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Ricardo Canal-Bedia
To cite this article: Ricardo Canal-Bedia (2020) Intersubjectivity, joint attention and
social referencing in autism. A developmental explanation according to Ángel Rivière
(Intersubjetividad, atención conjunta y referencia social en autismo. Una explicación evolutiva
según Ángel Rivière), Journal for the Study of Education and Development, 43:4, 764-778, DOI:
10.1080/02103702.2020.1802151
CONTACT Ricardo Canal-Bedia rcanal@usal.es Centro de Atención Integral al Autismo, InFoAutismo, Instituto
Universitario de Integración en la Comunidad (INICO), Facultad de Educación, Universidad de Salamanca, España.
English version: pp. 764–770 / Versión en español: pp. 771–777
References / Referencias: pp. 777–778
Translation from Spanish / Traducción del español: Silvia Montero
© 2020 Fundacion Infancia y Aprendizaje
Intersubjectivity and autism / Intersubjetividad y autismo 765
social actions, his confidence that the other will understand his intention to communicate
increases and the child learns to share his interest in objects/events. For Rivière (1983),
many children with ASD do not attain these resources, some because they will present
significant delays in sensorimotor skills involved in the development of intentionality,
others because they will have difficulty leaving open instrumental acts and transforming
them into conventional gestures, negotiated with the other.
Rivière (1997a) highlighted other behaviours of JA affected in the ASD, such as
following another person’s gaze and SR. Gaze following, he said, implies tuning in one’s
attention with the gaze of another, laying the groundwork for the development of more
sophisticated acts of JA, characteristic at 12 months. The distinction between gaze
following and directing the attention of another was conceptualized by Seibert,
Hogan, and Mundy (1982), differentiating between responses of JA (RJA) and initia
tions of JA (IJA). RJA consists of looking to where another person looks/points; IJA,
developmentally more sophisticated, includes looking, pointing and/or other beha
viours aimed at involving another in joint attention. The interlocutor interprets that
the goal of IJA is to share an interest or experience.
Rivière (1997a) insisted on differentiating between JA with a declarative function
(protodeclarative) whose purpose is to share the mental world, and JA with an
imperative function (protoimperative) whose purpose is for the other to do some
thing to satisfy one’s own desire. In both forms of communication, the child can use
his emergent mentalistic abilities that imply beginning to recognize others as causal
and intentional agents. However, the protodeclaratives require a certain notion that
the other is capable of having experiences, that he has an internal world. A child
ignores that he has that notion, but demonstrates having it. Despite remembering
where an object is, he is unaware of having memory (Rivière, 1997b).
Regarding SR, the aspect of seeking/sharing social information leads Rivière to
consider it as a particular form of JA, because the child attempts to share an event. It
is an intentional action, carried out to obtain information about something new or
ambiguous. A special form of IJA whose function is to seek/obtain information from
another, to modify one’s own behaviour according to the information socially
provided by another. As of 12 months, this ability demonstrates the baby’s progress
in detecting the intentional attitudes of others because it links the object/event with
the baby’s perception of the emotional reactions that others show (Rivière, 1997a).
Years later, various studies verified this idea of Rivière (see Liszkowski, Carpenter,
Striano, & Tomasello, 2006; Tomasello, Carpenter, Call, Behne, & Moll, 2005).
Before 2000, these JA skills in children with ASD had hardly been studied. Rivière
based his predictions on studies of difficulties in the recognition of emotions and on
retrospective studies, which at that time were very recent (see Palomo, 2020, in this
volume). He argued that its alteration is an early indication of ASD for implying an
important limitation in the development of the declarative function (Rivière, 1990,
1997a), affecting development in the ‘patterns of action, attention and joint reference’
(Rivière, 2000, p. 16) and truncating the development of secondary intersubjectivity, the
earliest cognitive-social manifestation of mentalistic abilities.
Intersubjectivity and autism / Intersubjetividad y autismo 767
of the limbic system) with difficulties in prefrontal functioning that will be the basis for the
conscious control of needs and emotional and social motivations expressed in secondary
intersubjectivity.
In summary, according to Rivière, the JA skills that link intersubjective and neuro
biological development are necessary to reach social cognition, and their absence or
impairment explains the autistic disorder. Children with ASD do not find the path
along which to attain the required level of intersubjectivity, where they express interests
and emotions and are capable of understanding others as intentional agents, with their
own experience about the world, which is worth knowing, and with the capacity to
generate and interpret cues. Shortcomings in JA would deprive a baby with ASD of the
opportunity to process, learn and use information about others. The early phenotype of
ASD, expressed by difficulties in JA, would show difficulties in social cognition compe
tences that would, in the long term, lead to a serious distortion of the ability to acquire
culture and decipher the meaning of social interactions among humans. To the extent
that this difficulty is expressed in children with ASD, they will find limitations to fully
participating in social life, to living it from within, said Rivière (1997a, p. 46). Nature
has deprived them of the resources that allow other children to learn to share the world
naturally through spontaneous social interactions. From this perspective, social cogni
tion would be a result, a post-cursor (Carpendale & Lewis, 2006) of JA, and ASD would
be evidence of this developmental event.
(2012) find any significant deficiencies in the proportion of correct first glances at
objects pointed out by the adult in babies between seven and 13 months diagnosed with
ASD at 36 months. Furthermore, Landa, Holman, and Garrett-Mayer (2007) report that
infants who show signs of risk at 14 months and have an ASD diagnosis at 30–
36 months use fewer gestures and are less likely to use IJA than other risk groups.
Similarly, Talbott, Nelson, and Tager-Flusberg (2015) found that babies diagnosed with
ASD at 18, 24 and 36 months produced a lower variety of gestures. Finally, Yoder,
Stone, Walden, and Malesa (2009) found that progress in the child’s ability to use
gestures combined with gaze and vocalizations between 15 and 24 months predicts ASD
at 36 months.
There are also dissenting results with respect to the previous literature on whether
and when babies who develop ASD use their gaze to initiate JA. Rozga et al. (2011)
found that both 12-month-old babies with typical development as well as those later
diagnosed with ASD are equally likely to alternate their gaze to initiate JA. Macari et al.
(2012) also found no difference in the use of gaze to initiate JA at 12 months in high-
risk babies diagnosed with ASD at 24 months, compared to babies with other disorders.
However, they observed that they all showed fewer initiations than babies with typical
development. Landa et al. (2007) show that 14-month-old babies diagnosed with ASD
at 30–36 months used less gaze than other risk groups. Therefore, there is evidence of
an alteration in the use of gaze in social interaction at 14 months. However, it is unclear
to what extent there is atypical use of gaze in 12-month-old infants who later have ASD,
or whether gaze is affected in children with ASD and in others with different diagnoses.
Research on social referencing is scarce but there are studies that indicate early
difficulties in sharing emotions. Hutman et al. (2010) demonstrated that 12-month-old
HR babies with a subsequent diagnosis of ASD pay less attention and show less affective
response to an adult with difficulties than babies with other disorders. Landa et al.
(2007) also observed less shared positive affect in 14-month-old babies who showed
signs of ASD at 24 months. Finally, Cornew, Dobkins, Akshoomoff, McCleery, and
Carver (2012) observed that some HR babies aged 17–20 months, who were diagnosed
with ASD at 36 months, were less likely to use adult emotional cues to regulate their
behaviour.
Current studies partially question the approaches of 20 years ago because they do not
find an early general deficit in JA. There is no conclusive evidence that babies with ASD
at 12 months show mostly difficulties in alternating gaze in contexts of JA. Neither was
an atypical emotional response found before 12 months, nor are all babies who have
shown difficulties in SR diagnosed later with ASD. The studies, however, find differ
ences as regards typical development in the pattern of presentation of JA skills (gaze,
gestures, attention to emotional information) in children with ASD and a majority of
these babies who demonstrate basic JA skills at 12 months gradually lose them during
the second year. It is also possible that the timing and severity of early alteration in JA
responds to the existence of different patterns of development (see Landa et al., 2007).
Discrepancies in the results on early difficulties in JA require a thorough analysis that
is omitted here due to space restrictions, and this could limit the scope of this article’s
conclusions. Among other aspects, it is possible that the experimental conditions of the
current studies (adult-child position, presentation of stimuli, location of the pointed
object) impact the results. However, it is difficult at the present moment to support the
770 R. Canal-Bedia
idea that babies with ASD would show difficulties from the beginning in the incipient
development of competencies for sharing interests. It is also possible that the difficulties
in JA are a consequence of other risk factors and/or should themselves be considered
risk factors for ASD, since it is probable, though not always the case, that a 12-month-
old baby with early difficulties in JA could develop ASD. Alternatively, perhaps, these
difficulties are associated with the possibility that babies with these difficulties not
diagnosed with ASD possess attributes that protect them from developing the disorder.
If this were the case, the difficulties in JA in young children who do not develop ASD
could be behavioural endophenotypes (Cornew et al., 2012), characteristics present in
members of the same family (with and without ASD) more frequently than in the
general population. Only subsequent prospective studies with high and low risk parti
cipants will resolve this question. Furthermore, these difficulties and their possible
reversal would justify early detection and early intervention focused on the limitations
that are eventually detected.
The fact that some children with ASD have shown basic JA skills at 12 months or
earlier does not contradict Rivière’s idea of how babies develop their mentalist abilities,
although it does nuance it. The earliest forms of JA would not imply a recognition of
the others as intentional agents with their own experience that is worth sharing. For
cognitive-social development, in addition to emotional engagement, a shared history of
interaction is necessary. That is, the understanding of others necessarily arises within
the shared experience (Canfield, 2007), an intersubjectivity, Rivière would say, an
interpersonal experience of sharing awareness or knowledge, that babies with ASD do
not achieve. In line with what Rivière (1997a) proposed, learning to extend one’s arm
and unfold a finger does not suffice to learn how to point. As Rivière stated and the
current research cited in this article confirms, it is necessary to learn patterns of activity
in which the index finger can be used to convey meaning and accommodate specific
social acts (Rivière, 1997a). The gesture of pointing lives within these shared patterns of
activity (Canfield, 2007). That is where we find the problem in early ASD and that is
where early intervention programmes should have an impact, the master would say.
Intersubjectivity and autism / Intersubjetividad y autismo 771
volumen). Sostuvo que su alteración indica precozmente TEA por implicar una impor
tante limitación en el desarrollo de la función declarativa (Rivière, 1990, 1997a),
afectando al desarrollo en las ‘pautas de acción, atención y referencia conjunta’
(Rivière, 2000, p. 16) y truncando el desarrollo de la intersubjetividad secundaria, la
manifestación cognitivo-social más temprana de competencias mentalistas.
meses que después desarrollan TEA parecen usar claves comunicativas y emocionales
para regular las interacciones diádicas. Además, los patrones de mirada y afecto a los
seis meses tampoco están relacionados con medidas de gravedad de síntomas a los 24
meses, porque los bebés diagnosticados posteriormente con TEA muestran tasas típicas
de sonrisa social, vocalizaciones sociales y dirección de la mirada durante interacciones
diádicas (Rozga et al., 2011). No obstante, se han observado deficiencias en habilidades
posteriores, como el uso de gestos. El estudio de Rozga et al. (2011) encontró que con
12 meses los bebés diagnosticados con TEA seguían la mirada y los gestos de señalar del
adulto con menos frecuencia y, aunque miraban a imágenes que señalaba el adulto en
un libro, mostraban y señalaban menos que otros bebés de AR y controles de bajo
riesgo. Bedford et al. (2012) tampoco encontraron deficiencias significativas en la
proporción de primeras miradas correctas a objetos señalados por el adulto en bebés
de siete y 13 meses diagnosticados con TEA a los 36. Por su parte, Landa, Holman, y
Garrett-Mayer (2007) reportan que los bebés que muestran signos de riesgo a los 14
meses y tienen un diagnóstico de TEA a los 30–36 meses usan menos gestos, siendo
menos propensos a usar IAC que otros grupos de riesgo. Igualmente, Talbott, Nelson, y
Tager-Flusberg (2015) encontraron que los bebés diagnosticados con TEA a 18–24–36
meses producían menos variedad de gestos. Por último, Yoder, Stone, Walden, y Malesa
(2009) encontraron que el progreso en la capacidad del niño para usar gestos combi
nados con mirada y vocalizaciones entre 15 y 24 meses predice TEA a 36 meses.
Hay también resultados discrepantes respecto a la literatura precedente sobre si y
cuándo los bebés que desarrollan TEA usan la mirada para iniciar la AC. Rozga et al.
(2011) encontraron que tanto los bebés de 12 meses con desarrollo típico, como los que
acaban con diagnóstico de TEA, son igualmente propensos a alternar la mirada para
iniciar AC. Macari et al. (2012) tampoco encontraron diferencias en el uso de la mirada
para iniciar AC a los 12 meses en bebés de alto riesgo diagnosticados con TEA a los 24
en comparación con bebés con otros trastornos. Pero, observaron que todos mostraban
menos inicios que los bebés con desarrollo típico. Landa et al. (2007) muestran que los
bebés de 14 meses diagnosticados con TEA a los 30–36 usaban menos la mirada que
otros grupos de riesgo. Por tanto, hay evidencia de alteración en el uso de la mirada en
la interacción social a los 14 meses. Pero no está claro en qué medida hay un uso atípico
de la mirada en bebés de 12 meses que después tienen TEA, o si la mirada está afectada
en niños con TEA y en otros con diagnósticos diferentes.
La investigación en referencia social es escasa, pero hay estudios que indican
dificultades tempranas para compartir emociones. Hutman et al. (2010) demostraron
que bebés de AR con 12 meses y diagnóstico posterior de TEA prestan menos atención
y muestran menos respuesta afectiva a un adulto en dificultades que bebés con otros
trastornos. Landa et al. (2007) también observaron menos afecto positivo compartido
en bebés de 14 meses que mostraban signos de TEA a los 24. Por último, Cornew,
Dobkins, Akshoomoff, McCleery, y Carver (2012) observaron que algunos bebés de AR
con 17–20 meses, que recibieron diagnóstico de TEA a los 36, eran menos propensos a
usar señales emocionales de adultos para regular su comportamiento.
Los estudios actuales cuestionan parcialmente los planteamientos de hace 20 años porque
no encuentran un déficit general temprano en AC. No hay pruebas concluyentes de que los
bebés con TEA de 12 meses muestren mayoritariamente dificultades en alternar la mirada en
contextos de AC. Tampoco se ha encontrado una respuesta emocional atípica antes de los 12
776 R. Canal-Bedia
meses, ni todos los bebés que han mostrado dificultades en RS tienen después TEA. Los
estudios, no obstante, constatan diferencias respecto al desarrollo típico en el patrón de
presentación de habilidades de AC (mirada, gestos, atención a información emocional) en
niños con TEA y una mayoría de estos bebés que demuestran habilidades básicas de AC con
12 meses las van perdiendo durante el segundo año. Es posible también que el momento y
gravedad de la alteración temprana en AC responda a la existencia de diferentes trayectorias
evolutivas (ver Landa et al., 2007).
Las discrepancias en los resultados sobre las dificultades tempranas en AC requieren un
análisis detenido que por falta de espacio no se expone aquí, lo cual podría limitar el
alcance de las conclusiones de este artículo. Entre otros aspectos, es posible que las
condiciones experimentales de los estudios actuales (posición adulto-niño, presentación
de estímulos, lugar del objeto señalado) influyan en los resultados. Pero es difícil sostener
actualmente la idea de que los bebés con TEA mostrarían desde el principio dificultades en
el incipiente desarrollo de las competencias para compartir intereses. También es posible
que las dificultades en AC sean consecuencia de otros factores de riesgo y/o deban
considerarse en sí mismas factores de riesgo de TEA, ya que, aunque no siempre, es
probable que el bebé con 12 meses que muestre dificultades tempranas en AC podría
desarrollar TEA. Alternativamente, tal vez, estas dificultades estén relacionadas con el
hecho posible de que los bebés con estas dificultades que no son diagnosticados con TEA
posean atributos que los protegen de desarrollar el trastorno. Si fuera así, las dificultades en
AC en niños pequeños que no llegan a desarrollar TEA podrían ser endofenotipos
comportamentales (Cornew et al., 2012), características presentes en los miembros de
una misma familia (con y sin TEA) con más frecuencia que en la población general. Solo
estudios prospectivos posteriores con participantes de alto y bajo riesgo resolverán esta
cuestión. Por otro lado, estas dificultades y su posible reversión justificarían la detección
precoz y la intervención temprana focalizada en las limitaciones eventualmente detectadas.
El hecho de que algunos menores con TEA hayan mostrado habilidades básicas de AC a
los 12 meses o antes no contradice la idea de Rivière sobre cómo los bebés desarrollan sus
competencias mentalistas, aunque la matiza. Las formas más tempranas de AC no
implicarían un reconocimiento de los otros como agentes intencionales con una experiencia
propia que merece la pena compartir. Para el desarrollo cognitivo social, además de un
compromiso emocional, es necesaria una historia compartida de interacción. Es decir, la
comprensión de los demás surge necesariamente dentro de la experiencia compartida
(Canfield, 2007), una intersubjetividad, diría Rivière, una experiencia interpersonal de que
se está compartiendo conciencia o conocimiento, que no logran los bebés con TEA. En línea
con lo que Rivière (1997a) propuso, para aprender a señalar no basta con aprender a alargar el
brazo estirando un dedo. Como él afirmó y las investigaciones actuales aquí citadas confir
man, es necesario aprender patrones de actividad en los que se puede utilizar el dedo índice
para transmitir significado y acomodar actos sociales particulares (Rivière, 1997a). El gesto de
señalar vive dentro de esos patrones compartidos de actividad (Canfield, 2007). Ahí es donde
encontramos el problema en el TEA temprano y ahí deberían incidir los programas de
intervención temprana, diría el maestro.
Intersubjectivity and autism / Intersubjetividad y autismo 777
Acknowledgements / Agradecimientos
This research has been carried out within the PSI2016-80575-R project supported by the Ministry of
Economy and Competitiveness (Spain). / Esta investigación se ha realizado dentro del proyecto
PSI2016-80575-R subvencionado por el Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (España).
ORCID
Ricardo Canal-Bedia http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0247-0295
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