Agriculture is the largest contributor of any resource sector, to the economy.

It is also a large generator of waste materials.

Agriculture is also called as farming which is the cultivation of plants,

animals, fungi, and other life forms for food, fiber, biofuel, drugs and other
products used to sustain and enhance human life.

Total farmers or cultivators population of India is 118.7 million (2011)

& 144.3 million agricultural workers / labourers which consists 31.55 ot total rural
population.

India is the world’s second largest producer of the agricultural products such as
wheat, rice, sugarcane, several dry fruits and largest producer of many fresh fruits
like papaya, banana, mango, guava and vegetables (Eggplant, Potato, Pumpkin,
squash and gourd).

Rice – West Bengal

West Bengal is the largest producer of rice, fb Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and
Punjab.
Wheat – Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh is the largest Wheat producing state fb Punjab, Haryana and Madhya
Pradesh.
Cotton – Gujarat
Gujarat is the largest producer of Cotton fb Maharashtra, Telangana and
Karnataka,
The state is also is the largest producer of groundnut in India.
Sugarcane – Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer of Sugarcane fb Maharashtra, Karnataka and
Tamilnadu.
Vegetables – West Bengal
West Bengal is the largest producer of fresh Vegetables fb Uttar Pradesh, Bihar
and Madhya Pradesh.
India is among the largest producer and exported of ginger, okra
and second of potatoes, onions, cauliflowers, brinjal and Cabbages.
Jute – West Bengal
West Bengal is the largest producer of Jute fb Bihar, Assam and Andhra Pradesh.
Jute is second most important natural fibers after cotton and also the most
affordable natural fibers in the world.
Tea – Assam
 Assam is the largest producer of Tea fb West Bengal, Himachal Pradesh and other
states of North India.
Most popular tea types in India are Assam tea, Nilgiri tea, Darjeeling tea and
Kangra tea.
Coffee – Karnataka
Karnataka is the largest producer of Coffee fb Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra
Pradesh.
Karnataka is also produce Maize, tea and sunflower in large quantities.
Pulses – Madhya Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh is India’s largest pulse producing state fb UP, Maharashtra and
Rajasthan.
The state of Madhya Pradesh is also the largest producing state of Soyabean and
garlic.
Rubber – Kerala
Kerala is the largest producer of Rubber in India, followed by Tamil Nadu, North
East state of Tripura and Karnataka. The state of Kerala is also largest producer of
black pepper, small cardamom and good amount of cloves and other Indian spices
as well as exotic fruits.

Agricultural Facts

 India is the largest producer of Millet in the world and second largest producer of
Wheat and Rice/Paddy.
 India is the largest producer of Chickpea and Pulses in the world.
 India is the largest producer of Ginger and Okra in the world and second for Dry
Bean, Onion, Cabbage and other brassicas.
 India is third largest producer of Cauliflowers and Broccoli and Lettuce and
chicory.
 India is the largest producer of Wood fuel and forest products.
 India is the largest producer of Buffalo Milk and Cow Milk in the world.
 Andhra Pradesh is the largest producer of Tobacco in India, followed by Assam,
Bihar and Chhattisgarh.
 Maharashtra is the largest producer of Sugar in India as well as Cashew Nuts,
grapes and onion.
 Tamil Nadu is the largest producer of cassava in India as well as largest producer
of bananas, followed by Gujarat and Maharashtra.

 India generates 62 million tonnes of waste every year, of which less than 60% is
collected and around 15% processed. With landfills ranking third in terms of
 greenhouse gas emissions in India, and increasing pressure from the public, the
Government of India revised the Solid Waste Management after 16 years..

 The population of India crossed the 1.33 billion. With a population density of 325
per square kilometres, India’s 2.9 million square kilometre of land area holds close
to 18% of the world’s population (Census 2011). Although the administration has
tried to keep up with the burgeoning cities, either policies designed to address
basic public services have been poorly framed or the time taken to implement
policies has taken decades, thus virtually rendering them ineffective.
 The Census Department categorises urban India into six tiers, based on population.
According to the 2011 census report, there are three megacities holding a
population of 10 million or more, 53 urban agglomerations with a population of
one million or above and 468 towns with a population of 100,000 and above
(Census 2011).
 With megacities spurting a growth of 30.47% (Census 2011), India’s basic
necessities have sometimes been ignored. With an increasing focus towards
services such as water, electricity and food for the growing population, the
Indian administration has unfortunately ignored another major public
service: waste management.

Waste Generation in India

 According to the Press Information Bureau, India generates 62 million tonnes of
waste (mixed waste containing both recyclable and non-recyclable waste) every
year, with an average annual growth rate of 4% (PIB 2016). The generated waste
can be divided into three major categories: Organic (all kinds of biodegradable
waste), dry (or recyclable waste) and biomedical (or sanitary and hazardous waste).
 nearly 50% of the total waste is organic with the volumes of recyclables and
biomedical/hazardous waste growing each year as India becomes more urbanised .


Figure 1: Waste Composition of India, in Million Metric Tonnes per

annum. Source: PIB 2016
 Total Agricultural Total Agricultural Waste Generation
Country
Area∗ (Million Hectares) (Million Tonnes Per Annum)

Australia 425.44 RNA

China 552.83 56.2†

Egypt 3.53 27‡

Germany 16.9 RNA

India 179.9 RNA

Indonesia 48.5 8.65†

Nigeria 34 RNA

UK 17.6 RNA

USA 411.16 RNA

S.No Source Composition

1 Rice∗ Husk, Bran

2 Wheat† Bran, straw

3 Oat† Straw

4 Maize∗ Stover, Husk, Skins trimming, Cobs

5 Millet∗ Stovers

6 Pineapple∗ Outer peel, crown, bud ends, fruit trimming

7 Sugarcane∗ Sugarcane tops, bagasse, molasses

Waste (or wastes) are unwanted or unusable materials.
Waste is any substance which is discarded after primary use,
or is worthless
Or These are the unwanted materials left over from a production process which
has no marketable value.

Classification of Wastes
In general, the wastes maybe categorized as follows:
Solid wastes:
The solid wastes / refuse are the useless and unwanted substances discarded by
human society.
These include urban wastes, industrial wastes, agricultural wastes, biomedical
wastes and radioactive wastes.
Solid rubbish includes a variety of items found in household along with
commercial and industrial locations
Liquid wastes:
Liquid waste is commonly found both in households as well as in industries.
Wastes generated from washing, flushing or manufacturing processes of
industries are called liquid wastes / sewage.

The most common practice is to discharge it on the ground, nallahs, rivers and
other water bodies, often without any treatment.

Gaseous wastes:
These wastes are released in the form of gases from automobiles, factories,
burning of fossil fuels etc. and get mixed in the atmosphere.
These gases include carbon monoxide, CO2, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide,
ozone, methane, etc.
on the basis of their biological, chemical and physical properties
Biodegradable Wastes:
These wastes are natural organic compounds which are degraded or decomposed
by biological or microbial action.
Biodegradable wastes are generated in food processing units, cotton mills, paper
mills, sugar mills, textile factories
sewage Waste of slaughterhouses is biodegradable Most of the wastes from
these industries are reused. . . recyclable
When these wastes are in excess they act as pollutants and are not easily
decomposed and they take much time for their decomposition.

Non-Biodegradable Wastes:
These are not decomposed by microbes but are oxidized and dissociated
automatically.
Coal stone, metal scraps, sludge are generated from colliery operations Refineries
produce inert dry solids and varieties of sludge containing oil. Fly, ash is the major
solid waste from thermal power plants. Generally, these wastes are not reused
and accumulate in the ecosystem and some of it move through biogeochemical
cycles. Non-biodegradable wastes also include DDT, pesticides, lead, plastics,
mercuric salts etc.
Hazardous wastes:
Many chemical, biological, explosive or radioactive wastes, which may pose a
severe danger to human, plants or animal life and are called hazardous wastes.
They may be in the form of solids, liquids, sludge’s or gases.
• They are generated primarily by chemical production, processing and other
industrial activities.
• The important hazardous wastes are lead, mercury, cadmium, chromium, many
drugs, leather, pesticides, dye, rubber and effluents from different industries
• The hazardous waste materials may be toxic, reactive, ignitable, explosive,
corrosive, infectious or radioactive.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLID WASTES

Corrosive:
These comprise mostly acidic or alkaline wastes that corrode other materials.
These require special containers for disposal and should be separated from other
wastes as they release toxic contaminants.

Ignitability:
These are wastes that easily catch fire with a flash point less than 60°C. Such fires
not only present immediate dangers but can spread harmful particles over wide
areas.
this is waste that can create fires under certain condition, e.g. waste oils and
solvents

Reactive: these are unstable in nature, they cause explosions, toxic fumes when
heated.
These are explosive or highly reactive wastes. These undergo violent chemical
reactions and are exploded to generate heat and toxic gases.

Toxicity:
These wastes release toxins or poisonous substances
waste which are harmful or fatal when ingested or absorb.

TYPE OF SOLID WASTE

Depending on their source the solid waste may be

1. Urban or Municipal wastes

Residential waste
Commercial wastes
Institutional
2. Industrial wastes
3. Agricultural wastes
4. Mining
5. Construction and demolition
6. Radioactive substances
7. Bio-medical wastes
Urban or Municipal wastes
• The wastes, collected from the residential houses, markets, streets and
other places mostly in the urban areas and disposed of by municipal bodies
are called municipal solid wastes (MSW).
In general, the urban solid wastes are called refuse.
• The Municipal solid wastes are a mixture of paper, plastic, clothes, metals,
glass, organic matter etc. generated from households, commercial
establishments and markets.
• The proportions of different constituents vary from season to season and
place to place depending on
 life style,
 food habits,
 standard of living and
 the extent of commercial and industrial activities in the area.
• Municipal solid wastes are collected locally and the amount collected
depends upon the size and consumption of the population.
Industrial Wastes:
Industrial wastes are released from chemical plants, paint industries,
cement factories, power plants, metallurgical plants, mining operations,
textile industries, food processing industries petroleum industries and
thermal power plants. These industries produce different types of waste
products .Industrial solid wastes can be classified into two groups.
• Non-hazardous wastes:
These wastes are produced from food processing plants, cotton mills, paper
mills, sugar mills and textile industries.
• Hazardous wastes:
Hazardous wastes are generated by nearly every industry.
Metals, chemical, drugs, lather, pulp, electroplating, dye, rubber are some
of important examples.
Liquid Industrial waste that runs into a stream from a factory can kill the
aquatic fauna and also cause health problems for humans.
Commercial Wastes:
• With the advancement of modern cities, industries and automobiles, huge
amount of wastes are generated daily from markets, roads, buildings,
hotels, commercial complexes, hostels, auto workshops, printing press etc.
• Many chemicals and disposable items are also produced from these units.

Mining: The wastes generated by mining activities disturb the physical,

chemical and biological features of the land and atmosphere. The wastes include
the overburden material, mine tailings (the waste left after ore has been
extracted from rock), harmful gases released by blasting etc.
Radioactive substances: Although every precaution is taken in the
functioning and maintenance of nuclear reactors, yet it has been observed that
measurable amount of radioactive waste material escapes into the environment.
Other sources of radioactive wastes are from mining of radioactive substances
and atomic explosion etc.
Bio-medical wastes: Wastes, which are produced from the hospitals, medical
centres and nursing homes are called bio-medical wastes.
These wastes are highly infectious which include used bandages, infected needles,
animal remains, cultures, amputated body organs, dead human foetuses, wastes
of surgery and other materials from biological research centres.
Pharmacies discard out-dated and unused drugs;
testing laboratories dispose of chemical wastes which are hazardous in the
environment.

Agricultural waste : Nature and Characteristics

Waste produced as a result of various agricultural operations
Agricultural Waste is unwanted or unsalable materials produced wholly from
agricultural operations directly related to the growing (production and harvest) of
crops or trees or raising of animals / aquaculture for the primary purpose of
making a profit or for a livelihood.
Agricultural wastes are defined as the residues from the growing and
processing of raw agricultural products such as fruits, vegetables, meat,
poultry, dairy products, and crops.
They are the non-product outputs of production and processing of
agricultural products that may contain material that can benefit man but
whose economic values are less than the cost of collection, transportation,
and processing for beneficial use.
Their composition will depend on the system and type of agricultural
activities
They can be in the form of liquids, slurries, or solids.
Agricultural waste otherwise called agro-waste is comprised of
 animal waste (manure), , bedding and litter, wasted feed and waste water,
effluent from buildings, animal carcasses from dairy, piggery, poultry
manure and other wastes from farms, poultry houses and slaughterhouses
  crop residue/ harvest waste / organic waste (corn stalks, sugarcane
bagasse, drops and culls from fruits and vegetables, prunings)
 Food processing waste (only 20% of maize is canned and 80% is
waste), factory waste (s/cane bagasse)
 fertilizer run-off from fields
 hazardous and toxic agricultural waste (pesticides, insecticides and
herbicides, etc). pesticides that enter into and contaminate water, air or
soils.
Among pesticides chlorinated hydrocarbons, DDT, BHC, endrin, dieldrin,
lindane, parathion, malathion and endosulphan are important which are
absorbed by the soil and contaminate crops grown in the soil.

 farm yard manures , spent mushroom compost , soiled water

and silage effluent
 salt and silt drained from fields

AGRICULTURAL WASTE GENERATION

Estimates of agricultural waste arising are rare, but they are generally thought of as
contributing a significant proportion of the total waste matter in the developed
world.

Expanding agricultural production has naturally resulted in increased quantities of

livestock waste, agricultural crop residues and agro-industrial by-products. There is
likely to be a significant increase in agricultural wastes globally if developing
countries continue to intensify farming systems.

It is estimated that about 998 million tonnes of agricultural waste is produced

yearly.

Organic wastes can amount up to 80 percent of the total solid wastes generated in
any farm of which manure production can amount up to 5.27 kg/day/1000 kg live
weight, on a wet weight basis.

Agricultural development is usually accompanied by wastes from the

irrational application of intensive farming methods and the abuse of
chemicals used in cultivation,
remarkably affecting rural environments in particular
and the global environmental in general.
The waste generated is dependent on the type of agricultural activities
carried out.

Source
Generally, agricultural wastes are generated from a number of sources notably
from cultivation, livestock and aquaculture. ...

Wastes from Cultivation Activities

While tropical climate is favorable for growing crops, it also supports the
generation and development of insects and weeds. This situation creates a
high demand for pesticides in order to kill insects and protect against the
spread of epidemic diseases; this need often lead to the abuse of pesticides
by farmers.
After using pesticides, most of the bottles and packages holding these
pesticides are thrown into fields or ponds. According to an estimate made
by the Plant Protection Department (PPD), about 1.8% of the chemicals
remain in their packaging [4].These wastes have the potential to cause
unpredictable environmental consequences such as food poisoning, unsafe
food hygiene and contaminated farmland due to their potentially lasting
and toxic chemicals.
In addition to this, existing stagnant or unused pesticides and pesticide
packages with residue from the original contents poses serious
environmental consequence in that they could be stored or buried in the
wrong way which may leak or enter the environment through osmosis and
thereby affecting the environment.
In agricultural production, fertilizers play an important role in
maintaining the productivity and quality of plants. Inorganic fertilizer is
inexpensive and characterized by high productivity.
However, many farmers apply more fertilizer to their crops than the
amount needed by the plants . The serious consequence of such an
excessive application of fertilizer is that it is used to the point of abuse in
order to increase the annual agricultural output.
The rate of absorption of such fertilizer compounds (nitrogen, phosphorus,
and potassium) varies depending on the land characteristics, plant types,
and method of fertilization.
Among the fertilizer excess,
-a portion is retained in the soil,
-a portion enters ponds, lakes and/or rivers as a result of either surface
runoff or the irrigation system adopted, which results in the pollution of
surface water;
-a portion enters the ground water,
-and a portion evaporates or becomes de- nitrated, causing air pollution.

Generation of crop residues in India

India is an agrarian economy. A vast majority of land is used for farming and a
wide range of crops are cultivated in its different agro-ecological regions.. There is
a wide variability in the generation of crop residues and their use across different
regions of the country depending on the crops grown, cropping intensity and
productivity of these crops.

The generation of crop residues is highest in Uttar Pradesh (60 Mt) followed by
Punjab (51 Mt) and Maharashtra (46 Mt).

• Among different crops,

-cereals generate maximum residues (352 Mt),
-followed by fibres (66 Mt),
-oilseeds (29 Mt),
-pulses (13 Mt) and
-sugarcane (12 Mt) .
 The cereal crops (rice, wheat, maize, millets) contribute 70% .
-rice crop alone contributes 34% to the crop residues
-Wheat ranks second with 22% of the crop residues
  fibre crops contribute 13% to the crop residues
-Among fibres, cotton generates maximum (53 Mt) with 11% of crop
residues.
-Coconut ranks second among fibre crops with generation of 12 Mt of
residues.
 Sugarcane residues comprising of tops and leaves, generate 12 Mt, i.e., 2%
of the crop residues in India.

Fig. 1. Residue generation by different crops in India (calculated from MNRE, 2009)

 Generation of crop residues of cereals is also highest in Uttar Pradesh (53 Mt),
followed by Punjab (44 Mt) and West Bengal (33 Mt).
 Maharashtra contributes maximum to the generation of residues of pulses (3 Mt)
 while residues from fibre crops are dominant in Andhra Pradesh (14 Mt).
 Gujarat and Rajasthan generate about 6 Mt each of residues from oilseed crops

However, a large portion of the residues is burnt on-farm primarily to clear the
field for sowing of the succeeding crop intensifying in recent years due to
• shortage of human labour,
• high cost of removing the crop residues by conventional methods and
• use of combines for harvesting of crops.
urning of crop residues and scarcity of fodder coexists in this country, leading to
significant increase in prices of fodder in recent years. Industrial demand for
crop residues is also increasing.
approximately 500-550 Mt of crop residues are produced per year in the country
A part is used for
• animal feeding,
• soil mulching,
• bio-manure making,
• thatching for rural homes and
• fuel for domestic and industrial use

Waste from livestock activities

 solid waste such as manure and organic materials in the slaughterhouse;

 wastewater such as urine, cage wash water, wastewater from the bathing of
animals and from maintaining sanitation in slaughterhouses;
 air pollutants such as H2S and CH4; and odors.

The pollution caused by livestock production is a serious problem since most of

them are usually built around residential areas.

Air pollution includes odors emanating from cages resulting from the digestion
process of livestock wastes; the putrefaction process of organic matter in manure;
animal urine, and/or from redundant foods. The intensity of the smell depends on
animal density, ventilation, temperature, and humidity. The proportion of NH3,
H2S, and CH4 varies along with the stages of the digestion process and also
depends on organic materials, the components of foods, microorganisms, and the
status of the animals’ health.

This untreated and non reusable waste source can generate greenhouse gases while
also having negative effects on the fertility of the soil and causing water pollution.

In livestock waste, water volume accounts for 75–95% of total volume, while the
rest includes organic matter, inorganic matter, and many species of
microorganisms and parasite eggs. Those germs and substances can spread
diseases to humans and cause many negative effects on the environment.

Waste from Aquaculture

The growth in aquaculture has led to an increase in the use of feeds for
improved production.

The amount of feed used determines the quantity of waste generated.

One of the major wastes generated in aquaculture is metabolic waste

which could be dissolved or suspended. In a properly managed farm,
approximately 30% of the feed used will become solid waste.

Feeding rates are dependent on the ambient temperature. Increase in

temperature results in increased feeding which gives rise to increased
generated waste.

Water flow patterns in production units are important for waste

management because a proper flow will minimize the fragmentation of
fish faeces and allow for rapid settling and concentration of the settlable
solids. This can be critical because a high percentage of non-fragmented
faeces can be quickly captured which will greatly reduce the dissolved
organic waste.