Topic 5 - Fire and Explosions

MCJ 2023/24 Forensic Science - Fire and 8 Nov 2023
Explosions
FIRE AND
EXPLOSIONS
MA/TER IN CRIMINAL JU/TICE

FOREN/IC /CIENCE
8 Nov 2023
NHJeevan
FIRE
INVESTIGATION
MCJ- 8 Nov 2023
NHJeevan 1
Explosions
Summary of Topics Covered:

• Fire Services Act
• The Fire Triangle / Tetrahedron
• Fire Terms and Concepts
• Scene Investigation
• Establishing the Seat of Fire / Burn Patterns
• Causes of Fire
• Arson Indicators
• Arson Observations/Evidence
• Motives in Arson Cases
• Vehicle Fires
3• Deaths in Fire Cases
Who Conducts Fire Investigations? 37

Authority: Fire Services Department Royal
Malaysia Police
Other Assisting Agencies (confined to cause and
point of origin):
Department of Chemistry- (arson, fatal fires, govt. buildings,
huge losses) -
Forensic Lab of RMP
Department of Electricity
Other Agencies with specific expertise (as and when requested by
the authorities)
Collective Objective – to determine the origin

and cause of the fire, who was responsible for
starting it and sequence of events leading up
4
to it.
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Fire Services Act 1988, Section 5

⚫ Duties of Fire Services Department
The Duties of the Fire Services Department shall include:
(a) the taking of lawful measures for
(i) extinguishing, fighting, preventing, and controlling
fires; (ii) protecting life and property in the event of a
fire;
(iii) securing the provision, maintenance, and proper
regulation of fire-escapes; and
(iv) securing the provision of adequate means of exit in the
event of fire from all designated premises;
(b) the making of investigations into the cause, origin,
and circumstances of fires; and
(c) performing humanitarian services, including the
5 protection of life and property in any calamity.
Investigation Priorities
⚫ Arson fires where death occurs
⚫ Fatal Fires
⚫ Arson with Injury
⚫ Pattern of set fires
⚫ Other crime related fires
⚫ Fraudulent fires
⚫ Large loss - Accidental
⚫ Accidental with Injury
⚫ Government property
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The Fire Triangle

Three basic ingredients of fire
⚫ fuel (solid, liquid and
gaseous),
⚫ heat (ignition source), and
⚫ oxygen (21% in air)
= These form the fire triangle
⚫ Fire will not occur in the absence of any one

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ingredient
The Fire Tetrahedron

Fire triangle concept expanded to include a 4th element
- the chemical reaction, needed to sustain the fire
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The Basics
⚫ If combustion is to be initiated and sustained, a fuel
must be present, oxygen must be available, heat must
be applied to initiate the combustion, and sufficient
heat must be generated to sustain the chemical
reaction.
⚫ To start fire, the minimum temperature needed to
spontaneously ignite fuel, known as ignition
temperature, must be reached.
⚫ When a fire occurs, oxygen combines with a fuel to
produce noticeable quantities of heat and light
(flames).
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The Basics (contd.)

⚫ A liquid burns when the temperature is high enough to
vaporize it, while a solid must be hot enough to decompose
into gaseous products (pyrolysis).
⚫ A fuel will achieve a reaction rate with oxygen sufficient
to sustain a fire only when it is in the gaseous state
Pyrolysis of wood: It is the thermal decomposition of

wood.
Wood consists of cellulose, moisture and organic resin. When
heated, water vapor, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
hydrogen and vaporized resin are produced.
Wood burn only on surface exposed to air.
It is the presence of resin in wood which gives rise to
differences in ignition temperature.
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NHJeevan 5
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Sources of Ignition
1. Electrical appliances 6. Chemicals and

and cooking Explosives
equipment 7. Spontaneous
2. Smoking materials Combustion
3. Open flames and 8. Lightning
sparks 9. Static electricity
4. Hot objects 10. Sun’s heat
5. Electrical faults
11
Flash Point
The temperature at which a flammable liquid produces
sufficient vapors to be ignited by a flame or spark to
produce a flash.
Flash point of petrol is – 40oC, kerosene is about 40oC,
diesel more than 50oC and vegetable oil >350oC, The lower
the flash point, the greater the fire hazard
Ignition Temperature
The temperature to which the fuel (solid or liquid) must be
raised until a self-ignition (auto-ignition) takes place
without the presence of flame or spark. (Ignition
temperature of kerosene is about 225-290ºC)
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Combustion and Fire Spread

In a confined room, fire usually consists of 3 phases:-
i) Initial phase - temperature is slowly building up and is the
beginning of a fire.
ii) Free-burning (spreading) phase
Fire spreads vertically (upward) & faster than horizontally -
results in the formation of V pattern.
Maximum heat and destructive capabilities of the fire develop
and fire spreads to other areas.
iii) Smouldering phase Concentration
of oxygen drops
Only smoldering (no flame) with production of carbon monoxide
due to incomplete combustion. Any sudden supply of oxygen
(e.g. opening of door), will burst into flames.
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Flashover
Occurs when temperature of all contents of a room are raised to
their ignition temperature due to heat transfer form the walls. floor,
ceiling and the flames during a fire and they ignite suddenly and
simultaneously.
No. of conditions apply for flashover: presence of combustibles,
size of the room and air supply
Backdraft
Occurs when fire is in the ‘decay’ phase (because oxygen level is
low) but the room’s contents are at their ignition temperature and
there is a sudden introduction of oxygen.
The hot gases will ignite with an explosive force.– can break
windows, knock down walls & injure firefighters
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NHJeevan 7
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Preparation for Fire Scene Examination
• Personal protective equipment

Safety shoes, helmet, overalls, gloves
• Torch light
• Measuring tape/devices
• Note pad, Camera, video
• Suitable plastic/nylon bags and
containers
• Shovel, spades or other hand tools
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Scene Investigation
• To establish the seat/seats of fire.

• To locate, document and preserve evidence that
relates to the cause of the fire or associated
criminal acts
• To establish the cause of the fire (or to
determine the source of ignition).
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Investigative Functions
⚫ Scene coordination
⚫ Safety Assessment
⚫ Documentation- photography, diagramming,
note taking
⚫ Interviewing owners of premises/witnesses
⚫ Examining the Scene
⚫ Evidence collection and preservation
⚫ Submission of evidence to Laboratory
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Background Information
1. Nature of business of the premises
2. Security of the premises
3. Items present prior to the fire – flammable
liquids, chemicals, electrical appliances etc
4. Building plan (if possible) and insurance
5. Information from eye-witnesses, owner,
case investigation officer, etc
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NHJeevan 9
Explosions
Origin and Cause
In order to determine the cause of the fire - the area and

point of origin (seat of fire) need to be determined.
Area of origin: The general area within the fire
scene where the fire began.
Point of origin: the specific location where the initial fuel
and heat source came together to start the fire. Also known as
the seat of fire.
Cause: The sequence of events that allowed the fuel and
heat source to come together.
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Seat of Fire
• This is an area where the fire started or originated

– point of origin
• In general, it is the area that was subjected to heat and
flame for the longest period of time.
• In general, it is the most severely damaged area (but
not necessarily true – depends on fuel load)
• Should take into consideration other factors such as
extra fuel load which can influence the burn patterns.
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Explosions
Identifying the Point of Origin

⚫ One of the first steps in a fire investigation
⚫ Usually begins with an examination of the building’s
exterior
⚫ Continues inside the building, beginning with the area
of heaviest damage.
⚫ Area where a fire originates will be
exposed to heat and flames for the
longest period of time - most
severely damaged region
⚫ The charring of combustibles will be
greater in this location
⚫ This can help to locate the point of
origin
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More severely damaged regions
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Preliminary Outside Survey

of the Premise
 Obtain the general burn patterns

- may have to go round the premise a number of
times to note any important features of the fire
damage and evidence
 Establish any external origin
 Note any physical evidence discarded in the
surrounding areas for collection.
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Examination of the Premise
Study the burn pattern (Application of Arrow/Pointer

Theory) on:
•Fallen wooden beams (from ceiling or wall)
•Door and window frames
•Wooden floors
•Charred/scorched surface on the wall (wooden or
concrete)
------to establish the spread pattern
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NHJeevan 12
Explosions
Burn Patterns
Pointer or Arrow Theory
⚫ The sides exposed to the direction from which the fire
is coming will be severely charred/burnt.
⚫ A series of burned studs which serves as pointers or
arrows pointing to the direction from which the fire came.
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Before The Fire
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After The Fire
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Burnt Debris
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Burnt Area
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‘V’-Shaped Burn Pattern

⚫ Consider a fire on
a wooden wall
⚫ Burn velocity is
very much faster
upwards than
downwards and
laterally Typical V-burn pattern on a
⚫ This results in a wooden wall
V- shaped pattern
on the wall
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NHJeevan 15
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‘V’ Burn Pattern
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Establishing Cause of Fire

• Examine the seat (origin) of fire in detail.
• Multiple seats of fire strongly indicate arson.
• Clear the area and examine the debris carefully for any
physical evidence (electrical wire, ignition device,
containers etc.) to indicate the heat source.
• Debris suspected to contain fire accelerant should be
collected for analysis.
• Use the Process of Elimination until the most
logical cause has been found.
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Explosions
Causes of Fires 37
⚫ To determine the cause of a fire - determine the

source of ignition and how the ignition occurred.
⚫ In some cases, the cause of a fire can never be
determined with absolute certainty.
⚫ The cause of a fire can be classified as either
incendiary or accidental or natural.
⚫ Investigators should always consider a fire to
have an undetermined cause until the specific
cause is established.
33
Types of Fire Causes

⚫ Accidental - does not involve a deliberate act to
ignite or spread fire into an area where the fire should
not be.
⚫ Natural - caused without direct human
intervention, such as lightning or heat from the sun
⚫ Incendiary - deliberately ignited under
circumstances which the person knows that the fire
should not be ignited.
⚫ Undetermined – Sometimes the cause can not be
determined.
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NHJeevan 17
Explosions
Accidental Fires
⚫ Combustibles too close to a heat

source.
⚫ Improper construction such as pipes
conveying exhaust gas pipes connected to
furnaces/ovens/boilers etc.
⚫ Electrical- overloaded circuits, improper
protection, faulty equipment.
⚫ Kitchen fires ?
35
Common Causes of Accidental Fires

1. Carelessness
- Lighted cigarettes placed on furniture top or
fallen on carpet, bed etc.
- Cigarette butts in waste paper basket etc.
- Hot electric iron on furniture top.
- Burning debris from hot-work (welding and
cutting).
- Use of mosquito coils (in school hostels).
- Heating coil for boiling water.
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NHJeevan 18
Explosions
Accidental Fires
2. Electrical Faults
(a) Over Loading
When current increases, heat also increases and the
overheated wire can be ignited to cause a fire.
(b) Short-circuiting
When adjacent conductors came in contact, intense current and
hence intense heat is generated. This can cause a fire.
Beaded wire is a characteristic of a short-circuit.
(c) Over Heating
Excessive heat produced can act as an igniting source –
e.g. fuse boxes, switches etc
Overheating of electric appliances
37
Damaged wires with beaded ends due to

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electrical faults
NHJeevan 19
Explosions
Point of Origin /
Source of Ignition
39
Accidental Fires
3. Explosion
Is a sudden and rapid escape of gases accompanied by high
temperature, violent shock and loud noise.
Caused by:
(1) Explosive substances, e.g. in firework factory.
(2) Inflammable Gas/Vapor, e.g. in tankers, gas pipe,
leaking gas stove and cylinder.
Heat generated can ignite the surrounding
material.
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NHJeevan 20
Explosions
Accidental Fires
4. Chemicals
Mainly oxidizing agents that contain oxygen can react
with other chemicals to give off tremendous amount of
heat to cause a fire. Examples of such chemicals:
chlorates, nitrates, peroxides, etc
Fire can occur when :-
-Some oxidizing agents come in contact with organic
fuels, spontaneous heating or ignition can occur.
-Improper storage of such chemicals or storage of
incompatible chemicals.
41
Accidental Fires
5. Ignition of flammable liquids (accidental)
-Use of flammable liquids as cleaning agents in
workshops.
-Use of paint thinner in furniture factories.
-Discharge of waste petroleum (workshop).
The ignition may be either the result of the vapors

coming in contact with an ignition source or from
static or electric sparks.
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NHJeevan 21
Explosions
Accidental Fires
6. Spontaneous Heating (Combustion)
Heating resulted from slow oxidation (auto- oxidation) of
material stained with vegetable or animal oil and the
fermentation of organic agricultural products (eg. hay and
grains). This is an exothermic process.
Conditions
- A confined or poorly ventilated room where the
dissipation of heat is slow.
- Sufficient time for the oxidation or fermentation
process to generate enough heat to ignite the
surrounding combustible material.
43
Accidental Fires
7. Static Electricity and Sparks
Static electricity is created by the relative movement of
two materials and can accumulate to form large charges
(eg. flammable liquid passing through pipe or nozzle).
The discharge of such static electricity can produce
sparks.
-Friction between metal parts of vehicle on road
surface can produce sparks which can ignite the fuel
from damaged tank.
-Knocking of two metal parts can produce sparks.
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NHJeevan 22
Explosions
Incendiary Fires (Arson)
• Motives
• Arson Indicators/Circumstances
• Observations and Evidence
• Detection of Fire Accelerants at Scene
• Handling of Physical Evidence
• Analysis
45
MOTIVES in ARSON CASES

• Revenge against individuals/institutions/groups
Damage to personal property , buildings e.g. courts,
company premises, schools, places of worship etc.
• Vandalism
Opportunistic rather than pre-meditated. Targets
schools, vehicles, unused buildings, due to boredom
or seeking entertainment
• Profit
e.g. fraudulent insurance claims; or
to eliminate business competition
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NHJeevan 23
Explosions
MOTIVES in ARSON CASES (contd.)

• Concealment of crime
To destroy evidence e.g. in murder cases,
burglaries, tax frauds (destroy documents)
• Entertainment/Vanity/Power
Arsonist has feeling of being grand; help to report
fire or even putout the fire, may even be present at
the fire scene to see the action.
• Pyromania
Can be serial fire-setters, fascinated by fires or to
reduce tension
• Terrorism
To create fear or to make a political statement
47
Arson Indicators
(Suspicious Circumstances)
General
• Origin in specific room may indicate motive.
• Evidence of other crimes.
• Previous fires at location.
• Structural damage prior to the fire.
• Blocked Access
• Recent changes to insurance.
• Personal items or important possessions
removed or substituted prior to the fire
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NHJeevan 24
Explosions
Arson Indicators
(Suspicious Circumstances) Contd.
Residential
• Property for sale for extended time
• Vacant property
• No electrical service to residence
• Absence of appliances or personal belongings
• Fire reported soon after occupants exit
Commercial
• Decrease in revenue
• New or vigorous competition
• Construction of new roads or business complexes Old
• deteriorating buildings
• Building for sale or lease for extended period.
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• Removal or substitution of contents prior to the fire.
Arson – Observations/Evidence 37
Exterior evidence
⚫ Tracks
⚫ Flammable liquid containers
⚫ Greatest damage may help locate area of origin
Access
⚫ Look for evidence of any prior entry.
⚫ Note whether obstacles were placed to block entry.
⚫ Note whether the windows and doors are intact,
whether they are locked or unlocked
⚫ Note any signs of forced entry by others.
⚫ Condition of Windows
⚫ Open or closed.
⚫ Broken ? Is the glass inside or out; Smoke stained?
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NHJeevan 25
Explosions
Arson – Observations/Evidence contd. 37

⚫ Note presence of any unusual odors.
Petroleum/solvents
Any containers?
⚫ Note the presence of incendiary
devices, trailers, and accelerants.
⚫ Splash or pour patterns
⚫ Inverted ‘V’ or cone patterns
⚫ Look for multiple seats of fire
⚫ Note anything unusual about
the contents of the building.
⚫ Note charring in unusual places.
⚫ Elimination of accidental causes
51
Arson Fires
Detection of flammable Liquids
and accelerants at fire scene
1. Physically sniffing with your Nose to detect
petrol, kerosene or diesel etc,
2. Portable “sniffer” instruments (hydrocarbon

detectors) - commercially available for
the detection of hydrocarbon and organic
vapors in the air.
The air around the area suspected to contain an
accelerant is drawn into instrument, where any
accelerant vapors are detected.
- sensitive but not selective.
3. Use of trained dogs to sniff out accelerant
odors. These dogs, known as accelerant
detection canines, undergo rigorous
52 training.
NHJeevan 26
Explosions
Handling of Physical Evidence

• Photographs of physical evidence should be taken
before collecting.
• Equipment such as scoop/spade, saw etc. may be
required for collecting physical evidences.
• Debris suspected to contain accelerant should be
collected in air-tight container or nylon bag.
• Damaged wooden beams with odor of hydrocarbon
maybe cut or sawn to collect.
• Liquid samples can be packaged in clean unused airtight
glass jars, in small metal cans, or the original container if
available.
53
Handling of Physical Evidence

• Use clean disposable gloves and tools for collecting
items.
• Change gloves between collection of unrelated items of
evidence or when they become soiled.
• Clean or change tools between different locations within
a scene (disposable tools can be used).
• Always try to obtain a sample of any ignitable liquid that
could have been used at the scene.
• Obtain comparison substrate samples (such as carpets,
upholstery, soil, wood, etc.) that are not suspected of
containing an ignitable liquid
• Submission for Laboratory Analysis – to identify the fire
accelerant used, if any.
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NHJeevan 27
Explosions
Laboratory Analysis
of flammable liquids and accelerants
⚫ Analysis of accelerants in fire debris involves the
isolation of residual volatiles from the debris
⚫ Analysis usually by gas chromatography (GC). Or Gas
Chromatogrpahy-Mass Spectrometer (GC-MS)
⚫ The resulting chromatograms are interpreted by
comparing to a library of chromatograms
⚫ Fire accelerants classified into light petroleum distillates
(lighter fluids)/gasoline, medium petroleum distillates
(paint thinners), kerosene, heavy petroleum distillates
(diesel) and unclassified compounds.
55
GAS CHROMATOGRAPH
(GC)
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NHJeevan 28
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SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF GC
57
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NHJeevan 29
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Vehicle Fires
-Obtain background information and stories of driver and
eyewitness.
-Preferably examine the vehicle at the scene.
Accidental Causes
Electrical short circuit - Normally originate from the engine
compartment or dashboard.
Mechanical - Leakage of fuel e.g. from fuel line, carburetor
- Faulty brake system can cause over heating and ignite the tire.
Fire after accident
The leakage of fuel from damaged/ruptured fuel tank or fuel line can
cause a fire. Ignition of the fuel can be from the sparks resulted from
the accident.
59
Vehicle Fires (contd.)

Arson
-Normally originate from tires
or upholstery.
-Presence of characteristic burnt
pattern on the car and cement
floor when accelerant is used.
-Need to examine the floor/soil
under the car for accelerants
Note: If windows are up, fire
to interior will not sustain.
Why??
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NHJeevan 30
Explosions
Malicous Vehicle Fires - Indicators
• Vehicle fire discovered prior to owner reporting

stolen.
• Totally burned in a secluded location.
• Missing equipment.
• Recently insured (comprehensive)
• Recent attempts to sell.
• History of mechanical problems.
61
DEATHS IN FIRE CASES

Death may be due to the effects of breathing the
products of fire/ burning, principally carbon
monoxide, but also cyanide and many other toxic
by-products of combustion.
Alternatively, death may be due to the effects of

heat (i.e. heat shock) or the inhalation of hot air/
gases leading to cardiac arrest
The effects of heat and smoke/ fumes are usually

more rapid (in a building fire) than the effects of
direct injury from flames;
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NHJeevan 31
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DEATHS IN FIRE CASES

Suicide or Murder?
• There have been cases of suicide by fire. Can be
very painful. Not very common nowadays.
• Bodies found in fires can be murder before the
fire was started.
• The presence of soot in the airways (trachea) is
additional evidence supporting the view that the
deceased was alive at the time the fire started.
• A blood sample must be taken for estimating
the carboxyhaemoglobin (carbon monoxide- Hb,
CO-Hb) saturation level.
63
Interpretation of blood CO-Hb levels
• Normal levels in individuals - between 0 – 2 %
• Smokers may have a CO-Hb level of up to 10%
• A CO-Hb level of over 50% is strong evidence that

the deceased was alive at the time the fire started,
and was able to breathe in the smoke and fumes
generated by the fire.
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NHJeevan 32
Explosions
EXPLOSIVES and EXPLOSIONS
The Boston Marathon 2013
MCJ- 8 Nov 2023
Contents
 Some concepts and definitions

 Types of explosives
 Chemistry of explosives
 Effects of Explosion
 Improvised Explosive Devices
 Collection of Evidence
 Forensic Examination of
explosions/explosives
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NHJeevan 33
Explosions
Concepts and Definition

Explosion
An explosion may be broadly defined as
the sudden and rapid escape of gases from a
confined space accompanied by high
temperatures, violent shock and loud noise
3 Factors necessary and sufficient for the

execution of a state of explosion:-
That gas is released
That energy is released
That the release of gas & energy in (a) & (b)
must occur very rapidly
67
Explosion Dynamics
 FRICTION
ENERGY SOURCE:  IMPACT

 FLAME/SPARK
 HEAT
 SHOCK
FUEL OXYGEN
Electricity (e.g. timers and electric wires) and Radio
frequency (e.g. mobile phones) can also be used as
triggers in explosions through generation of heat
68 and electrical energy
NHJeevan 34
Explosions
Explosive:
An explosive is any material that, when
ignited by heat or shock, undergoes rapid
decomposition or oxidation.
(Can be a mixture of compounds or a single
compound)
Decomposition:
A reaction where a single compound breaks
down into simpler compounds.
69
Deflagration: Detonation:
• The extremely rapid • the instantaneous
burning of an combustion of an
explosive material. explosive material
• Much faster than • resulting in a sudden
normal combustion, and violent release of
• slower than energy from a
detonation. confined space
• It releases heat or • creates a shock wave
flames vigorously. that travels at
• Does not produce supersonic speeds.
shock waves (unlike • (Often used
detonation) interchangeably with
explosion )
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NHJeevan 35
Explosions
CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVES
Depending on their burning rates (or

speed at which they decompose),
explosives are divided into :
i. LOW EXPLOSIVES
ii. HIGH EXPLOSIVES
71
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NHJeevan 36
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Chemistry of Low Explosives

Fuel and source of oxygen required for constituting an
explosive.
Mechanical mixture
Oxidants (sources of O2) + fuel
Examples
Oxidants – nitrates(NO3) ,nitrites(NO2), chlorates(ClO3),
perchlorates(ClO4), permanganates(MnO4),
chromates(CrO3),etc.
Fuel – Carbon (charcoal) or compounds containing
carbon(C) & Hydrogen (e.g. sugar),
Potassium Nitrate/Sulphur/Charcoal ; Sodium
Nitrite/Sugar; Sodium chlorate/sugar
Nitrocellulose (prepared by nitration of cellulose with
nitric acid)
73
LOW EXPLOSIVES:
• Decompose rapidly (but relatively slower in comparison
with high explosives) of up to 1000 meters per second,
at subsonic speed…….(deflagaration)
• Produce enough force for a propelling action that makes

them suitable as propellants for ammunition and
skyrockets
• When one of these explosives is confined to a small

container it can explode with a lethal force
• Unconfined it merely burns, in fact it is used as a

medium for carrying a flame to an explosive charge
• A safety fuse usually consists of low explosive wrapped

in a fabric or plastic casing
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NHJeevan 37
Explosions
Chemistry of High Explosives

Single Compounds containing both oxygen and fuel, as in high
explosives. High explosives are composed of chemically unstable
compounds that contain a large amount of chemical energy stored
within their molecular structures........leads to rapid reaction and
release of massive amount of energy
[ Note: not all compounds containing C, H and O are explosives
e.g. ethyl alcohol C2H5OH; reason O already linked to C&H and
a lot of energy is required to disrupt the molecule ]
For large net release of energy, O must be linked to some other
atom other than C,H.
e.g. nitro - NO2 (in TNT); nitrate - ONO2 (in NG)
nitramine - NNO2 (as in RDX);
TNT NG RDX
75
HIGH EXPLOSIVES
 Detonate at 1000-8500 metres/sec (supersonic speed)
and produces smashing or shattering effect
 Detonated using an initial explosion

 Usually done by detonator caps composed of copper
or aluminum cases filled with initiating charge.
 Initiated by shock via heat or electricity. Can be
remotely controlled.
 Detonate unconfined - No container is required
 Usually single compound explosive
 Classified into 2 groups
1. Primary Explosives - initiating charge
2. Secondary Explosives – boosters and main charge
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NHJeevan 38
Explosions
High Explosives : Primary Explosives
 Those explosives which require a very small

quantity of energy to be initiated
 Extremely sensitive to heat, shock and friction
 Less powerful than secondary explosives
 Used in detonators and initiation systems
 Normally detonate instead of burn
 Used to detonate other explosives through a chain
reaction – 1st step in explosive train
 Referred to as primers
 Examples: lead azide, lead styphnate,
diazodinitrophenol, picric acid , lead picrate,
mercury fulminate, tetrazene
77
High Explosive : Secondary Explosive

 in comparison to primary explosives, relatively less
sensitive to shock, friction or heat.
 Detonate if ignited in small quantities in open air
 Used when blasting actions (quarry, demolition etc.) are

required
 The energy of the explosion is extremely high and fast

and induces a shock wave, resulting in shattering effects
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NHJeevan 39
Explosions
Examples of Secondary explosives

Commercial
Nitroglycerine - Dynamite
ANFO - Ammonium nitrate, fuel oil mixture
RDX
Military
TNT -Trinitrotoluene
PETN - ‘det’ cord.(Penta erythritoltretrinitrate)
RDX - cyclotrimethylentrinitramine
C-4 -(RDX + plasticizer)
Semtex (RDX + PETN + plasticizer)
(RDX …Research Dept Expl./ Royal Demolition Expl.)
79
Explosive train • Combination of primary

and secondary explosives.
• Primary explosive
materials are used to
detonate the entire
explosive device in a
sequence.
• Energy from the detonation
of the primary explosive
sets off the booster which
in turn set off the main
charge consisting of
secondary explosive
• They are usually
connected to some
external device which
starts the detonation.
80
NHJeevan 40
Explosions
EFFECTS OF AN EXPLOSION
When an explosive is detonated, the block or stick of
chemical explosive material is instantaneously
converted from a solid into a rapidly expanding mass
of gases.
The detonation of the explosive will produce 3 primary
effects and several secondary effects which can create
great damage in the area surrounding the explosion
Bali bombing 2002 Madrid train bombing 2004

81
Effects of an Explosion
The 3 primary effects are
produced
1. Blast Pressure / Front Effect
2. Fragmentation Effect
3. Incendiary or Thermal Effect
82
NHJeevan 41
Explosions
Explosives Effects – 1. Blast Pressure Effect

• Most powerful of all explosive effects
• Very hot (between 1500oC and 3800oC) expanding gases
are formed in a period of approximately 1/10,000th of a
second.
• These gases exert pressures of about 700 tons per square
inch on the atmosphere surrounding the point of
detonation at velocities of up to 13,000 miles per hour (or
about 32000 km/hour)
• The expanding gas rolls out from the point of detonation
is known as the blast pressure wave.
• The blast pressure wave is responsible for most of the
damage
83
EXPLOSION SEQUENCE
Positive Pressure Phase
Negative
Pressure
Phase
84
NHJeevan 42
Explosions
Explosives effects – 2. Fragmentation Effect

• Missiles are produced by the explosive container and
objects around the detonation point. Containers, and
structures that restrict the movement of the positive
pressure fronts may rupture and produce pieces of debris
that may travel long distances and cause considerable
damage or injury.
• The distance that they may travel depends on a variety of

factors, including the types of explosives involved, the
strength of the container, type of initiation,
• Fragmentation adds to the destructive force of the

explosive device. Fragments can travel at velocities up to
1 km/sec
85
Explosives effects – 3. Incendiary/Thermal Effect:

 Combustion explosions release quantities of energy
that may heat/light solid combustibles or gases
present.
 Varies greatly from one explosive to another.
 In general, low explosives will produce longer
incendiary thermal effects than will high explosives.
 A high explosive will produce higher temperatures but
for a shorter time. The effect is seen usually as a bright
flash or fireball at the moment of detonation.
 The low explosive fireball is more likely to cause a
secondary fire than a high explosive detonation.
86
NHJeevan 43
Explosions
Secondary Effects of Explosions
 Secondary Fires;
 Ruptures
electrical circuits ; equipment ;
broken gas / fuel lines ;
broken water pipes
 Weakened Structures.
87
IMPROVISED EXPLOSIVE DEVICES (IED)
88
NHJeevan 44
Explosions
Improvised Explosive Device (IED)

• A modified explosive device built with available materials
to achieve specific results, to destroy, kill, incapacitate,
harass or distract.
• Can be produced in varying sizes, functioning methods,
containers, and delivery methods.
• Can utilise homemade explosives, commercial or military
explosives i.e. low or high explosives or both
• Unique in nature because the IED maker has had to
improvise with the materials at hand.
• Become more difficult to detect and protect against as
they become more sophisticated
89
Improvised Explosive Device (IED)

IEDs fall into the following categories:
Package type IED
- bottle/
- pipe
- mail/package
Vehicle-Borne IED
Suicide Bomb IED
There is no specific material used for creating an IED,
but there are many common materials used, such as:
i. Chemicals
ii. Nails , Ball Bearings
iii. Ammunition Rounds
iv. Plastic Bottles, Containers/packaging
90
NHJeevan 45
Explosions
Basic components of IEDs

Though they can vary widely in shape and form, IEDs share
a common set of components and consist of the following:
• A switch/trigger; An initiator (fuse);

• Main charge (explosive fill);
• Power source for switch/trigger; container.
• IED’s can be triggered in many different ways,
depending on how sophisticated the IED actually is.
• A timer is very common and can be set hours, minutes
or days ahead of the actual explosion. This is an
advantage for the bomber.
91
IED
Molotov cocktail
 Also known as a petrol bomb, alcohol bomb, bottle bomb, poor

man's grenade, or simply Molotov.
 Simplest form consists of a stoppered bottle filled with a

combustible liquid, such as gasoline or high-proof alcohol, with a
fuel-soaked rag stuffed in the neck of the bottle.
 The fuse is lit and the bottle hurled at a target such as a vehicle or
premises
 When the bottle smashes on impact, the ensuing cloud of

gasoline droplets and vapor is ignited, causing an immediate
fireball followed by a raging fire as the remainder of the fuel is
consumed.
92
NHJeevan 46
Explosions
IED :
Pipe-Bombs
• The pipe-bomb consists of a short length of iron pipe or any
durable material sealed at both ends with threaded end caps.
• It is filled with some type of low-explosive propellant (most

commonly gun powder or match heads).
• An igniter and delay mechanism or a fuse is inserted through a

hole in the pipe body or one of the end caps.
• Extra shrapnel, often in the form of nails or ball bearings is

sometimes affixed to the outside of the pipe body - capable of
inflicting lethal wounds on multiple targets
93
IED - Mail Bombs

• An explosive device sent via delivery and designed with the
intention to injure or kill the recipient when opened.
• Consists of an envelope or small package containing an explosive

device which will be detonated upon opening or alternately by
remote control.
• Intended to be delivered right into the target’s hands either

through the postal system, a delivery company or by the bomber
himself.
[Recognition: Extra stamps,

misspelled words,
Incorrect title, Uneven,
Excessive tapes,
No return address]
94
NHJeevan 47
Explosions
IED - Vehicle Bombs

• Car and truck bombs have been used for many years
by resistance fighters/terrorists throughout the
world.
• The idea behind this type of device is to pack a
vehicle with a huge amount of explosives and then
move the vehicle into a position near enough to the
target to do serious damage.
95
Time delay mechanism

A simple example
Clock hand Contact 1 on the body
Detonator
Contact 2
Screw or wire
face
TIME BOMB
Battery
96
NHJeevan 48
Explosions
Why low explosives preferred for IEDs?

Availability of Materials: Low explosives can be made using
relatively accessible and commonly available materials.
Stability: Low explosives are generally safe as they are more stable
and less sensitive to accidental detonation compared to high
explosives.
Ease of Initiation: Low explosives can be initiated using a
variety of methods, including simple ignition systems, mechanical
triggers, or electronic timers.
Fragmentation Effect: Low explosives, when combined with
additional materials like nails, ball bearings, or other shrapnel, can
enhance the destructive potential of the explosion together with the
blast effect .
Intended Effect: Used to achieve the objective of not necessarily to
cause widespread destruction but to create fear, 9c7 haos, and
casualties within a specific area.
SOME INCIDENTS INVOLVING IEDs

Bali Bombing 2002:
• Suicide bomb inside a nightclub and vehicle-borne
improvised explosive device (VBIED) ouside a pub.
• Explosive used: Mixture of potassium chlorate, sulfur, and
aluminum powder.
• Detonated using a
simple electronic timer.
• Killed 202 people and
injured nearly 300.
98
NHJeevan 49
Explosions
7 July 2005 London

Suicide Bombings
involving homemeade
peroxide bombs.
- 4 simultaneous
incidents .
52 were killed
[ TATP – triacetone triperoxide is an improvised highly

sensitive explosive made by reacting acetone and
hydrogen peroxide in the presence of an acid catalyst ]
99
Goals of Investigation
Identify explosive
Recover bomb and timing device
Determine method of delivery
100
NHJeevan 50
Explosions
Forensic Examination
Task of the forensic examiner
1. Identify unreacted explosives
2. Identify components of explosive devices
3. Identify residues from explosion to ascertain the main
explosive**
4. Determine the manner in which the device functioned
5. Analyse swabs from people / clothing / scene / premises /
vehicle to check for the presence of residues
6. Preserve the evidence
[**Note: The most obvious characteristic of a high explosive or
a contained low explosive is the presence of a crater at the
origin of the blast. Once the crater has been located all loose
soil and debris must be collected ]
101
Forensic Examination
Craters
102
NHJeevan 51
Explosions
Collection of evidence
1. Suspected bomb components
2. Suspected materials used in the construction and
transportation of the explosive device
3. Crater material.
4. Residues and other trace evidence
5. Additional items of evidence (e.g., blood, hair, fiber,
fingerprints, tire tracks, weapons, documents, tools).
6. Physical Evidence - bomb fragments (container
remnants), wires, shattered metal fragments, battery
components, packaging materials
1. Related evidence items from suspect’s premises

- explosive substances, packaging material, IED
materials – batteries, wires, circuit boards etc.
103
Contamination considerations
1. Use clean protective outer garments and equipment as
applicable for each scene.
2. Consider obtaining control samples as applicable (e.g.,

evidence containers, swabs of equipment and
personnel).
3. Pack collected evidence in a manner that prevents loss,

degradation, or contamination.
(preferably use Metal containers – not plastic
containers)
4. Pack, store, and transport evidence from different

scenes or searches in separate sealed containers.
104
NHJeevan 52
Explosions
Pan Am Flight 103 – Reconstructed plane
Dec 1988, Lockerbie, Scotland

Exploded at 31000ft, 259 on board;
Explosive used – Semtex concealed
in a cassette recorder in a suitcase
Libyan involved
105
INCIDENT: BOMB BLAST.

AUSTRALIAN HIGH COMMISSION
K.L.
TIME & DATE: 0450 HRS, 30 MARCH 2004
RESULT OF ANALYSIS FROM SAMPLES COLLECTED.
1. CONTAINER IDENTIFIED TO BE A SMALL PLASTIC

BOTTLE OF `AMMELTZ YOKO-YOKO 48 ml’
(FOR STIFF SHOULDER MUSCULAR ACHES)
2. EXPLOSIVE USED IDENTIFIED TO BE PYROTECHNICS
3. NAILS AND PAPER CUTTING BLADE WERE USED AS
SHRAPNEL.
4. BLACK TAPE
5. PYROFUSE
106
NHJeevan 53
Explosions
RECONSTRUCTION OF IED
IGNITION FUSE WITH

SHORT DELAY
PAPER
CUTTER
BLADE NAILS
NAILS
PYROTECHNIC
COMPOSITION
NOTE : 2 TYPES OF TAPES USED

I) BLACK MASKING TAPE
II) BLACK CELLOTAPE
107
Analaysis of Explosives
Analytical Techniques Used:
Microscopy
Spot Tests :
e.g. Greiss Test for nitrates/nitrites
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) … elemental analysis

Ion Chromatogrpahy ….inorganic substances
For organic compounds…

Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)
High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
Gas Chromatography with Electron Capture Detector (GC-ECD)
Gas Chromatography-MassSpectrometry (GCMS)
Gas Chromatography Thermal Energy Analyser (GC-TEA)
108
NHJeevan 54

Topic 5 - Fire and Explosions

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MCJ 2023/24 Forensic Science - Fire and 8 Nov 2023

MA/TER IN CRIMINAL JU/TICE

MCJ- 8 Nov 2023

Summary of Topics Covered:

Who Conducts Fire Investigations? 37

Collective Objective – to determine the origin

Fire Services Act 1988, Section 5

The Fire Triangle

⚫ Fire will not occur in the absence of any one

The Fire Tetrahedron

The Basics (contd.)

Pyrolysis of wood: It is the thermal decomposition of

1. Electrical appliances 6. Chemicals and

Combustion and Fire Spread

Preparation for Fire Scene Examination

• Personal protective equipment

• To establish the seat/seats of fire.

Origin and Cause

In order to determine the cause of the fire - the area and

• This is an area where the fire started or originated

Identifying the Point of Origin

More severely damaged regions

Preliminary Outside Survey

 Obtain the general burn patterns

Examination of the Premise

Study the burn pattern (Application of Arrow/Pointer

Before The Fire

After The Fire

‘V’-Shaped Burn Pattern

‘V’ Burn Pattern

Establishing Cause of Fire

⚫ To determine the cause of a fire - determine the

Types of Fire Causes

⚫ Combustibles too close to a heat

Common Causes of Accidental Fires

Damaged wires with beaded ends due to

The ignition may be either the result of the vapors

Incendiary Fires (Arson)

MOTIVES in ARSON CASES

MOTIVES in ARSON CASES (contd.)

Arson – Observations/Evidence contd. 37

2. Portable “sniffer” instruments (hydrocarbon

Handling of Physical Evidence

Handling of Physical Evidence

Vehicle Fires (contd.)

Malicous Vehicle Fires - Indicators

• Vehicle fire discovered prior to owner reporting

DEATHS IN FIRE CASES

Alternatively, death may be due to the effects of

The effects of heat and smoke/ fumes are usually

DEATHS IN FIRE CASES

Interpretation of blood CO-Hb levels

• Normal levels in individuals - between 0 – 2 %

• Smokers may have a CO-Hb level of up to 10%

• A CO-Hb level of over 50% is strong evidence that

EXPLOSIVES and EXPLOSIONS

The Boston Marathon 2013

MCJ- 8 Nov 2023

 Some concepts and definitions

Concepts and Definition

3 Factors necessary and sufficient for the

ENERGY SOURCE:  IMPACT

Depending on their burning rates (or