Department of Behavioral Sciences

College of Arts and Science

CENTRAL MINDANAO UNIVERSITY

COGNITIVE TRAINING MODULE FOR PSYCH 65

(Cognitive Psychology)
1st semester, S.Y. 2021-2022

Submitted by:

RODRIGUEZ, RUTH F.

September 28, 2021

 RATIONALE

There is no better way of understanding the concepts of cognitive psychology other

than indulging oneself to a real-life situation, and witnessing first-hand how principles are
applied and experienced (McConnell, 2016). One example of learning theories in
cognitive psychology is through conducting a cognitive training. The cognitive training is
anchored on the reinforcement theory of B.F. Skinner (1938), utilizing the reward-based
method. Recent researches have discovered that the use of positive reinforcement is
efficient and effective in teaching animals complex tricks and behavior. The traditional
way of training was deemed unethical and intrusive that only invoke feelings of fear,
anxiety, distrust, and aggression to the animals (Sidman, 2000; Friedman & Haug, 2010).
Therefore, the student aims to train an animal in a conducive environment that motivates
and positively reinforces the desired behavior.

A two-year old, Labrador retriever named Karry will be the center of this training.
The cognitive training aims to teach Karry how to behave well outside his cage and
perform basic tricks such as “sit”, “handshake”, and “stay”. The student also finds it
important to conduct activities that the dog already finds engaging to increase the success
rate of the performance, as per the interest theory of motivation that was first suggested
by William James (1950). For that reason, complex tricks like “jump over”, and “bang!”
that involves intensive physical activity are added for the highly energetic dog. In order,
to avoid the extinction of these behaviors, in the latter part of the training, the student
targets to follow the partial reinforcement schedule.
 INTRODUCTION

From deciding what to do first thing in the morning, to perceiving, reasoning, and
learning, cognitive psychology explains these mental processes and relates these to how
the mind works. Yet, before this field of psychology gained its recognition, it went through
a series of adversaries and criticisms. The study of the mind in the 1800s was a seemingly
impossible task, believing that its properties are something that cannot be measured. In
1896, a Dutch physiologist Franciscus Donders went against the odds and conducted an
experiment that would later become one of the founding studies in the field of cognitive
psychology. Donders’ experiment centered on how long people make a decision, and he
determined it by measuring his participants’ reaction time to a stimulus. In order to achieve
this, Donders made his participants choose a button that answers to where the light goes
– left or right. His experiment starts by presenting a stimulus to the particpants (flashes
of light), to which it causes a mental response (perceiving the light) that leads to a
behavioral response (pushing the button left or right). Compared to the studies of the 21st
century, Donders’ experiment was pretty simple; however, it contributed a highly
significant principle that impacts the field of psychology through the ages – mental
processes cannot be measured directly but must be inferred from observing behavior
(Goldstein, 2018).

Nonetheless, by early 1900s, the focus of psychology slowly shifted. From the
study of mental processes to a new approach called behaviorism. It all started when Ivan
Pavlov (1849–1936) accidentally discovered the concept behind how his dogs salivate
when they weren’t supposed to be salivating. Pavlov was expecting that this behavior
should only occur when the dogs are about to be fed, but even without displaying the
food, and that the dogs could only see the lab assistant that usually feeds them or hear a
clatter from the kitchen, they’d already start salivating. This puzzled Pavlov and made
him concentrate his study to what he later coined as classical conditioning. Classical
conditioning focuses on involuntary responses, and it is a process that involves
establishing an association between a naturally existing stimulus and a previously neutral
one (Cherry, 2020). And in 1913, John B. Watson who was famous for his experiment
“Little Albert” coined the term behaviourism (Malone, 2014) A new approach in
psychology that rejects introspection and considers observable behavior, not
consciousness as the main topic of the study. Watson strongly shunned the study of
cognition and further claimed that the only thing that affects behavior is pairing one
stimulus to the other. The influence of behaviourism dominated more when B.F. Skinner
introduced operant conditioning, which focused on learning voluntary behavior through
reinforcement. Concepts of classical and operational conditioning are then applied in
classroom teaching, treating of psychology disorders, and testing the effects of drugs on
animals (Goldstein, 2018).

For decades, the study of internal processes was put aside. Yet, no matter how
much psychologists of the day denied the study of thinking maps and cognition, it still
came into view. One example was how Edward Chace Tolman called himself a
behaviorist, but in 1938, conducted an experiment that used behavior to infer mental
processes. Tolman’s study focused on rats and complex mazes. He used food as
reinforcement to teach rats how to navigate the maze. There were three groups of rats,
the first was continuously given reinforcement every time they got out of the maze, this
continued until the rats could solve the maze with no errors. The second group was
treated the same, but there were no reinforcement given when they finally exited, they
were simply put back to the maze. The third group was the control group, and they were
also not given reinforcement. It was observed that the second and third group were just
wandering aimlessly in the maze for nine days until accidentally finding their way out. A
behaviourist would explain that this was predictable and understandable since only the
first group had reinforcement for learning. However, on the tenth day, Tolman decided to
give reinforcement to the second group for the first time. And upon receiving the
reinforcement, Tolman was surprised to observe that the rats could immediately solve the
maze as fast as the first group of rats. The experiment concluded that the rats in the
second group, while wandering in the maze had learned the alleys, turns, and correct
paths and constructed a “mental map” or “cognitive map” out of it. The rats garnered
knowledge about the maze but did not demonstrate their learning because there was no
motivation or reason to do so, Tolman called this latent learning. The use of the term
cognitive, and Tolman’s finding that went beyond the traditional stimulus-response
connections, placed him outside the mainstream behaviourism (Ciccarelli & White, 2015).
 Another occurrence that urged the emergence of cognitive psychology was the
critique of Noam Chomsky in 1959 to the book of Skinner about language. Chomsky
argued that children learned sentences that have never been rewarded by parents such
as “I hate you”. Chomsky insisted that language is a product of the way the mind is
constructed, and not a result of reinforcement. Through this, psychologists began to
realize that in understanding complex cognitive behavior, it requires measuring
observable behavior and analysing how this behavior relates to how the mind works.

In order to have an in-depth understanding of cognitive psychology, an experiential

learning is recommended where the focus is exploring one of the mental processes which
learning, and relating it to behavior. Experiential learning refers to teaching and learning
style that emphasizes learning by doing and immersing oneself to real-life situations that
encourages critical learning and reflection (McConnell, 2016). Just like how Pavlov based
his study about classical conditioning on dogs, this paper will also utilize animal training
as a means of experiential learning and will be anchored mainly on the reinforcement
theory of Skinner (1938), specifically the reward-based system. Through this training,
principles of classical and operational conditioning will be studied directly. Concepts of
contiguity (presenting reinforcement closely to the desired behavior, in order for the pet
to learn the association), contingency (consistent pairing of the action and the
reinforcement), shaping, and schedules of reinforcement (reinforce the pet after every
occurrence of the action and then move to a partial reinforcement schedule) will also be
featured in real time (Domjan, 2015).

Traditional training method tend to rely on punishment, and negative

reinforcement; however, it has been found to be intrusive, unethical, and destructive to
the mental and physical state of animals (Makowska, 2018). According to Chance (2003),
these types of training methods invoke feelings of fear, anxiety, distrust and aggression.
Therefore, the student aims to train the animal with the use of positive reinforcement in a
comfortable and encouraging environment. To strengthen the theoretical aspect of the
study, interest theory of motivation will also be implemented. In 1950, William James
stated that interest has a tremendous influence on our attention, and wanting to
participate in an activity is a powerful motivator for initiating and maintaining engagement
(Sansonne & Smith, 2000).

The chosen subject for this cognitive training is a Labrador retriever dog named
Karry. Dogs have been an integral part of human culture for years, and they have been
found to be the most easily domesticated animal (Ziv, 2017). Aside from the fact that they
have been tagged as man’s best friend for their loyalty and service, dogs also possess
canine cognition; it is the ability to acquire information, use conceptual skills, store and
retrieve information from the memory, and use existing knowledge to adapt to noble
situations (Humphreys, 1979). Moreover, the breed Labrador retriever is one of the most
popular breeds and the 7th smartest dog breed in the world when it comes to obedience
and working intelligence (Jeng, 2021). The subject, Karry is a two-year old Labrador who
also displays evidence of intelligence by already knowing how to perform simple tricks
such as “sit”, “handshake”, and “stay”; but the challenge comes into play when Karry is
freed from his cage and from his leash. Karry spends most of his time in a cage because
of his size and his hyperactive personality, despite being a good boy in his cage, he rarely
listens and obeys his handler’s commands when he’s in a different surrounding, as if his
attention and interest is elsewhere every time. At the end of the cognitive training, the
student aims to catch Karry’s attention and interest, make him obey commands outside
his cage, and teach him to do new tricks such as jumping over and “bang!” where he lies
down and pretends to be dead.
 TRAINING PROCEDURE (KARRY)

Figure 1. The cognitive training subject “Karry” basking in the sun and
enjoying the sea.

GOALS
At the end of a month-training, Karry will be able to:

a. Focus his attention to the trainer especially when he is out of his cage;
b. Perform simple tricks such as “sit”, “handshake”, and “stay” upon request
anywhere;
c. Follow the command jumping over;
d. Learn and execute the desired behavior upon hearing “bang!” from the trainer;
and,
e. Demonstrate those behaviors with partial reinforcement.

MATERIALS

a. Leash
b. Treats
c. Wooden bar to jump over
PROCEDURE
This section of the module discusses the detailed steps to be followed to guarantee
the success of the cognitive training:
A. Making the dog focus his attention to the trainer especially when he is
out of his cage.
In order to achieve this, the trainer must prepare tasty treats. Usually, saying
the name of the dog is enough to catch their attention, so the trainer must
utilize this idea. The trainer will also thrive to make the dog make an eye-
to-eye contact with them, and that will be done by placing the treat in the
middle of the eyes, and immediately feeding it to the dog when the desired
behavior is displayed. The eye-to-eye contact may be held for longer
seconds than the other time, and associating it with more treats every
practice.
B. Perform simple tricks such as “sit”, “handshake”, and “stay” upon
request anywhere
Upon knowing how to make the dog focus, it’d be easier for the trainer to
make the dog perform these basic tricks. The trainer will first show the dog
the treat, which falls as an antecedent, and say the commands. Once the
desired behavior is presented, a reinforcement will follow to make the dog
aware of the association.
C. Follow the command “jump over”
Jump over is a new trick that will be taught to Karry. Here applies the
process in the operant conditioning called shaping, where small steps
toward some ultimate goal are reinforced until the goal itself is reached. And
since Karry is already fond of jumping, this behavior will be shaped to be
able to perform this new trick. The training starts by placing the wooden bar
first flat on the ground. The trainer will then present the treat to the dog and
make the dog follow it, the trainer will say “jump”, and jumps herself – with
the intention of making the dog follow. Any signs of leaping will be
accompanied by saying “Yes!”, petting, and rewarding of behavior. This will
be practiced until the dog does the command without the trainer jumping
 over first. The wooden bar will then be elevated slowly up to a foot as the
process continues.
D. Learn and execute the desired behavior upon hearing the command
“bang!” from the trainer
The session starts by placing the treat to the side of the dog’s nose and
slowly moving the treat towards his shoulder. The treat will lure the dog into
his side, and then further over onto his back. When the dog is finally on the
right position, the trainer will say the command “Bang!” with a gun hand sign
and provide the reward. Giving the dog a belly rub will also make the dog
hold and like the position. This will be repeated until the dog finally learns
the behavior. Stepping up the said trick, the trainer will have to stand a feet
away from the dog and say the command, when the dog does the command
despite the distance, then the training is a success.
E. Demonstrate those behaviors with partial reinforcement
Reinforcing a behavior has a schedule, and in this cognitive training, it is
continuous reinforcement that will be mostly used. Continuous
reinforcement is described as immediately giving a reinforcer for each and
every correct response, although it is easier to teach a new behavior
through this process, it is more susceptible to extinction. Therefore, the
trainer aims to retain and maintain those behavior with partial reinforcement.
After the dog has mastered the following tricks, the trainer will resort to
giving treats that follow the partial reinforcement schedule. The trainer will
command two-three tricks before giving the reinforcement. In this way, the
longevity of the newly learned behaviors is secured.

STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES

a. The training will mainly utilize the reward-based method that follows an A + B = C
format from the study of Barnes in 2009. It is anchored on the learning theory and
operant conditioning principle of B.F. Skinner (1938). The A stands for
antecedent, which refers to conditions and factors that lead to behavior. The B
 stands for behavior or the dog’s response to the antecedent. While the C stands
for consequence or referring to what happens immediately after the behavior.
b. In order to keep the subject engaged with the trainer, referencing to the Interest
Theory of Motivation. The trainer must facilitate activities that the subject already
likes. As for Karry, he is a highly energetic dog and loves running and jumping
around a lot. For that reason, the jump over and “bang!” tricks are added to keep
the dog entertained.
c. The trainer also finds it essential to the training to establish and maintain a positive
environment, and a healthy loving relationship with the dog.

Figure 2. The ABCs format of training a dog.

https://www.clickstartdogacademy.com/blog/dogtrainingabcs
TRAINING CHART

Skills to Learn Date Presented Date Achieved Remarks

Focus attention to the

trainer

Perform “sit”, “handshake”,

“stay” tricks outside the
cage

Jump Over

“Bang!” or Play dead

REFERENCES

Barnes, R. (2019). Understanding How Dogs Learn: The Basics of Learning Theory.
https://www.pawgress.dog/post/understanding-how-dogs-learn-the-basics-of-
learning-theory

Ciccarelli, S. K., & White, J. N (2015). Introduction to Psychology (4th ed.). Pearson.

Goldstein, E. B. (2018). Cognitive psychology: connecting mind, research, and everyday

experience (5th ed.). Cengage Learning Inc.

Cherry, K. (2020). The difference between the classical and operant conditioning.

Verywell Mind.

Chance, P., 2003. Learning and Behavior. Wadsworth Publishing, Belmont, CA.
Domjan, M. (2015). The principles of learning and behavior Stamford, CT: Cengage

Learning.

Jeng, R. (2021, May 7). Are labs smart? - here’s why labs are super intelligent. The Smart

Canine. https://thesmartcanine.com.

Malone, J. C. (2014). Did john B. watson really “Found” behaviorism? The Behavior

Analyst, 37(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40614-014-0004-3

McConnell, B. L. (2016). Teaching with dogs: Learning about learning through hands-on

experience in dog training. Psychology Learning & Teaching, 15(3), 310–328.

Sansone, C., & Smith, J. L. (2000). Interest and self-regulation: The relation between

having to and wanting to. In C. Sansone & J. M. Harackiewicz (Eds.), Intrinsic and

extrinsic motivation: The search for optimal motivation and performance (pp. 341–

372). Academic Press.

Ziv, G. (2017). The effects of using aversive training methods in dogs—A review.

Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 19, 50–60.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2017.02.004

Humphreys, L.G. (1979). "The construct of general intelligence". Intelligence. 3 (2):

105–120. doi:10.1016/0160-2896(79)90009-