliptic and the central depression in
;

With respect to mercury, it has been the tube of a barometer may also be found
by
shown by Professor Casbois of Metz, and by deducting from the corresponding mean de-
others, that its
depression in tubes of glass pression the square root of one thousandth
depends on the imperfection of the contact, part of its diameter. There is reason to sus-
and that when it has been boiled in the tube pect a slight inaccuracy towards the middle
often enough to expel all foreign particles, of Lord Charles Cavendish's Table, from a
the surface may even become concave instead comparison with the calculated mean depres-
of convex, and the depression be converted sion, as well as from the results of the me-
into an elevation. Perhaps this changemay be chanical construction. The ellipsis approach-
the effect of the commencement of a chemi- ing nearest to the curve may be determined
cal action between the mercury and the com- by the solution of a biquadratic equation.

Diameter Grains in Mean depres- Central deprcs- Centra! de- Central de- Marginal de-
in inches, an inch. sion by cal- sion by ob- pression by pression by jjression by
C. culation. Y. serration. C. formula.Y. diagram. Y. diagram. Y.

.0 972 .025 .005

,5 67s .030
.4 432 .037
.35 331 .043
.30 343 .050
.as 1(S9 .080
.20 108 .075
.IS 61 .100
.10 S7 .liO
654 ON THE COHESION OF FLUIDS.

The square root of the rectangle .01, or .1, by actual observation, to agree precisely with
19 the ordinate where the curve would become this calculation.
Segner says that the depth
vertical if it were continued ;
but in order to was .1358, both on glass anff on paper; the
find the height at which the mercury adheres dillerence is very trifling, but this measure is
TO u vertical surface of glass, we must dimi- somewhat too great for glass, and too small
nish this ordinate in the proportion of the for paper, since appears from Dutoin's ex-
it

sine of 25° to the sine of 45°, and it will be- periments, that the attraction of paper to
come .06, for the actual depression in this mercury is
extremely weak.
case. The elevation of the mercury that ad- If a disc of a substance
capable of being
heres to the lower horizontal surface of a wetted by mercury, an inch in diameter,

piece of glass, and the thickness at which a were raised from its surface in a
position per-
quantity of mercury will stand when spread fectly horizontal, the apparentcohesioti should
out on glass, supposing the angle of contact be 381 grains, taking .141 as the height; and
still 140°, are found, by taking the proporlion for a French circular inch, 433 grains, or 628
of the sines of 20° and of 70° to the sine of French grains. Now, in the experiments of
45°, and are therefore .0484 and .1330 re- Morveau, the cohesion of a circular inch
spectively. If, instead of glass,
we employed of gold to til e surface of mercury appeared

any surface capable of being wetted by mer- to be 446 grains, of silver 429, of tin 418,

cury, the heiglit of elevation would be .141, of lead 397, of bismuth 372, of zinc 204, of
and this is the limit of the thickness of a wide copper 142, of metallic antimony 120, of-
surface of mercury, supported by a substance iron 115, of cobalt 8: and this order is the

wholly incapable of attracting it. Now the same with that in which the metals are most
hydrostatic pressure of a column of mercury easily amalgamated with mercury. pro- It is

.0484 in thickness, on a disc of one inch dia- bable that such an amalgamation actually
meter, would be 1 3 1 grains ; to this the sur- took place in some of the experiments, and

rounding elevation of the fluid will add about affected their results; for the process of amal-

grains for each inch

] 1 of the circumference, gamation may often be observed to begin al-
with some deduction for the effect of the most at the instant of contact of silver with
contrary curvature of the horizontal section, mercury ; and the want of perfect horizon-
tending to diminish the height ; and
the ap-
tality appears in a slight degree to have af-
parent cohesion thus
exhibited will be about fected them all. A deviation of one fiftieth

l60 grains, which is a little more than four of an inch would be sufficient to have pro-
times as great as the apparent cohesion of duced the difference between 440 grains and
glass and water.
With a disc 1 1 lines in dia- 528 and it is not impossible that all the dif-
:

meter, Mr. 194 French

Dutour found it ferences, as fjir down as bismuth, may have
grains, which is
equivalent to 152 English been accidental. But if we suppose
the gold

grains, instead of 160, for an inch ; a

result only to have been perfectly wetted by the
which is sufficient to confirm the principles mercury, and all the other numbers to be in
of the calculation. The depth of a quantity due proportions, we may find the appro-
of mercury standing on glass I have found, priate angle for each substance, by deducting
 ON THE COHESION OF FLUIDS. 655

fiom 180°, twice the angle, of wliicli the sine must be the same as that of a tube, in which
.is to the radius, as the a])parent cohesion of the fluid would rise to the height of one third

each lo 446 grains ;

that is, for gold 1, for of its diameter ;
and the square of the dia-
silver about .97, for tin .95, for lead .90, for meter must be three times as great as the ap-
bismuth .85, for zinc .46, for copper .3C, for propriate product or, for water .12; whence
;

antinion}' .29, for iron .26, and for cobalt .OC, the diameter would be .35, or a little more
neglecting the surrounding elevation, which than one third of an inch, and the weight
has less effect in proportion as the surface of the hemisphere would be 2.8 grains. If

em|)loyed is larger. Geilcrt found tiie de- more water were added internally, the cohe-
pression of melted lead in a tube of gUiss sionwould be overcome, and the drop would
multiplied by the bore /equal to about .054. no longer be suspended ; but it is not easy to
It would perhaps bo possible to pursue calculate what precise quantity of water would
these principles so far as to determine in be separated with it. The form of a bubble
many cases tlie circumstances under which of air rising in water is determined by the
a drop of any fluid would detach itself from cohesion of the internal surface of the water,
a given surface. But it is sufficient to infer, exactly in the same manner as the form of a
from the law of the superficial cohesion of drop of water in the air. The delay of a
fluids, that the linear dimensions of similai- bubble of air at the bottom of a vessel ap-

drops, depending from a horizontal surface, pears to be occasioned by a deficiency of

must vary precisely in tiie same ratio, as the the pressure of the water between the air and

heights of ascent of the respective fluids the vessel; it is

against a vertical surface, or as the square
roots of the heights of ascent in a given tube;
hence the magnitudes of similar drops of dif-
ferent fluids must vary as the cubes of the
nearly analogous to the ex-
periment of making a piece of wood remain
immersed in water, when perfectly in contact
with the bottom of the vessel containing it.
This experiment succeeds bov^ever far more

square roots of tlie heights of ascent in a tube. r«adily with mercury, since the capillary
I have measured the cohesion of the mercury prevents its insinuat-
heights of ascent of water
•

and of diluted spirit of wine in the same tube, ing itself under the wood.
and found them nearly as 100 to G4
1 a :

of V. OF APPARENT ATTRACTIONS AND KEPUL^

drop water, falling from a large sphere of
a drop of the spirit
1.8 grains, SIONS.
weighed
glass,
of wine about .85, instead of .62, which is The apparent attraction of two floating
nearly the weight that would be inferred from bodies, round both of which the fluid is
the consideration of the heights of ascent, raised by cohesive attraction, is produced by
combined with that of the specific gravities. the excess of the atmospheric pressure On the
We may form a conjecture
respecting the remote sides of the solids, above its pressure
probable magnitude of a drop, by inquiring on their neighbouring sides or, if the :
expe-
what must be the circumfierence of the fluid, riments are performed in a vacuum, by the
that would its cohesion the
support by weight equivalent hydrostatic pressure or suction, de-
of a hemisphere
depending from it: tliis rived from the weight and the immediate cohe-
656 ON THE COHESION OP FLUIDS.
sion of the intervening fluid. This force va- powerfully exhibited in other situations ; and,
ries ultimately in the inverse ratio of the when the cohesion between two solids is in-

square of the distance for, two plates ap-

;
if creased and extended by the intervention of
a drop of water or of
proach each other, the height of the fluid, oil, the superficial co-
that rises between then>, is increased in the hesion of these fluids is
fully sufficient to ex-

simple inverse ratio of the distance ; and plain the additional effect. When wholly
the mean action, or negative pressure of the immersed in water, the cohesion between
fluid, on each particle of the surface, is also two pieces of glass is little or not at all
greater
increased in the same ratio. When the float- than when dry but if a small portion only
:

ing bodies are both surrounded by a depres- of a fluid be interposed, the curved surface,

sion, the same law prevails, and its demon- that-it exposes tothe air, will
evidently be
stration more simple and obvious. The
is still capable of resisting as great a force, as it
repulsion of a wet and a dry body does not would support from the pressure of the co-

appear to follow the same proportion for it : lumn of fluid, that it is

capable of sustaining
by no means approaches to infinity upon the in a vertical situation ; and in order to apply
supposition of perfect contact ;
its maximum this force, we must employ, in the separation

ismejisured by half the sum of the elevation of the plates, as great a force as is
equivalent
and depression on the remote sides of the to the pressure of a column, of the
height ap-
substances, and as the distance increases, this propriate to their distance.Morveau found that
maximum is
only dinrinished by a quantity, twodiscs of glass, 3 inches French in diameter,,
which is
initially as the square of the distance. at the distance of one tenth of a line, appeared

The figures of the solids concerned modify to cohere with a force of 47 19 grains, which
also sometimes the law of attraction, so that, is colnmn 23
equivalent to the pressure of a
for bodies surrounded by a depression, there lines in height: hence the product of the
is sometimes a maximum, beyond which height and the distance of the plates is 2.3
ihe force again diminishes; and it is hence lines, instead of 2.65, which was the result of

that a light body floating on mercury, in a Monge's experiments on the actual ascent of
vessel little
larger than itself, is held in a water. The difference is much smaller than
stable equilibrium without touching the sides. the difference of the various experiments on
The reason of this will become apparent, the ascent of fluids ; and it may easily have
when we examine ihe direction of the surface arisen from a want of perfect parallelism in
necessarily assumed, by the mercury, in order the plates; for there is no force tending to
to preserve the appropriate angle of contact; preserve this parallelism. The error, in the
the tension acting with less force, when the extreme case of the plates coming into con-
surface attaches-itself tothe angular termina- tact at one point, may reduce the apparent
tion of the float in a direction less horizontal. cohesion to one half.
The apparent attraction produced between The same theory is sufficient to explain
solids, by the interposition of a fluid, does not the law of the force, by which a drop is at-

depend on their being partially immersed in tracted towards the junction of two plates,

it;on the contrary, its eifects are still more inclined to each other, and which is found to
 ON THK COHESION OF FLUIDS. 657

vary in the inverse ratio of the square

of the panicles of a fluid. We are next to investi-
distance ; whence it was inferred by Newton gate the natural foundations upon which
that the primitive force of cohesion varies that theory appears ultimately to rest. We
in the simple inverse ratio of the distance, may suppose the particles of liquids, and
while other experiments lead us to suppose j)robably those of solids also, to possess that:
that cohesive forces iu general vary in the power of repulsion, which has been demon-
direct ratio of the distance. But the difficulty stratively shown by Newton to exist in aeri-
is removed, and the whole of the effects are form fluids, and which varies in the simple
inverse ratio of the distance of the particles
satisfactorily explained, by considering the
state of the surface of the drop. If the from each other. In airs and vapours this
marginal
were parallel, the capillary action would
force appears to act uncontrolled; but in li-
plates
be equal on both sides of the drop : but when quids, it is overcome by a cohesive force,

they are inclined, the curvature

of the sur- while the particles still retain a power of mov-
face at the thinnest part requires a force pro- ing freely in all directions; and in solids the
the appropriate height to coun- same cohesion is
accompanied by a stronger
portional to
teract and this force is greater than that or weaker resistance to all lateral
motion,
it;

which acts on the opposite side. But if the which is

perfectly independent of the cohe-
two are inclined to the horizon, the sive and which must be cautiously
force,
plates
deficiency may be made up by the hydro- distinguished from it. It is simplest to
sup-
static weight of the drop itsell"; and the ])ose the force of cohesion nearly or perfectly
same inclination will serve for a larger constant in its
magnitude, throughout the
or a smaller drop at the same place. Now minute distance to which it extends, and
when the drop approaches to the line of con- owing its
apparent diversity to the contrary
of the appropriate heights action of the repulsive force, which varies
tact, the difference
for a small drop of a given diameter will in- with the distance. Now in the internal
parts
crease as the square of the distance decreases ; of a liquid these forces hold each other in

for the fluxion of the reciprocal of any quan- a perfect equilibrium, the particles being

tity varies inversely as the square of tliatquan-
tity ; and,
in order to preserve the equilibrium,
the sine of the angle of elevation of the two
must be nearly in the inverse ratio
plates
the square of the distance of the drop from
the line of contact, as it actually appears to
brought so near, that the repulsion becomes
precisely equal to the cohesive force that
urges them together: but whenever there is
of a curved or angular surface, it may be found,
by collecting the actions of the diflerent parti-
cles, that the cohesionraust necessarily prevail

have been in Hauksbee's experiments. over the repulsion, and must urge the super-
ficial parts inwards, with a force proportional

VI. PHYSICAL FOUNDATION OF THE LAW to the curvature, and thus produce the efleet
OF SUPERFjIClAL COHESION. of a uniform tension of the surface. For,
We
have now examined the principal ifwe consider the efl"ect of any two particles
in a curved line on a third at an equal dis-
phenomena which are reducible to the sim-
ple theory of the action of the superficial tance beyond them, we sludl find that the

VOL. II. 4 p
658 ON TirK COHESION OP I'LUIDS.

result of their equal attractive forces bisects the tion of its

properties, it is evident that its

whole angle formed by the lines of direction ; form and the equilibrium of the cohesive
but that the result of their repulsive forces, forces would remain undisturbed the ten- :

one of which is twice as great as the other, dency of the new angular surface of the fluid
divides in the ratio of one to two, forming
it water to contract would therefore be com-
with the former result an angle equal to one pletely destroyed by the contact of a solid of
sixth of the whole; so that the addition of a equal attractiv^e force. If the solid were of
third force is
necessary, in order to retain smaller attractive force, the tendency to con-
these two equilibrium ; and this
results in tract would only be proportional to the dif-

force must be in a constant ratio to the eva- ference of the attractive forces or densities,
nescent angle which is the measure of the theeftectof as many of the attractive particles

curvature, the distance of the particles being of the fluid being neutralised, as are equiva-
constant. The same reasoning may beap- lent to a solid of a like density or attractive

plied to the particles which are within tiie

all ,
power. For a similar reason, the tendencj' of a
influence of the cohesive force and the con- :
given fluid, to contract the sum of the surfaces
clusions are equally true if the cohesion is not of itself and a contiguous solid, will be sim-

precisely constant, but varies less rapidly ply as the density of the solid, or as the mu-
than the repulsion. tual attractive force of the solid and fluid.
"And it is indiff'erent whether we consider the
VII. COHESIVE ATTRACTION OF SOLIDS AND
pressure produced by these supposwl super-
FLUIDS. ficial tensions, or the force
acting in the di-
When the attraction of the particles of a rection of the surfaces to be
compared. We
fluid for a solid is less than their attraction may therefore inquire into the conditions of

for each other, there will be an equilibrium of, equilibrium of the three forces acting on the
the superficial forces, if the surface of the angular particles, one in the direction of the
fluid make with that of the solid a certain an- surface of the fluid only, a second in that of

gle, the versed

sine of which is to the dia- the common surface of the solid and fluid,
meter, as the mutual attraction of the fluid and the third in that of the exposed surface
and solid particles is to the attraction of the of the solid. Now, supposing the angle of the

particles of
the fluid among each other. For, fluid to be obtuse, the whole superficial co-
when the fluid is surrounde<l by a vacuum or hesion of the fluid being represented by the

by a gas, the cohesion of its superficial par- radius, the part which acts in the direction of

ticles acts with full force in protlucing a ])res- the surface of the solid will be pro|X)rlional

sure; but when it is any where in contact to the cosine of the inclination and this ,-

with a solid substance of the same attractive force, added to the force of the solid, will be

power with itself, the effects of this action equiit to the force of the common surface of
must be as much destroyed as if it were an the sohd and fluid, or to the difterence of
internal portion of the fluid. Thus, if we their forces; consequenth', the cosine added
imagined a cube of water to have one of its to twice the force of the solid, will be equal

halves congealed, without any other altera- to the whole force of the fluid, or to the ra-
 OV TUE COHESION OF. FLUIDS. 6'59

<1ius ; liencc the force of the solid repre- is rather as an approximation than as a strict
sented by half the difference between the co- demonstration, yet we are amply justified in
sine and the radius, or by half the versed sine ; concluding, that all the phenomena of ca-
the force of the fluid be represented by
•or, if pillary action may be accurately explained
the diameter, the whole vei'sed sine will iiidi- and mathematically demonstrated from the
solid. And the same result
cate the force of the general law of the equable tension of the sur-
when the angle of the fluid is acute.
follows face of a fluid, together with the considera-
Hence we may infer, that if the solid have tion of the angle of contact appropriate to
half the attractive force of the fluid: tiie sur- every combination of a fluid with a solid.
faces will be perpendicular ;
and this seems Some anomalies, noticed by Musschenbroek
in itself reasonable, since two rectangular and others, respecting in particular the eflfects

edges of the solid are

equally near to the an- of tnbes of considerable lengths, have not

gular particles with one of the fluid and we : been considered but there is great reason to
:

may expect a fluid to rise and adhere to the suppose, that cither the want of uniformity
surface of every solid more than half as at- in the bore, or some similar inaccuracy, has
tractive as itself; a conclusion which Clai- been the cause of these irregidiuities, which
raut has already inferred, in a difi^erent man- have by no means been sufliciently confirmed
ner, from principles which he has but cur- to jiftbrd an objection to any theory. The
sorily investigated, in his treatise on the fi-
principle, which has been laid down respect-
gure of the <;arth. ing the contractile powers of the common
The versed sine varies as the square of the surface of a solid and a fluid, is confirmed
sine of half the angle the force must there-
:
by an observation which 1 have made on the
fore be as the square of the height to which small drops of oil which form themselves on
the fluid may be elevated in contact with a water. There is no doubt but that this cohe-
horizontal surface, or nearly as the square of sion is in some measure independent of the
the number of grains expressing the apparent chemical aftinities of the substances con-
cohesion. Thus, according to the experiments cerned: tallow, when
has a very evident
solid,
of Morveau, on the suppositions already pre- attraction for the water out of which it is

mised, we may infer that the mutual attrac- raised ;

and the same attraction must operate
tion of the particles of mercury being unity, upon an unctuous fluid, to cause it to spread

that of mercury for gold will be 1. or more, on water, tlie fluiditv of the water aiiowinjj
that of silver about .y4, of tin .90, of lead .81, this powerful agent to exert itself with an un-
of bismuth of zinc .21, of copper .10,
.72, resisted velocity. An oil, which has thus been
of antimony .08, of iron .07, and of cobalt sprea-d, is
afterwards collected, by some irre-
.0004. The attraction of glass for mercury gularity of attraction, into l];in drops, which
will be about one sixth of the mutual attrac- the slightest agitation again dissipaios ^ their

tion of the particles

of mercury : but when surface forms a very regidar curve, whici)

the contact is it
appears to be con- terminarcs abruptly in a surface perfectly ho-
perfect,
siderably greater. rizontal : now it follows from the lawa oi'

the lower surface of these

Although the whole of this reasoning, on hydrostatics, that
tlic attraction of solids, is to be considered drops must constitute a curvCj of which thr
660 ON THE COHESION OF I'LUIDS.

extreme inclination to the horizon is to tlie sultsnearly similar to many of those which
inclination of" the upper surface, as the speci- are contained in this paper. The ceincidencc
fic
gravity of the oil to the difference between is indeed in some respects so striking, that it

its specific gravity and that of water conse- : is natural, upon the first impression, to in-

quently, since the contractile forces are held quire whether Mr. Laplace may not be sup-
in equilibrium
by a force which is perfectly posed either to have seen this essay, or to liave
horizontal, their magnitude must be in the read an account of its contents in some pe-
ratio that has been already assigned and it ;
riodical publication ;
but upon further reflec-

may be assumed as consonant both to theory tion, we cannot for a moment imagine a per-
and to observation, that the contractile force son of so high and so deserved a reputation
of the common surface of two substances, is as Mr. Laplace, to wish to appropriate to

proportional, other things being equal, to the himself an^' part of the labours of others.
difference of their densities. Hence, in or- The path which he has followed is also ex-
der to explain the experiments of Boyle on tremely different from that which I had
the effects of a combination of fiuids in ca- taken ; several of the subjects, which I had

pillary tubes, or any other experiments of a considered as belonging to the discussion,

similar nature, we have only to apply the law have not occurred to Mr. Laplace; and it is
of an equable tension, of which the magni- much more flattering than surprising, that,
tude is determined by the difference of the toan assembly of philosophers not extremely
attractive powers of the fluids. anxious to attend to the pursuits of their co-
I shall reserve some further illustrations of temporaries, investigations should be com-
this subject for a work which 1 iiavc long municated, by themostdistinguished of their
been preparing for the press, and which I members, as new and important, which had
flatter
myself contain a clear and simple
will been presented, a ^-ear before, to a similar

explanation of the most important parts of society in this country. In order to facilitate

natural philosophy. I have only thought it the comparison of the methods which have

right, in the present Paper, to lay before the been adopted, I shall insert here a translation
Royal Society, in the shortest possible com- of some parts of Mr. Laplace's essay, which
will also serve as an illustration of the
pass, the particulars of an original investiga- theory
tion, tending to explain some facts, and esta- advanced in this paper; and I shall add some
blish some
analogies, which have hitherto remarks on the points in which those methods
been obscure and unintelligible. differ most.
" I have considered," says Mr. Laplace, " in the tenth
Vin. ADDITIONAL. EXTRACTS FROM LA- book of this work, the phenomena derived from the re-

PLACE, WITH REMARKS. fractive powers of transparent bodies acting on light. This
force is the result of the attraction of their particles ; but
In an essay read to the Institute of tlie law of this attraction cannot be determined by the
France in December 1805, and published in phenomena, because they only require that
it should be in-

sensible at all sensible distances. All possible laws of at-

1806, as a supplement to the iMecanique ce-
traction, which fulfil this
equally well
condition, agree
leste, Mr. Laplace has advanced a theory of
with the different phenomena of refraction indicated
by ex-
capillary attraction, which lias led him to re- perience, the principal of which is the constant proper-
 ON THE COilKSION OF FLUIDS. 661

tion of the sine of refraction to that of incidence, in the elusion. The knowledge of these laws is, however, the

passage of a ray of light through a transparent body. It is most delicate and the most important part of the theory ;

only in this case, that this kind of attraction has been sub- it absolutely neccssary_ for connecting together the dif-
is

jected to an exact analysis. I shall now submit to the con- ferent of capillary action; and Clairaut would
phenomena
sideration of mathematicians a second case, still more re- himself have been aware of this necessity, if he had wished,
markable than the first, on account of tbe variety and sin- for example, from capillary tubes to the spaces in-
to pass

gularity of the phenomena which depend on it, and which cluded between two parallel planes, and to deduce from

may be analysed with equal accuracy : this case is tliat of calculation the equality, which is shown by experiment,
capillary action. The effects of refractive powers belong to between the height of ascent of a fluid in a cylindrical
mechanics, and in particular to the theory of projectiles ; tube, and its height between two parallel planes, of which
tube a re-
those of capillary action relate to hydrostatics, or the the distance is equal to the semidiameter of the ;

which no one has yet attempted to explain. I en-

equilibrium of fluids, which are raised or depressed by its lation

means, according to certain laws, which I pro]X)se to ex- deavoured, long ago, to determine the laws of attraction ort

plain." which tliese phenomena depend ;

some later investigations

I shall here take theliberty of observing, have enabled me to demonstrate, that they may all be refer-

red to the same laws, whicB will account for the phenomena-
that the arguments, which I have formerly
of refraction, that is, to such as limit the sensible effect of
advanced, favour of the Huygenian theory
in and from these
the attraction to an insensible distance ;

of light, would perhaps have occasioned some laws, a complete theory of capillary action may be deduced."

little hesitation with respect to the .tciion here It is true that Clairaut was the first that
to be e.xerted
supposed by trans[>areiitbo(hes attempted to lay the foundation of a theory
on light, if liiey had ever been so fortunate of capillary action ; but he is by no means^
as to obtain Mr. Laplace's attention. Indeed the only one that has made the attempt. Seg-
an " attraction insensible at all sensible dis- ner published, in the first volume of the
tances," would not explain the cfTects of what Transactions of the Royal Society of Gottin-
Newton calls inflection, which affects the has
gen, for 1751, an essay, in which he
rays passing at a very considerable distance, gone much further than Clairaut it is true :

at least as much as the tenth or twentieth that he has made some mistakes in particular
of an inch, on each side of an opaque sub- cases: but he begins, like Mr. Laplace, from

stance, placed in a small pencil of light in a the eftiscts of an attraction insensible at all

dark room. sensible distances he has demonstrated that ;

" Clairaut is and has hitherto remained the

point of the surface of
the first, the curvature of each
only person, that has subjected the phenomena of capillary a fluid always proportional to its disttuice
is
tubes to a rigorous calculation, in his treatise on the fi-

After
above or below the general level, and he has
gure of the earth. having shown, by arguments
which are equally applicable to all the theories which have inferred, from earlier experiments, the trae

been advanced, the inaccuracy and iniufhciency of that of magnitude of this curvature at a given height,
Jurin, he enters into an exact analysis of all the forces both for water and for mercury, without ma-
which can contribute to the elevation of a portion of water
But his theory, although
terial error. We shall however find, that
in a tube of glass. explained
with the elegance peculiar to the excellent work which
all
the principles, which Clairaut, Segner, and
contains it, leaves undetermined the law of the height of Litplace, have successively adopted, are insuf-

phenomena and
which found from experimenjt to be
that elevation, is
ficient for explaining all the ;

to the diameter of the tube.

inversely proportional that it is
impossible to account for them with-
This great mathematician contents himself with observing,
out introducing the consideration of a repul-
that there must be an infinite variety of laws of attraction,
substituted in his formulas, would ^ITord this con- sive force which must ijideed inevitably be
which, if ;

1
<>()'. ON THE COHESIOJfx of FLUIDS.

supposerlto c.vijt, even if its presence were by a plane .surface ; and I coneeive that this force is the
cause of the suspension of mercury in the tube of a baro-
not inferred from the effects of capillary
" meter, at a height two or three times greater than that
action. have certainly been
Attempts!' which is derived from the
pressure of the atmosphere, of
made, to explain the equality of the ascent; the refractive powers of transparent bodies, of
cohesion,
of a fluid between the two planes, and in a and of chemical affinities in general. The second term ex-
tube of the radius presses that part of the attraction, which
wiiic-h is
equal to their dis- is derived from the
curvature of the surface, that the attraction of the me-
tuiice-; Mr. Leslie has made sueli an attempt, is,

niscus comprehended between that surface and the plane

and with perfect success but, if I am not ;
which touches This action
it. is either added to the fot-
nii'^takeii, the same explanation had been raer, or subtracted from it, accordingly as the surface is con-
vex or concave.
given long before. It is inversely
proportional to the radius
" Clatraut supposes, that a capillary tube may exert a of the spherical surface ; and it is indeed obvious, that, the
sensible aciion on an narrow column of thefluiii,
smaller the radius is, the greater
is the meniscus near
infinitely the
situated in the axis of the tube. In this respect, I am point of contact. This second term expresses the cause of
which in this respect,
obliged to differ from him, and to agree with Haultsbee, capillary action, differs, from the
and with many other philosophers, in thinking, that capil- chemical affinities represented by the first term."

lary action, like refractive powers, and the forces of chemi- It is indeed so " obvious," that the menis-
cal affinities, only sensible at imperceiitible distances.
is
cus, which constitutes the difference be-
Hauksbee has observed, that when the internal diameters
tween a curve surface and a
of several capillary tubes are equal, the water rises in them plane one, is
to the same height, whether they are very thin or very inversely proportional to the radius of cur-
thick. The cylindrical strata of glass, which are at a sen- vature, that the complicated calculations,
sible distance from the interior surface, do not therefore which have led Mr. Laplace to this conclu-
contribute to the ascent of the water, although each of
sion, must be considered as wholly superflu-
them, taken separately, would cause it to rise above its

natural level. It is not the interposition of the strata which

ous. The attraction of the meniscus
upon
on water the evanescent column must be confined to
they surround, that prevents their action tlie ; for

it is natural to suppose, that the force of capillary attrac- the edge which immediately touches the co-
tion is transmitted through the substance of all material
lumn, extending only to an insensible dis-
bodies, in the same manner as that of gravitation ; this
tance on each side ; and the situation of all
action is, therefore, only prevented, by the distance of the
the particles in this infinitely thin
fluid from these strata; whence itfollows, that the attraction edge of
of glass for water is
only sensible at insensible distances. the meniscus, with respect to the column,
" Proceedini; upon this principle, have investigated the
being similar, whatever the curvature may be,
I

action of a fluid mass, terminated by a portion of a con-

it is evident that their joint action must be
cave or convex spherical surface, upon a fluid column with-
in contained in an infinitely narrow cylindrical cavity
it,
proportional to their number, that is, to the

or tube, directed towards the centre of the surface. By this curvature of the surface.
action mean the pressure, which the " From these conclusions, relating to bodies wliich are
I fluid contained in
the tube would exert, in consequence of the attraction of terminated by sensible portions of a spherical surface, I de-
the whole mass, upon a flat ba^s, situated within the tube, duce this general theorem. Whenever the attractive force be-

perpendicular to its sidi%, and at any sensible distance from comes insensible at any sensible distance, the action of a
Jhe external surface, taking this basis for unity. I liave«hown body, terminated by a curved surface, on an internal column,
that this action is either smaller or greater than if the sur- of infinitely small diameter, and perpendicular to the sur-

face were plane, accordingly as it is either concave or con- face at any point, is equal to the half sum of the actions,
vex. The algebraical formula, which expresses it, consists of which would be exerted on the same column by two spheres,
two terms : the first, which is mucli larger than th'e second, having for their radii the largest and the smallest of the
«*j)rsS5(;s the action of thejnass supposed to he terminated radii of curvatute at the given point."
 ON THE COHESION- OF FLUIDS. 6G3

Tins theorem in the same angle to

may be
very simply inferred very nearly its surface, whatever
its be; hence
from magnitude may it follows, that all these seg-
llie former, by considering that, ac-
ments will be similar."
cording to the principle laid down in the
The " near approach" of the surface of a
second section of this essay, the sum of the
fluid ina very small tube to a
thicknesses of the evanescent mcniscoid, in portion of a
sufficiently obvious from the funda-
sphere, is
any two planes passing tiirough the axis at
mental principle, that thecurvatureis
right angles to each other, is equal to the propor-
tional to the
sum of the thicknesses of the two menisci height above the general surface
of the fluid; for if the diameter of the tube be
formed by the largest and the smallest radii
of curvature consequently the sum of the small, this be so considerable,
height will
;
that its variation
whole actions of these menisci must be twice any part of the concave
at
or convex surface
as great as the action of the meniscoid. may be disregarded, and
" the curvature may consequently be consi-
By means of this theorem, and of the laws of the equi-
Tibriuiii of fluids, we may determine the figure which dered as uniform
throughout the surface. It.
must be assumed by a gravitating fluid, inclosed in a vessel is
only upon the sujiposition of a surface
of any given form. We obtain from these principles an
nearly approaching to a spherical form, (hat
equation of partial differences of the second order, the in-
Mr. Laplace has endeavoured to determine
tegral of whidi cannot be found by any known method. If
the " integral, He
the figure is such, as might be formed by the revolution-of very near the truth."
a curve round an axis, the equation is reduced to common has deduced from the expression, which
differences or fluxions, and its integral or fluent may be indicates the curvature of the
surface, ano-
found very near the truth, when the surface is very small.
ther which
I have shown in this manner, that, in very narrow tubes,
is
simpler, and which misht
the surface of the fluid approaches the nearer to that of a easily have been inferred at once from the

sphere, as the diameter of the tube is smaller. If these uniform tension of the surface, as
supportinu'
segments are similar, in different tubes of the same sub- at each point the weiglitof the
" portion of the
stance, the radii of their surfaces will be" directly pro- fluid below it: he has then
portional to the diameters of the tubes. Now this supposed this
similarity
of the spherical segments will easily appear, if we con- weight to be the same as if the surface were
sider that the distance, at which the action of the tube ceases spherical, and Las deduced from this suppo-
to be sensible, is imperceinible; so that by means of a sition an approximate
if,
expression, for the
very powerful microscope, it were possible to mal<e it
ap- elevation
corresponding to a given anonlar
pear equal to the thousandth part of a metre, it is
probable,
position of the surface only. This formula
that the same magnifying power would augment the appa-
rent diameter of the tube to several metres. The surface
is however still
only apjilicable to those cases,
of the tube may therefore be considered as nearly plane, in wliich the suri'ace may be considered as
within the limits of a circle equal in radius to the distance
nearly spherical; and in these it is
suj)crflu-
at which its attraction becomes sensible consequently the
;
oiis. For example, if the surface of the
ftiiid within this distance, will be elevated or depressed
with respect to the surface of the tube, almost meicury in a barometer be depressed one
precisely in
the same manner as if it were perfecdy plane. Beyond twentieth of an inch, as it is in n
this actually
distance, the fluid being subjected to no other sensible ac- tube somewliat less than a quarter of an inch
tion than that of gravitation, and that of its own attraction, in diameter, Mr. Laplace's formula fails so-
the surface will be very nearly that of a spherical begmeut,
the marginal parts of which, corresponding with those of
completely, as to indicate a concavity in-
stead of a convexity ; for « the reci-
the surface of the fluid at the point which is the limit of the being
sphere of the-stnsible activity of the tube, will be inclined procal of what I have called the
appropriate
 6(iA ON TIIK COIIESIOX OF FLUIDS,

vcctiii>n1e, ami S
being 50^, the term afj'- increase or diminish a little the currature of its surface, as
we
bccoines=4, and makes the negative part continually observe in the mercury of the barometer :

and in this case, the

capillary effects are increased or dimi-
of tiie forimila greater thaa the positive. liished in the same proportion. These effects are also
very
Wlien Mr. Lnphice investigates the relation
sensibly modified by the cooperation of the forces derived
of the curvature and of the from the concavity and convexity of two different surfaces.
marginal depres-
sion to the diameter of tlie tuhe, he simply It will appear hereafter, that water may be raised, in a

-considers the whole surface as spherical but given capillary tube, to a greater height above its natural
;
level in this manner, than when the tube is immersed in a
even on this supposition his formula is by no vessel filled with that fluid."
in(>ans the most accurate tiiat
may be found,
It would perhaps be more correct to
and begins be materially incorrect even
to say in
this case "above its
apparent level ": for
when liie diameter of the tube amounts to
the real horizontal surface must here be con-
one fifili of an inch only. The formula,
sidered as situated above the lower orifice of
which I have already given in this
paper, is
the tube, the
weight of the portion of the
sufliciently accurate, until the diameter be-
fluid below
being it much supported by as
comes equal to half an inch ;
but I shall
the convexity of the surface of the
hereafter mention another, whieii comes drop, as
if it were contained in a vessel of
much nearer to the truth in all cases, other any
" The kind.
comparison of these results shows the true
" The fluxional equation of the surface of a fluid, in-
causeofthe ascfiitor depression of fluid's in
capillary tubes,
closed in a capillary space of
which is
inversely proportional to their diameters. If we any kind, which may be re-
ferred to an axis of revolution, leads to this
imagine an infinitely narrow inverted siphon to have one general result,
that if a cylinder be placed within a
of its branches placed in the axis of the tube of glass, and tube, so that its
axis
may coincide with that of the
the other terminating in the general horizontal sur&ce of tube, the fluid will rise in
this space to the same
the w;iter in the vessel, the action of the water in the tube height, as in a tube of which the ra-
dius is equal to this distance. If we
on the first branch of the siphon will be less, en account of suppose the radii of
the tube and of the cylinder to become
the concavity of its surface, than the action of the water of infinite, we obtain
the case of a fluid contained between
the vessel on the second the fluid must therefore ascend two parallel vertical
; in
planes, placed near each other. The conclusion
the tube, in order to compensate for this difference is con-
; and,
fixmed in this case by the
as it has been shown, that the difference of the two actions experiments which were made
long ago in the presence of the Royal
is
inversely proportional to the diameter of the tube, the Society of London,
under the inspection of Newton, who has
elevation of the fluid above the general level must follow quoted them in
his Optics; that admirable
the same law. work, in which this profound
" genius, looking forwards beyond the state of science in his
If the surface of the fluid within the tube is convex as
own times, has suggested a of
in the case of mercury contained in a tube of variety original ideas, which
glass, its ac-
the modern improvements of
tion on the inverted siphon will be greater than that of the chemistry have confirmed.
Mr. Haiiy has been so good as to
fluid in the vessel the fluid must therefore be make, at my request,
;
depressed in
some experiments on the case which constitutes the
the tube, in proportion to the difference, that is, oppq.
inversely
site extreme, that with tubes and cylinders of a
is,
in proportion to the diameter of the tube. veiy
" smsU diameter, and he has found the conclusion as correct
It appears therefore, that the immediate attraction
in this case, as in the former."
of a capillary tube has no other effect on the elevation or

depression of the fluid contained in it, than so far as it de- If indeed we may be allowed to place
termines the inclination of the
any
first portion of the surface of confidence in the fundamental
the fluid, when principle of
it
approaches the sides of the tube and
:
an equable tension of the surface of the
that the concavity or convexity of the
surface, as well as fluid,
an equal length of the line of contact of
the magnitude of its
curvature, depends on this inclination. the
The frictionof the fluid, against the sides of the solid and fluid
tube, may supporting in all cases an
 ON THE COHESION OF FLUIDS. 665

equal weight, these results follow of necessity, which I had

already published, in ah essay
without any intricacies of calculation what- not (Containing, in its
original state, any one
ever mathematical symbol, it is obvious that the
" The
phenomena exhibited by a drop of a fluid, moving,
or suspended in equilibrium, either in a conical
inaccuracy of Newton's reasoning did not
capillary
lube, or between two planes, inclined in a small angle to
depend upon any deficiency in his tnatheilia-
tical
each other, are extremely proper to confirm our theory. A acquirements.
"
small column of water, in a conical tube, open at both It
may be shown by calculation, that the sine of the .

inclination of the axis of the cone to the horizon will

ends, and held in a horizontal position, will move towards
the vertex of the cone be veiy nearly equal to the fraction of which the denomi-
; and it is obvious, that this must ne-
nator the distance of the middle of the
is
cessarily happen. In fact, the surface of the column is drop from the
concave at both ends, but the radius of curvature
summit of the cone, and the numerator the
this is height to
'"^'"^^ «he fluid would rise in a
smaller at the end nearer the vertex than at the opposite cylindrical tube, of adiame-
end ;
the action of the fluid upon itself is dierefore less at '"^f^qual to that of the cone at tlie middle of the column.
the narrower end, consequently the column must be drawn ^^ *' "^° planes, inclosing a drop of the same fluid, form
^'^^ '^^^^ °'^" *" angle,
towards this side. If the fluid employed be mercury, its equal to that which is formed by
surface will be convex, and the radius of curvature will '*'* ^"'^ °f ''^^ '^""^ and its sides, the inclination of a plane,
still

be smaller towards the vertex than towards the base of the b'secting this angle, to the horizon, must be the same as
*^' °^ '^^ *"'* °f ^^^ <^0"c> '" °'d"
cone ; but, on account of its
convexity, the action of the that the drop may re-
"*'" '" Hauksbee has hiade, SWth very
upon itself will be greater at the narrowerend, and the
fluid equilibrium.

column must therefore move towards the wider part of the *" experiment of this Icind, 'fhich I have com-
S"^*^" '^^'''

tube. pared with the theorem here laid down ; and the near

" This agreement between the experiment and the theorem is

action be counterbalanced by the weight of
may
amply sufficient to confirm its truth."
the column, so as to be held in equilibrium by it, if we in-
If the height at which the fluid would
cline the axis of the tube to the horizon. A veiy simple
calculation is sufficient to demonstrate, that if the length of Stand, in a tube of the diameter of the up-
the column is inconsiderable, the sine of the inclination of per end of the Coluilin, be k ; the distance ot
the axis must be inversely proportional to the square of the thisend from the vertex of the cone
distance of the middle of the column from the summit being it,
and the length of the column
of the cone ;
and this law is
equally applicable to the case
y, the height
of a drop of a fluid placed between two planes, which corresponding to the remoter end will b6
forma very small angle with each other, their horizontal
contact. Tlicse results are perfectly con- j-^,
and the difference of the heights h —
margins being iij

formable to experiment, as maybe seen in the 3 1st query

of Newton's optics. This great geometrician has endea-
-r- =-7- 'Which must be the difference of the
voured to explain them, but Ms explanation, compared heights of the ends of the drop, in Ordef that
with that vfhich has been here advanced, serves only to it
maj'remain in equilibrium but this heio-ht ;

ihow the advantages of a precise and mathematical invts-

to y as A to X+y,
j^
consequently the axis
ligation." p , , , .
1. 1 t I .

or tlie tube must be mcliiled to the horizon,

Mr. Laplace's superior skill in the most re- . , . . ^ ,
,
„
faned " mathematical investigations
c ^u .• 1 ^- ^-
•
>' •
u» in ° ' of which the sine
an angle, is exactly
J
»

might .
x+y
make still more the denominator being the distance of one
perhaps have enabled him to
essential improvements, if it had been em- end from the vertex, and the numerator the

ployed on some other subjects of natural height at which the fluid would stand in a
philosophy; but his explanation of these tube, of which the diameter is
equal to that
phenomena being exactly the same as that of the column at the other end.

VOL. n. ^^
666 ON THE COHESION OF FLUIDS.
" This theory affords us also an explanation of another water, in a tube one thousandth part of a
remarkable phenomenon, which occurs in experiments of metre in diameter, was 13.37 thousandths,
this nature. If a fluid be either elevated or depressed b«-
and that of oil of oranges 6.74. The product
tween two vertical and parallel planes, of
which the lower
in the fluid, the planes will tend to ap-
of the diameter and the height of ascent of
ends are immersed
shown by calculation, that if the water is .039371 X. 534 = .021 E. which is
proach each other. It is i.,

fluid is elevated between them, each plane is subjected to little more than half as much as I have
a pressure, urging it towards the other plane, equal to that
assigned for this product from the best expe-
of a column of the same fluid, of a height equal to the half
riments of many other observers. Probably
sum of the elevations of the internal and external lines of

above both these experiments, and those of New-

contact, of the surface of the fluid with the plane,
the general level, and standing on a base equal to apart of ton or Hauksbee, were made with tubes and
the plane included between these lines. If the fluid is de-
plates either a little greasy, or too dry ;
and
between the planes, each of them will be forced
pressed Mr. Haiiy might be the more readily satisfied
inwards, by a pressure equal to that of a column of
the

of which the height half the sum of the de-

with the first he obtained, from
results that
same fluid, is

pressions of the lines

of contact of the external and internal finding them agree nearly with those of
surfaces of the fluid with the plane, and its base the part of Newton, which Mr. Laplace wished to com-
the plane comprehended between those lines."
pare with them. These gentlemen also found
In another part of his essay, Mr. Laphice the depression of mercury in a tube of the
" this force increases in the in-
asserts, that same diameter .2887 E. i., the product being
verse ratio of the distance of the planes ;" .01 137, instead of .015, which is the ultimate
if this is not an error of the press, or of the
product inferred from Lord Charles Caven-r
it can only mean that the force in- dish's experiments of a similar nature. The
pen,
creases as the distance diminishes : for the observation of Mr. Haiiy, on the curvature of

magnitude of the force is not simply in the the surface of mercury in a tube, is also far
inverse ratio of the distances, but very from being accurate ;
Mr. Laplace himself
nearly in the inverse ratio of their squares,
as asserts that the angular extent of the surface
I have already observed. must fall short of that of a hemisphere more
" Since it has been hitherto usual with natural philoso- or less, accordingly as the tube has more or
phers, to consider the concavity
and convexity of the sur- less attraction for the fluid and it is easy to
;

faces of fluids in capillary spaces, as a secondary effect of

show that glass has a very considerable at-
and not as the principal cause of
capillary attraction only,
of this kind, they have not attached much im- traction for mercury. The method that I
phenomena
portance to the determination of the curvature of these
sur- took to ascertain the angle, formed by the
faces. But the theory, which has been here advanced, surface of the mercury, with the side of the
having shown that all these phenomena depend principally
tube, was to- observe in what position the
on the curvature, it becomes of consequence to examine
light reflected from it
began to reach the eye,
it. Several experiments, which have been made with great
accuracy by Mr. Haiiy, have shown, that in capillary tubes
and have every reason to think, from the
I

of glass, of very small diameters, the concave surfaces of

comparison of a great variety of experiments
water and of and the convex surfaces of mercury,
oils, dif-
of the angle which I
difl'crent kinds, that
fer very little from the form of a hemisphere."
have assigned very near
isthe truth.
Mr. Laplace informs us that M.M. Haiiy I have lately repeated my calculations of
and Tremery made at his request several the depression of mercury, in barometer
experiments, in which the mean ascent of tubes of considerable diameter, with great
 ON THE COHESrOK OF FLUIDS. 667

care, and by difteient methods. I had before 1. Central depression .007.

formed a table, by means of diagrams, which FIRST METHOD, BY THE CURVATUBI»

I had actually constructed for each case, Arc. Horizontal Depression.

ordinate.
upon a sufficiently accurate approximation :
0'' .00000 .00700
1 have now followed nearly the same steps
1 .02444 .00721
in calculatint;, bv means of tables of sines 2 .04758 .00782
, 3 .06651 .00865
and cosines, the precise form of the surface 4 .0S338 .00968
S .09?91 .01082
in a variet}' of cases. Beginning from the 6 .01203
.11049
vertex of the curve, I have determined the 7 .12153 .0)329
8 .13146 .01458
mean curvature for every small arc, from the 9 .14033 .01589
10 .14814 .01721
approximate height of its middle point; calcu- 12 .16177 .01986
of a series of diffe- 14 .17338 .02354
lating, with the assistance 10 .18344 .02524
rences, the normal of the curve at each step 18 .ly220 .02793
20 .20012 .03063
for the same point, in order to find the trans- 3S .21603 .03722
verse curvature. I have also pursued, in 30 .22869 .04381
'

35 .23891 .05033
some cases, in order to confirm these calcu- 40 .2473! .05676
45 .25420 .06307
lations, a method totally different, finding 50 .25986 .06911
the mass of the quantity of fluid to be sup-
SECOND M«TH0D, HT THE TENSION.
ported by the tension of the surface at each
concentric circle, and inferring from its mag- Arc. Horizontal Depression,
ordinate.
nitude the inclination of the curve to the ho-
.00 .00000 .00709
rizon taking the height of the external cir-
:
.02 .02000 .00714
.04 .04000 .00757
cumference of each portion, thus calculated,
.OS .05999 .00830
for the mean height; a supposition which .08 .07997 .00939
.10 .09993 .01101
nearly compensates for the omission of the .13 .11985 .01303
.14 .13971 .0156S
curvature of its surface. But the accumu-
.10 .15948 .01909
lated effect of this curvature becomes very .18 .17908 .02353
.20 .19842 .02923
sensible in the vertical height of the surface, .22 .21732 .03653
.34 .23550 .04530
and I have' therefore allowed for it, upon tiie
.26 .25039 .05707
a simple curvature varying .06459
supposition of .270s .25740

with the height; but this correction, for

2. Central depression .05.
want of including the effect of the variation
FIRST METHOD.
of the transverse curvature, is still a Ifttle too
Arc. Horizontal Depression.
small; the horizontal diameter of the sur- ordinate.

face, however, agrees extremely well with 00 .00000 .05000

the former mode of calculation. In order 1 .00349 .05003
2 .00697 .05012
that the results of these investigations may 3 .01044 .05027
4 .01388 .05048
be the more compared with each other,
easily 5 .01729 .0507 »
and with experiment, I shall insert some spe- 6 .02063 •05107
7 .02402 .05145
cimens, by means of which, if it be required, .02731 .0518*
.0305S .05237
the curves may be very correctly delineated.
€68- 6n ths coflEsroN or fluids.
Arc.
 ON THE COHESION OF FLUIDS. 669

3. Central depression .09.

Diameter. Observed central True central True marginal
depression. depression. depression.

.00
 670 ox THE COHESIOV OF I'LUIDS.

those of Claiiaut, whose of superficial cohesion, as derived from the

steps he has fol-
lowed; and that the expression, which he has combination of an attractive with a repulsive
derived from them, as indicating the condition force, varying according to a different law.
of equilibrium of the surface of a fluid incUn- " If the
intensity of the attraction of the tube for the

ed to that of a fJuid exceeds that of the attraction of the fluid for its own
solid, implies, by including an
particles, I think it
probable that, in this case, the fluid, at-
impossibility, that such an equilibiiuiu can-
taching itself firmly to the tube, forms of itself an interior
not subsist. This equation requires that the tube, which alone raises the fluid, so as to make its surface
attraction of the fluid, contained between the a concave hemisphere. It may reasonably be conjectured,
that this the case with water and with oils, in
surface and its extreme tangent, be more is tubes of
glass.
than equal to the difterence of the attraction " The elevation of fluids
between two vertical planes,
of the two rectangular portions composing the
which form very small angles with each other, and their
flat solid, and one similar portion of the fluid, discharge through capillary siphons, present a variety of
reduced only in the ratio of the sine of the phenomena, which are so many corollaries from my
theory. On the whole, if any person will take the trouble
angle occupied by the termination of the
of comparingit with tlie numerous
experiments which have
fluid, to the radius but it is very evident
:
been made on capillary action, he will see that the results
that *he action of the portion of 'the fluid, of these experiments, when made with proper precaution,
thus cut off by the tangent, must be utterly may be deduced from it, not by vague
considerations,
which always leave the subject in
evanescent, in comparison with the other uncertainty, but by a se-
ries of geometrical arguments, which appear to me to re-
forces concerned, especially if we cousiiier
move every doubt respecting the truth of the theory. I
that the surface of the fluid, as well as that of wish that this application of analytical
reasoning, to one
the tube, within the distance " of liic sphere of the most curious departments of natural
philosophy,
of activity of the attraction" is, to use Mr. may be thought interesting by mathematicians, and may
" almost induce them to make further attempts of a similar nature.
Laplace's terms, absolutely plane."
Besides the advantage of adding certainty to
physical sci-
There can therefore he no equilibrium upon
ences, such investigations tend also to the improvement of
these principles, when the density of the solid the mathematics themselves, since they
frequently require
is
greater or less than half that of the fluid, the invention of new methods of calculation."

unless the surface of the fluid have a common It must be confessed that, in this countrv.the
cultivation of the higher branches of the
tangent with that of the solid: while, on the ma-
other hand, when the densities are in this pro- thematics, and the invention of new methods
portion, the surface will remain in equilibrium of calculation, cannot be too much recom-
in the action of the fluid being
any position ;
mended to the
generality of those who apply
themselves to natural
always proportional to the chord of its angu- philosophy but it is ;

lar extent, and composing, when coiiibined equally true, on the other hand, that the first
with that of. the solid, a result perpendicular mathematicians on the continent have exert-
to the surface. IfMr. Laplace had attempted ed great ingenuity in involving the
plainest
to confirm or to confute my reasoning, re- truths of mechanics in the intricacies of
specting the mutual attractions of solids and algebraical formulas, and in some instances
fluids, he would probably have discovered have even lost sight of the real state of an
the insufficiency of these principles, and investigation, by attending only to the sym-
would perhaps have been induced to admit bols, which they have employed for express-

my explanation of the foundation of the laws ing its

steps.
 Plate Vj. Vol.JZ.p.ffjo.

Fig. 109

Fi^.iio

il||]iiiillliiiiiiui:]illllillil[!lllill{lllil!ltiltillli:iiiiillllll]llill<l!lllllll]lll|[l

!!!;'•
'ml

Fig. 112 Fig.iiS

AGE
^/oseph^ Ske/toft scu.
^ih.by XJoh/isoTvJ^on£Unvi.Julyi^do6-
 ACCOUNT OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY

FROM NOVEMBER 1801, TO JULY 1802.

From the Journals of the Royal Institution.

1 HE meetings of the Royal Society commenced for the thor enters into the detail of those applications which are the

season, on Thursday the 5th of November. most novel and striking ; by which it
appears to be a gene-
The Croonian lecture on muscular motion, by Everard ral law, that, whenever two portions of the same pencil of
Home, Esq. was read. Its subject wasthe capacity of theeye light arrive at the same point by different routes, the pro-

to change its focal distance, after being deprived of the crys- duction of colours depends
uniformly on the difference of
talline lens. Mr. Homean experiment, where it was
relates the length of those routes ; and from this principle, the co-

shown, by Dr. Young's optometer, that a person, from whose lours of striated surfaces, of thin and of thick plates, and of
retained a greater power of shown
eyes the lens had been extracted, be necessary consequences of
inflected light, are to

it to different distances, than is found in the combination of undulations, in the same manner as
accommo<lating
some eyes which are entire. On repeating the experiment, the the beating of two sounds, or the interference of the tides
a circum- at sea and all the measures, laid down by Newton, are
faculty appeared to be considerably diminished;
:

stance which Mr Home attributes to fatigue. The opto- found to agree precisely with this law. Such a coinci-
meter was found to be much more manageable in its simple dence Dr. Young cannot help considering as fully sufficient,

state, than with the addition of a lens ; and it was singular, to turn the scale of
probability in favour of the undulatory
that this person saw distinctly from about 9 to 13 inches system of light.
without the use of any glass.
On the aflth, Mr. Hatchett's paper, on a new metallic
On the 12th and 17th, Dr. Young's Bakerian lecmre was substance, found in an ore from the state of Massachusets,
read. The subject was the theory of light and colours. It was read. It appears to resemble in its
properties the me-
contained an extension of the system, which the author tallic acids, and, in its namral state, is combined with"iron;
had submitted to the Royal Society in a former paper ; and but is
distinguishable from other substances, by the orange
its unexpected application to a great
phenome- variety of coloured precipitate thrown down from its solution by the
na, most of which had been observed by Newton, but gallic acid, and the olive green colour of the
precipitate by
never sufficiently explained, and others were advanced from the prussic acid. All attempts to reduce it to the metallic

the author's own experiments. Dr. Young first shows form have hitherto been unsuccessful: but, from the colours
bow little difficulty there is, for such as admit the New- of the precipitates, and from other circumstatices, Mr. Hat-
tonian doctrines, to allow the truth of this theory, and how chett thinks that its base will be found to be an acidifiable

much those doctrines have been misunderstood by Euler metal, and he gives it the name columbium.
and others. After recapitulating and extending the expla- On the 30th, the day of the anniversary, the Copleian me-
nation of the more common phenomena of optics, the au- dal was conferred by the council on Mr. Astley Cooper, in
 672 ACCOUNT OF THE
coniequenee of his success in the cr.rc of cases of deafness, 14th January, ! R02. A pajier on the propriety of separat-
from obstructions of the eustachian tube, by the fiom analytical expressions.
arising ing geometrical By Robert
operation of perforating the membrane of the tympanum. Woodhcmse, M.A. of Caius College, Cambridge.
The an appropriate speech, bestowed on
President, in Mr. Woodhouse refers to his foriner communication,
Mr. Cooper the encomiums merited by his important im- printed in the PhilosophiCcil Transactions in isoi, for the
provement; and noticed, a.t the same time, that, in all investigations which gave rise to the present discussion. He
piobability, Chcselden wouldiiave been equally fortunate, had there stated the frequent imperfections of geometrical
had he not been prevented by papular prejudice, from try- analogy, when inferences are made from one figure to
ing the experiment on a condemned criminal. others of a similar kind, and had insisted on the conelii-
The rneeting of the loth of December was occupied by sivcness of demonstrations, in which imaginary quantities
«n abridged translation of a pamphlet of Mr. Piazzi, on the are employed, when understood in their true sense. He
supposed planet, which he discovered at Palermo, and nov/ continues the inquiry into the
distinguishing characters
which he has named Ceres Ferdinandia. Its apparent dia- of geometry and algebra; and while he allows the advan-
meter wa^ seven seconds, its distance from the sun is nearly tage of tlic geometrical method, in simple cases, he giver
three times that of the earth, and its period somewhat a preference to algebraical
analysis in all problems of a more
more than five years. It does not, however, appear to be complicated nature: and endeavours to add still more to
by any means fully ascertained, that it deserves to be the purity of the analytical representation, by banishing
considered as a true planet. The paper was communicated from it all
expressions, which have any reference to
by Dr. Maskelyne. geometry. The computations inserted were not capable of
On the 17th, Mr. Home's account of the anatomy of the being read to the Society; but the author states, in the con-
ornithorhynchus paradoxus was read. This singular ani- clusion, that he has deduced, in a manner purely algebrai-
mal appears to form a link between the mammalia and the cal, the formulas for the sine in terms of the arc, for any

amphibia ; for while, in its general appearance, and in its multiple of an arc, and for other similar angular functions,
sanguiferous system, reiembl<Sthe mammalia, especially
it which have been usually considered as most intimately
some of the order of bruta, both the absence of mammae, connected with geometry.
and its internal anatomy render it probable that it is aist January. A paper on the (»hen«mena of galvanism.
oviparous. Its teeth too, when they are found, are but By George Smith Gibbes, M. D. F. R. S.
four in number, and resemble the substance of horn more Dr, Gibbes begins with reciting some experiments on
than of bone. Its food is unknown, but its residence is the oxidation produced during the union of tin foil with
in the wa,ter. On its hind feet only, besides the five mercury, first in the air, and then under water. He as-
« toes connected by a web, there is a detached process armed sumes a different opinion from that of Dr. WoUaston, re-

with a spur. The paper was accompanied with numerous specting the origination of electricity in chemical
drawings, and a dried specimen of the animal. changes, and maintains, on the contrary, that the electri-
Qn the 24th, a paper on friction, by Mr. Southern, was cal changes are to be considered as preceding and favour-
communicated by Mr. Vince. Mr. Southern made a num- itvg the chemical. He imagines that the simple contact of
ber of accurate experiments orj the motions of large grind- various substances produces changes of electrical equili-
stones, revolving with great rapidity, and ascertained the brium, iind that the action of acids is efTectual in promot-
power of friction on their axes, from the number of revolu- ing these changes, by bringing their surfaces into contact;
tions which they performed, when set in motion with vari- Dr. Gibbes observes upon Dr. WoUaston's experiment of
ous velocities. He considers the results as fully confirming immersing zinc and silver in an acid solution, that if they
Mr. Vince's principle, that friction is a uniformly retarding are placed intwo separate portions of the fluid, and the
force :
although the resistance of the air, and other acciden- parts not immersed are brought into contact, there is no
tal circumstances, introduced great irregularities into the emission of gas from the silver ;
but that it is
copiously pro-
experiments. He found this force equal to about one foiv duced when the contact takes place in the same fluid. He
tieth of the weight the steel spindles proceeds to relate some experiments which seem to show a
:
running on brass,
v»ith the interposition of an unctuou? substance. difference between galvanism and electricity, particularly
The Society adjourned to Thursday the fourteenth of that galvanism does not appear to be attracted
by metallic
JanHvy. points. He also states an experiment in which a piece of
3
 PROCEEDIKGS OF THE IIOYAL SOCIKTV- 67S

paper is placed on tinfoil, and rubbed wiih clastic gum, and he found that, like the nitric acid,
it tontairted loo muclj

and although the tinfoil is not insulated, sparks are pro- oxygen to unite with the whole of the red oxid of lead ex-
duced on raising the paper. Dr. Gibbes concludes with posed to it. He observes that the nitric and other acids ap-

sonic arguments against the dottrine of the decomposition pear to stand lower in the scale of elective attraction to the
of water; and advances as a probable opinion, tliat oxygen metallic oxids, in proportion as
they dissolve the pure mctaU
and hydrogen gas are composed of water as a basis, united more readily. Mr. Chenevix unexpectedly procured the
with two other elements, which, combined, form heat. hyperoxygenizcd muriatic acid in submitting platina to the
The meetings of the 28th January, the 4th and nth action of the nitromuriatic acid. Pursuirig the analogy

February were principally occupied by a paper on the hy- suggested by Mr. Bcrthollet, of the three states, of sulfur,
the sulfureous, and sulfuric acid, Mr. Chenevix proposes to
peroxygenired muriatic acid, by Richard Chenevix, Esq.
F.R.S. appropriate to the common muriatic acid, the term muriatic

Mr. Chenevix, after adverting to the observations of Bcr- radical, or some equivalent denomination, and to call the

thoUet and Mr, Hoyle, proceeds to relate a series of his own acid in the two stages of oxygenization here described, the

experiments, made in order to investigate minutely the

com- muriatous, and muriatic acid respectively.

position and properties of the hyperoxygenizcd muriatic On the 1th February, a letter fiom Dr. Maskelyne an-
acid. It was already known that, in the oxygenized muriate nounced that he had observed the new planet of Mr.
of potash, the acid contains much more oxygen than in its Piazzi passing the meridian between three and four o'clock

separate form. Mr. Chenevix finds that the simply oxyge- in the morning, having about las" 43' right ascension, and
nized acid contains, in 100 parts, 65 of common muriatic 1 2° 38' north declination, appearing like a star of the
eighth
acid, and is of oxygen. BerihoUet, from a less accurate magnitude.

experiment, imagined that it contained only 10 per Cent of Another letter, from Mr. von Zach, was read, informing

oxygen. But the hyperoxygenizcd acid, which is the sub-

the Society that he had observed this planet at Seeberg on
ject of the present paper, appears
to consist of 30 parts only the 7th of Decemberj withm half a degree of the place be-

of muriatic acid, and 64 of oxygen. fore determined in his journal. Mr. Olbcfs saw it at Bre-

;
Mr. Chenevix has not succeeded in obtaining the hyperoxy- men on the 2nd of January. With a iKJwer of above 120,

genizcd muriatic acid in a separate state. In treating the hy- it presented no observable disc.

peroxygenizcd muriate of potash with concentrated sulfuric On the lith, a second letter from the Astronomer Royal
acid, a violent explosion took place, upon the application informed the Society that he had repeated his observation
of heat : this was avoided by adding the salt gradually to the of the new planet, so as fully to ascertain its motion. It

acid, or by using the diluted acid. In the order of affinities appeared to have a visible disc when on the meridian, and
this acid appears to stand next above the benzoic : it changes viewed with a power of 50. When the air was very' clear

blue vegetable colours to red. When the salts formed of it the disc was round and well dofinsd, but somewhat smaller
are decomposed, by the addition of the sulfuric, nitric, or than tliat of the 34th of Virgo, a star of the (5th magnitude
muriatic acids, a flash of light is observed; hence Mr. near it. Dr. Maskelyne observes that the smallness and

Chenevix takes occasion to question the Lavoiserian doctrine, roundness of the a])pcarancc of the disc of the fixed stars
of the light in combustion being supplied by the oxygen is a good criterion of the clearness of the air.

gas consumed and in confirmation of his remark he ob-

-. Another letter, from Alexander Aubert, Esq. F. R. S.
serves that plants, growing in the dark, contain a great was also read. Mr. Aubert discovered the planet •Ceres

proportion of mucilage, and that mucilage burns without on Sunday morning, having about 188" 41' right ascension

emitting any light. The sudden explosion of many com- and near 3° declination, its motion at present being retro-
1

bustible substances with hyperoxygenizcd muriate of potash, grade.

when thrown into an acid, led Mr. Chenevix to attempt the On the 18th of February a letter from Mr. von Zach was
combustion of diamond powder in the same way : but this read, containing a continuation of his observations on the
an account from Mr. Harding
experiment did not succeed. planet Ceres, and mentioning
Mr. Chenevix has examined very minutely the various that two faint spots had been seen, at the distances of 20
salts formed by this acid in combination with alkalis, earths, and 35 seconds from this planet, which was conjectured
it

and metals. He finds that it has not, like some other acids, might possibly be satellites :
although the fact had not by
a power of carrying over a portion of silex when mixed any means been ascertained.
with other earths. He combined it with metals by suspend- Dr. Herschel sent an account of the appearance of the

ing their oxids in water, through which the gas was passed: new planet, as viewed through his telescopes. He had
VOL. II. 4 B
67i ACCOUNT OF THB
sought for it in vain, until he received Dr. Maslelyne's de- others were found to consist of similar ingredients. Tha
termination of its place. When viewed with powers of 600 stone, which fell near Mr. Topham's house in Yorkshire,

and I200,it could not be decidedly distinguished from a star, penetrated 12 inches deep into the «arth, and 6 more into
until it was found to change its place. Its apparent diameter a chalk rock : its fall was accompanied with noises like a
was not large enough to fee directly determined, but it was discharge of artillery. A very particular and perfectly au-
certainly not larger than one
fourth of that of the Georgian thenticated account is
given, in the words of Mr. Williams.,

planet, and perhaps equal only to one sixth. From a rough of several substances which fell about 12 miles fram Be-

computation of its magnitude, Dr. Hersdhel concludes that nares, and penetrated some inches into the earth in several
its real diameter is about A of that of the moon: its light is
spots within the distance of 100 yards ; their fall being ac-

of a reddish hue. eompanied by a very vivid light.

Mr. Gilpin also gave the Society an account of obsc»va- Mr. Howard proceeds to mention another specimen from
tions on the Sth and lith of February. He found the pla- the Museum Bomianum, now in the possession of Mr
net's right ascension change from igs" 41* to 188" 3o', Greville, said to have fallen in Bohemia, which agrees with
while its declination increased. Mr. Gilpin observes that the rest in its characters. A mineralogical description of
that of the planet Mars. these stones by the Count de Bournon The„
light resembles
its is subjoined.

Thursday, asth February. A letter from Mr. Schroe- appear to consist principally of substances ef four kinds, be-

tef of Lilienthal, respecting the planet Ceres Ferdinandia, sides the dark crust which surrounds them ;
the first of these

informed the Society that Mr. Schrocter had observed a substances is in the form of dark grains, of a conchoidal

irebulosity round the planet, somewhat resembling that of fracture, from the size of a pin's head to that of a pea; the

a comet; the diameter of the true disc being 1.8", and that second is a kind of pyrites, the third is metallic iron, and
of the nebula 2.6', but the distinction was not^ always the fourth a grey earthy substance, serving as a cement to

Mr. Schroetcr considers this body as the rest. The proportions of these substances appear to
equally observable.
of a hybrid nature, or a medium between a planet and a co- differ in some measure in the different specimens, the iron

met ; but he imagines the apparent nebulosity to be owing abounding most in the specimens from Yorkshire, and from
to an atmosphere, and that, according to the different states Bohemia. Mr. Howard has ascertained, by a chemical
'of the atmosphere, the light reflected from the planet is analysis, that silica, iron, magnesia, sulfur, and nickel, are

either white, bluish, or reddish. contained in the different parts of these substances. The
A table of observations of the same planet was also com- globular bodies and the cementing earth each contained

municated by Mr. Mechain, through Sir Henry Englefield. about 50 silex, 15 magnesia, 34 iron, and 2J nickel.

An account of certain stony and metalline bodies which From 1 50 grains of the earthy part of the stone from

at different times are said to have fallen on the earth, by Sienna, Mr. Howard obtained about 70 silica, 34 magnesia,
Edward Howard, Esq. occupied the remainder of this meet- 52 oxid of iron, and 3 oxid of nickel ;
the contents of the

ing, and the principal part of the two following. specimens from Yorkshire and from Bohemia were not
Mr. Howard begins with a historical detail of the various materially different. Mr. Howard proceeds to inquire into
relations of this kind which are found on record, and par- the causes of the difference in the results of his analysis and

ticularly refers to
the essays of Mr. King, and Professor those of the foreign chemists, with respect to the species

Chladni, and to various authors quoted by them. But the of the earths. After having shown the striking analogy be-

first instances, with which chemistry has interfered, are tween these substances, and their total dissimilarity to

those of a stone presented to the French Academy by the other mineral products, Mr. Howard examines into the form
Abbe Bachelay in 1768 ;
and another examined afterwards and contents of various specimens of native iron: observing

by Professor Barthold. The stones from Sienna in 1794 ; that Mr. Proust detected nickel in a large mass of native iron

the large stone of 56lbs. weight which fell in Yorkshire in found in South America ;
Mr. Howard discovers a portion
1795, and was exhibited soon after in London; and the of the same metal in every specimen that he has examined,
substances which fell at Benares in 1793, are the immediate from different parts of the world. A description of these

subjects of Mr. Howard's investigation. All these agree in

specimens, by the Count de Bournon, is inserted, and the
the general appearance of an afh grey stony substance, large mass, discovered by Professor Pallas in Siberia, is
par-
mixed with spangles of pyrites, and of native iron, and ex- ticularly described. It is found to contain detached masses

ternally of a dark colour, covered with a semivilrified and of scmitransparent substances, considerably resembling some
blistered crust. The Abbe Bachelay's was supposed to of the constituent parts of the stones from Benares. Mr.
contain sjstiUurj fl
iron, an^.s»} earth, and some of the Howard does not give a decided opinion respecting the origin

1
 PReCEEDINGS OF THE KOYAL SOCIETV, 67^

of -all these substances, he oiily ofctenrfs, that they agree firmed by the analysis of Mri Klaproth ; yet Mr. Haiiy siUl

ia several retnarkable properties, distinguishing them from hesitating to admit that they ought to
be placed near to eacH

all other bodies, that they all appear, from well authenti- other in the system, the Count de Bournon endeavours to

cated accounts, to have fallen on the earth, attended in establish the character much more fully. He divides the
most instances by meteors or lightning, and tliat it is re- specimens of corundum into two principal kinds; the one
markable that the native iron in all the stones contains nic and generally of a greyish co-
larger, less regularly formed,

kel, as well as the other native irons.' lour, capable of being easily reduced by fracture to a rhom-
A letter was also read on the nth March, from Mr. vnn boidal form : the other kind more regularly crystallized,

Z^ch, confirming Mr. Schroeter's observation of the change- and of more diversified colour.

able light of the planet Ceres, which Mr. von Zach had at 'J"he author proceeds to consider the different varieties of
first attributed to the haziness of our own atmosphere, un- the corundum, first with regard to colour, which chiefly
til he found that MM. Olbers and Schroeter were agreed constitutes the distinctions of the sapphire, the oriental ru-

in deriving it from a real change in the light reflected. ty, topaz, emerald, and chrysolite ; and afterwards with
An Appendix Mr. Chenevix's paper, on the Oxyge-
to respect to transparency, hardness, and other particulars.

nized Muriatic Acid, was read on the 1 stli of March. He observes that these stones strike fire with steel less readily

This addition relates principally to the various muriates than flint : that they are phosphorescent when rubbed in the

Mr. Berthollct once considered dark, the ruby in particular emitting a light similar
to
of mercury. It appears that
the acid in corrosive sublimate as oxygenized, but lie after- that of red hot iron. The specific gravity varies, that of the
wards renounced that opinion; and Mr. Proust also thinks sapphire being usually about !.! ,
but most of the other va-'

as Mr. BerthoUet now does. Mr. Fourcroy still calls it a rieties generally 3.g. The diversified forms of the crystals

hyperoxygenized muriate of mercury ;

and of course sup- are next considered, the basis of them all being a rhomboid,

poses the excess of the oxygen in corrosive sublimate above contained by parallelograms, of which the angles are 96°,
that in calomel, to be combined with the acid, and not and 84": the specimens of an ,
original rhomboid of this

with theoxid. Mr. Chenevix however determines from ex- kind are very rare. The derivative crystals have their an-
thus becoming more
periment that corrosive sublimate contains no particle of hy- gles variously replaced, the portions

peroxygenized muriatic acid. In ico parts, he finds 60, or less regularly formed pyramids.

of mercury, 12.3 of oxygen, and 18 of muriatic acid ; but The cohesion of these gems is next compared with their'

in calomel, 79, 9.S and 11.5 respectively so that in calo- ; colour, and a genera! connexion between these qualities

mel the metal is less oxidized, and the oxid is combined is found: the blue being in general the most difficultly

with a smaller proportion of the acid.- A piece of copper broken. Several circumstances respecting the crystalliza-

was found to throw down from a solution of corrosive subli- tions are still more minutely described, and the figures to

mate a very pure calomel. Mr. Chenevix observes that .which the reflection of light is owing are particularly con-

Schecle's calomel contains a portion of subnitrate of mercury sidered. The author observes that in order to form the ap-

precipitated witli it by the water; and that this may be pearance of the rays of a regular star, by reflection from the
avoided either by using the nitrate of mercury before it has laminae of these gems, which has frequently given them the

boiled, or by adding to the dilute solution of muriate of denomination of asterites, the best section is to make them
soda, by which it is precipitated, a little muriatic acid, to terminate obtusely a below the sharp angle of the'
little

engage the superfluous subnitrate. By passing a current of rhomboid. The objections of Mr. Ilaiiyto classing the
red sapphire and other oritntal gems with the corundum are
oxygenized muriatic acid gas through water containing
still

Olid of a true hyperoxygenized muriate was ob-

mercury,
further considered. An analogy to the two principal divi-

tained, more soluble than corrosive sublimate, and distin- sions of corundums into regular and irregular crystals, is
its smell when decomposed and the remain- shown in the forms of the feltspar, which is similarly dis-
guishable by ;

ing oxid became of a dark brown colour. tinguished into the very different appearances of felispar in

The meetings of the 2sth of March, and the island 8th granite, and the crystallized adulaiia, besides some other

of April, were occupied by part of a paper on the corundum, similar variations. The matrix of the corundums,. particu-

larly in the Carnatic, is a rock of a loose texture, some-

by the Count dc Bournon, F.R.S.
The Count de Bournon had already stated some mineralo- what resembling sandstone in appearance, but containing

corundum with the sapphire small masses of a substance irregularly crystallized, which
gical reasons for classing the
and o'her oriental their affinity was afterwards con- is decomposed by exposure to the air, and then appears to.
gems :
676 ACCOUNT OF THE
abeund in carbonate ef lime. Th« Count dc Bournon lefers, from Ceylon is investigated, but it is
principally frtjra con-

for acomplete confirmation of his mineralogical opinions, jecture that the author determines the spinelle ruby to be

to Mr. Chenevix's chemical analjsis of all the substances one of the substances accompanying it, since it is found in

that he has examined, which is to form a continuation of the sands, together with the corundum. The crystals of

this elaborate essay. the spinelle are described as either complete tetraedons, or

Some observations of the place of the planet Ceres, by rhomboids, with plane angles of eo", or dodecacdrons, or
Professor Bode, of Berlin, were also communicated on lastly tetraedral prisms terminated by pyramids : its colour

the 8th by Dr. Herschcl; and the Society adjourned to the is often yellowish or bluish. Its matrix is sometimes a cal-

aoth. carious stone, and sometimes a kind of adularia. Another

substance frequently found in these sands is the tourmalin.
" a Meeting of the Managers of the Royal Institution
Jit
Its primitive crystal is a very obtuse rhomboid ; the solid
of Great Britain, held at the Hojise of the Institution, on
^ angle being 139° ; the second form is a prism, either hex-
the ith Day of April, 1 802.
aedral, enneaedral, or dodecacdral, abruptly terminated; and
" Restlved, That the Resolution of the Managers of the there are some other varieties : the colour differs very consi-

Royal Institution, of the 31st of March, 1800, Article 4," derably in different specimens ;
it is sometimes yellowish,
already inserted in the Journals, "be communicated to the
bright green, or purplish red ; and sometimes the crystals are
Royal Society; and that tlie Royal Society be requested colourless. A specimen of remarkable magnitude and beauty
to direct their Secretaries to communicate, from time to is mentioned, which was presented to Mr. Symes by the
time, to the Editor of the Journals of the Royal Institu- sovereign of Ava, and placed by him in Mr. GreviUe's
tion, such information respecting the papers read at the collection. The Ccylonite of Lametherie, or the plconast
meetings of the Society, as it may be thought proper to of Haiiy , is also found in the sands of Ceylon ; it is
usually
allow to be published in those Journals." of a brownish green, and it greatly resembles the spinelle,
but is somewhat softer. Small crystals of zircon, with
" At a Meeting of the Council of the Royal Society , on
scattered fragments ofsome other stones, help also to com-
the 15th of April, 1802.
pose this sand, as it is sent to Europe. Of all these sub-
"
Resolved, That the Council agree to the request of
stances, the spinelle is the most abundant.
the Royal Institution, as expressed in the above minute of
It apiiears to be doubtful, whether or no corundum is
the 5th of April, and that they thankfully accept the offer
found in any part of the world, except the East Indies ;
made them in the minute of the 3ist of March."
yet the Count de Bournon has reasons for thinking that
In consequence of this resolution, the editors of the
it has been discovered in some of tlie mountains of France.
Journals of the Royal Institution have the privilege of in-
But the specimens from Germany, and from Tiree, appetr
specting all the papers communicated to the Royal Society,
to have been of other descriptions. Whether or no it has
and of extracting from them such notices as they may think
been found in the neighbourhood of Philadelphia, is a dis-
interesting to the public, without being sufficient to super-
puted point. Mr. Haiiy considers the specimens from the
sede the necessity of consulting the original memoirs, when
neighbourhood of Montbrison as a harder kind of feltspar :
printed in the Philosophical Transactions. but the Count de Bournon
'

is
persuaded that they are co-
The Count dc Bournon's paper, on corundum, was con- rundums, nearly resembling the sapphire, but combined in
cluded on the May. After having considered the
1 3th of some degree with feltspar. The emeralds found in the same
matrix of imperfect corundum from the peninsula of India, place are more strongly characterized.

with the feltspar, the fibrolitc, the thallite, or epidote of On the 6th of May, Dr. Herschel's observations on the

Hauy, the hornblende, the quartz, the talc and mica, two lately discovered celestial bodies were read.
the garnets, the zircon, and the black oxid of iron, that this Dr. Herschel begins with stating the result of his at-
matrix usually contains, some of them substances now first tempts to measure the diameter of the stars discovered by
named, the author proceeds to the matrix of imperfect co- Piazzi and Olbers. He employed the lucid dioc microme-

nmdum from China, and from the kingdom of Ava, ter, which consists of an illuminated circle, viewed with
which is a granite rock, composed of feltspar, fibrolitc, one eye, while the other compares with it the magnified
mica, and black oxid of iron, without the peculiar substance, image formed by the telescope ; and he concludes, that
which is the basis of the matrix of the imperfect corundum the apparent diameter of Ceres was .22", and of Pallas .17"

from the Carnatic ; sometimes a little chlorite and thallite or. 13", at the distance of nearly 1.634, and 1.187 from
occiu in this piatriz. Next, the matrix of perfect corundiun the earth respectively, whence the apparent diameters at
 rROCEEDlNGS OF THE EOTAL SOCIETY. 677
the distance of tlie eatth from the sUn would be .35'' and ash, and separated from it by muri.ite of ammoniac. The
.21" or .irt" respectively ; and that their real diameters are process is
particularly exemplified in the instance of the sap-
about 103 and 95 or 71 English miles. There is no pro- phire, in which Mr. Chenevix found about one twentieth
bability that either of these stars can have a satellite. The of its weight of silica, although Mr. Klaproth could
coloui of Ceres ismore ruddy than that of Pallas. They scarcely perceive the presence of any silica. The consti-

ha\e generally more or less of a haziness, or coma, tuent parts of many difierent corundums are enumerated ;

but sometimes, when the air is clear, this nebulosity they all agree in the great proportion of alumina. T'he ma-
scaiccly exceeds the scattered light surrounding a very small trix from the peninsula of India contained silica, alumina,
star. From a view of all these circumstances. Dr. Hcrs- lime, iron, and a small quantity of manganese ; the felt-

chel proceeds to consider tlic nature of the new stars. He spar, found in it, consisted of nearly the same ingredients,
thinks that they differ from the general character of planets, with a greater preponderance of silica ; but the fibrolite

in their diminutive dimensions, in the great inclination of vras remarkable for being composed almost wholly of alu-
their orbits, in the coma surrounding them, and in the mina and silica, in the proportion of 3 to 2 ; the thallite

mutual proximity of their orbits: that they differ from co- contained, besides these two earths, considerable portions

mets in the want of eccentricity, and of a considerable ne- of lime and iron. The fibrolite of the matrix from China

bulosity. Dr. Herschel, therefore, wishes to call them contained alumina, silica and iron. The feltspar from
asteroids, a term which he defines as a celestial body, Ceylon difTeied but little from the Indian specimens. Mr.
which moves round the sun in an orbit either little or con- Chenevix observes that, in such analyses, crucibles of platina
which the plane may be inflined to or silver ought to be exclusively employed but that for
siderably eccentric, of
:

tiie ecliptic in any angle whatever, the motion being either boiling earths in potash, silver must be preferred, since

direct or retrograde, and the body being surrounded or not platina is copiously dissolved by potash, its
affinity with

by a considerable atmosphere, or a very small coma. This this alkali being such as to enable it to form triple salts

definition is intended to include such other bodies of the with it, a property which the Spanish government employs

same kind ?.s, Dr. Herschel supposes, will, in all proba- for detecting platina in gold. Mr. Chenevix thinks, that
be hereafter discovered. Some additional observations the reddish colour produced in a weak solution of platina
lity,

show, that the apparent comas, surrounding Ceres and by muriate of tin, is a more delicate test of its
presence. He
Pallas, scarcely exceed those, which are caused by aberra- observes, that neither potash nor soda, is, properly speak-

tion, round the images of minute fixed stars. ing, a fixed alkali, especially
when a little water is present.

The ineetings of the 20th and 27th of May were occu- In the second part of the paper, Mr. Chenevix considers

pied by an analysis of corundum,

and of some of the sub- the supposed affinities of the earths for each other. He had
stances which accompany it ; with observations on the af- himself maintained the existence of some of these affinitie*

finities which the earths have been supposed to have for Kirwan and Guyton had carried the opinion much further.
each other in the humid way. By Richard Chenevix, Esq. But Mr. Darrac has combated this extension of the doctrine
F.R.S. and M.R.I. A. with considerable success, and Mr. Chenevix has repeated

After several ineffectual attempts to procure a solution of most of his experiments with a similar result. Dr. G. M.
corundum, Mr. Chenevix succeeded by means of subbo- atFreyberg, has excited further
doubts on the subject. Mr.

rate of soda, or common borax. He took 100 grains of co- Chenevix here enumerates the experiments of Guyton, and

rundum, and having pulverised it in a steel mortar, after considers them all as inaccurate, except those which re-

it when red hot into cold water, he lated to the solution of silica in potash, and which "were
repeatedly plunging
washed off by muriatic acid whatever iron might have ad- not new ; and even these he thinks scarcely sufficient to

hered to it, and then levigated it in a mortar of agate, not- justify, without further examination, the conclusion of an

ing the augmentation of its weight in the operation. He affinity between this earth and others : and he explains

exposed the powder with 200 grains of calcined borax in a Guyton's error from the impurity of his material.?, especi-

crucible of platina to a violent heat ; it was then boiled in ally from the presence of sulfuric acid, which Mr. Chene-
the same vessel with muriatic acid, which in about 1 2 vix detected in the precipitates whenever they occurred.

hours dissolved the glass. The earths were precipitated by The solubility of silica in acids after the action of an alkali

an alkaline carbonate : and being redissolvcd in muriatic is. he thinks, a circumstance which has given the greatest

superiority to all modem anal)'scs ;

acid, the silica was separated by evaporation. The alu- and the solution is in
mina was precipitated and redissolvcd by an excess of pot- some measure facilitated by the presence of aUimina, Alu-
 678 ACCOUNT OF THE
inina also appears to be capable of entering into combi- On the 17th an analysis of a pulmonary calculus, by P.
nation with magnesia, so as no longer to be taken up by Crampton, Esq. was communicated by the Hon G. Knox,
potash ;
and the same earth seemsto promote the solution F.R.S.
of lime in potash. So that on the whole, the existence of Mr. Crampton found in lOO parts of the pulmonary cal-

affinities between some of the earths appears to be esta- culus that he examined, 45 of lime, 37 of carbonic acid,

blished, although not to the extent supposed by MM. and 1 8 of animal matter and water ; this was probably al-

Kirwan and Guyton. Mr. Chenevix allows the truth of bumen, being coagulable in acids. He thinks it probable
Mr. BerthoUet's position respecting the effect of masses on that this specimen may have been of a different nature from
chemical affinities, but observes, that this effect is by no those which are described by Fourcroy, and which have
means unlimited ; and that the proposition, if true in its been supposed to contain phosphate of lime. Mr. Crampton
would very much increase the difficulties of
full extent, thinks it how phosphate of lime might
easier to mrderstand

chemical analyses, and lessen the important benefits have been separated from the blood, than carbonate; but he
which they confer on the science of mineralogy. conceives that even this maybe deposited in the lungs, by a
On the 3d of June, a description of the anatomy of the morbid process, similar to the healthy one, by which it is

Ornithorhynchus hy^trix, by Everard Home, Esq. F.R.S. secreted, to form a considerable part of the bones.
was laid before the Society. The same evening a letter from Mr. Carlisle to the presi-
This animal has been described and figured by Dr. Shaw, dent was read, containing a description of two kinds of eyes

under the nume of myrmecophaga aculeata, but from the observed in the Gryllus gryllotalpa; with other circumstances
absence of mammae, and from its greater internal resem- respecting the structure and natural history of that animal.
blance to the ornithorhynchus than to the other myrme- Mr. Carlisle first describes the eyes, commonly so called :

Cophagae, Mr. Home chooses to consider it as belonging to he observes that a membrane, which appears under the mi-
the same genus with that singular animal, although he croscope to be reticulated, and covered with a dark brown
thinks it possible that it
may hereiifter be found to require opaque, pulpy matter, is
applied in immediate contact
, a distinct generic name. It is a native of New South Wales, with all the interior surfaces of the cornea, and that behind

and several specimens have been brought over in spirits : this there is a, portion of brain. It appeared, on exposing a
its length is about seventeen inches ; it is covered with section of the head to the direct rays of the sun, that the

hair and with quills. Its bill somewhat resembles that of the dark coloured substance intercepted the light almost com-

ornithorhynchus, but wants the lateral lips. Its teeth are pletely. Mr. Carlisle therefore thinks that these eyes are

and the palate: the principally subservient to measuring the intensity of light,
horny, and confined to the tongue

hind legs are furnished with a spur. The stomach has a and to denoting the, illuminated and shadowed parts of ob-

number of homy papillae near the pylorus: it is much jects. The stemmata, which have a greater resemblance to

larger than that ofthe ornithorhynchus paradoxus; and the the eyes of quadrupeds, are two in number, situated in the

animal appears to swallow a considerable quantity of ^and summit of the head :

they are pellucid, brilliant lenses, of
with its food. The second branch of the fifth pair of nerves a homy substance, J^,
of an inch in diameter: under them

is extremely small, so that this species has probably no pe- is found a portion of jelly, and next to this a semiopaqiie
culiar sense of feeling in its bill ;
that of smell appears to membrane, on which the figures of surrounding objects are
compensate the deficiency. The small bones of the ear are painted by the lens, and may be discovered by the help of
to the malleus and stapes ; the a microscope: behind it is a white mass, connected with
only two, corresponding
divisions of the cochlea are cartilaginous. The contents of the brain, and a branch of the bronchial tubes is so nearly

the pelvis agree with those of the ornithorhynchus, in in contact with it, that Mr. Carlisle thinks.it may possibly

greatly resembling the

class of birds. Mr. Home has exa- affect the distance of the membrane, receiving the image,
mined several other species of manis and myrmecophaga, from the lens. The two setaceous projections from the
but finds that they all are furnished with mammae. The tail of the insect Mr. Carlisle supposes to serve the purpose

peculiar characters of the genus ornithorhynchus appear of antennae, since the insect runs backwards as readily as

to be the spur on the hitid legs, the absence of nipples, the forwards, and never turns in its burrow : this passage is

smooth beak, and the horny teeth. From all these con- formed simply by compressing the earth, without throwing
siderations, Mr. Home infers that the genus forms a con- anj' out of it. The abdomen of the insect contains a craw,

necting-link between the mammalia, avcs, and amphibia. a gizzard, and a digesting stomach ; it appears to live on
The Society adjourned to the j* th. other insects, chiefly coleopterous. The peculiar noise.
 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROTAL SOCIETY. 679
earned by the friction of the upper wings against each constitute, the boundary of reflection : the author observes

other, which appears to be a mode of conveying intelli- that they are sometimes wanting, or even reversed, when
gence between the sexes, indicates that these insects must the dispersion is equal at different angles of deviation, or
be provided with organs of hearing; They are incapable of when it is greater even with a less deviation, as when oil

flying,but their wings assist them in swimming. of sassafras is

applied to a prism of flint glass, as well as in
On the 24th of June, two communications from Wil- many cases of spars with fluids. Solutions of metallic salts

liam Hyde WoUaston, M.D. F.R.S. were read. The first in general are found to be very highly dispersive by weak-
:

was on a method of examining refractive and dispersive ening the solution till the line of separation became colour-
and then noting the
powers, by prismatic reflection. It was suggested
to the less, refractive density. Dr. Wollaston

author by a consideration of the prismatic speculum em- has been able to compare the dispersive powers of several

Newton in his reflecting such substances with that of plate glass. He has also ar-
ployed by Sir Isaac telescope.

The angle, at which the total reflection of light of any kind ranged a number of substances in a table, in the order of

first takes place at the surface of a rarer medium, depends their dispersive powers, at a given deviation ; an order ma-
on the comparative density of the two mediums in contact; terially different from that of their refractive density. A
and hence the measurement of this angle readily furnishes a very important observation concludes this part of the essay.
determination of the ratio of refraction at the common sur- Dr. Wollaston observes, that by looking tljrough a prism at

face, for the kind of light observed. Thus, by means of a a distant crevice in a window shutter, the division of tire

triangular prism, a drop of each of two or more fluids be- spectrum be seen more distinctly than by any other
may
ing placed side by side on the under surface,
it
may easily method, and thai the colours are then only four; red,
be found, by inclining the prism more and more, which yellowish green, blue, and violet, in the linear proportions
of the dark spots first disappears, and It follows that the of the numbers IS, 23, 36, 25 ; and that these proportions

respective fluid has the weakest refractive power. But will be the same whatever refractive substance be em-

when a solid is examined, it must in general be united by ployed, provided that the inclination of the prism remain
the interposition of some fluid of a higher refractive den- unchanged. In the light of the lower part of a candle, the

sity, otherwise the contact will be too imperfect ; and it is spectrum is distinguished by dark spaces into five distinct

ft'.sily
shown that this interposition does not affect the ulti- portions.
mate result. But for determining at once the numerical ratio Tlie second paper was On the oblique refraction of Ice-

of the sines. Dr. Wollaston has invented an apparatus, in land crystal. It contains a confirmation of the experiments

which,by means of a rectangular prismof flint glass, the index of Huygens on this substance, with ailditional evidence,

of refraction of each substance is read off at once by a ver- deduced from the superiority of Dr. WoUaston's mode of

nier, the three sides of a moveable triangle performing the examining the powers of refraction. He observes, that Ds.

the ratios in a very compendious has already applied the Huygcnian theory with con-
operations of reduction of Young
manner. In this method it is obviously unnecessary that siderable success to the explanation of several other optical

the substances to be examined should be of any determi- phenonaena, and that it appears to be strongly supported
nate ferm ;
and it s as easy to ascertain the refractive den- by such acoincidcnceof thecalculationideilucedfrom it,wiih
most opaque as of the most transj>arent bodies, the results of these experiments, as could
scarcely have
sity of the
be less refractive than the pttsm 'employed. happened to a faUc theory. Huygens supposes the undu-
provided they
It may also serve as a chemical test, for example in essen- lations of light to be propagated in Iceland crystjl in a

tial oils, which when adulterated are generally rendered less spheroidal instead of a spherical form ; and infers that the

refractive ; and a very minute quantity is sufiicient for the ratio of the sine of incidence to the oblique ordinate of re-

experiment. Where the medium is of variable density, fraction mjist be constant in any one section, but different

this is almost the only mode in which its refractive power for different planes. Dr. Wollaston observes, that, though

can be ascertained ; hence it is of singular utility in exa- we do not fully understand the existence of a double

mining the refraction of the crystalline lens. (Phil. Trans. refraction, and are utterly at a loss to account for the phe-

1801.41.) A copious table of the refractive powers of nomena occurring upon a second refraction, by another piece

various substances is here inserted. The dispersive powers of the spar, yet that the
^jlique refraction, when considered
ot different substances are inferred from similar observa- alone, is nearly as weH' explained as any other optical phs-

tions upon tlie fringes which usually accompany, or rather nomenon.

680 ACCOUNT OF THE
On the first of July, a paper was read, entitled, an ac- nation. Mr. Wiegleb conceived that it consisted prlncipsliy
count of some cases of the production of colours nothither- of silex, but there appears to have been some mistake with
to described, by Thomas Youne;, M.D. F.R.S. respect to the substance that he examined. Mr. Tennant
When a small fibre, such asa human hair, ora silkworm's finds that emery is dissolved with
difficulty in a strong some
thread, is held near the eye, while it is directed to a minute heat by carbonate of soda, and after the subsidence of a little

or distant luminous object, an ajipearance of parallel fringes iron , the earth contained in the solution is almost
purely
of coloured light is produced, the colours succeeding each argillaceous. This result is
exactly similar to Mr. Ktaproth'a
other in the same order as those of thin plates seen by analysis of diamond spar or corundum. From lOO parts
transmitted light, and being larger and more distant as the Mr. Tennant procured 80 of argil, 3 of silex, and 4 of
diameter of the fibre is smaller. Dr. Young explains this cir- iron, with an undissolved residuum of 3 parts, and a loss of

cumstance from the general law of the interference of light 10; great care having been taken to separate the parts at-

(Syllabus, 376.) ; the two portions being here found in the tracted by the magnet : some portions however contained
light reflected and inflected from opposite sides of the fibre: almost one third of iron. The hardness of emery and dia-
and from a single experiment, calculated to determine the mond spar appears to be equal. The emery used in England
angular distance of the fringes, produced by a hair of known is brought principally from the island of Naxos ;
it is im-

magnitude, hedcduces a measure agreeing, within one ninth, ported in the form of angular blocks, incrusted with iron
with the dimensions of the thin plates as ascertained by ore, with pyrites and mica ; substances which usually ac-

Newton, and he considers this experiment both as a con- company the corundum from China.
firmation of Newton's measures, and of the cjiplanation of A catalogue of 500 new nebulae, nebulous stars, planet-
these coldurs. It appears probable that the colours of all ary nebulae, and clustersof stars, was laid before the Society,

atmospherical hales are produced in a similar manner. by William Herschel, LL.D. F.R.S. ; and the prelimi-
The colours of mixed plates constitute another new class nary remarks on the construction of the heav<;ns were also
of phenomena. When a little moisture, or oil, is scantily read.

interposed between two pieces of glass, proper for exhibiting Dr. Herschel takes a very enlarged view of the sidereal
the common rings of colours seen by transmitted light, we bodies composing the universe, as far as we can conjecture

may observe an appearance of other rings much larger than their nature : and enumerates a great diversity of parts that

these, which are most conspicuous when they are placed a enter into the construction of the heavens, reserving a
little out of the line joining the eye and the luminous object. more complete discussion ofeachtoa future time. The
These appear to originate in the interference of two portions first species are insulated stars ; as such the author considers
of light, passing, the one through the particles of water or our sun, and all the brightest «tars, which he supposes
oil, the other through the air interposed, and travelling, of nearly out of the reach of mutual gravitation ; for, stating

course, with ditferent velocities : the explanation is con- the annual parallax of Sirius at 1", he calculates that Sirius

firmed by the effect of substances of different refractive den- and the sun, if left alone, would be 33 millions gf years in

sities, applied either vrith air intervening, or with each other, falling together and that the action of the stars of the
;
milky
*nd the measures agree with the calculation. way, as well as others, would tend to protract this time
Dr. Young observes, that he has repeated Dr. WoUaston's much more. Dr. Herschel conjectures that insulated stars

experiments on the division of the prismatic spectrum, with alone are surrounded by planets. The next are binary side-

success ; and thinks it probable that the separation of the real systems, or double stars ; from the great number of
bluish light of a candle, into distinct portions, is a phenome- these which arc visible in different parts of the
heavens,
non of the same kind, as is observable when the light trans- and the frequent apparent equality of the two stars. Dr.
mitted through a thin plate of glass or air is analysed by Herschel calculates the very great improbability, that they
means of a prism. He also adds, that he has had an oppor- should be at distances from each other at all comparable to

tunity of confirming his former observations upon the very those of the insulated stars : hence he infers, that they
low dispersive power of the human eye in its collective must be subjected to mutual gravitation, and can only pre-
state. serve their relative distances by a periodical revolution round
A paper on the composition of Emery was communi- a common centre. In confirmation of this inference, he

cated to the Society by Smithson Tennant, Esq. K.U.S. promises soon to communicate a series of observations made
This substance hits in general been considered as an ore of on double stars, showing that many of them have actually
iron, but it appears to have very little title to that denomi- changed their situation in a progressive course, the motiun

4
 PllOCEEDlNGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIET?. 681

of some bei4ig direct, and of others retrograde. The pro- nates referred to the asymptote, are in their present form of

per motion of our sun does not appear to be of this kind, little use, butmight easily be corrected in a manner similar
but to be rather the effect of some perturbations in the to that which he has pursued. He defers, to a future oppor-

neighbouring systeins. Tlie same theory is next applied to tunity, the publication of similar investigations relative to

triple, quadruple, and multiple systems of stars, and parti- the ellipsis.

cular hypothetical cases arc explained by diagrams. Some Observations on Heat, and on the action of bodies which
such cases. Dr. Herschel is fully persuaded, have a real intercept it.
By Mr. Prevost, Professor ofN<nuial Philo-

existence in nature. The fourth species consists of cluster- sophy at Geneva.

ing stars, and of the milky way : the stars thus disposed This paper was read on the same evening. It consists
constitute masses, which appear brighter in the middle, ^
thiefiy of inferences from Dr. Herschel's important experi-
and fainter towards the extremities, being perhaps collected ments on the transmission of heat by different refracting me-
in a spherical form. Groups of stars the author distin- diums, especially the difl'crent kinds of glass. Mr. Prevost

guishes from these by a want of apparent condensation sets out with the law of the interchange of heat, as ascer-

about a centre of attraction : and clusters of stars, by a tained by the experiments of IVIM. Kraft and Richmann, that
much more complete compression near such a centre, so as while the time flows equably, the differences of the tem-

to exhibit a mottled lustre, almost resembling a nucleus. peratuft of two contiguous bodies flow proportionally, or

eighth species consists of nebulae, which probably

The are in geometiical progression. Hence, from three observa-

differ from the three last -species only in being much more tions of the actual temperature of a thermometer, at given

remote ; some of them. Dr. Herschel calculates, must be intervals of time, we may determine the progression of the

at so great a distance, that the rays of light must have been differences, and consequently the actual heat of the medium .

nearly two millions of years

in travsUing from them to our The author applies this method to Dr. Herschel's experi-

system. The stellar nebulae, or stars with burs, form

a ments on the heat of a solar ray tiaiismitted through dif-

distinct species. A milky nebulosity is ne.tt mentioned, ferentmediums, and the conclusions are very different

which may in some cases resemble other nebulae, but in from what we should at first sight infer for :
instance,
others appears to be almost like a fluid the in Dr. Herschel's a4th experiment, the blue
glass inter-
:
diffused,

author is not inclined to consider it as either resembling the cepted one tenth only of the rays of heat, and not one fourth,
zodiacal light of the sun, or of a phosphorescent nature. as the thermometer seemed to indicate. But the imme-
The tenth species is denominated nebulous stars ; these are diate interception must have been somewhat greater than
stars surrounded with a nebulosity like an atmosphere, of one tenth; for a certain portion of heat, actually communi-
which the magnitude must be amazingly great ; for the cated to the glass, must hare radiated afresh towards the

apparent diameter of one of them, described in the catalo- thermometer, and contributed W produce the temperature
gue, was 3'. The planetary nebulae are distinguished by observed ;
and accordingly as this circumstance took place
their equable brightness, and circular form, while their light in a greater or less degree, the thermometer must have

is still too faint to be produced by a single luminary of great been variously and irregularly affected. Of such an irregu-
dimensions. When they have bright central points. Dr. larity almost every one of the experiments shows evident
Herschel considers them as forming a twelfth species, and marks, and the app^atus is not minutely enough described

supposes them to be allied to the nebulous stars, which to furnish data for calculating its magnitude. From these

might approach to their nature, if their luminous atmo- principles an experiment of Mr. Pictet, on the interception

spheres were very much condensed round the nucleus.

of heat, is reconciled with Dr. Herschel's experiments.

On the 8th of July, the first part of a paper on the recti- In the second part of this paper, Mr. Prevost treats of the

fication of the conic sections was laid before the society by reflection of heat and of cold. He observes tliat Bacon sug-
the Rev. John Hellins, B.D. F. R. S. It contained nine gested the inquiry respecting the concentration of invisible
theorems for the rectification of the hyperbola, by means heat by glasses. Lambert attributed the effect of the re-

of infinite series, one only of which had been before pub- flection from a common fire to its invisible heat. Mr. de
lished, each having its particular advantages, in particular Saussure suggested to Mr. Pictet to confirm Lambert's sus-

cases of the proportions of the axes and of the ordinatcs, so picionby experiment, and the success is well known. His
that they appear to contain a complete practical solution of experiment on the reflection of cold Mr. Prevost has al-
this important problem, and they are illustrated by a va- ready employed in support of the opinion that the cquili-

riety of examples. The author

obseives that Dr. Waring's brium of heat is not a quiescent equilibrium, or an equili-
theorems, for computing the length of the curve, from ordi- brium of tension, but an equilibrium of motion, where the

VOi« I. 4s
682 ACCOUNT OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
interchanges of heat on either side are equal
: and this cated the paper, the assertion of Newton is quoted iii

theory has been adopted by Professor Pictei,

and by other answer to this objection, yet Dr. Young confesses that

philosophers. Hence the author endeavours to deduce the Newton appears to have calculated erroneously : but he ob-

law already inferred from Richmann's experiments. Mr. serves, that if the slightest difficulty of this kind should occur

Prevost observes, that this theory virould be equally applicable from astronomical considerations, it might be avoided by
to the opinion of those who consider heat as consisting in considering the luminiferous ether as unconcerned in the
the undulations of an elastic medium; although he thinks phenomena of cohesion, and then its rarity might be as-
that opinion liable to many objections,e specially on account sumed as great as we chose to make it.
of the resistance which the motions of the planets must suffer The Society adjourned to November 4.

from it. In a note added by Dr, Youn^, who communi-

 INDEX.
The the figures to the pages.
capital numerals refer to the volumes,

Ali properiiames are inserted, except those which occur in the catalogue as the
authors of essays inserteJ iu collec-

tions of any kind. The of the birth and death of die most eminent persons arc added, where they have been
years
tables.
ascertained, as a supplement to the chronological

AcadC^mie de Montpeiier, Achernar, I. 498. Adhesion of air, II. 381.

Aaron Reschid, i. 59s. II. 108. Achromatic eye piece, I. Adhesion of fluids, II. 652.

Abacus, II. 116. Academic des Inscriptions,

432. Adhesion of surfaces, II.

Abat, II. 283. II. 501. Achromatic glasses, I. 431, 381.

Abb6 P. II. 309.
Academy del Cimento, I. II. 80, 323. Admission of heat, II. 406.
Abduction of heat, II. 405. A-chromatic lenses, II. 284. I. 746, 756.
638, 749. Adsiger,
Abernethy, II. 585, 580. of Brussels, II. Achromatic telespopes, I. Advancement of science, I.
Academy
Aberration, II. 286. 109. 478, PI. 28. II. 287. 755.
Aberration from colour, I.
Academy of Erfurt, II. 109. Achromatic telescopes of Aeolian harp, I. 383, 399,
431.
Academy of Paris, I. 251, one kind of glass. II. 287. II. 274, 275, 564.
Aberration of light, I. PI.
357, 360, 749. Acids, I. 678, II. 420, 510, Aeolipile, II. 410.
29. II. 294, 373. Academy of Petersburg, I. 67S. Aepinus, I. 658, 685, 751,
Aberration of the stars, 1. 749. Acre, II. 150, 151. 756, II. 285, 417, 418,
436, 462, II. 321, 344, Accelerated motion,I. Pl.l. Acta eruditorum, II. 107. 435, 437.
355, 645. Accelerating forces, I. 27. Acta Hassiaca, II. 109. Aerial excursions, II. 256,
Aberrations of lenses, II. II. 28, 131. Acta literaria Sueciae, II. Aerial perspective, I. 454,
281. Acceleration, I. 29. 103, ir. 314.
Aberrations of refraction, Acceleration of the moon's Acta physicomedica,II.107. Aerial telescope, II. 286.
ir. 75.
motion, I. 521, II. 336. Acta Upsaliensia, II. 108. Aerometry, II. 387.

Abhandlungen der Kaiser- Acceleration of tides, 1.585. Acting pump, I. PI. 23. II. Aerostatic voyage, II. 447.
lichen academic, II. 107. Accidental colours, II. 314. 236, 238. Aerostatation,II. Top.256.
,
Abr^g^ des transactions Accidental of Actinia, II. 51T, Aerostation, II. 256.
properties
^
philosophiques, II. 106. matter, I. 607. Action of sohds on fluids, Affinities, II. 380, 510.
Absorption of air, II. 464. Accommodation of the eye, II. 669. Affinities of earths; II. 677.

Abutment of a rafter, II. I. 450, II. 312, 523. Actions of fluids, II. 219. Africa, I. 571, II. 367.

179. Accompaniment, I. 394, II. Actual focus, I. 414. Agaricus orcadcs, II. 482.
Abutments, I. 163, II. 176. 566. Acusrics, I. 258, 367. II. Agate, n. 184.
AcadeniiaCacsarea, 11.107. Account of dials at White- 1S9, 264, 279. Agave, II. 185.

Academia di Siena, II. 107. hall, II. 348. Adair, I. 714. Age, II. 516.
'

Academia Theodoropala- Accoutrements, II. 203. Adami, II. 227. Aggregation, I. 628,11.511.
tina, II. 109. Accura, 11. 207. Adams, II. 128, 144, 286 , Agitation, I, 212, 252. II,

Academicians, I. 370. Accumulation of electricity, 311, 417, 437, 461. 137, 216.
AcademiedeBerlin,!!. 107. I. 670. Addition, 11. 1.
Agitation of a fluid, II. 223.
Academic de Dijon, II. Achard, I. 754, II. 112, 127, Adhesion, I. 146, 152, 155 Agitation of the needle, II.

asi. 391, 393, 401,652,653. 627, 11. 509. 441.

6S4 INDEX.

Agitations, II. 490. Aldrovandus, I. 746, 748, Altitudes of tlie stars,II.355. Aneurisms, I. 299.

Agitations ofchoids,II. 267. 756, B. 1525. D. 1605. Alva. Duke of Alva, I. 244. Angle, 11. 9, 121.

Agitations of water, II. 459. Aleaume, 11. 157. Am. Ac. II. m. Angles, I. 104,11.11,12,145.
Agnesi, II. 114. Alembert. See Dalembcrt. II. 432. Anglonormai) architecture,
Amalgams,
Agricultural instruments, I. Ale measure, II. 150. I. 254.
Amazons, II. 224.
229. 11. 20r. Aleotti, II. 224. II. 200. Angular functions, 11. 672.
Ambuscade,
Agriculture, II. 519. Aletris, II. 185. America, II. 376, 450. Angular surveying, 11. 146.

Aigle, II. 502, Alexander, I. 238, 592. American Academy, II. 1 U. Angular tables, II. 115.
Aiman, II. 436. Alexandre, II. 376. American Animal actions, 1. 128.
society, II. 109.
Air, I. 30.5,11.60,159,220, Alexandria, I. 239. 217. Animal cotton, 11. 184.
Ames, II.

238, 320, 378, 413, 464, Alexandrian school, I. 592. II. 222, 517.
Amman, II. 275. Animalcules,
471,503,509,511. Buoy- II. 203. Animal economy, II. 517.
Alexippus, Ammersin, n. 420.
ancy of the air, I. 38. Alfcld, II. 309. Ammonia, II. 400 . . 402. Animal electricity, I. 677,
Resistance of the air, I. Alfred, I. 244, H. 196. Amontons, I. 249, 335, 356, II. 427,435.
88 . .
40, 201. Algae, II. 614. 366, II. 125, 165, 166, Animal force, I. 90, 11.164.
Air barometers, II. 461. Algarotti, II. 280. 170, 171, 261. B. 1663. Animal heat, II. 408, 517.
Air cOBSuined, I. 634. Algebra, II. 113. D. 1705. Animal life, I. 733.
Air gage, II. 936. Algebraical curves, II. 122, 735. Animal 435.
Amphibia, I. light, I.
Air gun, I. 351. PI. 24. II. Algebraical symbols, II.. 1.
Amplitudes, II. 374. Animal magnetism, II. 439.
262, 293, 385. 555. Amsterdam. II. 474. Animal materials, II. 184.
Air guns, II. 253, 264. Algenib, I. 496. Am. tr. n. 109. Animal mechanics, II. 161.
Ail- holder, II. 255. Algol, I. 495, 496, II. 331. 11. 312. Animal motions, I. 61.
Anableps,
Air in water, II. 481. Alhazen, 1. 473,483, 11.280. Anaclastics, II. 281. Animals, I. 724.
Air jackets, II. 243. Fl. 1072. Annales de chiinie, Ill,
Analytical expressions. 11. TI.

Air pump, I. 271, 339, 355, Alhazen's problem, II. 281. 672. Annales des arts, II. 111.
PI. 24. Aliprand, II. 154. Annals of philosophy,
Anamorphosis, II. 282. II.

^ir pumps, II. 253. I. 678.

Alkalis, Anatomy of plants,!. 726. 111.
Air thermometer, I. 649, Allgemeines magazin, II. 11.512. Anne, I. 249.
'Pl. 39. 109. Annealed wire, 383.
Anaxagoras, 1.744. 11.428. II.

Air vault, II. 253. Allgemeines rcpertorium Anaximander, I. 377, 743, Annealing, I. 644, II. 403.
Air vents, I. 316. der literatur, II. 105. II. 377. B. 611. D. 547. Annual parallax, II. 329,
Air vessel, I. 179, 333. Allineations, I. 496. B.C. 355.

Ajutages, I. 279, II .61, 221. Alloys, II. 207, 510. Anaximenes, 743, 744, I. Annuities, II. 117.
Alarm, 11. 196. Alluvions, ]I. 497. 756. D. 504. B. C. Annulus mucosus, II. 530.

Albalegni,I.595,C04.D.928. Almagest, I. 595. Anchor. Weighing an an- Anomaly, II. 340.

Albertus, I. 365. Almaraoun, I. 595, 604. D. chor, I. 204. Anoria, I. PI. 22.

Albinus, 1. 115,11.311,385, 833. Anchors, II. 206, 241. Anstice,II. 131,201.

523, 597.B.1683.D.1771. Aloe, II. 185. Ancient arms, II. 207. Antarctic lands, II. 366.

Alcala, 11. 364, 365. Alphabet, II. 275. Ancient inks, II. 143. Antares, 1,497.
Alcarrazas, II. 411, 412. Alph.ibets, II. 143. Ancient mirror, II. 283. Antheauhne, If. 444.

Alcohol, II. 401,402,509, Alteration, I. 135, 141. Ancient music, II. 279,566. Anthelia, 1.443,11. 308.
647,653. Alternate motion, I. PI. 14. Anderson, II. 111,128,175, Anthelion, 11.304, 3 16, 317.
Al<;oometricalcurve,I. 510. Alternation of motion, I.
260,411. Antimephitic pumps,II.253.
Aldelaran, I. 497. 336. Andre, I. 121. Antimony, I. 686, II. 438.
Aldini, I. 677, 753, II. 419, Alternations of a lake, II. Andromeda, I. 497. Antiochu.s, I. 746.
427. 480. Anemobaiometer, II. 456, Antiquity of the earth, II.

Aidrich, II. 172. Altitude, I. PI. 35. II. 305. Anemonieter, II. 453. 377,497.
Altitudes, II. 355.
 INDEX. 685

Anvil, I. 80. II. 232. Naval architec- 196, 20O. PI. 16.
Appendages to clothes. II. Arnold, 1.

Anvils, 1. 222. 189. ture, n. 240. I!. 194.

Anviloftlieear,!. 387. Appendages to mills,11.215. Architecture rurale,II. 519. Arpent, II. 151.

A. P. II. 107. Appendages to pipes, II. Arch lute, I. 399. Arrangement of particles, I.
Apennines, II. 493, 499. 246. Archytas, I. 239, 253. B, 628.
A. Petr. II. 108. to whcelwork, 442. D. 352. B. C, Arrangement of the
Appendages stars,!.
II. 122. 493.
Aphelia. II. 372. II. 184. Arcs,

Apis longicornis, II. 602. Application of hydraulic Arcs of circles, I. PI. 6, Arras, II. 264.

Apocynum,II. 183. forces, n. 235. Arcturus, I. 493, 497. Arrow, !. 226.

Apogee, II. 371. Application of forces, 11. Arcy. See Darcy. Arrows, II. 208, 218.
Apollodorus, I. 243. 11. 181. Are,1. 110, II. 151. Arrovvsmith, I. PI. 42. 43.
120.
Appropriate rectangle of a
Area of a circle, II. 17. II. 376.

ApoUonius Pergaeus, 1.240. fluid, II. 651.

Area of England, II. 367. Arsandau.x, II. 195.
253,594,604,11.117,118. II. 8, 115, See corrections. Arschin, II. 154.
Approximation,
121. 536. Fl. 242. B. C. 116. Areas, II. 121. Arsenic, I. 680.
II. Areas of countries, 11.367. Art de fairc Ics ballons, II.
Apothecaries' grains, Apsidal angle, II. 340.
162. Arena, II. 321. 256.
Apsides,!. PI. 34. II. 32.

Apparent attractions, re- II. 310. Areometer, 11.231,462,510. Art de voyager dans Its airs,
Aquapendentc,
pulsions, and cohesions, Acjuarius, I. 504. Aretin, the monk, I. 405. II. 256.
I. PI. 39. II. 655. tinta, I. 120. Argand's lamp, II. 291. Art du plombier, II. 200.
Aqua
Apparent brightness, II.
Aquatinter, II. 158» Argo, I. 498. Artedi, I. 736.
313. II. 235. Aries,!. 497, 504. Arteries, I. 291.
Aqueducts,
Apparent diameters of the Arista rchus, I. 593, 604. Articulate sounds, II. 276.
Aqueous humour, 1. 447, II.
planets, II. 372. 82, 530.
Fl. 264. B.C. Artificial clockmaker. II.

Apparent diameter of the Aqueous solutions, II. 395. Aristophanes, I. 472. 191.

sun,.I. 525. Aquila, I. 497. Aristoteles, II. 111. Artificial cold, II. 410. 411.

Apparent magnitude. II. Arabians, I. 243, 246. Aristotelians, I. IS. Artificial globe, I. 565.

313. Aratus, I. 604. B. SOO.BjC. Artificial

Aristotle, 1.7,25,239,253, horizon, II. 354^
119.
Apparent motion of the Arbogast, II. 352, 366, 404, 405, 407, 355.

sun, I. 524. Arbuthnot,II. 147,162. 473, 483, 738, 744, 745, Artificial magnets, I. 692.

Apparent motions, I. 536. Arc, II. 9. 756^,11. 217,510. B. 385. Artificial spring, II. 246.

Apparent motions of the Arch, I. 160, 238. .See cor- D. 322. B.C. Artillery, U. 259,262.
stars, I. 523. rections. PI. 11,11.42. Aristosenians, II. 551. Arts, II. 124.

Appearances of comets, II. Arches, II. 17.5. Aristoxenus, II. 554. Arts depending en exten-
346. Arches with halos, II. 300. Aristyllus, I. 592, 604. sion, II. 206.

Appearances of the celestial Archimedes, Arithmetic, II. 1, 115.

I. 36, 68, 65, Arytaenoid cartjlages, I.

bodies, I. 523. 240, 242, 247, 218, 253, Arithmetical machine, II. 387, 4O0.
146.
Appeai'ances of the primary 310, 328, 329, 352, 473, Asbestus,!!. 185, 186. \
433, 567, 593, 604, PI. 22. Arithmetical
planets, II. 344. progression, Ascending foice, 11.277.

Appearances of the second- II. 111,116,118,283,406, II. 4. 1.

.^scendhig thunder, 482,
ary planets, II. 344,345. 556, 557. D. 212. B.C. Arkwright, I. 131,215. 484.
495. II. 323. 32.
Appearances of the stars, II. Archipelago, II. Aimati, Ascent, I.

344. Architecture, I. 157, 238, .Armillary sphere, II. 375. Ascent of a cannon ball, II.

11. 245. II. 172. Hydraulic Arms, II. 206. 260.

Appearancesof thesun.
349. architecture, I. COS, 312, Arnault,!. 190. Accent of a double cone,!.
ri.s.
6S6 INDEX.

^gcent of n loaded cylinder, Atmospheres, 11. ."iSa. Attractions and repuls ion Azimuth compass, I. PI, 41,

I. PI. 3. Atmospherical electricity, of electrified bodies,I.663, II. 444.

Ascent of balloons, II. 11.481. Attractions of floating Azimuths, II. 355.

256. Atmospherical evaporation, bodies, 1. 624, 665. Baader, II. 251, 384.
Ascent of water, I. PI. 39. II. 464. Attractions of solids and Babylonian observations,!.
Ash, I. T52, ir. 509. Atmospherical pressure, I. fluids, I. 621. See correc- 590.
Asiatic mirror, II. 453. 273, II. 220. tions. Bachelay, II. 674.
As. Res. 11. 111. Atmospherical meteors, II. Attractions of the electric Bachstrom, II. 243.
Ass, I. 209, II. 2r9. 499. fluid, I. 659. Bacon. Roger Bacon, I.

Astcrites, II. 675. Atmospherical refraction, Attrition,!. 156,11.293. 246, 253, 354, 366, 475,
Asterometer, 11. 375. I. 441. PI. 29. 11.81,299. Attrition in a vacu um,II.425 483, 746, 756, II. 124,
Astle, II. 143. Atmospheric machine, I. Atwood, II. 127, 131, 177, 323. B. 1214. D. 1892.

Astrolabe, II. 349, 350, 3rr« 337. 652. Bacon, Lord Verulam, I.

Astronomer Royal, 1. 602. Atmospheric tides, I. 588. Atwood's machine, I. 53. 7, 16, 247, 253, 407, 598,

Astronomical apparatus,II. Atoms, I. 612, 744,11. 377.

-
PI. 1. II. 30, 131. 744,747, 756,II.111,1«4.
347. Attachment of horses, I. Aubert, II. 673. 681. B. 1560. D. 1626.

Astronomical characters, 218. Audible interval,"II. 575. Bag, I. 268.

n. 376. Attalus, I. 243. Auger, II. 211. Bagatella, 11. 274.

Astronomical corrections, Attraction, II. 131, 377, Automaton, II. 374. Bagging, II. 187.
, n.37j. 379, 510, 520. Magnetic Automatons, II. 184. Bagpipes, II. 275.
Astronomical dates, 11.349. attraction, 11. 437. Auriga, I. 496. Bag pump, I. 333. PI. 23.
Astronomical instruments, Attraction of a.
hill, II. 364. A urora borcilis, 1. 687,7 16, II. 252.

I. 537. Attraction of a sphere, I. II. 441, 488. Baier, II. 325.

Astronomical observations, 515. Auruin mosaicum, II. 432. Bailey, II. 127.
11.310,346. 354. Attraction of a weight, II. Aurum musivum, II. 157. Baillet,II. 174.
Astronomical tables, II. 364. Austrian measures, II. 155. Bailly, I. 591. II. 376.
371. Attraction of dust by elec- Auswahl der neuesten ab- Baker, 121.
II.

Astronomical telescope, I.
tricity, II. 419. handlungen, II. 111. Bakerian lecture for 1800,
437,11.78,351. Attraction of gravitating Auvergnc, II. 495. il. 573.
Astronomical time, I. 541. bodies, II. 45. Auzometer, II. 288. Bakerian lecture for 1801,

Astronomy, 1. 487,11. 324, Attraction of light, II. 322, Averrhoa carambola,II.513. II. 613,671.
S76.Practical astronomy, 330. Avicenna, 1. 192. Bakerian lecture for 1803,
I. 536. Attraction of metals for Avison, II. 273. II. 639.

Astrotheology, II. 325. mercury, II. 639. Avoirdupois, 1. 124. Balance, I. 190. PI. 8, 9.

Athenaeus, I. 242,253,746. Attraction of raoitture. I. Avoirdupois weight, 11.161. Balance. Hydrostatic ba-
Fl. 136. 708. Axes of an ellipsis, II. 23. lance, I. 308.

Atkins, II. 161, 231, 3K, Attraction of mountains, II. Axes of rotation, I. ll.Cor- Balance of painters, II. 217.
510. 359. rcctions. Balance pump, II. 249.

Atmosphere, I. 272, 699, Attraction of solids, II. 339. Axis and wheel, 1. 67, Balances, I. 124, II. 159,
PI. 19, 24. Attraction of spheroids, II. Axis and winch, I. 204. 194.

Atmosphere of Jupiter, I. 359. Axles, I. 150, II. 203. Balance spring, I. 19 .

588, 702. See corrections. Attraction of stars, II. 321. Axles of wheels, II. 201. Balance springs, IL 194.

Atmosphere of the sun, I. Attraction of water and Azof, II. 498. 217.
502. oils, 11.381. Azote,II.518. See Nitrogen. Baldwin, II. 176, 256.
Atmosphere of Venus, II. Attraction of wood, II. 381. Azimuthal instrument, II. Baldwin's phosphorus, II,
310. Attractions, II. 655. 349, 350. S92.
2
 IJTDJEX. 687

Bale.Society at Bale.II. 103. Barrel organs, II. 275. Baum^, II. 231. Bell, 1.401. II. 268.
Baliani,II. 221, Sre. Barrels, II. 202. Bavarian Academy, II. 109 Bellin, 11. 441.
Balista,!!. 207. Barrow, I. 248, 253, 475, Bavarian measures, II. 148' Bellows, I. 264, 343, PI. 24.
Balistic machine,!!. 132.227 478, 483, II. 112, 113, Baxter, 11.324. II. 252.
Balistic scale, !!. 227. 117, 144, 313, 597, 609, Bayer, I. 496. Bells, II, 274, 486.
Ball, I!. 137. 623. B. 1630. D. 1677. Bayrcuss, II. 184. Bells of clocks, II. 194.
Ball offire,ir. 433. Barruel, II. 128, 653. B. B. II. 105. Beltinzoli, II. 224.
Ballast,!. 326.11. 199. Bartel, II. 492. Bead pump, I. 335, II. 336. Belts, II. 189.
Balloon, I. 273,346. Barthez, II. 164. Beads, n. 157. Belts of Saturn, II. 335.

Balloons, !I. 156,256, 264. Barthold, II. 674. Beads iu equilibrium, I. PI. Bemetzriedcr, II. 273.
Balls rounded, IL 210. Bartholin, I. 477, 483, B. 11. Benedetti, I. 247.
Bancroft, II. 322. 1616. D. 1680. Beam, I. 147, 149. II. 169. Bengal society, II. 111.

Bank, !. 264. II. 233. Bartholinus, II. 291, 337, Beam compasses, I.P1.6. 11. Bennet, I. 141, 142, 682,
Banking, !. 199. II. 194. 478, 479. 144. 683. PI. 40. II. 324, 416,

Banks,1.3 18.11.48,142, 2 14. Bartoli, II. 264. Beams, I. Pl.lO.II.168.178. 630.

Baratteri, II. 224. Barton, I. PI. 4. Beams in equilibrium, I. PI. Bent columns and bars, I.

Barbieri, II. 497. Barulcus, II. 198. 11.11. 43. PI. 9.

Bark, 1. 729. Basaltes, II. 494, 498. Beams of light, II. 303. Bentham, II. 174.
Barker, II. 308. Base measured, II. 147. Beams of ships, II. 241. Bent lever, I. PI. 3.
Barker's mill. II. 237. Bases measured, II. 360. Bear, I. 496. Bent lever balance, 1. 120,
Bark mills, II. 213. Baskets,!. 219. Bearing heat, II. 403. PI. 9, II. 160.

Barley,II. 151,215. Basket work, II. 188. Beating plaster, II. 213. Bent pipes, I. 293,11. 222.
Barlow,!. 124.!!. 151,161. Bass, I. 399. Beat, I. PI. 25. Bent sails, II. 227.
Barn, II. ISO. Bataafsch genootschap, II. Beats, I. 390. II. 544. Bent straps, I. PI. 13.
Barofsteel, II. 404. 109. Beatson, II. 239. Benvenuti, II. 316.
Barometer, 1. 704, 712, 748, Batavian drops, II. 403. Beaver hats, II. 189. Bcnzenberg, II. 284, 358,
PI. 19. n. 69, 450, 482. Batavian society, II. 109. Beccaria, I. 714. II. 293. 500.

Barometers, 1. 275, II. 167, Bath, II. 403. 362,415,432,482. B^rard, II. 129.

381, 448, 459. Light of Bathing tub, II. 180. Beck, II. 416. Beraud, II. 417.
barometers, II. 422. Baths, II. 410,411, 518. Becket, II. 416. Berdoe, II. 416.
Barometer tubes, !!. 667. Bath society, II. 519. Bcckmann, II. Ill, 127, Bergen, II. 387.
Barometrical balance, II. Batsha, 1.586,605. 141, 217. Bergraann, I. 750, II. 112,

461. Batteries for electricity, II. Bedos, II. 275. 366,399,482, 508.B.1735.
Barometrical fish, II. 462. 433. Beds, II. 179. D. 1784.
Barometrical light, II. 425. Battering ram, I. 234. Beds of air, U. 221. Bergmannisches j o urnal,II .
Barometrical maclune, II. Battery, I. 666. Beech, II. 509. 263.
251. Battery of charcoal, IT. 428. Beehives, II. 180. Berkel, II. 436.
Barometrical measure- Battery of talc, II. 433. Beer measure, II. 150. Berkeley, II. 310.
472. Bees, 11.516, 517. Berlin. Academie de Berlin,
ments, II.
Battery of Volta, I. 53. PI.
Barometrical motion,II.183 40 Beetle, II. 516. II. 107. Physical society
at Berlin, II. 110.
Barometrical observations, Batting cotton, U. 185. Beguelin, 1. 480. II. 288.
II. 463. Bauer, II, 416. Beighton,!. 347,357,PI.24. Berline, II. 202.

Baroscope, I. PI. 19. II. Bauhin, II. 748, 756. J. Beitz, II. 264. Berlinghieri, II. 408.
920, 454, 461, 462. Bauhin.B.1541.D.1613. Belgrade, II. 383. Berliuische tanimlungen,

Barrel, I!. 150, 151. C. Bauhin. B. 1560. D. Belidor, II. 141, 319, 232, II. 109,
Barrel chronometer, 1. 190, 1624. 246, 261.
{)S8 INDEX.

Berlinisches II. Bianconi, I. 371. II. 265, Blasting rocks, II. 262. Bohnenberger, II. 430.
magaiin,
109. 541. ,
Blast machine, II. 411. Bohun, II. 454.
II. 152. Bidloo, II. 602. Blast of air, I. 264. Boiled water, U. 395.
Bernard,
Bernard!, II. 214. Biker, II. 402, 403. Bleaching, II. 216, 321. Boiler, II. 258.
II. 147. Bikker, II. 383. Bleachingof paper, II. 190. Boilers, II. 255, 410, 412.
Bernardus,
Bernhard, II. '2'ii. Billiard balls, I. PI. 5. II. Bleiswyck, II. 233. Boiling, I. 641, II. 396.

Berniscliesniagiiziii, 11.119,
138. Blind,.II. 143, 316. Boiling of a canal, II. 493.
Bernoulli, I. 60, 202, 269. Billiards, I. 81. II. 137. Blindness, II. 316. Boiling point, II. 509.
300, 350. 11. 117, 140, Bina, 11. 415. Block, II. 170, 182, 436. Boiling point of water, 11.
165, 194, 195, 261,325, Binard, II. 201. Blocks, I. 69, 229, PI. 4, 396, 397, 400.
386. D. Bernoulli, 1. 250, Binary, arithmetic, II. 4.
II. 241. Boisseau, II. 152.
253, 277, 281, 379, 358, Binding, II. 159, 184. Blondeau, II. 239. Bologna, II. 108.

360, 366, 384, 406, 407, Binocular tclescope3,II.287. Blood, I.

733, 739, II. 517, Bolognan jars, I. 644, II.

€49, PI. 20, 22, 39, II. Binomial theorem, II. 4, . 518, 646. 403.

219, 538, 539. 547, 556, 114. Blow, I. 80. Bolognan phosphorus, I.

583. B. 1700. D. 1782. Bion, II. 144. Blowing wheel, II. 252. 435.
Ja. Bernoulli, II. 249, Biot, I. 365, II. 399, 405. Blowpipe, II. 253, 412,534. Bolognan stone, 11. 292,293.
253, 357, 366, 112,558. Biquadratic equations, II. Blue glass, II. 646. Bolt drawer, I. II. 180.
234,
B.1654.D.1705. Jo. Ber- 115. Blue shadows, II. 314. 216.

noulli, I. 249, 253, 357, Birch, II. 107. .

Blumenbach, II. 497, 601. Bolter, II. 214.

359, 366, II. 45, 112, Bird, I. 602, 604, 11. 145, Board of agriculture, II. Bolting mill, II. 215.
538. B. 1667. D. 1748. 148, 150. 519. I. II.
Bolts, 223, 180, 205.
Beroldingen, II. 494. Birds, I. 734, 735, 11. 516, Board of longitude, I. 251. Bomb, II. 262.
II. 141. 601. 602. Bombs,
Bertholot, II. 262, 264.
BerthoUot. 11.466,673,675. Birmingham, I. 245. Board perforated, I. 145. Bomie, II. 556.

Bertholon, 11.256,482. Biscop, I. 244. Boats, II. 200, 202, 240, Bone, II. 179.

Berthoud, II. 202. I. 191, Bisection, II. 11. ?42. Bones, I. 126, II.' 214, 497.
195, 390. Bissextile, I. 539. Bob gin, II. 249. Bones of the car, I. PI. 25,
Bertius, II. 746. Bistre, I. 95. Bode, I. 566. II. 325, 326,
.
Bonne, II. 147, 393.
Bertraud, II. 364, 491,496. Bito, I. 243, 253. 335,338,366, 373,676. Boinict, II. 502, 513.
Betancourc Molina, II. 398, Black, 1. 365, 652, 750, 756. Bodies acting reciprocally, II.
Bonnycastle, 118, 325.
400. B. 1728, D. 1799. II. 139.
Bony scales, II. 601.
Bettesworth, II. 371. Blackened bodies, 11. 406. Bodies in motion, 11. 140.
Bookbinding, II. 159, 189.
Bevilled wheels, I. 177, PI. Blackened wire, U. 407. Body. Moveable body, I.
Bootes, I. 497.
15, II. 183. Blackening ray^, I. 639, II. 50. II. 293.
Borax,
Bevis, II. 492. 322. Body colours, I. 98. Borch, II. 491.

Beytraege zur erdbesciirei- Blackey, II. 257. Boebert, II. 253. Borda, I. Ill, 361, SC6,
bung,II. 496. Blnckfriars Bridge, I. 161, Bocckmanu, II. 127, 469. 11.117, 150, 228, 390. B.
Beytraege zur kenntniss PI. 12, 14. II. 176. Boehmische abhandlungen, 1733. D. 1797.
beider Sicllien, II. 492. Blacksmith's work, II. 206. U. 110. Borda's circle, II. 350.
Beytraege zur naturlehre,II. Bladders of fish, II. 255. Boctilia, II. 501. Borders, II. 187.
12T. Blair, II. 288, 376. Boerhaave, I. 751, 756. 11. Borelli, I. 128, 11,131, 136,
Beytraege zur verfertigung Blakey, II. 146, 411. 105, 383. B. 1663. D. .
164, 493.
des baroinettrs, II. 461. Blanchard, II. 143. 1738.
Borge, II. 495.
Bczout, 11. 370. Blast furnaces, U. 253. Bogs, II. 235, 497, 498. I.
Boring, 228, 229, II.
Biancliioi, IL f 33. Blasting, 1.235.IL 216,218. Bohemia, II. 110.
211, 218.
 INDEX. 6S9

Born, ir. 111. Braftenridgo, II. 118. Briggs,!. 248, 253.B. 1561. II. 366.
Buesching,
Boscovich, 1. 457,461, 480, Bradley, I. 436, 477, 478, D. 1631. Buettner, II. 495.
615, 751, 756. II. 126, 483, 506, 519, 524, 602. Briggs's logarithms, II. 8. BuBFon, I. 473, 637, 750,
280, 281, 288, 294,316, 604, II. 300, 329, 371) Brightness of stars, II. 326. II. 324, ,338, 503, 631. B
336, 346, 362. B. 1711. 393, 512. B. 1622. D. Brighton, II, 481, 497. 1707. D. 1788.
D. 1787. 1762. Brillat, II. 148. Buffon's mirror, II. 282.
Bossi, II. 448. Brahe. See Tyclio. Brine, II. 388. Bugge, II. 371.
Bossut, 1. 363, II. 118, 130, Brahmins, II. 376. Brisson, II. 128, 129, 503. Building in water, 11. 23?.
219, 227, 229, 233, 338, Eraidwood, II. 278. Bristol channel, II. 459. Buildings, II. 174.
377. Bramah, I. 222, 33.5. Britain, II. 365. Bulfinger, II. 126.
Bostock, II. 519. Bramah's press, I. 263, 332, British magazinSj 11. 123. Bull, I. 497.

Botany, I. 750. II. 511. PI. 23. British manufactures,1.244. Bullet, II. 136.
Bottom of a cistern, I. Brander, II. 159. Brittle bottles, II. 403. Bullet piercing a board, IT.
PI. 19. Brandes, II. 500. Brittlencss, I. 142. 206.
Bottom of the sea, II. 496. Brass, I. 694. II. 86, 438, Broad wheels, II. 201. Bulletin de la socidte philo-
Bottom winds, II. 458. 509. Brocken, II. 319. raatique, [I. 111. ,

Bouguer, I. 358, 366, 437, Brasso, II. 154. Bronzing, II. 157. Bullets, I. 351.
478, 480, 483, 531, 697, Brass work, II. 206. Brook, II. 417. BuUialdus, II. 330.
II. 239, 340, II. 267.
280, 300, Braun, II. 394, 496. Brookes, 160,360. Buoyancy, I.

344, 362, 363, 367, 370. Brazilian stone, 11. 583. Broom, II. 184.
Buoyancy of cork, II. 244
B. 1698. D. 1758. Breaking clods, II. 216. Brossos, n. 275. Buoyancy of the air, 11.

Boulanger, II. 415. Breaking ice, 11. 216. Brougham, II. 296,625. 159.

Boulard, II. 233. Breast pump, II. 250. Browallius, II. 496. Buoyant machine, IT. 196
Boulton, I. 133, 245, 338, Breast wheel, I. 322. PI. Bruchhauscn, II. 127. 237.
349, II. 259. 22. Bruehl, II. 192, 350. Burdach, II. 264.
Bourde de Villchuet,II.239. Breathing, II. 253. Bruenings, II. 225. Burg, I. 602.
Bourdelot, II. 525. Brehm, II. 128. Brugman, II. 437, 514. Burnet, II. 405.

Bourguet, II. 495. Brcuiisches magazln, II. Brugna1el!i,II.110,267,293. Burnoy, II. 280.
Bournon. Count de Bour- 109. Brunau, I. 356. Burning glasses, I. 423, 472
non, II. 674, 676. Brereton, I. 714. Brushes, II. 142, 189. II. 284,406.
Bourrit, II. 450, 451. Brewster, II. 201. Brussels, II. 109, 269. Burning island, II. 493.
Bovillus, II. 558. Brice, II. 366. Buat. Chevalier du Buat. Burning mirror, I. 478. II.
Bow, I. 226. Bricks, II. 174, 218. I. 292, 294, 317, 318, 282, 406.
Bows, II. 208, 218. Bricks of Babylon, II. 361, 365, 366, II. 222, Burning rocks, I. 235.

Bowstrings, II. 186. 158. 225, 245. Burning wire, II. 430.
Bowycr, II. 217. I. 162. PI. 11. Bubble, I. 621. II. 316. Burnisher, I. ll'O.
Bridge,
Box, II. 86, 509. Bridge of Mantes, II. 177. Bubbles, II. 226, 655. Burrani pooler, II. 367.

Boyle, I. 7, 355, 356, 366, Bridge of Ncuilly, II. 176. Buchanan, I. 131. U. 166. Burroughs'smachine,lI.281
475, 483, 749, 756. Bucket revolving, I. 261.
PI. Bridge of Orleans, II. 176. Burrow, II. 118.

II. 180, 2.36, 248.

19. II. 112, 317, 660. B. Bridge of ropes, II. 178. Bnckets, Burrows, I. 7iT.
1627. D. 1691. I. PI. 14. 11.175, Buckets on a rope, II. 200. Bushel, n. 151,155.
Bridges,
Boyle's lamp, II. 245. 234. Bucket wheel, I. 327. Busse, II. 117, 547.
415. II. 189.
Bnzc, II.
Bridges of boats, IT. 242. Buckles, Butschanz, II. 481.
Braccio, II. 153 . . 155. Bridgwater. Duke of Bueclmcr, II. 107. Button moulds, II. 189.
Bridg-
Braces, I. 169. PI. 13. water, I. 205,207.P1. 17. Buerja, II. 134, 219, 279. Buttons, II. 378.
Bracliistochronous Briefe uebcr die elcctrici- Buesch, II. 129, 173, 301, Buttress vibrating, IT. 270.
curves,
II. 133. 416. 446. II. 143.
taet, II. Byron,
VOL, II. 4 T
690 iXDEX.

430. II. 153, 154. - 157, 166, II. 500.

Caliaeu?, II. 'i'ii, Canna, Carpentry, I. Castor, I.

Cabbage leaf, I. 624. Cannon, I. 228. II. 2),1, 178. Casts, II. 218.

Cabinets, II. ir9. 260, 263, 621. Carpets, II. 187. Cast steel, II. 207.

Cable, I. 148, Cannon ball, I. 234, 306- Carradori, II. 3{(l. Caswell, II. 558.

Cables, II. 241. Canopus, I. 498. Carre, II. 653. Cat, II. 311,425.
Canterbury cathedral, I. II.
Caesar, I. 214, 3j3, 339, Carriagcs,I.P1.18. 11.201, Catadioptric sector,

5T6, 594, 604, B. 99. D. 245. 203, 291. 350.

43. B.C. Canton, I. 372. II. 64. Carriage springs, H. 203. Catadioptric telescope, II.

Cagnoli, II. 118. Canton's pliospiiorus, II.

Carriages united, II. 197. 280.
Caille. See Lacaille. 243. Carryino;, I. 132. Catalogue of references, I.

Calabria, I. 717. Caoutchouc, II. 142. Cartes. See Descartes. 251. 11.87.

Ciildani, II. 271,.'') 18. Capacity for electricity, II. Cartesian devils, I. PI. 19. Catani, 11. 491.

Calendar, I. 539, 595. II. 418. Cartesian system of weight, Cataract, II. 316, 598.
319. Capacity for heat, I. 650. II. 379. Cataracts, II. 222.

Calendeiinj, U. 108. II. 408, 503, 509. Cartesius, II. 112,212. See Catclifly, I. 724.

Calendering mill, I. 221. Capella, I. 496. Descartes. Catcott, II. 498.

Calender mills, 11. 20). Capes, I. 571. Carthamus, 11. 647. Catenaria, I. 161. II. 135,

Calibers, 11. 11.5, 155. Capillary action, I. 621. Cartilages of the larynx, 177, 5.56.

Calicos, II. 1!!!!. Sec corrections. II. 380. I. PI. 26. Catoptrical experiments,
Calkinu;, I. 94. Capillary attraction, I. 299. Carts connected, I. 219. II. 406.

Callet, 11. 117. 641. Cart with a crane, I, 211. Catoptric instruments, II.

Cidorfc, I. C53. II. 384, Capillary spaces, II. 651. Carvings, II. 157. 282.

414. Capillary tubes, I. 623, II. II. 577, 579. II.

, Cary, Catoptiic microscope,
Calorimeter, II. 408. 419, 651, 666. Casbois, II. 653. 285.

Caluso, 11. 119. Capper, II. 454. Cases, II. 180, Catoptrics, I. 414. II. 70,

Calvoer, H. 211. Capstan, I. 205, PI. 3, 4. Casks, II. 9«3. 280.

Camdcu,!. 245. II. 135, 172, 196, 251. Caspian sea, I. 571 Cattle mills, 11. 181.
Camels. II. 148, IGo.Dutcli Capricornus, I. 504. Cassegrain, I. 429, 433. Caus, II. 247.

camels, 11. 238. Car, 11. 201. II. 79. Causation, I. 15.

Camera lucida. I. Correc- Carat, II. 164. Cassegrain's telescope, I. Causes materielles de I'at-

tions. Carbine, II. 262. PI. 28. II. 290. traction, II. 378.
Camera obscnra, I. 424, Carbonic acid gas, I. 370, Cassini, I. 44, 502, 595, Causes of colours, II. 319.
PI. 28. II. 284. II. 263,509, 513. 598, 604, PI. 33. 11.299, Caustic of a circle, II.

I. Carburi, II. 200. 331, 835, 358, 362, 366. 280, 561.
Camper, 117.11.189,597.
Camphor, II. 510, 514. Cardan's rules, II. 115, C.F. Cassini, B. 1714. D. Caustic of a cycloid, II.
Camus, 11. 129, 165,217. 124. 1784.D. Cassini, B.1625. 502.

Canal, I. PI. 21. Carding, II. 185. D. 1712. J. Cassini, B. Caustic of a parabola, 11.

Canals, I. 312, 315, 354. Carding silk, 11.218. 1077. D. 17.56. 281.
II. 229, 234, 263. Cards for wool, II. 185. Cassini's orbit, II. 340. Caustics, I. PI. 28.

Cancer, I. 504. Carisbrook castle, I. 209. Cassiopeia, I. 495, 496. Caustics by refraction, II.

Cancrin, II. 127. Carlisle, I. 753. II. 678. Castelli, I. 354, 355, 366. 280.

Candle, XI. 482, 646. Carney, II. 148. II. 224. B. ab. 1575, D. Cavalieri, I. 36, 248, 253,
Candles, I. 633. II. 290, Carnot, II. 118. 1644. 334. D. 1647.
891. Carp, II. 517. Castelli, II. 295. Cavallo, I. 682, 086, 691,
Candle wicks, II. 218. Carpenter's hammer, 11. Castelli's principles,II.223. 714, PI. 40. 11.129,1.52,
Cancparius, II. 143. 206. Casting, I. 113. II. 157. 169, 221, 246, 256, 262,
 INDEX. 691
417, 437, 452, 163, 618, Centre of inertia, I. 51, PI. Chemical of electri-
Changes of coasts, II. 496. effects
646. 2, 3. II. 35, 36, 39, 134.- Changes of colour, II. 320. city, I. 672. II. 423.
C«ventlish, 1.444,575,658, Centre of oscillation, Chemical
I. 85, Changes of form, I. 220. effects of heat,
664, 751. II. 308, 359, II. 53, 137, 227. Changes of stars, II. 329. II. 403.
418, 653, 668. Lord Centre of percussion, 1. 85.
Changes of the ey^, 11. 587. Chemical effects of light,
Charles Cavendish, II. II. 53, 137.
Chapman,.!. 364. II. 234. II. 321.
391, 401,653,666. Centre of position, I. 51. Characters, II. 143, 376. Chemical electricity,!. 674.

I
Cave of Killariicy, II. 180.
Centre of pressure, I. 266. Charcoiil, I. 634. 11.411, 11. 672.
•

Caverns, II. 497. 11.59. 420. Chemical of

production
Cavities, II. 537. Centres, II. 168, 178. Charge, I. 665, II. 418. electricity, II. 428.

Cavity of a 222. Centres of bridges, 171.

fluid, II. I.
Charges of guns, II. 260. Chemistry, I. 14.

Caxton, I. 247, 253. Centres of earth, II. 176. Chalk, I. 145. Chemists, I. 6,56.

Caylus, II. 142. Centrifugal bellows,I.Pl. 24. Chalks, I. 94, 95. Chenevix, 11.673, 676,678.
Cazaud, II. 167. Centrifugal force,1. 33, 526. Chambers, II. 127, 172. Clierna, II. 394.
Cazeaux, II. 519. « II. 339. Chambers of the eye, IT. Cherubin, II. 283.
C. Boil. II. 108. Centrifugal pendulum, II. 311. Cliersipliron, I. 238.
Celestial appearances, II. 194. II. 117. Cheselden, II. 671.
Chances,
344. Centrifugal pump, I. 330, 494. Chesnut, II. 168.
Changeable stars, I.
Celestial globe, II. 374. PI. 23. II. 247, 250. II. 3i,0. Chiaro scuro, II. 158.
Cellio, II. 292. Centrifugal rcgidator, I. 47. I. 133.
Change of climate, I. 698. Childers,
Cellular pump, 333. II. 182. 502.
I.
Change of form, as pro- Childrey, I.

Celsius, I. 618. II. 359, Cephcus, I. 496. 11. Cliiliogramme, 11. 16S.
ducing electricity,
386. Ceres, I. 508, 534. II. 334, 426. Chiliolitre, II. 152.
Cement for electrical ma- 372, 673, 676. Change of latitude of the Chiliometre, II. 152.
chines, II. 430, 432. Ceres Ferdinandia, II. 672. Chimes, 11. 194, 280.
stars, 11. 334.
Cements, II. 175. Cesaris, II. 350. Change of meridian, II. 341 . Chimney, I. 345.
Centaur, I. 498. Cera, II. 145. Change of the earth's axis, Chimney pipes, I.
402, Fl.
Centering lenses, II. 284. C. Gott. II. 108. II. 359. 26.

Centigramme, II. 162. Chabert.II. 191. Cl)unge of variation, II. Chimnies, T. 354. II.
410,
Centilitre, II. 152. Chaff cutter, II. 208. 440. 411.

Centimetre, II. 152. Chain, I. 180, PI. 7. fl.

Charles, K 376. China, II. 218.

Central forces, I. PI. 1, 2. 135, 150, 249. Charles II. I. 601. Chinese, I. 97,
118, 590.
II. 30, 132, 338. Chain loaded, I. PI. 11. Chamock, II. 240. 742. II. 376.

Centre,!. 418. II. 9. Re- Chain pump, I. 33.5, PI. 23. Charts, I. 490. II. 374. Chinese pumps, I. 336.
lative centre, II. 74. Chains,!. 111. 11.155,181, Chinese weights,
Charybdis,!!. 370. II. l(jo.

Centre of a bridge, I. PI. 182. Chase, 1. 122. Chiron, II. 376.

14. Chains and ropes, II. 196. Chatelet, II. S83. Chladni, I.
373, 380, 384,
Centre of agitation, I. 137. Chains for fusi cs, II. 193. Clmulnes.DucdeChaulncs, 38.5, 406, Pi. 25. IJ. 49,
Centre of a lens, II. 73. Chain shot, II. 264. II. 145. ^61, 269, 403, 501,
541,'
Centre of conversion, II. Chair, I. 171. Cheese, II. 216. 547, 549,
137. Chair for the deaf, II. 271. Chcc*e press, II. 204. Chocolate, II. 426.
Centre of friction, II. 137. Chair on'castors, II. 201. Chemical attractions, I. Ciioppin, II. 151.
Centre of gravity, I. 51,61, Chaise, II. 202. 678. Chopping, II. 214.
PI. 3. II. 39, 135, 140. Chaldeans, I. 590. Chemical changes, as pro- Chord, I. PI. 25. 11. 65.
Centre of gyration, I. 84. Chaldron, II. 151. ducing electricity, II. Chord, II. 9.

II. 5?, 137. Chales. See Decliales. 427. Chords, II. 4, 16.
692 INDEX.

Chords, II. 26r. Ciliary zone, II. 524. Classes of animals, I. 733. Coat, II. 189.
Chords of a circle, I. 43, Cimabue, I. 246, 253. B. Classes of plants, I. 730, Coats of the eye, 11. 311.
PI. 9. II. 33. 1240, D. 1300. 731. Cobalt, I. 686.

Choroid, II. .530. Cimento. Academicians del Clavelin, II. 412. Cochcouking, I. 595, 604.
Choroid coat.I. 448. II. 82. Ciraento, I. 374, 638. Clavering, II. 412. Cochlea, I. 387.

Choroid of fishes, II. 000. Academy del Cimento, Clavichord,!. 398. 11.275. Cod rish, II. 606.
606. II. lor. Clavicylinder, II. 275. Coexistence of vibrations,

Christ, II. 474, 497. Circle, II. 9, 121, 124. Grar Clauberg, II. 124. II. 139.

Christian era, I. 539. duated circle, I. 105. Clay, II. 308. Coffee, II. 403.
Christian!, II. 147, 160, Circle in parspective,I.P1.8. Cleaning cloths, II. 188. CoflFee mill, 11.214.
1C2. Circle revolving, II. 53. Cleaning prints, II. 142. Cogs, II. 183.

Chromatic aberration, I. Circles, I. 101, PI. 6. 11. Clearing canals, 11. 224. Cohesion, I. 616, 618, 655,
482. II. 80. 15, 16, 118. Clearing harbours, II. 197. PI. 39. 11.174,380,509,
Cliromatic corrections, II. Circles with halos, II. 304. Clearing roads, II. 204. 656.

286, 288. Circular instrumeuts, II. Clepsydras, I. 188, 353. II. Cohesion of fluids, I. 754.
Cliromatic scale, I. 393. 350, 352. 196, 217, 245. II. 228, 649.

Chrouhyometer, II. 476. Circular pendulum, I. 197. Clerk, II. 143, 593. Cohesion of liquids, I. 620.

Clironology,I.538. 11.349, II. 35, 133, 216. Climate, II. 450. Cohesion of mercury, I.

376. Circular slider, I. IH. 7. Climate ofAmcrica, II. 450. 622.

Chronology of acustics, I.
571, 696. Cohciion of
Circulating decimals, II. Climates, I. II.
mercury and
407. 115. Corrections. glass, I. 626.

Chronology of astronomers, Circulation, II. 518. Climbing up a steeple, II. Cohe-jon of solids, I. 626.
I. 604. Circulation of fluids, 11.405. 199. Cohesion of water, I. 622,
Chronology of authors on Circulation of the blood, I. Clock, II. 217, 359. Cohesion of wet plates, I.
hydrodynamics, I. 3C6. 291, 743, Cloekmakers, II. 218. 625.

Clironology of mathema- Circumference of a circle, Clocks, I. 189,246. 11.191, Cohesive strength, II. 49,
ticians and mechanics, I. II. 17, 121. 217. 169.
S53. Circumpolar ice, II. 343. Clods, II. 216. Coiuing, 1.224. 11. 206,217.
Chronology of optical au- Cisalpiuiis, I. 748. Cloth, I. 186. n. 187. Coke, II. 4U.
, thors,T.
483. Ciscar, II. 128, 239. Clothes, II. 189. Cold, I. 631, 638, 647. II.

Chronology of physical au- Cisterns, I. 313.11.233,245. Clouds, II. 474. 383, 396, 450, 452, 518.
thors. I. 756. Clairaut, I. C. L. ueber Cold. Artificial
250, 253, 480, electrJcitaet,[I. cold, II.
Chronometers, II. 96, 365. 483, 513, 514, 522, 569, 416. 410.
Chronometer with a barrel, 621. See corrections,754. Cluster, I. 492. Coldjiis affecting the needle,
I. 190, PI. 15. II.
324,338,339,840, 341. Coach, I. PI. 18. n. 201. II. 440.
Churchman, I. PI. 41. II. 359, 363, 557, 659, 661, Coaches, II. 218. Coldcn, II. 377.
442. 669, 670. B. 1712. D. Coach I. 148. II. Cold water, II. 394.
springs,
Churcol, II. 380. 1765. 168, 203. Cold winds, II. 458.
Churns, II. 216. Clairaut's circle, 107. 335.
I. Coal, 11. 410,412. Cole, I.

Chyle, I. 739. Clarinet, I. 402. II. 567. Coal borings, II. 4#5. Colebrook Dale, II. 494i.
''
Cicero, I. 596. Coalescence of sounds,
Clapp, IT. 500. II. Collecting heat by glasses,
Cider mill, II. 214. Clare, IF. 222. 544. II. 405.
C<ider press, II. 204. Coal mines,
Clark, II. 117, 130, 157. II. 211, 212, Collections, II. 105.
Cieling, I. 148. 259. Collections of single au-
Clarke, 1. 250, 253. 11.115,
Cielings, II. 176. 116, 231, 940, 519. B. Coals, T. 124. n. 151, 167, thors, 11. 111.
Ciliary processes, II. 82, 1675. D. 1729. 202, 318. Collector, I. PI. 40,
530, 599, 605.
 INDEX. 69»

CoUinl, II 494. Column, I. 157, PI. 11, II. Communication of heat, Compound agitations, II.

Collins, 11. 124. 46. I. 635, II. 404, 465. 273.

Collision, I. 75. PI. 5, 11. Columnaria, I. 316, II. Communication of motion, Compound bodies, II. 136.

51, 5'2, 136, 140,385. 246. II. 136. Compound capstan, II. 197.
Colorific rays, II. 296. Column compressed, ex- Communications to the Compound confined nio->

Colour, II. 500. tended, and bent, I. PI. 9. Board of Agriculture, tion, II. 139. ,„,f„o.>
Coloured autlielia, II. 308. Column crushed, I. PI. 10. II. 519. Compound interest, II. 1 17.-
Coloured bodies, II. 406. Column of mercury, I. Companion of a trochoid, Compound microscopes, II.
Coloured fringes, I. PI. 626. II. 558. 78.

30. Columns, I. 139, II. 173. Comparative anatomy of Compound pendultjms, II.
Coloured 314. Bending of columns, the eye, II. 311. 189.
gllsses, II. II.

Coloured rin!;s, II. 316. 452. Comparative physiology, II. Compound rotations, II.

Coloured slmdows, I. 455, .Combination of undula- 517. 554.

PI. 30. II. 314. tions, II. 624. Comparative table of phy- Compound sounds, II, 273.<

Colour grinders, II. 214. Combination of vibrations, sical properties, 11. 509. Compound tides, I. PI.

Colouring, II. 143. I. PI. 25. Comparer of scales, II, 38.

Colour mill, II. 215. Combinations, II. 117. 510. 149. Compound vibrations,I. PI.
Colour of the air, II. 320. Combinations of sounds, I. Comparetti, I. 480, II. 271, 2, II. 343.

Colours, I. 457, PI. 29, .SO, 389, II. 553. 311,317. Compressibility, 1.370, II,
11.70,214,280,295,312, Combinations of tides, I. Comparison of heat and 378.

314,318,319, 543,613, 584. electricity, II. 404. Compressibility of Hfater,

616, 617,637,642,671. Combined levers, I. PI. 3. Comparison of measurc- II. 64, 372.

Colours in telescopes, II. Comb pots, II. 185. mentsof degrees, II. 362. Compressibility of water
236. Combs, II. 210. Comparison of measures, and mercury, I. 276.
Colours of diffiacttd light,
Combs of looms, II. 187. II. 147. Compression, I. 135, 136,
I. 464. Combustion, I. 434, 634, Comparison of the English 220, II. 204, 385.
Colours of double lights, II. 290, 385, 408. and French measures, II. Compression of a columnj
IL 316. Comets, I. 512, 531, 721, 149. I. PI. 9.

Colours of fibres, II. 633, PI. 32, 33, II. 337, 341, Comparison of variable Compression of the air, II,

680. 346. quantities, K. 119. 220,408. ';

Colours of mirrors, I. PI. Comma scapement, I. 196. Compass, I. 689, 743, PI. Concave lens. If. 72.
30. Commensurable quantities, 6, II. 414, 489, 519. Concave mirror, I, 416,
Colours of mixed plates, I. II. 2. Ct>mpasses,1.101, II. 144, 471, 11.72, 282,406.
470, 11. 635, 680. Commentarii Bononiensea, 145. Concavoconvex lens, I.

Colours of natural bodies, II. 108. Compass for wheelwork, 416.

I. 469. II. 646. Comraentat. Gott. II. 103. II. 183. Conchoidal epitrochoids,
Colours of opaque bodies, Commercial magaziije, II. Compensation balances, I. II. 561.

II. 321. 111. PI. 16, II. 195. Concords I. 391.

Colours of the stars, I. 456, Comraercium Compensations in time- Condamine. See Lacon-
cpi»toliculh, ,

490. II. 326. II. 124. keepers, II. 194. damine.

Colours of thin plates, I. Comraercium Norimber- Composite column, I. PI. Contjensation, I, 619, 632,
468,611. II. 108. 12. 640, II. 385.
geuse,
Colours produced by fric- Committee of the Royal Composition, I. 392. Condensation of mixtures,

Composition of force, I. II. 610.

tion, 11.316. Society, II. 390. PJ.

Colours round a candle, II. Common measure, II. 13. 3, II. 134. Condensation of the air, I.

316. Communication of electri- Composition of motion, I. 715, 11. 220,408.

Columbium, II. 671. city, II. 421. 23, PI. 1, II. 28, 131. Condensed air, II. 265,

VOL. II. 4 U
Sgi INDEX.

•Condenser of air, 1. 342. PI. Conic sections, 11. 121, 114. Contraction of the earth's Cornea, I. 447, II. 83, »1I,
24, II. 253, 385. Conjugate foci, I. 415, II. orbit, II. 334. 530, 587.
Condenser of electricity, I. 71. Contraction of the muscles, Corner of a passage, II.

681, PI. 40. n. 434. Conjunction, I. 527. II. 427.

Condenser of force, 11. 182. Conuaissance dcs tcms, II. Contrate wheel, I. 177, PI. Corn fan, I. 345.

Condorcet, II. 114. 373. 15. Corn mills, I. 232, 233, PI.

Conducting powers for elec- Connected cylinderSjII. 138. Cohverging series, II. 116. 18, II. 107.

tricity, I. 666, II. 419, Connected systems, II. 138. Conversion, II. 137. Cornwall, II. 484.
509. Considerations on roads, 11. Convex lens, II. 72. Coronae, I. PI. 30, IL
Conducting powers for heat, 203. Convex mirror, I. 416, II. 317.
I. 635, II. 404, 405, 509. Consonants, I. 401. 72. Coronae round a candle, II.

Conducting powers formag- Consonni, II. 296. Conveying boats, IL 235. 316.

netisni, I. 686. Constellations, I. 753, PI. Conveying coals, II. 202. Correction of dispersion,

Conductor, I. 680. 36, 37, II. 376.