Term 2 Topic 6: Describe technology development in monitoring and managing

geological activities

(MOM😊 Read and focus on the points that are important for the Topic 6)

Mid-ocean ridges occur deep under the ocean, too deep for divers to reach. Name the
technology that scientists use to examine them, and describe how it works. [3 marks].

Mantle rock moves away from the ridge on each side and creates tension, causing the ridge
to crack, forming a rift zone and shallow earthquakes. The mantle rock carries the sea floor
with it. The rock cools, becomes denser, and eventually the force of gravity causes it to sink
back into the mantle. It has been found that magnetic patterns on opposite sides of mid-
ocean ridges are mirror images of each other, supporting the idea that rock is spreading
away. This has been confirmed using methods such as drilling in the sea floor and
estimating the age of the rocks.

Scientists discovered the East Pacific Rise using a technique called echo sounding, a type of
sonar that measures the depth of the ocean. Sound waves are ‘bounced’ off the ocean floor
and the time the sound wave takes to return is used to calculate the water’s depth.
Scientists analyse echo-sounding images to determine how a particular feature was formed
and to predict what might be happening below it, deep inside the Earth’s mantle.

Describe what geologists use a magnetometer for. [2 marks]. Read pages 197-199

Magnetometers Seismologists study movements inside the Earth’s crust to understand what
causes earthquakes and predict when they are likely to occur. When the stress around a
fault line builds up, the heat generated changes the magnetic properties of the minerals in
the rocks around the fault. One of the instruments used to measure changes in the Earth’s
magnetic field is a sensitive instrument called a magnetometer. Magnetometers can be
carefully placed around a fault line for monitoring. Any large iron or steel objects, such as
cars or trucks, electrical cables, or even mobile phone towers, can affect the readings, so
remote areas give the most reliable results. To cover wider areas quickly, magnetometers
can be towed behind boats in the ocean or behind aircraft.

Seismologists also often use seismometers to measure movement in the ground, which is
usually caused by earthquakes or volcanoes. A seismometer consists of an internal mass
attached to an immobile frame. The mass swings or moves relative to the stable frame to
measure ground movement. A computer records the amount of movement of the mass,
which is an indication of the strength of movement in the ground. The size and frequency of
the waves of movement can help locate the source and strength of the earthquake or
volcanic eruption.

Using specific examples, describe how technology has increased the understanding of
geological activity.

Seismic surveys send sound waves into the Earth and use the time taken for the wave to
bounce back as an indication of the different structures of materials in the Earth’s layers.
The waves are usually reflected at the points of change in the physical properties of the
material, like density. The way in which the sound waves reflect can indicate the type of
rock, and any fractures or abnormalities within the layer. 3D seismic surveys utilise multiple
observation points across a carefully marked grid. The result is a three-dimensional cube
compiled from a series of surveys from different locations and angles. This information can
then be represented by a computer as a 3D image like the one in Figure 5.38. 3D seismic
surveys are commonly used to look for minerals before mining, and to map the ocean floor.
Predicting and managing natural hazards Technologies such as magnetometers,
seismometers and seismic surveys are used to predict natural hazards like earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions. These hazards become natural disasters when people are exposed to
them and may be harmed. While nothing can be done to prevent an earthquake or volcanic
eruption, in the short term, people can be warned to evacuate, or in the long term, people
can be advised not to build in particular areas prone to such geological activity.

The Asia–Pacific region experiences some of the highest frequencies of natural disasters like
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. This region is also densely populated, so the effects of
these distastes can be extreme. Geoscience Australia is one company that is gathering
information to help predict the frequencies of natural disasters. They predict the region will
experience at least one ‘megadisaster’ that will seriously affect millions of people in the 21st
century. Whether the megadisaster will be an earthquake, a volcanic eruption or another
tsunami like in December 2004, is still being debated.

Below is some extra information from other resources, you can go through

In each of these four domains—seismology, geodesy, geology, and rock mechanics—key

technological innovations and conceptual breakthroughs were made within the last decade. The
Global Seismic Network (GSN), initiated with the founding of the National Science Foundation (NSF).
The first continuously recording network of Global Positioning System (GPS) stations for measuring
tectonic deformation

Observing the Active Earth: Current Technologies and the Role of the Disciplines

 Not long ago, seismologists worked in rooms filled with drum recorders and big tables for
hand-measuring seismograms. They now use digital monitoring systems that integrate high-
performance seismometers, real-time communications, and automatic processing to
produce high-quality information on seismic activity in near real-time.
 Geodesists have replaced the theodolite and spirit level with space-based positioning and
deformation imaging that can map crustal movements precisely and continuously, and they
can hunt for slow, silent earthquakes with arrays of sensitive, stable strain meters.
 Geologists have learned to decipher the subtle features of the rock record that mark
prehistoric earthquakes, and they can date these events precisely enough to reconstruct the
space-time behaviour of entire fault systems.
 Laboratory and field scientists who study the microscopic processes of rock deformation are
now formulating and calibrating the scaling laws that relate their reductionistic approach to
the nonlinear dynamics of macroscopic faulting in the real Earth.

Term 2 Topics 7-8 Lamarck’s and Darwin’s Theory of evolution

Jean Baptiste de Lamarck and Charles Darwin both had speculated about the evolution
process through their theories. These two theories provide varying suggestions and obvious
differences ranging from the mechanism of evolution to the vast diversity of life on earth.
Read on to explore how these two theories were different from each other.
What is Lamarckism theory?
Lamarck proposed the inheritance of acquired characters. If the organs are used they develop
in subsequent generations and if they are not used they start to disappear.

What is the theory of Darwinism?

Darwin proposed the theory of natural selection. Only useful variations are transferred to the
succeeding generation.

Why was Lamarck’s theory disproved by Darwin?

Because all acquired traits are transferred to the next generation.

Who challenged Lamarckism?

August Weismann challenged Lamarckism with an experiment where he cut the tails of rats
for 20 generations.
Watch this video

https://study.com/learn/lesson/lamarckism-darwinism-theories-differences-traits.html

Biological evolution theories

The term evolution is defined as the change in the traits of a species over various generations.
The evolutionary theory is grounded on the concept that all species are interconnected and
moderately change over time. The current evolutionary theories can be categorized as
Darwinian and non-Darwinian (Lamarckism). Darwinism is a theory of biological evolution
given by Charles Darwin. Darwin's evolutionary theory is based on the theory of natural
selection, which stated that the individuals of a population have naturally distinct traits; those
individuals having favorable traits will best fit their environments and will be able to survive
and reproduce, passing those traits to their upcoming generations. On the other hand, a
Lamarckian evolutionary theory, given by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, explained the concept
of inheritance of acquired characteristics. According to this theory, organisms can acquire
characteristics during their lifetimes to be better suited to their environments and can pass
these characteristics to their offspring.

What is Lamarckism?
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck was a French biologist (1744-1829) and was the first person to try to
develop a logical description of the process of evolution. He was well known for his theory
of inheritance of acquired characteristics. He gave this idea in 1801, which stated that
organisms can acquire traits in their lifetime to be better suited to their environments and
these traits could be passed on to the upcoming generation.

For example, the feet of horses became tougher and rougher because they walked over the
rough ground, resulting in the fusion of the toes together to form a hoof. This acquired trait
was then passed on to the upcoming generation.

Besides the theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics, Lamarck had some other
theories, like the theory of use and disuse, which was based on the idea that the parts or
organs of organisms which they used the most during their lifetime would become more
evolved and those parts which were not used would become extinguished. Another theory
was about the increase in complexity; he thought that evolution was a process of
enhancing complexity from deceased matter towards perfection. Although many of his
ideas were inaccurate, his work in the field of evolution was still critical.

What is Darwinism?
Charles Darwin was an English biologist (1809-1882) and was well known for his donations
to evolutionary biology. He gave the idea that all categories of life have descended from
familiar ancestors. This idea is now extensively accepted and considered a foundational
notion in science. His book, On the Origin of Species, was published in 1859 in which he put
forward the theory of evolution by natural selection. In this book, he explained how living
things develop over generations through the inheritance of behavioral and physical
characteristics.

The theory stated that there would be individuals within a population of organisms that
express different traits. The different traits expressed by individual organisms within a
population are due to random genetic mutations. According to the theory, organisms with
favorable traits will master over organisms with less favorable traits. They will better fit their
environments, survive, and reproduce at higher rates, causing those traits to pass on to
future generations. Organisms with less favorable traits will be less able to survive and pass
those traits to their offspring. With time, the traits that allow individuals to survive and
reproduce will become persistent in the population, and the population will change and
evolve.
 Different beak types due to genetic
mutations.

Term 2 Topic 9 Fossils: Fossilisation process

As more layers of sediment build up on top, the sediment around the skeleton begins to
compact and turn to rock. The bones then start to be dissolved by water seeping through the
rock. Minerals in the water replace the bone, leaving a rock replica of the original bone called
a fossil.

https://australian.museum/learn/australia-over-time/fossils/how-do-fossils-form/

What is the Fossilisation Process?

Fossilisation takes place under very specific circumstances and happens over many years,
making true fossils quite rare. The remains of a dinosaur or other organism have to be
buried before they completely decompose or are eaten by scavengers. The conditions of
burial must then be suitable for the remains to leave an impression or have their organic
material replaced by minerals. Finally, the fossils must survive millions of years of pressure,
uplift, and erosion if they are to come back to the surface.

By far the most common fossil remains are those of shelled invertebrate aquatic creatures
such as snails, corals, and clams, since it was easier for them to become buried before

Fossils of land animals are scarcer than those of plants, since it was less common for them
to be buried before they were eaten or completely rotted away, especially in conditions
where they could become fossilised.

In order to become fossilised, animals must die in a watery environment and become buried
under mud and silt. Because of this, most land animals never got the chance to become
fossilised unless they die next to a water source. There may be whole genus' of animals for
which no fossil record has been discovered. We may never know how diverse these animals
were!

However, under the right conditions, the remains of a dead organism can be preserved as
minerals replace the bones, leaving a replica of the original bone structure made out of rock.
This is called a fossil.

Here's how the fossilisation process works:

1. A dinosaur or other prehistoric organism dies and is buried before the remains are
completely destroyed. Over time, the soft parts of its body decompose leaving the
hard parts, like the skeleton, behind.
 2. Over time, layers of rock and mud called sediment build up on top of the buried
organism and press down on the buried remains. As more layers of sediment build
up on top, the sediment around the skeleton begins to compact and turn to rock.

3. Dissolved minerals, transported by ground-waters in the sediment, fill tiny spaces in

the bones. Over time, the bones decompose, but the minerals in the water replace
the bone, leaving a rock replica of the original bone called a fossil.

4. The fossils remain within the rock until uncovered through erosion or excavation.
Over the years, the intense pressure and other chemical reactions may have an
effort on the fossil, warping the shape, or they could be eroded, like other kinds of
rock.

Term 2 Topic 10 Fossils, age of the earth and evolution: Fossil records, Evolution of past life and
evolution

Fossils provide solid evidence that organisms from the past are not the same as those found
today; fossils show a progression of evolution. Fossils, along with the comparative
anatomy of present-day organisms, constitute the morphological, or anatomical, record.

https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book
%3A_General_Biology_(Boundless)/18%3A_Evolution_and_the_Origin_of_Species/
18.05%3A_Evidence_of_Evolution/18.5A
%3A_The_Fossil_Record_as_Evidence_for_Evolution#:~:text=Fossils%20provide%20solid
%20evidence%20that,morphological%2C%20or%20anatomical%2C%20record.

The Fossil Record

The totality of fossils, both discovered and undiscovered, and their placement in
fossiliferous (fossil-containing) rock formations and sedimentary layers (strata) is
known as the fossil record. The fossil record was one of the early sources of data
underlying the study of evolution and continues to be relevant to the history of life
on Earth. The development of radiometric dating techniques in the early 20th
century allowed geologists to determine the numerical or “absolute” age of various
strata and their included fossils.

Evidence for Evolution

Fossils provide solid evidence that organisms from the past are not the same as
those found today; fossils show a progression of evolution. Fossils, along with the
comparative anatomy of present-day organisms, constitute the morphological, or
anatomical, record. By comparing the anatomies of both modern and extinct species,
paleontologists can infer the lineages of those species. This approach is most
successful for organisms that had hard body parts, such as shells, bones or teeth.
The resulting fossil record tells the story of the past and shows the evolution of form
over millions of years.
Term 3 Topic 8 Abiotic and biotic relationships in an ecosystem: Explain the interaction and reliance
of different organisms with each other and abiotic factors within an environmental abiotic, biotic,
environmrnt.