AnAssi gnmenton

“Government
i
nit
iat
ivesforPubl
i
c
Sector
”
 MGT105:BANGLADESHSTUDI
ES
Submi
tt
edt
o:Dr
.Md.At
aurRahman
Pr
ofessor
Depar
tmentofManagement
,
Facul
tyofBusi
nessSt
udi
es,
Uni
ver
sit
yofDhaka
Submi
tt
edby
: Gr
oup2
S.
L Name I
D Phone Regar
ds
number
1 Homy
raJannatShabi
ha 10(
428)01878321760
2 Sai
dulI
slam Sahed 11(
429)01706408493
3 Md.Mur
adHossen 12(
432)01742887856
4 Md.ShaonMi
a 13(
433)01884656407
5 Sadi
aTasni
mOi
shee 14(
435)01874-
482995
6 May
eshaFahmi
da 16(
443)01672450205
7 Shei
khFai
sal 17(
444)01765554338
8 Kamr
ulHasan 18(
447)01853676088
9 Mi
ssShahanurAkt
erMunni19(
450)01797936505
10 Md.
AsanulHaqueSi
am 20(
458)01962842518

Dat
eofsubmi
ssi
on:
I
ntr
oduct
ion:Thepubl
i
csect
or(
alsocal
l
edt
hest
atesect
or)i
sthepar
toft
he
economycomposedofbot
hpubl
i
cser
vicesandpubl
i
cent
erpr
ises.

Publi
csectorsincl udepubl i
cgoodsandgov ernment al
servicessuchast hemi l
i
tary ,
law
enfor
cement ,
infrast ructure(publicroads, bri
dges, t
unnels,wat ersuppl y,sewers,
el
ectri
calgri
ds,tel ecommuni cations,etc.
),publictransit
,publiceducat ion,alongwi th
healt
hcareandt hosewor ki
ngfort hegov ernmenti tsel
f,suchasel ectedof f
ici
als.The
publi
csectormi ghtpr ovi
deser vicesthatanon- payercannotbeexcl udedf rom (suchas
str
eetli
ghti
ng),ser viceswhi chbenef itall
ofsoci et
yr at
herthanj ustthei ndivi
dualwho
usestheservi
ce. [1]Publ icenterpri
ses,orst ate-
ownedent erprises,aresel f
-f
inancing
commer ci
alenter prisest hatareunderpubl i
cowner shi
pwhi chpr ov i
dev ari
ouspr i
v ate
goodsandser vi
cesf orsaleandusual l
yoper ateonacommer cialbasis.

Organizati
onsthatarenotpar toft
hepubli
csectorareei
therapar
tofthepri
vatesector
orvoluntar
ysector.Thepr i
vatesect
oriscomposedoftheeconomicsector
st hatar
e
i
ntendedt oearnapr ofi
tfortheownersoftheenter
pri
se.Thevol
untar
y,ci
vi
corsoci al
sectorconcernsadiv er
searrayofnon-pr
ofi
torgani
zati
onsemphasizi
ngcivi
lsociet
y.
SomeRegul
ari
ti
esAgencyofPubl
i
cSect
or:

Some
Regul
ari
ti
e
sAgency
 1.
Mil
it
ary
:

Ami li
tary,
alsoknowncol lecti
velyasarmedf orces,isaheav i
lyarmed, hi
ghlyorganized
for
cepr imaril
yintendedforwar f
are.I
tist
y pi
call
yof fi
cial
lyaut horizedandmai nt
ainedby
asov erei
gnst at
e, wi
thit
smember sident
ifi
ablebyt hei
rdi sti
nctmi l
it
aryunifor
m.I tmay
consistofoneormor emi l
it
arybranchessuchasanar my ,navy,airforce,space
for
ce, marines,orcoastguard.Themai ntaskoft hemi li
taryisusual l
ydef i
nedas
defenceoft hestateanditsinter
estsagainstexternalarmedt hreats.

A nat ion's mi li
tar
y may f unction as a di screte social subcul ture,wi t
h dedicated
i
nf r
ast r
uct ure such as mi li
tary housing,school s,util
it
ies, l
ogi stics,hospi tal
s,legal
services,f oodpr oducti
on,finance,andbanki ngser v
ices.Bey ondwar fare,themi l
it
ary
maybeempl oyedi nadditionalsanctionedandnon- sanct i
onedf unctionswi t
hint he
state,includinginternalsecurit
yt hr
eats,populationcontrol,thepr omot i
onofapol i
ti
cal
agenda, emer gency ser vicesand r econstructi
on, pr otectingcor porateeconomi c
i
nter ests,socialceremoniesandnat i
onal honourguards.

TheBangladeshArmedFor cesconsi
stsofthethreeunif
ormedmi l
i
tar
yserv
icesof
Bangl
adesh:theBangl
adeshArmy,theBangl
adeshNavyandtheBangl
adeshAi
rForce.
Armed f or
ces f
all
s underthe juri
sdict
ion ofDefence Mi ni
stry
.TheBor derGuard
Bangladesh(f
ormerl
yBangladeshRi f
les)andBangladeshCoastGuar dareundert he
j
uri
sdicti
onoftheMinist
ryofHomeAf fair
s[8]dur
ingpeaceti
me, butduri
ngwar ti
methey
fal
lunderthecommandofBangl adeshArmyandBangl adeshNav yrespect
ively.
Tr
aini
ng
Offi
cer saret rai
nedandeducat edf orthreey earsatt heBangl adeshMi li
taryAcademy ,
Bhatiary,Bangladesh Nav al Academyat Patenga, bot h l
ocated
i
nChi t
tagongandBangl adesh Ai rFor ce Academyl ocated i nJessor e.Foradv ance
tr
ainingdur i
ngt hei
rcareer ,offi
cersar esentt oBangladeshDef enceSer v i
cesCommand
and St aff Col l
egeat Mi r
pur ,whi le senior of f
icers at tend theNat i
onalDef ense
Universit
yforAr medFor cesWarCour se.Manyat tendt heMi l
i
taryInstituteofSci ence
andTechnol ogywhi l
eser ving.Of f
icersoft heAr myMedi calCor psar er ecrui
tedaf ter
graduat i
onf rom bothmi li
taryorci vi
lmedi calcolleges.Theyunder gobasi cmi l
it
ar y
tr
ainingatBangl adeshMi l
itaryAcademyf ol l
owedbypr ofessionaltr
ai ninginmedi cal
corpscent reandAr medFor cesMedi calInstit
ute.Recent lycadetsofAr medFor ces
Medi calColl
egeal sostartedj oini
ngt heservicesdirectl
y.
Bangladesh-Mi l
itar
yExpendit
ure(%OfGDP)
Mili
taryexpenditure(% ofGDP)i nBangl adeshwasr eport
edat1. 3649% in2018,
accordi
ng tot heWor l
d Bankcollecti
on ofdev el
opmentindicat
ors,compi
led f
rom
off
icial
l
yr ecognizedsources.Bangladesh-Mi li
tar
yexpendit
ure(% ofGDP)-act ual
val
ues,histori
caldata,f
orecast
sandpr oject
ionsweresour
cedf rom t
heWorldBankon
Augustof2020.

Mil
itaryexpendi turesdataf rom SIPRIar ederivedfrom t heNATO def ini
ti
on,whi ch
i
ncludes allcur rent and capi talexpenditur
es on t he ar med f orces,including
peacekeepingf orces;defensemi ni
str
iesandot hergov ernmentagenci esengagedi n
defenseprojects; paramil
i
taryforces,i
fthesearejudgedt obet r
ainedandequi ppedf or
mil
itaryoperati
ons; andmili
taryspaceactiv
iti
es.Suchexpendi turesincludemi l
it
aryand
ci
vilpersonnel,includingret
irementpensionsofmi li
taryper sonnelandsoci alservices
for per sonnel ;oper ati
on and mai nt
enance;pr ocurement ;mi l
it
aryr esear ch and
devel opment ;and mi l
itaryaid( i
nt he mi l
i
t aryexpendi turesoft he donorcount ry)
.
Excludedar eci vi
ldefenseandcur rentexpendi turesf orpreviousmi li
taryactivi
ti
es, such
asf orv eterans' benefi
ts,demobili
zation,conv ersion,anddest ructi
onofweapons.Thi s
definiti
oncannotbeappl iedforallcountri
es,howev er,sincet hatwoul drequiremuch
mor edet ail
edi nformati
ont hanisav ail
ableaboutwhati si ncludedinmi l
itarybudget s
andof f
-budgetmi li
tar
yexpendi t
ureitems.(Forexampl e,mi l
i
t ar
ybudget smightormi ght
notcov ercivildefense,reserv
esandauxi li
aryf orces,pol i
ceandpar amili
tar
yf orces,dual
-purposef orcessuchasmi l
it
aryandci vi
li
anpol i
ce,mi li
tarygr antsinkind,pensi onsfor
mi l
i
tar yper sonnel,andsoci alsecuri
tycontribut i
onspai dbyonepar tofgov er
nmentt o
anot her.)
PeacekeepingCont ri
but orProfi
le:Bangl adesh
Bangladesh isal eading pr ov
iderofUN peacekeeper s,hav i
ng parti
cipat ed in 54
missionsinov er40count ri
es.InAugust2016, Bangladeshhad5, 572tr
oops, 61mi l
i
tary
expertsand1, 139poli
ceper sonneldepl oyedi nv ari
ousUNpeacekeepi ngoper ations.In
thelasttwoandahal fdecades, Bangl adesh’
st roopcont ri
but i
onshaveincreasedabout
500%( seefigure1).Thear medf orcescont ri
buted85%oft hisfi
gureandt hepol ice15%.
130Bangl adeshiuniformedpeacekeeper shav edi edwhi l
eser v
ingundert heUN f lag
(see tabl
e 1) .A bat t
alion of850 sol dier
sf rom Bangl adesh wil
lreplace Keny an
peacekeepersi nresponset oaUN r equestt of i
llthegapi ntheUN Mi ssioni nSout h
Sudan( UNMI SS).Inaddi ti
on,Bangl adeshal sost artedpr ocessi
nganot herr equestof
theUNt osendanengi neeringcompanyof260per sonnel f
rom theBangladeshAr my
foroperati
onsi nWaur egionofSout hSudan.

Bangl
adeshi
nUNPeacekeepi
ngOper
ati
ons(
54mi
ssi
onsi
n40count
ri
es)

Air
Ar
my Navy Pol
ice Tot
al
Force

No. of Peacekeeper
s
119,
452 3,
875 5,
218 16,
798 145,
343
(
complet
edmi ssi
ons)

Deceasedpeacekeeper
s 103 3 4 20

For
cesGoal2030
ForcesGoal2030i sami l
it
arymoder ni
zati
onpr ogr
am oftheBangladeshAr
medFor ces
whichbegani n2009andr ev
isedi n2017,desi gnedt othecapabili
ti
esofthet hree
servi
cesoftheBangl adesharmedf orces:theAr my,theNavyandt heAirForce.The
pri
mar yfocus oft he moder nizati
on program i sthe ref
ormation ofthe mili
tary
organi
zat
ion,expansionofthef orces,t
ransformati
onoft hei
ndigenousdef
encesect or
to suppor tr esear ch and manuf act uring, and acqui si
ti
on of moder n mili
tary
weapons. [
1]Ther equi rementf ormoder nizationwasr eali
zedint heaftermathof2008
Bangladesh–My anmarnav alstandof fand mar i
time dispute wi t
hI ndia,bot hlater
result
ingi nBangl adesh' sf avor.Oneoft hepr i
mar yobjectiv
eoft hemoder ni
zati
on
program i st o dev elop a t hr
ee-dimensi onalf orces (l
and,ai rand sea)capabl et o
conduct ingmul t
i-plat form warfar
e.[
2]
Tof ulf
illthemoder nizati
onr equir
ement s,t heBangl adeshGov ernmental l
ocatesfunds
exclusivelyfort hepr ogram inadditiont odef ensebudget .Thef undsal l
ocatedfort he
program dur i
ngf irstf iveyearsisest imat edt obear oundf or
ty-t
housandcr orestaka
(US$5.2bi ll
ion) .
[3]Thepr ogram wasr evisedi n2017,f oll
owingRohi ngyarefugeecri
si s,
whichf acili
tatedal ar germonet aryallocat i
ont owar dsthemoder nizati
onpr am.
ogr

2.
LawEnf
orcement
:

Lawenf orcementi sat ermf ortheact iv

iti
esofsomemember sofgov er nmentwhoact
i
n an or gani zedmanner t
o enf orce t helawby di scov er
ing,deterring,rehabili
tati
ng,
orpuni shingpeopl ewhov iolat
et her ul
esandnor msgov er
ningt hatsoci et y.Alt
hough
thet er
m encompassespol i
ce,cour t
s,andcor recti
ons,itismostf requent lyappl i
edto
those who di rectly engage i n pat rols or sur veil
l
ance t o di ssuade and
discovercr i
mi nal activ
ity,
andt hosewhoi nvesti
gatecrimesandappr ehendof fenders,a
taskt y
picallycar r
iedoutbyt hepolice,sheri
fforanotherlawenf orcementor ganizati
on.
Althoughl awenf orcementmaybemostconcer nedwi t
hthepr event i
onandpuni shment
ofcrimes,or gani zationsexisttodi scourageawi dev ari
etyofnon- crimi nalv i
olati
onsof
rulesandnor ms,ef fectedthrought heimposi ti
onofl esssev er
econsequences.Ther e
are also di fferentuni tsin di f
ferentpol ice departments,incl uding “ Under cover
”,
“Detective”,“CID”,“ GangTaskFor ce”,“DrugTaskFor ce”,"CustodyEnf orcement "this
v
ari
esf
rom j
uri
sdi
cti
ont
ojur
isdi
cti
on.

Lawenf
orcementi
nBangl
adesh

Lawenf or
cementi
nBangladeshisonepar
toft
heJust
iceSy
stem i
nBangl
adeshal
ong
wit
hPrisonsandCourt
s.
TypesofLawenforcementagenci
es
Therear ebasical l
yt hreet ypesofl aw enf orcementagenci es,local
,st at e,andf ederal
.
Locall awenf orcementagenci esincludepol iceandsher iffdepar t
ment s.St ateagenci es
i
ncludet hestateorhi ghwaypat rol.Feder alagenci esincludet heFBIandt heU. S.Secret
Servi
ce. Mostl awenf or cementi sconduct edbysomet ypeofl awenf or cementagency ,
witht hemostt y picalagencyf ul
f i
l
li
ngt hisrolebei ngt hepol i
ce.Soci ali nvestmenti n
enforcementt hr ough such or ganizations can be massi ve,bot hi nt er ms oft he
resourcesi nvest edi nt heact ivi
ty,andi nt henumberofpeopl epr ofessi onal l
yengaged
toper formt hosef unct ions.Law enforcementagenci est endt obel i
mi tedt ooper ati
ng
withi
n aspeci fiedj urisdiction.In somecases,j urisdiction mayov er lap i n between
organizat i
ons;f orexampl e,intheUni tedSt ates,eachst at ehasi t
sownst atewidelaw
enforcementar ms, butt heFeder alBur eauofI nv esti
gat i
oni sabl etoactagai nstcertain
typesofcr imesoccur ringi nanyst at
e.Var iousspeci ali
zedsegment sofsoci et
ymay
have t
heir own inter
nal l aw enforcement ar r
angement s. For
exampl e,mil
it
ar yor ganiz ati
onsmayhav emi lit
arypol i
ce.
Bangl adeshPol ice
Dur ing t he Mughalr ule oft he BengalSubah t her e was a pol i
cing admi nistration
responsi blef orpubl i
csaf et y
.TheBr iti
shdev elopedast r
uctur edpol iceadmi nistration
basedonPol i
ceRef orm of1782.Fol lowi ngt heI ndianMut inyin1857,t heBr i
tish
refor medt hecol onialpolicef or cet hrought hePol i
ceRepor tof1860t omakei tamor e
effect ivef orce.Thecur rentBangl adeshPol i
cei sbasedont heBr iti
shcol onialpol ice
admi nistration.TheheadofBangl adeshPol icei stheI nspect orGener alofPol i
ce.Then
undert heI nspect orGener alofPol i
cei st heDeput yI nspect orGener alsofPol ice,t hey
arer esponsi blef orsixcivilrangeandoneaddi ti
onalr anger esponsi blef orBangl adesh
Railway .Thenundert hem ar et heAddi tionalI nspect orGener alofPol ice,whoar et he
Commi ssi onersofMet ropol i
tanPol i
ce,chi efoft heCr i
minalI nv est
igat ionDepar tment ,
Chi efoft heSpeci alBranch,andt heheadofBangl adeshPol iceAcademy .ThePol ice
Super i
nt endent sar eresponsi blef orthepol i
ceadmi ni str
ationatDi strictLev elwhi chi s
undert heci vi
lrange.Addi tionalSuper intendent sar er esponsi bleheadt hepol i
ceci rcles
undert heDi st
rictpol i
ce.Thei ndivi
dualPol iceSt at ionsf allundert heci r
cleandi s
headedbyani nspectorlev elof fi
cer-i
n-char ge.TheCr i
minalI nv esti
gat ionDepar tment
andSpeci alBr anchoper atepar all
elt ot her egularpol i
ceadmi ni
str ationandr eport
direct l
yt ot hePol iceheadquar ters.

RapidActionBat
tal
ion
RapidAct i
onBatt
ali
onisal aw enf
orcementf or
ce.I
twascr eat
edthroughtheArmed
Poli
ceBat tal
i
on(Amendment )Acti n2003.Thef orceiscomposedofmember sof
BangladeshPoli
ce,BangladeshAr my ,Bangl
adeshNavy,andBangladeshAi rForce.
RapidActionBat
tal
ionhasbeencr i
ti
cizedbythemediaandhumanrightsorgani
zati
ons
f
orext
rajudi
cialki
l
li
ngs.Thefor
cehasbeensuccessf
ull
yusedagai
nstIsl
ami
cmi l
i
tant
s
i
nBangladeshHumanRi ght
sorgani
zat
ionshav
erefer
redtoRapi
dActionBat
tal
i
onasa
"
gover
nmentdeat hsquad.

AnsarandVi l
lageDefencePar t
y
Bangladesh AnsarandVi ll
age Def ence Partyar
e a di sci
pli
ned l aw enf orcement
agency.I
twasf or
medt hr
ought hepassageofAnsarAct1948i nt heEastBengal
Legisl
ati
veAssembl y.From 1948to1971,whenBangl adeshwaspar tofPaki stan,the
Ansarforcewasundert hecontrolofNat i
onalServi
ceBoard.AftertheIndependenceof
Bangladesh,i
twaspl acedundert heMi ni
str
yofHomeAf fai
rsin1973.I n1976,t he
Vil
lageDefencePar tywerecreated.I n1980asepar at
ecadr ewasest abli
shedi nt he
BangladeshCi v
ilServi
cef orAnsars.Theywer edecl
aredadi scipli
nedf or
cet hr ough
hepassageofAnsar Bahini
,Batt
ali
onAnsar ,Vi
ll
ageDefencePartyAct sinthepar li
ament
ofBangladeshin1995.

Gram Poli
ce
Gram Poli
ceBahi
niar
ev il
l
agepoli
ceunitofBangladesh.Thei
rsalaryispai
dbyt he
GovernmentofBangl
adeshandUnionPar i
shad(l
ocalgovernment
) .Theyarepoorl
y
paid and hav
ebeen campai
gni
ng torecei
vefourth gr
adesalar
yf r
om Bangl
adesh
Government.

Act
ivi
ti
esofLawEnf
orcementAut
hor
it
ies
Bangl adeshpol icear et heci vilf orce,whi chi saut hor i
zedt odealwi thal lthei nter nal
secur i
tyconcer noft hecount ry.Somei mpor tantchanges,howev er,wasi ntroduced
wi thint hepol i
ce.Dur ing26Mar ch2004,anel iteant i
crimeandant i-t
error i
sm uni tof
Bangl adeshwasaddedwi thint hi sagency ,whi chwasf or medandnamedasRapi d
Act ionBat tal
ion( RAB) .Thisuni tiscomposedoft heper sonscomi ngf rom Bangl adesh
Pol ice,Bangl adesh Ar my ,Bangl adesh Nav y ,Bangl adesh Ai rFor ce,Bor derGuar d
Bangl adeshandBangl adeshAnsar .Thisf orceachi ev edt hef aithofpeopl et hought her e
areser i
ousaccusat ionsofext raj udicialki l
li
ngandf orceddi sappear anceagai nstt his
uni toft hepol i
ce.Ther eisanot herbr anchofpol icewhi chi sknownasDet ectiveBr anch
(DB)t hati ssupposedt oinvest i
gat ethesophi sti
cat edandsensi ti
vecr imesbutt heyar e
wi delyal legedt oabductpeopl ei npl aincl othesandi npr i
vat ev ehicles.Thi snewshasa
tremendousi mpactont hel evelofpubl icconf i
dencet owar dspol i
ce.Ther ear esome
otheragenci es undert he Mi ni stryofHome Af fairs whi ch al so do some pol icing
act ivi
tiesi nv eryspeci ficsect or sl i
keBangl adeshCoastguar d,Bangl adeshAnsar ,
Depar tmentofNar coticsCont rolandBor derGuar dsBangl adesh.Ther ear esomeot her
agenci esout sideoft heMi nistryofHomeAf f
airswhi char eBangl adeshCust omsand
thei ndependentAnt icor rupt i
oncommi ssion.Bangl adeshCust omswor ksundert he
super visionofNat i
onalBoar dofRev enue( NBR)whi chi sthel eadt axcol l
ect i
onagency
i
nBangl adesh.NBRi sapar toft heI nternalResour cesDi vision( I
RD)oft heMi nistryof
Finance( BangladeshCount ryCommer cialGui de, 2017) .Howev er,peopl ehav ev er yl ess
conf i
dencei ntheseagenci esbecauseoft hei rplethor icinvol vementi ncor rupt ion.
Cor
rupt
ioni
nBangladesh
Cor
rupt
ion i
n Bangl
adeshhas been a cont
inui
ng pr
obl
em.Accor
ding t
o al
lmaj
or
rankinginsti
tuti
ons,Bangladeshrouti
nelyfi
ndsit
selfamongthemostcor r
uptcountri
es
i
nt hewor ld.
TransparencyInternati
onal'
s2017Cor rupti
onPercept
ionI
ndexr anksthecountry143rd
placeoutof180count ri
es.Thepubli
csect or
sconductedbyt heGov ernmentar ethe
mostcor ruptedsectorsofthecountry.
AntiCor rupti
on Commi ssi
onisf ormed in 2004,buti s consider
ed to be largely
i
nef f
ecti
v eininvesti
gati
ngandpr eventingcor
rupti
onbecauseofgov ernmentalcontrol
overit.
Gov ernment
Cor rupt i
onaboundsi nBangl adeshigov er nmentof fices.Manyof ficial
sr ecei v esalar i
es
withouthav i
nganyact ualassi gnedwor k.Of fi
cialsar er ecruitedandpr omot edf or
reasonst hatarenotobj ect i
v elycl ear.Sol i
ci tati
onofbr i
besi scommon.I na2013sur vey,
76%ofr espondent ssai dcor rupt i
onwasapr oblem int hepubl icsect or,and39%sai d
theyhadpai dabr i
bedur i
ngt hepr ev ious12mont hs.Br ibeswer eespeci allycommon
whendeal i
ngwi t
hthepol i
ce( 72%) ,thej udi ciary(63%) ,landser vi
ces( 44%) ,andr egi str
y
andper mi tserv i
ces( 33%) .Br ibeswer epai dt oobt ainaser vice( 58%) ,t ospeedup
serv i
ce( 33%),t o expr esst hanks( 7%) ,ort o obt ain cheaperser vices( 3%) .These
number s, t
houghuni mpr essi ve, markasi gni fi
cantimpr ov ementov er2010.
In2010,t henpr esidentZi l
lurRahmanpar donedt went yconv i
ctedmur der ersofShabbi r
AhmedGamma.I nJul y2011,heagai npar donedAwamiLeaguel eaderandconv icted
mur der erBi plob.
Primeexampl esofgov er nmentcor r
upt ionar e2011Bangl adeshshar emar ketscam.
Padma Br i
dge Scandal ,occur red i n 2011,was t he l argest pol i
tical scandal
i
nBangl adesht hati nv olvedt her ulingBangl adeshAwamiLeague' sgov ernmentwho
all
egedl ysoughtal argeamountmoneyf rom t heCanadi anconst ruct i
oncompanySNC-
Lav alininexchangef orawar dingt hem t heconst r
uct i
oncont ract.
On 10 December2012,some hacker s hacked and post ed t he sev ent een hour s'
ofSky pecal lofchi efj ust iceNi zamul HuqonYouTubewher ehesuggest edt hathewas
underpr essuref rom t hegov er nmentt or eachaqui ckv erdicti nt heongoi ng1971war
cri
mecasesagai nstt hecount ry '
sseni oropposi ti
onl eader s.
Publ icser vi
ces
Thepubl icsect orsar eamongt hecount ry'smostcor rupt .Inf ew count riesi sbr ibery
mor ecommoni nconnect i
onwi t
hpubl icut ili
ti
es.Near lysi xoutoft enf irmsr epor tthat
theyhav et oof ferbr ibes," gift s,
"orf aci l
itat i
onpay ment si nexchangef orl icensesor
publ i
cut ili
tyconcessi onsort o" gett hingsdone. "Uncl ear ,cont r adictoryr egulations
abound,and ar e of ten expl oited byof ficial
s seeki ng i nformalpay ment s.Engi neer
DelwoarHossai nofGazi purCi tyCor por ationwaski l
ledonMay21,2020.Accor dingt o
hisr elatives,one i nv est i
gat ion agency ,andTr anspar encyI nternat ionalBangl adesh
(TIB)Del woarwasmur der edf orhi sst anceagai nstcor rupt ion.
Publi
cPer cept ionaboutCr imesandVi ctimi
zati
oni nDhaka,Bangladesh
Paramet er
s Percent
age High/Low
Levelofcrime 78.35 High
Cri
mei ncreasi ngint hepast3y ear
s 78.05 High
Wor r
ieshomebr okenandt hingsst olen 70.57 High
Wor r
iesbeingmuggedorr obbed 75.96 High
Wor r
iescarst olen 68.83 High
Wor r
iesthingsf r
om acarst olen 65.55 High
Wor r
iesattacked 64.38 High
Wor r
iesbeingi nsulted 57.72 Moder ate
Wor r
iesbei ngsubj ecttoaphy si
calat t
ackbecauseofy our40. 43 Moder ate
skincolour,ethnicor igi
norreligion
Problem peopl eusi ngordealingdr ugs 70.62 High
Problem proper tycrimessuchasv andal
ism andtheft 75.30 High
Problem vi
ol entcr i
messuchasassaul tandarmedr obber
y 71.60 High
Problem corrupt i
onandbr ibery 92.63 VeryHi gh

Thegeogr aphicl ocationofBangl adeshwi thi tsnat ureofi ntol erance,i nf l

uencewi t
h
i
nter nat ionalter r
or istgr oups,l ackofgoodgov er nance,l ackofpubl icconf idencet othe
l
awenf orcementagenci es,i ll
iter acy,unempl oy ment ,ethi caldegr adat ion,l ackofmor al
teachi ngandpov er t
yar esomeoft hekeyf act orsbecauseofwhi cht henumberof
cri
mesar enumer ousher e( Mi ah,2014) . Mor eov er,t hepol iticalcondi tion,whi chis
mosti mpor tanti npl ay i
ngr ol ei nr educi ngcr i
mes,i si nt hev eryf ragi l
econdi tionin
Bangl adesh.Goodgov ernance,mor aleducat i
on,st ri
ctappl i
cat i
onofl egalpr ocedur e
andagr eator gani zationalr ef orm cani mpr ov et hesi t
uat i
ongr adual l
y.Thoughcr i
mei s
i
nev itabl ei n ev erysoci et y,t hef requency ,whi chi sexi sting i nBangl adesh,i sv ery
object ionabl e.Apr operdesi gnbasedont i
mel inet akingf i
v e-yearort en- year spl anning
canwor kt oi mpr ov et hesi tuat ion.Pr operpol icyf ormul ationandor gani zat ionalr eform
canwor kast hekeyf act ori ni mpr ovingt heov er allsi tuat ionandr educi ngcr imes.
Amendmentofl egalpr ovisions as pert he demand oft he age i s anot herkey
requi rementf ort hei mpr ov ementoft hesy st em.Lawenf or cementor gani zat ionsshoul d
bev er yconcer naboutt hepr of essi onalism andhumanr ight s.Noext ra-judi cialki
llingor
humanr ightsv i
olat i
onshoul dbet oleratedf rom t hem any mor e.Cl ose- circuitcamer a
surv eill
ance,r emov alofpol iticalpr otectionoft hecr i
mi nal sanddev elopi ngt hesoci al
i
nst itutionsar equi temandat or yf orsol v i
ngt hepr oblem.Zer o- toleranceagai nstdr ugs
rel
at edof fencemayr educemanyassoci at edcr imes.Addi ti
onal ly,theper sonswhoar e
i
nv olv edi ndi f
f erentcr imesshoul dbet reat edv erywel lsot hatt heycanbecomegood
cit
izensaf tert her eform pr ogr am.I nfine,i tcanbesai dt hatapr operwi l
lfrom t he
gov ernmentmaki ngav eryspeci alizedt eam ofexper t sf ort hei mpr ov ementofl aw
enfor cementcansol vet hepr obl em wi t
hinal ogi caldur at i
on.
3.I
nfr
ast
ruct
ure:

(
i)
.Publ
i
cRoads:
Themai nr oadnet wor koft hecount r
yisunderRoadsandHi ghway sDepar t
ment(RHD).
Mai ntenanceoft her oadsincludingbr i
dgesi scar riedoutbyRHD.Ther eis
appr oximat ely20,850km r oadsundert hisdepar tment .Ther oadnet workcapableto
carryv ehiclehasi ncreasedsi gnifi
cant l
yandi si ncr easingev eryy ear.Bangladesh
gov ernmentr eal
izest heimpor tanceofr oadmai ntenanceandt heRHDhasgi venmore
emphasi sont hi
ssubj ect.Onlyaf ewy earsbackt her ewasnopr operplanningand
system f orr oadmai ntenance.Ther eforeinternational agenci esassi st
edthe
Gov ernmentofBangl adesht oaddr essandsol vet hepr oblem.RHDhascr eatedanHDM
Circlewi t
hint hedepar t
ment .TheHDM Ci rcl
ewi llassi stwi thr oadmai ntenance
planningandi mplement ati
onbyusi ngmoder nt echnol ogy .‘
TheRoadCondi t
ionSur
vey’
i
sast epf ort hegov ernmenti nor dertoachi evepr operr oadmai ntenance.

ROADCLASSI
FICATI
ON:
TheRoadsandHi ghwayDepart
ment(RHD)wi t
hintheMini
str
yofCommunicat
ion,
is
responsi
blef
orthemanagementofappr oximatel
y20,850km compr
isi
ngt
hree
categori
esofroadsclasses;
Nati
onal
,RegionalandFeedert
ype’A’r
oads.

1.Nat
ional
Highway
s
NationalHighwaysar edefinedasHighway sconnecti
ngnat i
onalcapi
talwithdif
fer
ent
divi
sionalandolddi st
ri
ctheadquartersportcit
iesandint
ernati
onalhi
ghway s.This
roadshav ebeencat egori
zedasNat ionalHighwaysconsi
deringthenationali
mportance
andgeogr aphi
cal posit
ions.EachNat i
onalHighwayshasbeenpr ovi
dedwi thaname
andanumber ,suchasDhaka- Chit
tagongHi ghwayshasbeennumber ed.N-1whereas
standsforNational.Thisnumbercanonl ybechar gedbyRHDheadquar ter.
2.Regi
onal
Highway
s
Regional Hi
ghway saredefi
nedasHi ghwaysconnectingdiff
erentregi
onsandnew
di
strictheadquarter
snotconnectedbyNat i
onalHighway sFeederRoad.Regi
onal
Highway sarenamedaf terNat
ionalHighwaysofnationalimportance.Namesand
number softhesehighway sar
edecidedsuchasComi l
l
a-Lal
mai ,R-
140,wher
easR
standsf orr
egionalmeaningofRegion.Thi
snumbercanonl ybechangedbyRHDhead
quarter.
3.FeederRoad
FeederRoadsaredefi
nedasRoadsconnect i
ngUpazilaheadquart
ersandot her
i
mpor t
antrural
centr
es( growthcent
res)wit
htheexisti
ngRoadnetwork.These
connect
ingroadsaredef i
nedasFeederroads.Feederroad-Ty
peAandFeeder–Ty pe
B.Nameandnumber soft heser
oadsaredecidedsuchasAkhaura-Agart
ala,
F-1203
whereasFstandsforfeeder.
Int
roduction:Ther oadsandHi ghwaysDepar tmentwasf oundedin1962asanof fshoot
oftheC @ BDepar tment.TheDepar t
menti sr esponsi bl
ef ortheconstructi
onand
maintenanceoft hemaj orr oadnet wor kofBangl adesh.Si ncetheDepar tmentwas
founded t he size of the maj orr oad networki n Bangl adesh has grown f rom
approximat el
y4,500kmst othepr esentnetworkofabout21, 000kms.TheDepar tment
i
sheadedbyachi efEngi neerwhoi ssupportedbyanumberofAddi ti
onalChi ef
Engineers.TheDepar tmenti sal soresponsibl
ef oranannualbudgetofappr oximately
Taka2,985cr oreofwhi chaboutTK2400cr oreisfrom t heAnnualDev el
opmentBudget
andTaka300cr oref r
om ther evenuebudgeti nfi
nanci alyear2005-06.Thetotalnumber
ofpersonnel i
ntheDepar tmenti salmost20,000.
Obj
ect
ives:Thegoal
oft
heRoadsandHi
ghway
sDepar
tmenti
s.
“TheRoadsHighwaysDepar
tmentisablet
opr ovi
dethepeopl eofBangladeshwitha
safe,
costeff
ecti
vewellmai
ntai
nedroadnetwork”
.andt hepurposeoftheRoadsand
HighwaysDepart
mentis,
TheRoadsandHighway sDepar t
menthasasust ainabl
e
capaci
tytopl
anmanageanddel i
veri
tsful
lrangeofresponsibi
li
ti
esinrespectofthe
mainroadandbridgenet
workandtobeaccountablefortheseduti
es.
TheAsset soft heRoadsandHi ghway sDepartmenthav ebeenconser vat
ivel
yest i
mated
atTK37, 000cr oreofwhi chbyf arthelargestproporti
oni st hev al
ueofabout21, 000
kmsofr oadsandabout15, 000br i
dges.Theseasset sar epr obablythegreatestassets
ofanyor ganizationinBangl adeshandmai nt
aini
ngt heirv alueisvitaltoit
seconomy .
Thisplacesagr eatresponsi bi
li
tyont heRoadsandHi ghway sDepar t
ment .Inorderto
ful
fi
llt
heobj ectivesoft heoft heRHDt hest r
ategiesoft hev ar
iouswi ngsandzones
mustbef ul
lyimpl ement edsot hattheout putsfrom thewi ngsandzonescont ri
but e
dir
ectl
yt otheobj ectiv
esandv isionoft heDepartment .
Visi
on:Anyv i
sionofthefut
urefortheRoadsandHi ghwaysDepart
mentmustimagi
ne
anorganizat
ionthati
scapableoffulf
il
li
ngtheobjecti
vesstat
edinthepr
evi
oussect
ion.
Thev i
sionsetoutbelowisastatementofthevar
iousconcepts,
systemsand
procedureswhicharetobedevelopedintheRoadsandHi ghwaysDepar
tmenti
nnear
f
utur
e.
Organizat
ion:Thefutur
eRoadsandHi ghwaysDepartmentwil
lbeabet t
erstr
onger
organi
zati
onwhi chisserv
icesori
entedconcent
rat
ingonprovi
dingahighquali
tysaf
e
servi
cestothetravel
li
ngpubli
c.TheDepartmentorgani
zat
ionstruct
urewil
lbemodifi
ed
tobetterr
efl
ectthepresentneeds.
BudgetandFundi ng:Ast hemajorhighwaynet wor ki
snowv ir
tuall
ycompl etethe
emphasisf orf
undingshould,
duringthenextf ewy ear
s,changefrom dev el
opmentto
maintenance.TheDepartmentwillmakewi denuseofprivat
efundingf orroadsand
bri
dgesincludi
ngtheuseofar oadf und.Mai nt
enanceandr ehabi
li
tationbudgetswil
lbe
basedont heoutputsoftheHDM sy stem, TheRHDequi pmenthirepool shouldbe
al
lowedsomebudget ar
yf l
exi
bil
i
tyinor dertooperateonacommer cialbasis.
Mai ntenanceandConstructi
on:ThenewRHDCont r
actDocument swil
lbefull
y
i
mpl ementedanddesignstandardswi l
lbedevel
opedandi mplemented.Quali
tywil
lbe
enforcedonallproj
ect
s,notjustforei
gnaidedschemes.Av ari
etyofappropr
iate
maintenancesystemsandpr ocedureswil
lbeimpl emented.Greatenusewill
bemadeof
l
ocal constr
uct
ionsforsurv
ey ,
designandsupervision.Monitor
ingandreporti
ng
systemswi l
lbeimprovedwithemphasi sonphysicalprogressandquali
tyinaddict
ion
tofinanci
alper
formance.

Pl
anni
ngandMai
ntenance:
Pl
anni
ng
Unti
lrecent lypl
anningoft heRHD Annual pr
ogr
ammer s’hadt obebasedonpercei
ved
needsr atherthanananal y
sis.TheRHDnowhasaccesst oandext ensi
vebodyof
comput erizeddatafr om survey.Thisdatacanbeusedwi thinvent
orydata,
todeter
mine
thefuturebudget ar
yneedsf ormai ntenanceandrehabi
li
tati
on.Atthecoreoft
his
syst
em i st heHDM t hatprovidesaneconomi cr
ankingofoption.
Thisdat asy stem al
solinkedt oGISmappi ngthatfacil
i
t atestheproducti
onofmapsand
thelocationofdat a.Thissy stem arenowoper at i
onalbutt herearesomear eas
requir
ingf urtheratt
enti
on.A pr iori
tyistoensur ethatther oadidenti
fi
cat
ionsystem
alwaysused.Thev al
ueoft heRHDpl anningsy stem wasdemonst rat
edwhenf l
ood
damagesur v eyswerecar r
iedoutatv er
yshortnot i
ceinOct ober1998.Asapar toft
he
RHDst r
ategy ,amor eformal emer gencyresponsepl ani nnowbei ngbuil
tintot
he
planni
ngsy stem.

Budget
s
Undertheoldsyst
em, r
equestfort
heRevenueBudgetsweregener
all
ybasedont he
previ
ousyearsbudgetwit
hsomeal l
owancefori
nfl
ati
on.Somev ar
iat
ionsoccurfr
om
yeartoyeart
omeetspecificr
equir
ements.TheAnnualdev
elopmentBudgetisbasedon
requestsforfundi
ngfrom t
hef
ieldzonesandpri
ori
ti
espercei
vedbytheMi
nist
ry.RHD
Headquar t
ersanddonorsDevelopmentproj
ect
sareprocessedthr
oughasyst
em
establ
ishedbyt hepl
anni
ngcommi ssi
on.
RevenueBudgetisl ar
gelyexpendedonRout i
neandper i
odicMai nt
enanceofRoads,
bri
dgesandbui l
dings.Inaddit
ionitisusedt ofundoperati
onsandmai nt
ainequipment
andferr
ies.TheRHDannual RevenueBudgetascur rentl
yoft heorderoftaka250cr ore
perannum.TheADPBudget ,i
slargelyall
ocatedtoupgradingrehabil
it
ati
onand
devel
opmentwor ks.Someoft heseitemsmaybeconsi deredasperiodicmaintenance.
TheADPbudget si scurrent
lyoftheor derofTaka1,150crore(us$230m) .
Thetoolsarei
nplacetoenablerationalpl
anningandbudget
ingoff
uturemaintenance
andrehabil
i
tat
ionproj
ects.Est
ablishingpr
ocedurestoenabl
ethi
stotakeplace
eff
ici
entl
yareaprior
it
yiftheobjectiv
esofthisstr
ategyar
etobeachieved.

(
ii
)Br
idgessect
ion:

Thebr i
dgedepar t
mentisanimportantdepart
mentundertheMinistr
yofRoad
TransportandBr i
dges.Thi
ssecti
onisdiscussedf
orthePadmaBr i
dgepr
ojectunder
constructi
on.Thedepartmenthasbeengetti
ngbigal
locat
ioni
nt hegover
nmentbudget
forthelastsi
xy ear
s.

Thisti
meTk8,989crorehasbeenallocatedf ort
hebri
dgedepartment.I
nt heoutgoi
ng
fi
nanci
alyear
,theal
locat
ionfort
hissectorwasTk8, 584cror
e.Inotherwor ds,
the
al
locat
ionhasbeenreducedbyTk565cr or e.However
,theal
locat
ionintheoutgoing
budgetwasreducedtoaroundTk2,000cr oreinther
evi
sedbudget.Accordingtothe
bri
dgedepart
mentsources,manyprojectsar
eunder wayinthisdepart
ment .Howev er
,
exceptf
orthePadmaBr idgeandKarnaful
iTunnel const
ructi
onpr oj
ects,
ther esthave
notmademuchpr ogr
ess.That'swhyal ar
gepor t
ionofthemoneyal l
ocatedeacht ime
goesback.Thati
swhyt hebudgethasbeenr educedabi tintheCoronasituation.

About69per centoftheworkofPadmabr idgehasbeencompl etedundert hi

s
department.Thereare30spans.Now4andahal fthousandmet er
soft hebr
idgei
s
vi
sible.
11mor espansareinstal
led,t
hePadmar iv
erwillneedapai rt hi
st i
me.However,
i
nor dertocompletethewholewor k,vari
ousancil
laryworksincludingl ayi
ngofrai
lway
l
ine,prepar
ationofroadforvehi
cleshav etobedone.Thecostoft hispr oj
ecthasbeen
esti
mat edatTk30,193crore.Theentirecostisbeingbornebyt her evenuesector
.

Ontheotherhand,t
heconstr
ucti
onoftunnel
undertheKar
nafuli
riveri
nChi
tt
agongi
s
hal
fadvanced.Thecostoft
hisproj
ecti
s10thousand364crorerupees.

(
ii
i)
Tunnel
s:

At unnel i
sanunder groundpassageway,dugt hroughthesurr
oundi ngsoi l
/eart
h/rock
andencl osedexceptf orentr
anceandexit,commonl yateachend.Api pel
ineisnota
tunnel,thoughsomer ecentt
unnelshaveusedi mmer sedtubeconst ructi
ontechniques
ratherthant r
adit
ionaltunnelbor
ingmethods.At unnelmaybef orfootorv ehicul
arroad
traff
ic,f
orr ai
ltr
affi
c,orforacanal.Thecentralporti
onsofarapi dtransitnetworkare
usuallyinthetunnel.Somet unnelsar
eaqueduct stosupplywat erforconsumpt ionor
forhydroel
ectri
cstati
onsorar esewers.Ut
il
it
ytunnel
sareusedforrout
ingst
eam,
chil
ledwater,el
ectr
icalpowerortelecommunicat
ioncabl
es,aswell
asconnecti
ng
buil
dingsforconvenientpassageofpeopleandequipment.

Secrettunnelsar
ebuil
tformil
it
arypurposes,orbyci
vil
i
ansf orsmuggli
ngofweapons,
contraband,orpeopl
e.Speci
alt
unnels,suchaswildl
i
fecrossings,
arebuil
ttoal
low
wildl
ifetocrosshuman-madebarri
erssafel
y.Tunnel
scanbeconnect edtoget
herin
tunnelnetworks.

Ter
minol
ogy

At unnel isrelativel
ylongandnar row; thel engt hisof t
enmuchgr eaterthant wicet he
diamet er, al
thoughsi mi larshor terexcav ationscanbeconst ructed,suchascr oss
passagesbet weent unnel s.Thedef initionofwhatconst it
utesat unnel canvar ywi del
y
from sour cet osour ce.Forexampl e, thedef i
nitionofar oadt unnel i
nt heUni t
ed
Kingdom i sdef i
nedas" asubsur facehi ghwayst r
uctureenclosedf oral engthof150
met res( 490f t)ormor e."Int heUni tedSt ates,theNFPAdef initi
onofat unnel is"An
under gr oundst ruct
ur ewi thadesi gnl engt hgr eaterthan23m ( 75f t
)andadi amet er
greatert han1, 800mi l
limet res(5.9f t)."Int heUK, apedestrian,cy cl
eorani mal t
unnel
beneat har oadorr ailwayi scall
edasubway ,whi l
eanunder groundr ail
waysy stem is
diff
er ent lynamedi ndi ff
er entcities, the" Under ground"orthe" Tube"i nLondon, the
"Subway "inGl asgow, andt he" Met ro"i nNewcast l
e.Theplacewher ear oad,rail
way ,
canal orwat er
cour sepassesunderaf oot path,cy cl
eway,oranot herr oadorr ailwayi s
mostcommonl ycall
edabr i
dgeor ,ifpassi ngunderacanal ,anaqueduct .Wher eitis
i
mpor tantt ost r
esst hati tispassi ngunder neath, i
tmaybecal ledanunder pass, though
theof f i
cial ter
m whenpassi ngunderar ail
wayi sanunder bri
dge.

Al ongerunderpasscont ai
ningaroad,canalorrai
lwayisnor mallycall
eda" tunnel
",
whetherornotitpassesunderanot herit
em ofinfr
astr
uct ure.Anunderpassofany
l
engt hunderariverisalsousuall
ycall
eda" t
unnel"
,whatev ermodeoft r
anspor ti
tis
for.
IntheUS,thet er
m" subway "meansanunder gr
oundr apidtransitsy
st em,andthe
term pedest
ri
anunder passisusedf orapassagebeneathabar ri
er.Railstat
ion
plat
formsmaybeconnect edbypedestri
antunnelsorfoot bri
dges.

Pr
ojectpl
anni
ngandcostest
imat
es

Governmentfundsareof t
enr equir
edfort
hecreati
onoftunnel
s.Whenatunnelisbei
ng
pl
annedorconst r
ucted,economi csandpoli
ti
csplayal
argefact
orinthedeci
sion
makingprocess.Civ
ilengineersusuall
yuseproj
ectmanagementtechni
quesfor
devel
opingamaj orstruct
ure.Under standi
ngt heamountoft i
met hepr oj
ectrequires,
andtheamountofl aborandmat erial
sneededi sacr ucialpartofprojectplanning.The
proj
ectdurati
onmustbei dent
ifi
edusi ngawor kbreakdownst ructure(WBS)andcr i
tical
pathmet hod(CPM).Also, t
helandneededf orexcavationandconst ruct i
onstaging, and
thepropermachinerymustbesel ected.Lar
gei nfr
astructureprojectsrequir
emi ll
ionsor
evenbil
li
onsofdollars,i
nvolvi
nglong- ter
mf inanci
ng,usual l
ythroughi ssuanceofbonds.

Const
ruct
ion

Tunnelsaredugint ypesofmater
ial
svaryingf rom softcl
aytohardrock.Themet hodof
tunnelconst
ructi
ondependsonsuchf actor sasthegr oundcondi
ti
ons,thegroundwater
condit
ions,t
helengthanddi amet
erofthet unneldrive,t
hedepthofthetunnel
,the
l
ogisti
csofsuppor t
ingthetunnel
excavat
ion, thefi
nal useandtheshapeofthet unnel
andappr opr
iat
eriskmanagement .

Therearethr
eebasi ctypesoftunnelconstructi
onincommonuse.Cut-and-
cover
tunnel
sareconstructedinashallowtrenchandt hencover
edover
.Boredtunnelsar
e
constr
uctedi
nsitu,wi t
houtremov i
ngthegr oundabove.Fi
nal
l
y,atubecanbesunkinto
abodyofwat er
,whi chiscal
ledani mmer sedtunnel
.

Hi
stor
y

Thehistor
yofanci
enttunnelsandtunnel
i
nginthewor l
disrev
iewedinv ar
ioussources
whichincl
udemanyexampl esofthesest
ruct
uresthatwerebuil
tfordi
ffer
ent
pur
poses.Somewellknownancientandmoderntunnelsar
ebriefl
yint
roducedbelow:

TheqanatorkareezofPersi
aarewat ermanagementsy st
emsusedt oprov
ideareli
able
suppl
yofwatertohumanset tl
ement sorforir
ri
gati
oninhot,
aridandsemi-
ari
dcli
mat es.
ThedeepestknownqanatisintheIrani
anci t
yofGonabad,whichaft
er2700year
s,sti
ll
provi
desdri
nki
ngandagr i
cult
uralwatertonearly40,
000people.I
tsmainwell
depthis
morethan360m ( 1,
180ft
),andit
slengthis45km ( 28mi)
.

Oneoft hef ir
stknowndr ai
nageandsewagenet worksinfor
m oft unnelswas
constructedatPer sepoli
sinIranatthesametimeast heconstructi
onofi tsfoundati
on
i
n518BCE.I nmostpl acesthenetwor kwasduginthesoundr ockoft hemount ainand
thencov eredbylargepiecesofr ockandstonefol
lowedbyear thandpi l
esofr ubblet
o
l
ev elt
hegr ound.Dur i
ngi nv
estigat
ionsandsurv
eys,longsect
ionsofsi mi l
arrock
tunnel
sex t
endingbeneat hthepalaceareaweretr
acedbyHer zfel
dandl aterbySchmidt
andtheirar cheol
ogicalteams.

TheVi
aFl
ami
nia,
ani
mpor
tantRomanr
oad,
penet
rat
edt
heFur
lopassi
ntheApenni
nes
throughat unnelwhichemperorVespasianhadorder
edbui
l
tin76–77CE.Amoder n
road,theSS3Fl aminia,
stil
lusesthi
stunnel,whi
chhadapr
ecursordati
ngbacktot
he
3rdcent uryBCE;remnantsofthi
searli
ertunnel(
oneoft
hefi
rstroadtunnel
s)ar
eal
so
sti
llvi
sible.

Thewor l
d'soldesttunnel t
raversingunderawaterbodyisclaimed[48]tobet heTerel
ek
kayatüneliunderKızılRiv
er,alitt
lesouthofthet
ownsofBoy abatandDur ağanin
Tur
key ,
justdownst ream from wher eKizi
lRi
verj
oinsit
stri
butaryGökırmak.Thet unnel
i
spresentlyunderanar r
owpar tofalakefor
medbyadam someki lometersfurt
her
downstream.Est i
mat edtohav ebeenbui l
tmorethan2000y earsago, possibl
ybythe
sameci vi
li
zati
ont hatalsobuilttheroyalt
ombsinar ockfacenearby ,
itisassumedt o
havehadadef ensiv
epur pose.

SappertonCanal TunnelontheThamesandSev er
nCanal i
nEngland,dugthroughhil
ls,
whichopenedi n1789, was3.5km (2.
2mi )l
ongandall
owedboatt r
ansportofcoaland
othergoods.Abov eitt
heSappertonLongTunnelwasconstruct
edwhi chcarr
iesthe
"GoldenVall
ey"rail
wayl i
nebetweenSwindonandGloucest
er.

The1791Dudl eycanaltunnelisontheDudleyCanal,
inDudley,
Engl
and.Thet
unneli
s
1.83miles(
2.9km)l ong.Closedin1962thetunnelwasreopenedi
n1973.Theser
iesof
tunnel
swasext endedin1984and1989.

Kar
naphul
iTunnel

TheKar naphuliRiverTunnelinthepor tofChitt

agong, Bangladeshisapr oposed3.
4
kil
ometer-long,10met er
-widetunnel undertheriv
er.Thepr ojecti
ncludesapproxi
matel
y
6kilometer sofconnecti
ngr oads, andwil
lconnectthepor tofChitt
agongt othe
i
ndustrialareaofthecitytoreli
ev epressureonthethreeexi sti
ngbridges.
Sedimentat i
onissuesprecludedt hepossibil
it
yofbuildinganaddi t
ionalbri
dge.The
tunneli
sexpect edt obecompl etedi n2021,andwillbet hefir
stofitski
ndi n
Bangladesh.

Thetunneli
sexpect
edt oimprovetheDhaka- Chi
tt
agong-Cox'
sBazarhighwaynetwork
andwill
connectt
otheAsi anHighwayNet work.TheChinaCommuni cati
ons
Constr
ucti
onsCompanywi l
ldomuchoft heconstruct
ion,andChi
nesePr esi
dentXi
Ji
npingatt
endedtheinaugurat
ionoftheprojecti
n2016.

InJune2015, t
heBangladeshiMini
str
yofRoadTranspor
tandBridgessignedan
agreementwithCCCCt obuildt
hetunnel,
inNovember2015theECNECappr ovedthe
project
,inMay2017COWI ,
aDanishcompany ,
wasappoint
edtoprovidethedesignand
constructi
onmanagement ,
andconstruct
ionst
art
edinAugust2017.Thisproj
ectispar
t
ofOneBel tOneRoadInit
iati
ve.
Bangabandhut
unnel

Amaj ortunnelconstr
ucti
onpr oj
ecti
snowunder wayinBangladesh,t
hefi
rsttunnel i
n
thecountrytobeconst r
uctedunderar iver
.The3.4km t
unnelstr
etchwil
lfeatureparall
el
tubes,eachcarryi
ngtwol anesoft r
aff
ic.Cal
ledtheBangabandhuTunnel,
thepr ojecti
s
l
ocatedatChat togram (
Chittagong)andwillrunfr
om t
heportareaofthecity
, underthe
KarnaphuliRi
ver,toAnowar aUpazil
a.

Thepr oj
ecti
scostingaroundUS$1. 56bill
ionintotal
,wi t
hcloseto$573mi ll
ionbeing
provi
dedbyt heExport
-I
mpor tBankofChi naandt her estbei
ngsourcedbyt he
BangladeshGovernment.Whencompl et
e,thenewt unnelwilli
mprovetransportf
rom
theair
portandtheindustr
ialzoneint hesouthoftheci tytothesouthofthecountry,
helpi
ngtoreducetheheav ycongestionthatoccursatpr esentduri
ngpeakt rav
elhours.

Thet unnelfeat
uresapproachroadsateitherendandthelinkwilldi
pt oamaximum of
31m undert heri
ver.Thetunnelwil
lal
solinkwiththe17km ri
ngr oadbeingconstr
ucted
forthecity
.Thewor ki sbei
ngcarri
edoutbyt heChinaCommuni cationsConstr
ucti
on
Company( CCCC),usingaTBM thatstar
teditsdri
vefrom Patengaint hewest
.Concrete
l
iningsegment shavebeensuppl i
edforthetunnelfr
om Chinaandt hewor ki
sduef or
compl et
ionin2022.

(
iv)
Wat
ersuppl
yandSewer
s:

Wat ersupplyandsewers:Nodawayev eryareasofbangladesharedevelopinginever

y
section.AsDhaka,thecapit
alcit
yofBangl adesh,hasbecomeamegaci tywi tha
popul ati
onofnear
ly12.5mill
ion,whichisincr
easingatanannual r
ateofov er5%.
Indust r
ial
,domest
icandcommer ci
alwastesar epoll
uti
ngsurfacewater
,and
groundwat eri
ncertai
nareasoftheci t
yalsoshowssi gnsofbothorgani
candi nor
gani
c
cont ami nati
on.Lawst opr ev entenv i
ronment alpollutionar erarelyenf orced.Ov eral
l
servicedel iveryisconsi der edt obepoorduet oani nadequat etar i
ffstructure, highnon-
revenuewat er,l
ackofaut hor it
yandcommi tment ,inadequat emanagementcapaci ty,
l
ackofsect orcoor dination, inadequat ei
nvest ment ,absenceofef fecti
ve
decent r
ali
zat i
on, et
c.Thesi tuat i
oncanbei mpr ovedbyhi gheri nvest ment,eff ective
pri
v atesect orpar ti
cipation, improvedbi ll
i
ngandr ev enuecol lection, st
ructural reforms,
establ i
shingar egulatorybodyandf i
nall
yconv erti
ngDhakaWat erSuppl yandSewer age
Author ityintoat rul
yser v i
ceor i
entedcommer ci
al organization.Ifst epsar enott aken
i
mmedi atelytoi mprov eper for manceofDWASA, themi l
lennium dev el
opmentgoal sof
reduci ngthepopul ationwi thoutaccesst owat ersuppl yandsani tati
onser vi
cesby50%
bythey ear2015wi l
l notbeachi eved.Needf orImpr ov ementofDhakaSewer ageSy stem.
ThePagl awast ewat ertreat mentpl antoperatesatl essthanhal fitscapaci t
yduet o
deficiencies/br eakagesi nt hecol l
ectionnetwor k.Cur rently,
itist reati
ng

only40MLDofsewagei nsteadofi tsdesi gnedcapaci t

yof120MLD.Ev eni nar eas
wheresewer ageexi sts,inadequat emai ntenancehashamper edi tsef fect iveness.Asa
resul
t,thetotalheal thsy stem inthecityi stremendousl yaffectedt hr ought heimpactof
i
mpr opersewaget reatmentsy st
em. DWASAhasbegunt othinkst rategical lyabout
wastewat ermanagementandexpandi ngsani tationservices.DWASAhaspr epareda
Sewer ageMast erPl anin2012whi chest imat est hatUS$1. 7bi ll
ioni srequi redto
upgradet hesewer agesy stem, impr ov
eon- sit
esani tati
onsy stems, includi ng
i
mpr ov ement si
nt hecont ainment ,col
lection,transpor t
,andt reatmentoff ecalsludge
from on-sit
esy stems.Al thought hemast erplani ndicat
est hatt hepr ov i
si onof
sewerageser vi
cest ocov erallofDhaka’ sur banar eawoul dbet hei deal si t
uat i
on,it
recognizesthatt hiswoul dnotbear eali
st i
cst rategy,basedont het echni cal,socio-
economi candf inanci ali
mpl i
cati
onsoft heinter v
ent i
onsr equired.Thepl ani dentif
ied
vari
ousi nvestment sov ert henext20y ear s-tobei mplement edi naphasedmanner .
Thef i
rstphaseoft hepl anwi llbeachiev edt hrought hepr oposedDhakaSani t
ation
Improv ementPr oject.

(
v)El
ect
ri
calGr
ids:
El
ect
ri
cit
ysect
or:Theut
il
it
y’sael
ect
ri
cit
ysect
ori
nBangl
adeshhasonenat
ional
gri
d
wi t
hani nst all
edcapaci tyof21, 419MW asofSept ember2019.Thet otal i
nst alled
capaci tyi s20, 000MW ( combi ningsol arpower )
.Bangl adesh' sener gysect orisboomi ng.
Recent l
yBangl adeshst artedconst ruct i
onoft he2. 4-gigawat t(GW)RooppurNucl ear
PowerPl antexpect edt ogoi nt ooper ationi n2023. [2]Accor dingt ot heBangl adesh
PowerDev elopmentBoar di nJul y2018, 90per centoft hepopul ationhadaccesst o
electrici
ty .Howev erpercapi taener gyconsumpt i
oni nBangl adeshi sconsi der edl ow.
Electrici
tyi st hemaj orsour ceofpowerf ormostoft hecount ry '
seconomi cact ivi
ties.
Bangl adesh' st otalinst alledel ect ricitygener ationcapaci ty(incl udi ngcapt ivepower )
was15, 351megawat ts( MW)asofJanuar y2017[ 4]and20, 000megawat tsin2018. The
l
ar gestener gyconsumer sinBangl adeshar eindust ri
esandt her esident i
al sect or,
followedbyt hecommer cial andagr icultur alsectors.Asof2015, 92%oft heur ban
popul ationand67%oft her ural popul ationhadaccesst oelect ricity.Anav erageof
77.9%oft hepopul ationhadaccesst oel ectri
cityinBangl adesh. [7]Bangl adeshwi llneed
anest imat ed34, 000MW ofpowerby2030t osust ainitseconomi cgr owt hofov er7
per cent.Pr obl emsi nBangl adesh' sel ectricpowersect orincl udehi ghsy stem l osses,
delay sincompl eti
onofnewpl ant s, lowpl antef fi
ciency ,erraticpowersuppl y, electrici
ty
thef t
,blackout s, andshor tagesoff undsf orpowerpl antmai ntenance.Ov er all
, the
count ry'
sgener ati
onpl ant shav ebeenunabl et omeetsy stem demandov ert hepast
decade.On2Nov ember2014, elect ri
citywasr estoredaf teraday -l
ongnat i
onwi de
blackout .At ransmi ssionl inef rom I ndi ahadf ail
ed, which" l
edt oacascadeoff ai
lures
throughoutt henat i
onal powergr id,"andcr it
icism of" oldgr i
di nf rast ructureandpoor
management .
"Howev er ,inar ecentr oot -causeanal ysisr epor tt hei nv esti
gat ingt eam
hascl arifiedt hatt hef aul twasact ual l
yduet olackofcoor dinat i
onandpoorheal thof
transmi ssi onanddi stribut ioni nf rast ruct urethatcausedt hebl ackout .

(
vi)
Tel
ecommuni
cat
ion:
Telecommuni cationofBangladesh:Bangl adeshisadevelopi
ngcountryint
hewor l
d.Thereare
manysect orsofourcount ry.Telecommuni cat
ionisoneoft hem.Now,wear egoingtot al
k
aboutthissectorlastf
ivey
ears.
Ifweseet hepi ctur
eifthissector,ther ehasmanychangedl astfiveyear.Radi
o,satell
it
e
tel
evisi
on,mobi le phone company ,int ernetconnect
ion,Telephones serv
ices,broadband
connecti
onar eelementsoftelecommuni cationssect
or.

Satell
it
e:wehav ealr
eadysentasat
ell
i
tetoouterspaceoftheworl
d.Thi
ssatel
l
itei
sthefir
st
geostati
onarycommunicat
ionandBroadcast
ingsatel
li
te.I
tisnamedaft
ertheBangabandhu
SheikhMajiburRahman.

BangabandhuSat
ell
i
te-
1

Launchdateofthi
ssatel
l
ite:
May12,
2018.2:
14am
Speedonorbit
:3.07km/s
Orbi
t:35,
786km
Cost:19.
51bil
li
on(BDT)

Thi
s sat
ell
i
te woul
d pl
ay an i
mpor
tantr
olei
n ensur
ing uni
nter
rupt
ed t
elecommuni
cat
ion
ser
vicest
hroughoutt
hecountry.I
fBangladesh’
sexist
ingtel
ecommuni cat
ionsyst
emscollapse
i
n unexpect
ed di
sast
ers.Theysai d,ithelps t
o earnf or
eign cur
rencyfrom TV channels.
Tel
ephonecompany,i
nter
netconnecti
vi
ty,SI
M company .

Network:
Thenetworksyst
em ofBangl
adshincr
easi
ngdaybyday.Gov
ernmentofBangladesht
ooksteps
tostr
ongnetworksyst
em ofBangl
adesh.Gov
ernmentagr
eedthepr
ivat
esim companytoreach
theoppor
tuni
tytopeopl
eofourcountr
y.

I
fweseethepict
ureofgover
nmentsteepslastfi
veyears:
1.Ifweseei n2016RobiandAirt
elwereemer gedon16Nov
emberandRobisetsai
last
he
mergedcompany.
2.In20184Ghel dforpr
ivat
esector.
3.On19thFebruary4Gmobileser
v i
ceisint
roduced.

4.Publ
icTr
ansi
t:

Publictransi t:Publi
ct ransitisani mport
antpar tofPubl i
cSect orofBangladesh.Since
theli
ber ationwarofBangl adesh,thedevelopmentofi nfrastructurehasprogressed
rapi
dly.Si gnificantprogresseshav ebeennoticedi nlast5y earsoft hissector.
Accordingt ot he‘UrbanTr ansportPlan–2008’ thegov t.ofBangl adeshiswor kingfor
thedev elopmentoft her oadsofDhakaci tyandi tsadjoiningar eassuchasGazi pur
,
Savar,Nar ay anganj,Nar shingdietc.Thegov t
.iswor kingast he15keypol icyissuesofit
,
i
ncludingsaf et y
,pedest ri
anpr ef
erencespublictranspor t,non-mot or
izedtransport,
trav
el demandmanagementandmasst ransi
tsy stems, andal most70pol icy
recommendat ions.Thegov t.iswor ki
ngf ort heMet ro-
Rai lofDhakaci t
y.PrimeMi ni
ster
Shei khHasi nai naugur at
edBangl adesh’
shi ghestr oad, Thanchi-Ali
kadam Roadi n
Bandar banDr i
strist,i
na2015v ideoconf erencef r
om Dhaka.Recent lyRoadTr ansitand
BridgesMi nisterObai dulQuadersai dthatl egal acti
onwi llbetakeni fany onecharges
extrat ransportf aref r
om passenger sv i
olatingt hegovt .
’sdir
ectives.Acommi t
teeof15
exper t
swasf ormedt oconductasur veyont hef i
tnessofpubl icmot orvehicl
esinorder
toav oidroadacci dentsacr
osst hecount r
y .Also,someon- goinginitiati
veshasbeen
takenf ortr
ansi tdev el
opment .Thesear e-St rategicTranspor tPlanf orDhaka( 2016–
2035) ,DhakaSt ruct ur
ePlan( 2016–2035) ,BRTAct2017andMRTAct2016, Road
Transpor tAct2017.Thoughal otofstepshav et obet aken,Bangl adeshi smuch
dev elopedi nthissect orinthisshor tti
me.

5.Publ
icEducat
ion:
Educationi
st heprocessoff acil
it
ati
nglearni
ng, ortheacquisit
ionofknowl edge,ski
ll
s,
val
ues, bel
iefs,andhabits.Ar i
ghttoeducati
onhasbeenr ecogni zedbysome
government sandt heUnitedNat ions.I
nmostr egions,
educationi scompulsoryuptoa
cert
ainage.I talsomeanshel pi
ngpeoplet olearnhowt odot hingsandsuppor tthem t
o
thi
nkaboutwhatt heylearn.It'
salsoimpor t
antf oreducat
orst oteachway stofindand
useinformation.Therearet hreemai ntypesofeducat i
on,namel y,Formal
,Informaland
Non-formal.

EducationSy stem:Aneducat i
onsy st
em compr i
sesev
erythi
ngt hatgoesint
oeducati
ng
publi
c-school student
satthefederal
,st
ate,orcommunitylev
els:Laws,poli
cies,
and
regul
ations.Publ i
cfundi
ng,r
esourceall
ocations,
andproceduresfordeter
mining
fundi
ngl evel
s.

“
Educat
ioni
sapr
ogr
essi
vedi
scover
yofourowni
gnor
ance.
”

-
Wil
lDur
ant

PublicEducation:Aschool thatismai ntainedatpubl i

cexpensefortheeducat ionof
thechildrenofacommuni tyordi st
rictandt hatconst i
tut
esapartofasy stem off r
ee
publiceducati
oncommonl yincludi
ngpr i
mar yandsecondar yschools.Accor di
ngtot he
NationalSchoolBoardsAssoci ati
on, publi
ceducat ionexist
stoservethefollowing
purposes, amongother
s: Preparestudent sforcollegeandt heworkf
orce,including
prepari
ngt hem f
orjobsthatmaynotev enexi sty
etduet orapidl
ychangingt echnology.
Helpchi l
drenful
fi
ll
thei
rdiversepot ential
s.
 TheEducat
ionsy
stem i
nBangl
adesh

AsintheotherSouthAsiancountr
iesthatwereformer
lypartofBriti
shIndia,modern
educat
ioninBangladeshhasbeenmar kedlyshapedbyGreatBrit
ain.Totrainlocal
admini
strat
orsforit
scolony,t
heBrit
ishinthelat
e18thcenturyestabli
shedthef i
rst
Western-
styl
eHEIs.Intheearl
y19t
hcent ur
y,Engli
shwasmadeacompul soryhigh
schoolsubj
ectandar equi
rementforadmissiontohi
ghereducati
on.

WhenBr it
ishrul
eov ertheIndiansubconti
nentev ent
ual l
ycamet oanendi n1947,
present -
dayBangladeshwaspar tofthenewlyindependentDomi ni
onofPakistanasthe
provinceofEastPaki stan.Thenewgov ernmentchoseUr du,alanguagepredominantly
spokeni nWestPaki stan(present-
dayPakistan),asthenat i
onall
anguageandl anguage
ofinstructi
oninpubl i
cschools.Italsoi
ncorporatedIslamiceducati
onint
ot hepublic
school system.Theeducat ionsystem washighlyeli
tistandfail
edtobenefitl
argeparts
ofsoci ety
.Accordingt oa1961census, t
heliter
acyrat estoodat21.5percentinEast
Pakistanand16. 3per centi
nWestPaki stan.

I
twasnotbef ore1956thatt
heBengalilanguage(Bangla),spokenbymostpeoplein
EastPaki
stan,wasaddedasoneofPaki stan’
snat i
onall
anguages.Language
di
scrimi
nati
on,wealthdi
spari
ti
es,andthepolit
icalmarginali
zati
onofEastPakist
an
wereamongt hesourcesofconfl
i
ctgivi
ngr i
set otheBangladeshii
ndependence
mov ement
,whichculminat
edinthebrutalBangladeshLiberati
onWarof1971.

Af
terindependence,
thedemocrat
icall
yelect
edgover
nmentofPri
meMini
sterShei
kh
Muji
burRahmani ntr
oducedaseculareducat
ionsy
stem usi
ngBangl
aast
helanguage
ofinst
ructi
on.However,t
herol
eofI
slam i
nBangl
adeshhasbeencont
est
edeversince.
Successiv
emi l
it
arygover
nmentser
odedsecul
ari
sm andmadeIsl
am t
hestat
erel
igion
ofBangladeshinthe1980s.
[3]

Supremecour trul
ingsrender
edafterthere-
democr ati
zat
ionofBangl
adeshinthe1990s
have r ei
ntr
oduced and st rengt
hened secul ari
sm, but Islami
c conservat
ism is
nevert
helessont her iseincontempor ar
yBangl adesh.Approxi
matel
y90per centof
BangladeshisareSunniMuslims,foll
owedbyHi ndus(9.5per
cent)andsmallnumbers
ofChristi
ans,Buddhist
s,andmember sofot herf
aiths.

Admi
nist
rat
ionoft
heEducat
ionSy
stem

Formerlycall
edt hePeople’sRepubl
icofBangl adesh, Bangladeshisauni tar
ystat
et hat
consistsofeightadmi ni
str
ati
vedivi
sions(bibhag) :Bari
sal,Chitt
agong,Dhaka,Khulna,
Mymensi ngh,Rajshahi,Syl
het,
andRangpur .Educat ioniscent r
all
ysteeredbythe
Ministr
yofEducat i
on(MOE)inDhaka.Itov erseesav ar
ietyofagencies,incl
udi
ngthe
Dir
ectorateofSecondar yandHigherEducat i
on, responsibleforsecondaryandhigher
education,t
heDi rector
ateofTechni
cal Education,andt heformallyautonomous
Nati
onal Curri
culum andTextbookBoar d.

Inaddi
ti
on,ther
e’sadedi catedminist
ryforelementaryeducati
onandnon- f
ormal
educat
ionprogramsf orout-of
-schoolchi
ldrenandadultscall
edtheMinistr
yofPri
mary
andMassEducat ion.It
sdirecti
vesareimplement edbytheDirect
orat
eofPr i
mary
Educat
ionandt heDirector
ateofNon- f
ormal Educati
on,whichhavehundredsofl
ocal
fi
eldof
ficesthr
oughoutt hecountry.

AllofBangladesh’sadminist
rativedivi
sionshav ethei
rownBoar dsofIntermediateand
Secondar yEducation(BI
SE)whi chdev elop, or
ganize,andsuper visetheSecondar y
School Certi
fi
cateandHigherSecondar y( School)Certi
ficateexami nat
ions.There’
sa
separatenationwideboardforreligi
ousMusl i
m schoolsormadr asahs,theMadr asah
EducationBoar d,aswellasaTechni calEducat ionBoar dt hatdevelopscurri
culaand
administersgraduati
onexami nati
onsi nt echnicalandv ocationaleducati
on( TVET).

Themai noversightandqualit
yassurancebodyi nhighereducat ionistheUGC, an
autonomousinst i
tut
ionundertheMOE.Li ketheUniv ersi
tyGrantsCommi ssionsinIndia
andPakistan,t
heBangl adeshiUGCi smodel edaftert henowdef unctBri
ti
shUni ver
sit
y
GrantsCommi ttee.I
tisanagencyt hatessential
l
ydi sbursesgov er
nmentf unds(grants)
topubli
cuniversit
iesinexchangefortheircompliancewi thsetqualit
ycrit
eria.I
n
addit
ion,t
heUGCact sasacoor di
natingbodybet weenuni v
ersit
iesandistaskedwi th
monitori
ngandr egulati
ngpriv
ateuniversi
t i
es.
In2017,Bangladesh’sparl
iamentpassedtheAccr edit
ati
onCouncilActtoestabl
ishan
addi
tionalqual
it
yassur ancebodyinhighereducation.However
,theaccredit
ati
on
councilwasnoty etf
ull
yoper at
ional
asoft hi
swr i
ting,ev
enthoughitsestabl
ishment
haslongbeenpl anned.

Academi
cCal
endarandLanguageofI
nst
ruct
ion

Theacademi cy earinBangladeshrunsfrom JanuarytoDecemberi nbot ht

heschool
syst
em andhi ghereducation.Schoolchi
l
drenat t
endcl assesforsi
xday saweek
(Sat
urday-Thur sday )wi
thFridaybei
ngadayof f,
sinceit’
saMusl im dayofreli
gious
observance.Publ i
cuniv
ersit
iesandmanypr ivateuniversi
tiesusesemestersy stems,
buttr
imest ersy stemsarest i
llcommonatpr i
v at
eHEI s.TheUGCi n2017di rectedall
pri
vateuniversitiestousesemest ersyst
ems.

Thelanguagesofi
nst
ruct
ionareBanglaint
heschoolsyst
em andBangl
aandEngl
i
shi
n
hi
ghereducati
on;mostpr
ivat
euniver
sit
iest
eachsolel
yinEngl
ish.

El
ement
aryEducat
ion

Educati
oninBangladeshiscompul sor
yuntilt
heendofgr adeeight
.Until
recently
,the
syst
em wasdi vi
dedintofi
vey ear
sofelementaryeducati
on,thr
eey ear
sofl ower-
secondaryeducati
onandf ouryearsofupper-
secondaryeducati
on.Howev er,t
helatest
2010educationpoli
cyintr
oducedauni f
ied,mandator
yelementaryschoolcy cl
eofeight
years,
fol
lowedbyf ouryearsofsecondaryeducati
on,begi
nningin2011.

Childr
enmustent erelement aryeducationattheageofsi x.Accordingt othenew
educationpolicy,t
heyar ealsoexpect edt ohavepreviouslyattendedatl eastoney earof
preschool attheageoff iveory ounger.Asar esul
toft hechangeandot herfactors,the
pre-el
ement aryGERsur gedf rom 11per centin2009t o40per centin2017, accordingto
theWor ldBank.Mostpr eschool educati
onispr ovi
dedbypr iv
ateinstit
utions,most ly
NGOsl ikeBRACandot hers,aswel lasbymosques, communi tyorganizati
ons,and
centersat t
achedt oelement aryschools.Unti
lrecentlytherewasl it
tlearti
culati
onand
standardizati
onint hi
ssect or,butnowt heNat i
onalCur r
iculum andText bookBoar dhas
developedapr e-
elementarycur ri
culum tohomogeni zepr eschooleducat i
on.

Elementar
yeducati
onispr ov
idedfreeofchar
geatpublicschoolsandopent oal
l
chil
drenattheageofsix.Asment i
onedabove,enr
oll
mentr at
ioshavei
ncreased
markedlyovert
heyears,butpart
ici
pati
oninelementar
yeducat i
onremai
nsf arfr
om
univer
sal,par
ti
cularl
yinr
ural r
egionswhereschool smaybei npoorshape, dif
fi
cultt
o
reach,andchil
drenmaydr opoutbecauset heymusthel pwithfar
mi ng.Elementary
educationisprovi
dedbygov ernmentschools,author
izedpri
vateinsti
tut
ions,
communi tyschoolsand specialneedsschool
sf orbasiceducati
oninunder serv
ed
areas.

Theel ement aryschool curr

icul um teachesBangl a,Bangladeshst udies, English,
mat hemat ics, moral sci
ence, thesoci alenv ir
onment ,andt henat ural env i
ronmentas
compul sorysubj ects.Vocational subjectsmaybei ntr
oducedaf tergr adesi x.Accor di
ng
tothenat ional educat i
onpol i
cy ,assessmentandpr omotioningr adesoneandt woare
basedoncont i
nual assessment ,whil
equar ter
ly,semi-annual,andy ear-end
exami nati
onsar ei ntr
oducedi ngr adet hree.Exami nationboar dsoft hei ndivi
dual
Bangl adeshi divi
sionsadmi ni sterexternal examsi nsev ensubj ectst ost udent swho
havecompl etedgr adeeight.Inbi gcities,theremayal sobedi stri
ct-level exami nati
ons
attheendofgr adef i
ve.Uponsuccessf ulcompl eti
onofgr adeeightandpassi ngthe
fi
nal exam, pupi l
sar eawar dedt heJuni orSchool Exami nationCer tif
icate( JSC) .About
2.7mi ll
ionpupi lssatf ortheJSCexami nationsin2018.Thepassr atewas86per cent
.

Secondar
yEducat
ion

Whilecloseto80per centofel ement

arystudentswereenroll
edi npubli
cinstit
utionsin
2017, t
hisrat
ioi
srev ersedinsecondaryandupper -
secondaryeducation,wher ethe
percentageofpri
vateenr oll
ment sst
oodatfull
y97per centand91per cent,respecti
vely
,
asperUNESCOst at
istics.Whi l
ethat
’soneofthehighestsuchr ati
osinthewor l
d,it
needst obenotedthatt heseschoolsarenottrul
ypriv
ate—theirfaci
li
ti
es,equipment ,
andt eachi
ngmaterialsarepr ovi
dedbythegov er
nment ,whi
chal sopaysal argepartof
t
het
eacher
s’sal
ari
es.

Unli
keinelement aryeducation,howev er
,pupil
sinsecondaryschool sarerequir
edto
paytuit
ionfees, whi chhavebeenr i
singsharpl
yinrecentyears.Thereareadditi
onal
feesforexaminat ions,andmanypar entsalsopaysubstantialsumsf orpr
ivatetut
ori
ng.
Toeasemonet arybar rier
stoschool enr
oll
ment,theBangladeshi gover
nmenti n2016
cappedt ui
ti
onf eei ncreasesatprivateschoolsandprovidesst i
pendsandt ui
ti
on
subsi
dies,most lytogi rl
sinruralregi
ons.

Inaddi t
iontoBangladeshischool
s,there’
sagrowingnumberofinternat
ionalschool
s
thatteachforeigncurr
icul
a,theBri
tishGener
alCerti
ficat
eofEducati
oncur r
icul
um bei
ng
themostpopul ar
.Thetuit
ionfeesattheseschool
sr eport
edl
yaveragedUSD$5, 200i
n
2017, sothattheseschoolsareaccessibl
etopri
mar i
lywealt
hyurbaneli
tes.The
averagepercapi t
aincomei nBangladeshwasUSD$1, 466in2016.

Therearealsosome20, 000madrasahsthatenr
ollcl
osetofourmil
li
onstudent
sat
di
ffer
entlevelsofeducati
on.Theeducat
ionprovi
dedbytheseinst
it
uti
onsisdescr
ibed
i
nfurtherdetail
below.

Whilepartici
pati
oninsecondar yeducat ionhasgr ownst ronglyovert
hepastdecade,
attr
it
ionratesinBangladeshar ehigh,par ticul
ar l
yamonggi r
ls,manyofwhom dr opout
ofschool becausetheymar ryearl
yorl ackt hesamepar entalsuppor
tf oreducationas
boys.Wher eastheGERi nlower -
secondar yeducat i
onstoodati n87per centin2017,it
droppedshar pl
yto53per centinupper -secondar yeducation(asperUNESCOdat a).
Accordingt oBangl
adeshigov ernmentst atist
ics,38percentofsecondar ystudents
droppedouti n2016,42per centofthem f emal esand34per centmales.

Secondar yeducat i
onisdiv i
dedintoatwo- y
earl ower -secondar yphase( gr
adesnineand
ten)andat wo- y
earuppersecondar yphase, cal
ledhi ghersecondar y(gr
ades11and12) .
Studentscanst udyi neit
heragener alstr
eam, areligi
ousst ream ( madrasah),ora
technicalstream.Eachst r
eam of fer
soptionsf orfur t
hercurricularspecial
izati
ons.
Gener alprograms, forinstance,areoff
eredi nbusi ness,humani t
ies,andsciencetr
acks.
Allprogramshav eagener alacademiccorecur riculum thatincludesBangl a,
Bangladeshst udies,Engli
sh,mat hemati
cs, andinfor mat i
ont echnology.

Admissiontogr adeni nerequir

esami nimum gradepointav er
ageint heJuniorSchool
Examinati
on, butadmi ssioninthehi
ghersecondar yphaseiscompet iti
ve.St
udents
needhighgr adest obeaccept edtodesirabl
ehighersecondaryinsti
tuti
ons,enrol
lment
i
nwhi ch,i
nt urn,helpsinthecompetit
ionov erscarceuniv
er si
tyseat
s.These
i
nstit
uti
onsar ecal l
edi nt
ermediat
ecollegesandcanbest and-al
oneinstit
uti
onsor
col
legesattachedt oHEI s.
TheBoardsofI nt
ermediateandSecondar yEducation—themadr asahandt hetechni
cal
examinat
ionboard—admi nist
ertwoext er
nalexaminat i
onsattheendofeachphase,
eachyear.I
nthegener alandtechnical
educati
onst reams,theyarecalledtheSecondar
y
SchoolCert
ifi
cate(SSC)exami nat
ionandt heHigherSecondaryCer t
if
icate(HSC)
examinat
ion.Apassingscor eontheSSCexam i sr equir
edtoprogressi nt
ohigher
secondar
yeducat i
on.

Thef i
nal HSCexam i ncludesBangl a,Engli
sh, andi nformat ionandcomput ert echnology
ascompul sorysubject
si nadditiontooneel ective.Exami nati
onr esultsusedt obe
gradedona0–100per centagescal ebutarenowexpr essedasagr adepoi ntaverage
onascal eof0t o5wi t
haGPAof1. 0beingthemi nimum passi nggr ade.Independent
(pri
vate)candi dat
escansi tfortheexami nationt hreey earsaf t
erpassi ngt heSSCexam
withoutenr ol
lingi
nani ntermediatecollege.Mor ethan1. 3mi l
l
ionstudent st ookthe
HSCexam i n2018, ofwhichmer ely29,
262achi evedt hehi ghestpossi bl
eGPAof5.The
overal
l passr atewas67per cent.Examinati
onr esultsar eusuallyannouncedbyt he
pri
memi nisterandcanbev erif
iedonawebsi temai ntainedbyt heMOE.

Bangl
adesh:Ensur
ingEducat
ionf
orAl
lBangl
adeshi
s
 Chal
l
enges–Enabl
i
ngchi
l
drent
olear
nandt
hri
ve

Bangladeshhasmader emarkablegai nsoverthepastt wodecadesbyensur i

ngaccess
toeducat i
on,
especiallyatthepr i
mar ylevelandforgi
rls.Thecountry’
snetenr oll
ment
rat
eatt hepri
mar yschool l
evelincreasedf rom 80percentin2000t o98per centin2015,
andsecondar yschool netenrol
lmenti snowar ound54per cent,upfrom 45per centi
n
2000.Fur t
her
mor e,thepercentageofchi l
drencompletingpri
mar yschooliscloseto80
percent,andBangladeshhasachi evedgenderpar i
tyi
naccess, i
naddi t
iontodr amatic
decreasesindispari
tiesbetweent hehi ghestandlowestconsumpt ionquintil
esatboth
theprimaryandsecondar ylevels.

Despi
tet
heseandot
herachi
evement
s,howev
er,
anumberofchal
l
engesr
emai
n:

Qualityandr elevance.Bangl adesh’swor kforceof87mi ll

ionislargelyunder educated
(only4per centofwor kershav ehi ghert hansecondar yeducat ion),andt heov eral
l
qualityoft hecount ry’
shumancapi talisl ow.National learningassessment sconduct ed
bytheGov ernmentofBangl adeshshowpoorl it
eracyandnumer acyskillsamong
student s–onl y25per centto44per centoft hestudent singrades5t hrough8hav e
mast eryov erBangl a,Englishandmat h,andper formanceont hesemeasur esi s
especi all
ylowamongpoorst udent s.I ngener al,
student shaveweakr eadingski l
ls,and
curri
cul a,t
eachi ngappr oaches,andexami nati
onsy stemsatal ll
ev elsfocusmor eon
rotelear ni
ngt hanoncompet encies, cri
ticalthi
nking,andanal yti
cal skil
l
s.Low
rel
ev anceoft ert
iaryeducat i
onandski ll
st r
aini
ngisanot herissueofconcer n.TheWor l
d
BankEnt erpriseSkill
sSur vey2012, f
orexampl e,showedt hatempl oyersbelieve
graduat esofBangl adesh’shighereducat i
onandt rainingpr ogramsar einadequat efor
today ’
sandt omor row’slabormar ket.

Equi
tabl
eaccess.Repet
it
ion(
thenumberoft
imesst
udent
srepeatgr
ades)anddr
opout
ratesaresti
llsi
gnif
icanti nBangladesh,andonl y50percentofthestudentswhoenr ol
l
i
nf ir
stgradereachgr ade10.Ar oundf i
vemi l
l
ionBangl
adeshichil
drenbet weentheages
ofsixand13–most l
yf rom poorfami l
i
es, urbansl
ums, andhard-t
o-reachareas–
remai noutofschool.Womencont inuetol agbehi
ndmeni nhighersecondar yand
terti
aryeducati
on.Inaddi ti
on,st
udentenr ollmenti
sprogressi
velylowerforthepoor
from thesecondarytot hetert
iarylevel
s.

Governanceandmanagement .Bangladesh’
sMi nistr
yofPr i
maryandMassEducat ion
(MoPME)i sresponsi
bl eforpri
mar yeducati
on( grades1t o5),
andt heMi ni
str
yof
Education(MoE)ov erseessecondar yandpost -secondaryeducati
on.TheGov er
nment
ofBangl adeshrecentlyannouncedt hatitwi
llextendfreeandcompul sor
yprimary
educati
ont oallstudentst hr
oughgr ade8,apolicythatwillr
equir
ecl osecoll
aborat
ion
betweenMoPMEandMoE.Fi nancing.Governmentspendi ngoneducat ionasashar e
ofthegr ossdomest i
cpr oductisaround2per cent ,
thesecondlowesti nSouthAsia,and
l
owert hani nmostot hercountriesatsimil
arlevelsofdevelopment.

Fi
nanci
ng.Gover
nmentspendingoneducati
onasashareoft
hegr
ossdomesti
c
pr
oducti
saround2per
cent,thesecondlowesti
nSout
hAsia,
andl
owerthani
nmost
ot
hercount
ri
esatsi
mil
arlevelsofdevel
opment.

"Mydaught
ernowgoest
otheAnanda[
'
joy
']School
.Iam happy
,wet
hewomen,
hav
e
asayi
nourchi
ldr
en’seducat
ion."

Nazma’

Apr
oudmot
herofagi
rlwhowentbacktoschool
aspar
toft
heReachi
ngOutofSchool
Chil
drenIIpr
ogr
am.

Sol
uti
ons–I
nvest
ment
sinear
lyandl
if
elongl
ear
ning

Banksuppor tofBangladesh’
seducat i
onsect orisbasedont heprinci
plethati
nvesti
ng
earlyf oral
lisinvest
ingsmartly
,andinv est
inginlif
elonglearningisinvesti
ngforthe
future.TheBanki sther
eforeengagedi ntheent i
rerangeofBangl adesh’seducation
sector–f r
om primarytoTVET( techni
cal t
rai
ning)andt ert
iaryeducation(seeTable1).
Cur rently,t
heBanki sal
sopr ovi
dingtheGov ernmentofBangl adeshwi t
htechni
cal
assistancet oprepareanewSecondar yEducationPr ogr
am andaPr imaryEducation
Progr am, whichareexpectedtoreceivetheBank’slendingsuppor tin2017and2018,
respect i
vely.
Aboutseventyei
ghtper centofhouseholdshasaccesst oelectr
ici
tyinBangl adesh.The
Si
ddhir
ganjPowerPr oject(SPP)aimstocr eateelect
ri
cit
yinfr
astructuresandi mprove
i
nsti
tut
ions.Itwi
l
l supply335MW ofel ectr
icit
yt othenat
ionalgri
d, evacuat
e480MW
fr
om Siddhi
rganjandsuppl y600mi l
l
ioncubicf eetofnat
uralgast otheregion.

Pr
imar
yEducat
ionDev
elopmentPr
ogr
am I
II

 Thepri
maryenr
olmentandcomplet i
onrat
eshav
ereached97.
9
per
centand79.
6percent
,respect
ivel
y.

 Ar
ound127,
000school
srecei
vedmorethan110mi
l
li
ont
ext
books
wi
thi
nthefi
rstmont
hoftheschool
yeari
n2016.

 Mor
et han90per
centoftheschoolshav
erecei
vedt
ext
bookswi
thi
n
t
hefi
rstmonthoftheacademicyear.

 22,
444additi
onal
classroomshavebeenconst
ruct
edi
nremot
eand
under
pri
vi
legedareastoreduceov
ercr
owdingi
nschool
s.

Reachi
ngoutofschoolchi
ldr
en

 690,
000out-
of-
schoolchi
l
drenenrol
ledi
n20,400AnandaSchool
sin148most
di
sadvant
agedrur
alupazi
las,
coveri
ngaboutone-
thi
rdoft
hecountr
y.

 Moret
han90percentpassr
atei
ntheSecondar
ySchool
Cer
ti
fi
cat
e(SSC)
exami
nat
ions.
 46per
centst
udent
senr
oll
edi
ngr
adesi
xappear
edi
ntheseexami
nat
ions.

Secondar
yEducat
ionQual
it
yandAccessEnhancementPr
oject

 Morethan11mi l
l
ionstudent
-year
sand40,
000school
-y
ear
shav
ebenef
it
ted
f
rom proj
ecti
nter
vent
ions.

 Annual
ly,
1,500i
nsti
tut
ionsandthei
rteacher
srecei
vetopi
nsti
tut
ional
i
ncenti
ves·Morethan50,000st
udentsrecei
vebestst
udentawards

 Morethan77,
000“
economi
cal
l
ypoor
”st
udent
srecei
veSSCpassi
ncent
ive
awards.

 144,615di
plomast
udent
sfr
om 100pol
ytechni
cinst
it
uti
onshav
erecei
ved
sti
pends

 73,
753t
rai
nees(
27per
centwomen)hav
erecei
vedshor
t-
cour
set
rai
ning,

 1,173f ul
l-
ti
mecontract
ual t
eacher shav ebeendepl oy
edin50publ i
c
polytechni
cs,f
il
li
ngup95per centofv acantteachingposts,andar
ound1,200
polytechni
cteacher
shav ebeent rained·Recogni t
ionofPriorLear
ning(
RPL)
hasbeenoper ati
onali
zed,andar ound9, 000indiv
idualshavebeenassessed
throughRPL.

Hi
gherEducat
ionQual
it
yEnhancementPr
oject

 345academici
nnov
ati
ongr
ant
shav
ebeenawar
dedt
o27publ
i
cand9pr
ivat
e
uni
ver
sit
ies

 10uni
ver
sit
y-i
ndust
rycol
l
abor
ati
ongr
ant
stospuri
nnov
ati
onhav
ebeen
awar
ded

 TheBangladeshResearchandEducat
ionNetwor
k–adedi cat
edhigh-speed
i
nternetconnecti
vi
tyf
oreducat
ionandresear
ch-i
sful
lyfunct
ional
att he
Univ
ersit
yGr ant
sCommi ssi
on(UGC)andin35publ
icandpriv
ateuniv
er si
ti
es.

 UGCDi
git
alLi
brar
yisf
ull
yoper
ati
onal
,pr
ovi
ding42memberuni
ver
sit
iesand
 t
wor
esear
chi
nst
it
uti
onsaccesst
oov
er30,
000e-
resour
ces

 Aquali
tyassurancemechanism hasbeenintr
oducedthr
ought
he
est
abli
shmentofI nst
it
uti
onalQuali
tyAssur
anceCell
sin61publ
icandi
n
pri
vat
euniversi
ti
es.

6.Publ
icHeal
thCar
e:

Anef fecti
velyper formingheal t
hsy stem i sessent iali
ni mprov i
ngt hepopul ation’shealth
status,pr ovidingsaf e-guar dagai nstheal t
h-relatedf i
nancialt hreatandenhanci ngt he
healthsect or’
sr esponsi venesst ocust omer sneeds.Aheal t
hsy st em consi st
sofal l
organi zati
ons,peopl eand act ions,whosepr i
mar yi ntenti st o pr omot e,r estoreor
mai ntainheal th( GlobalFund,2011) .Ther eforeheal thsy st
emsst rengt heni ng( HSS)i s
crucialf orthesuccessf ulscal
eupofdi seasecont r
olinterventions( Cokeretal .2004;
Barkeretal .2007;Geor geShakar ishviletal ,2012) .Addi t
ionalev idence( Tr avi
setal .
2004:Geor geShakar ishv i
letal,2012)al sosuggest st hatweakheal t
hsy st emsar eone
oft hemai nbar ri
ersi nr eachingt heHeal thMi l
lennium Dev elopmentGoal s( MDGs) .
Consequent ly,Heal thsect orreform( HSR)i sv erymuchessent ialt oadv ancementt he
perfor manceoft heanyheal thsy stems.HSR acont inuedpr ocessoff undament al
changei npol icy ,regulation,financi ng,pr ovisionofheal thser vicesr eor gani zati
on,
managementandi nstit
ut i
onalar r
angement sthati sledbygov ernment ,
anddesi gnedt o
i
mpr ov etheper formanceoft heheal thsy stem f orbetterhealthst at usoft hepopul ation
(Feder alMi nistryofHeal th,2004) .HSRi snotonl yaheal th-relatedi ssuebutal soa
devel opmenti ssueasheal t
hcar esy stemsaccountf or9%ofgl obalpr oduct ionanda
significantpor tionofgl obalempower ment .HSRi mpl ementat i
onv ar i
esacr ossdi ff
erent
count riesandr egi onsoft hewor ld,indeedst ateswi thi
nacount ry.Thi si sbecauseof
diff
er encesi nv alues, goalsandpr iori
ties.

SuccessesofBangl
adesh’
sHeal
thSect
or

Bangl
adeshhasmadesi
gni
fi
canti
mpr
ovementi
nheal
thsect
or,whi
chmakei
tan
exampl ef orot herdev elopingcount ri
esev ent houghbei ngar esour cepoorcount ry.
Ov ert hel astdecadeskeyheal thindicator
ssuchasl ifeexpect ancyandcov er ageof
i
mmuni sationhav ei mprov ednot ably,whilsti nfantmor t
ality
,mat ernalmor t
alityand
ferti
li
tyr at eshav edr oppedsi gnifi
cantly(Fer dousAr finaOsaman,2008) .Bangl adesh
standsoutasacount ryt hathast akengi antst epsi nheal thcare.Longbef or et he
emer genceofcont empor aryglobalheal thi niti
atives,t hegov ernmentpl acedst rong
emphasi son t hei mpor tanceofchi l
dhood i mmuni sat i
on asa keymechani sm f or
reduci ng chi l
dhood mor talit
y.TheExpanded Pr ogrammeon I mmuni sation (EPI )in
Bangl adeshi sconsi deredt obeaheal thsy stem successbecauseofi t
sr emar k-
able
progr essov erthelasttwodecades.I tprovidesal mostuni versalaccesst ov accinat i
on
services,asmeasur edbyt heper centageofchi ldrenunder1y earofagewhor eceive
BCG( av accineagai nstt uberculosis)
.Thisi ncreasedf rom 2%i n1985t o99%i n2009.
Cov erageofot herv acci
neshasal soi mprovedsubst anti
al l
y( Brac,2009) .Howev er ,poor
accesst oser vices,lowqual i
tyofcar e,highr ateofmat ernalmor tali
tyandpoorst atus
ofchi ldheal thstil
lremainaschal lengesoft heheal thsect or.

Chal
lengesofBangl
adesh’
sHeal
thSect
or

InBangl adesh, healt

hcareisof feredeit
herthroughgov ernment -r
unhospital
sorthrough
priv
ately-runcl i
nics.Bangladeshi sstil
llaggingi nhealthcar eser vi
cesforthepooras
wellast heaf fl
uent.Inr ecenty ears,ournei ghbours,IndiaandThai l
andhav eforged
aheadi nr espectofexper ti
seandexper i
enceofdoct ors,adv ancementofheal t
hcare
technologi esand hi gh qual i
tyhospi t
alsand heal th managementor gani
zati
ons.To
achievet hisi nourcount ry,technologicalcollabor
ationwi tht echnol
ogical
lyadvanced
hospitalsar eneededandf oll
ow healthmanagementor ganizati
onsint hedeveloped
countriesofAsi aandt headv ancednationsoft heWest .

Car
ePr
ovi
der
s

Themostcr it
icalchal l
engef acedbyt heheal thsy stemsi nBangl adeshi sint hear enaof
humanr esourcesf orheal th.TheSt ateofHeal thi nBangl adesh2007r epor tpubl ished
by the ci vi
lsoci ety group Bangl adesh Heal th Wat ch makes f orsome al ar ming
revel
at i
ons,ther eportfocusedonhumanr esour cesi nt heheal thcar esect or ,thegr im
factsoft hest oryar et hatBangl adeshi sst i
llr unningast agger i
ngshor tageofov er
60,000doct ors( currentlyfigur
e31, 000phy sicians),andal sohav eadef i
citofal most
140,000nur ses.Mor eover,Bangladeshhasoneoft hewor stnur se-physici
anr at ios.I n
Bangladeshheal thsect or,ithasonl yonenur sepert hr eephy si
cians,whi l
et her atio
shouldhav ebeent heot herwayar ound,whi chi st hreenur sesf oronephy sician,a
scenar i
oinverseoft heWor l
dHeal thOr ganisation’s( WHO)r ecommendat i
onofhav i
ng
threenur sesperdoct ori nawel l-f
unctioningheal thcaresy stem.Absent eei sm ofkey
healthhumanr esour ces( physici
ans)of tenmakemat t
er smuchwor se.Lackofdr ugs,
suppliesandot herf acili
ti
esal sopl aguet heheal thcompl exes.Asar esul t
,publ i
cly
fundedheal thcar esy stem i susedbyonl y25% oft hepopul ation.Fur thermor e,this
count ryhasanacut eshor tageofmedi caltechnol ogi stsandal liedheal thpr ofessionals
andt hesear ephy si other apists,labor atoryassi stant s,x-r ayt echni cians,et c.Human
resour cesf orhealthcannotbepr oducedqui ckl
y .Ther epor t’sconcl usionwast hat
roughl y80%oft hecount ry’spopul ationsst il
lseekt hei rfi
rstl ineofcar ef rom informal
healthcar eproviderst hati straditionalheal ers,faithheal ersandcommuni tyheal th
wor kers.Absent eeism,i nef fi
ciencyandcor rupti
onar ealsoseencommoni ncur rent
healthi nfr
astructure( Br aceUni versit
y ,2009;New Age,2008) .I tisev identbyt hef act
that90%ofchi l
drensuf feringf rom acut erespiratoryi nfectionand/ ordi arrhoea.Thi sis
partlybecauseoft hel ackofqual i
fiedheal thpr ovidersi nr ur alar eas.I tisal sobecause
theEssent i
alServ i
cesPackagedoesnotcov ernon- communi cabl eandcommuni cable
diseases,env ir
onment alheal t hr isks,i njury,ment alheal th pr oblems,and heal th
prov i
der sarenott rainedt omanaget hesecondi ti
ons;consequent l
yf ort heseheal th
i
ssues, peopleroutinelyt urnt ounl i
censedpr ovidersfort r
eat ment( DailySt ar,2012) .

Heal
thSy
stemsResear
ch

Considerablechall
engesremai ni
nt heforefrontsintheeffort
st oimprovet hehealt
h
stat
usoft hepopulati
on,reducehealthinequal i
ti
es,i
mprov ethequal i
tyofcar eand
publi
csat i
sfacti
onwithhealthcar
e,andt oincreasetheeff
iciencyandsust ai
nabil
it
yof
serv
ice-del
iveryagenci
es.Thesechal l
engespoi nttothegrowingneedf orappropr
iat
e
andappl i
edresearchtoenhancetheknowl edgeaboutfact
orsaf fect
ing

thegovernance,pr
ovi
sion,or gani
zati
on,financinganduseofheal t
hcareandheal th
serv
icesaswellasatt
her oleofkeymul t
isectoralplayer
swithi
nthehealt
hcaresystem.
Whereresourcesar
escar e,itisvi
talt
hatheal t
hsy stem bestr
engt
henedsot hatev ery
deci
sionist hebestdecision.Healthsy stemsr esearchcansuppor tthatdecision-
making.

Nat
ionalHeal
thPol
icy

Itisappar
entt hatthemet hodofchangeneedst obroadenbeyondther edefini
ti
onof
poli
cyobjectivesand di scussionsoftheideologi
calorient
ati
onoft heheal t
hcar e
system.Wi thout insti
tutionalor st
ruct
uralchange iti s expect
ed t hat exist
ing
organi
zati
onalst r
ucturesandmanagementsy stemswi l
lbeablet ostr
engt heni
ngt he
weakandf ragi
leNat i
onal Healt
hCareDeli
verySy
stem andimprovingi
tsper f
ormance.

Healt
h sectorr ef
orm wi l
lt herefore be concer ned wit
h defi
ning priori
ti
es,refi
ning
pol
ici
esandr ef
ormingt heinsti
tutionsthr oughwhi chthosepoli
ciesar eimplemented.
Asar esult
,theneedforcr eati
vesol ut
ionst odealwi t
hurgentandi nt
ractableprobl
ems
caneasilygetlostindiscussionsaboutt her i
ghtsandwr ongsofpar ti
cularstr
ategi
es.
Thereisaneedf orrat
ionaldebat eandsy stemat i
canalysi
s.Int
hef i
rstinstance,
thisrequi
rementmustbeaddr essedbydescri
ptiv
einformati
ononr efor
msusi nga
taxonomyt hataidstheanal
ysisoft heHEALTHSYSTEMSi mplementati
onandi mpact
ofr ef
orms.Suchaf rameworkshoul dall
owasynthesi
soft hebenefi
tsanddr awbacks
ofr ef
ormst hatcanassi
steachcount ry
’sat
temptsatproduci
ngbetterhealt
hf r
om the
l
ev elofi
nvestmentwithi
nthatcountry(
SakaM.J.,
at.al
l,
JPAPR, 2012)

In spi te ofsuch a f astgr owi ng pr ivate sector,Bangl adesh does nothav ea

compr ehensiveheal thpol icywi thav i
sionf orthet otalit
yoft heheal thsect or.Asa
stewar df ortheheal t
hsy stems, theMi nistryofHealthandFami lyWelfarei syettocome
up wi th an ov erarching st rategic di recti
on f or the heal th sector as a whol e
encompassi ng bot ht hepubl icand t hepr ivatesect or( BracUni v
ersity,2009) .The
Const ituti
onofBangl adesh,Ar ti
cle15( a)andAr ti
cle18(1) ,haspr ovidedt oppr i
orityto
publ i
cheal thandnut riti
onasast atepol icyofgov ernance.Toi mpl ementt heobligation
oft heconst itut
ionandexpect ationoft hepeopl eatl arge,gov ernment shadt aken
i
ni t
iativesint hepastt opr epar eapr agmat i
cheal t
hpol icyf ort henation.Accor dingly
,
therewer eattempt st oformul ateanaccept ablehealthpol i
cyi n1990, 2000, and2006t o
ensur equal itymedi calcar eandser vicest oci ti
zens( Dai l
ySt ar,2008) .Tomai ntain
consi stency wi t
ht he dr amat i
ci mpr ovement si n medi calsci ence,par t
icul
arlyi n
treatmentanddi agnosi s,changesi ngl obalandenv i
ronment alhealt
h,r equir
ement sof
addr essingoccupat i
onheal t
handcl imat icheal t
hhazar ds,it

waswisel
yfel
tessent
ialt
oupdat
etheheal
thpol
i
cy.Gov
ernance,pol
i
ticalcommi
tment
andl
eader
ship

Apar tf r
om pol icyissuement ionedabov e,ther eshoul dbegoodgov ernancei nheal th
admi nistrati
on, bothint hepr ivateandt hepubl icsect or,f
orwhi chpol iti
calcommi tment
shoul dbet ranspar entandal lal l
ocationsshoul dbedemandbasedandbal ancedones.
Ther e coul d be ar rangement s wher e civ i
lsoci etyor ganisat i
ons and human r ight
agenci escani nt er
actt oensur eaccount abi l
i
t yandt ranspar encyi npr ocurement ,suppl y
chainmanagement ,logist icssot hatwel lfunct ioningser v i
cescanbepr ovidedt hrough
access ofqual i
ty medi calpr oduct s and t echnol ogies.A st r
ong heal thf inanci ng
structurei sal so impor tant ,whi ch can ensur e popul ation’spr ot
ect i
on f r
om heal th
rel
atedf inanci alcrises.I naddi ti
ont ot heseaspect s,awel lfunctioningi nfor mat ion
system i sal sov i
tal,whi chwoul ddi ssemi nat ei nformat i
ont imelyoncr it
icalheal th
outcomes.Ther eshoul dbeal sopar ticipationofheal thwat chgr oupswi thregul arinf l
ow
ofi nf ormat ion.Exi sting human r esour ce dev elopment( HRD)pl ans need t o be
reconst ructedt ohav elong- t
erm obj ect i
vet oi mpr ov et hequal i
tyofheal th-careser vices
(cl
inical andmanager i
al skill
s), andtoaddr essemer gingheal thpr oblemsofBangl adesh.
Fundi ngont rainingisv er ymuchcr uci alforinf ormal healthprov iders,aswel lasf undi ng
forcommuni tysy stemst hatmobi l
izedemandf orser vices.I naddi tiont ot hatt ail
or
madepr ogrammesneed t o bepr ov ided i nl inewi thl ocalneeds,so asdel ivering
services t o har dt or each,at –ri
sk and v ulnerabl e popul ations.Ther e shoul d be
str
ategi
esf orcommuni t
yengagement /i
nvol
vementt oincr
easeawar enessof,accessto,
and util
izati
on ofhealt h servi
ces,and provisi
on ofappr opri
ate serv
ices att he
communi tylevel
.Moreover,str
ongleader
ship(polit
ical,
donor,andgov er
nment )suppor
t
& public accountabi
li
ty are essenti
alto strengt hen a sense ofcommi tment&
accountabil
it
y ofBangl adesh healt
h care systems,especi all
yint i
mes when t he
governmenti sexpl
ori
ngmeansofr ef
orm.

Publ
icpr
ivat
epar
tner
shi
p

Basedont hef ai l
uresinthest aterunheal t
hcar esy stem identi
f i
edbyt heBangladesh
HealthWat chr epor tt
herewi l
lnodoubtbeasi gnificantthrustt oallow morepriv
ate
sectorornon- gov ernmentalinvolvementi nheal t
hcar eser v
ices.Ther epor
tsuggests
thatthepot entialbenefitsofhar nessingtheubi quit
yandt heinf l
uenceoft heinf
ormal
healthcarepr oviderscouldbemassi ve,wit
ht r
ainingandmoni t
oring.Bangladeshneeds
toimpr ove‘qual it
yofnur si
ng’todev elophealthsect or(NewAge,2008) .Moredoctors,
nursesandi nformalheal thcarepr ovi
dersareal soneedt ober ecrui
ted.Thiscoul
dbe
exploredasapubl i
c-pri
vatepartnershipandcangr eatlyreducetheexi sti
ngpressur
eon
themedi calinfrastruct
urer unbyt hegovernment .

Concl
usi
on:
Moder
nst
atesar
ewel
far
est
ates,
mor
eexpl
i
cit
ly,
anadmi
nist
rat
iveand
developmentalstat e.Sobureaucracyisaninevitablei
nst
itutionforthesocio-
economi
c
developmentofBangl adeshsociety.Toensuregoodgov er nanceandmaket he
bureaucracyef
ficient ,
accountabl
eandt ransparentquali
ti
vepol i
ticali
nter
venti
onis
essential
.Merestr uctural
changeandmoder nizationi
snotenoughf orthat
.

Ratheremphasi
sneededtobegi
venf
orbur
eaucr
ati
creor
ient
ati
onoft
hei
rbehav
ior
,
conductandatt
it
udeetc.

Inor
dert oensur eef
fici
encyandpr
oduct i
vit
yindev
elopmentadmi ni
st r
ati
onr esearch
canbeunder takentoexami net
herecruit
mentsyst
em, payst
ructureandcl assifi
cati
on
ofposit
ion,performanceapprai
sal
sy stem,promot
ionpoli
cy,
established,control,
tr
ansferpoli
cy ,
HRD, etc.

Toov ercomethepr oblemsandchallengesofbureaucracyiti

snowqui t
eexigentto
arr
angeorr eorganizethestatemachineryf
orcoexist
ingwiththeaxiom ofgl
obali
zati
on
andICTr evol
ution.Inconsonancewiththeconceptofglobali
zat
ionandI CTrev
olut
ion-
therole,f
uncti
onandr esponsi
bil
i
tyofbureaucr
acyshoul dbedevisedi
nawayt hatit
canensur
eaccount
abi
li
ty,t
ranspar
ency
,pr
oduct
ivi
tyandef
fi
ciencybycr
eat
ingan
enabl
i
ngcondit
ionf
ordevel
opment .

Forhavi
nganaccount ableandef fi
cientdev el
opmentadmi ni
str
ationdemocr ati
c
sust
enancei
samust .Unlessandunl esswecanunder standtheneedf orademocr ati
c
syst
em bypr
acti
cingf requentelecti
oni nvolvi
ngadul
tfranchi
se–t hepolit
icsofrhetor
ic
andri
gmarol
eswillnotbeel iminated; l
etalonetheot
herill
swi t
hint hestat
emachi nery.