Professional Documents
Culture Documents
o Engineering
Vertical Farming – allows growth in suburban settings, space
conscious. Uses natural light and is energy efficient, all year-round
crop.
- Quality assurance
Quality assurance is the responsibility of every person involved with the production of a
food product. All foods are checked against a standard during production to ensure safety.
Quality control is measuring characteristics, comparing to standards, and acting on any
differences that occur. Quality assurance (whole company) is the ultimate aim of quality
control (individual/part of company) – all parts of company working together to maintain
consistency of quality products.
- Consumer influences
The AFI is responding the everchanging needs of consumers with the production of food
which can be:
o Varied in cost, from generic to gourmet > Caters to people of all
socioeconomic status
o Single serve products > caters to single people or those living alone
o Microwave meals > caters to those who are looking for a premade meal or
quick meal
o Ready to eat meals > Caters to busy lifestyles and those wanting to eat on
the go
o Nutritionally enhanced (functional foods) > Caters to consumer health
issues
The demand for increased convenience has led to more flexible shopping hours and self-
serve options.
- Impact on environment
The AFI has played a largely negative role in impacting the environment, causing waterway
pollution from chemical runoff, which can cause poisoning of animals and other plants.
Erosion, land exhaustion, food and water wastage, packaging waste and salinity are all
issues stemming from the AFI, along with issues in the transport of food such as emissions
and heavy use of fossil fuels.
- Impact on economy
The AFI is the largest manufacturing industry in Australia, as well as the largest employer in
the country. Australia has a large presence in exporting, which is beneficial to our economy
in the money it brings into the country and the large international presence it holds. Food
accounts for nearly 50% of all retailing turn over in Australia.
While the AFI employs a large percentage of Australians, the new and ever improving
presence of technology is slowly reducing jobs in the physically demanding all sectors of the
AFI. While also being a negative, technology is opening up new doorways for new jobs in
new areas, such as R&D, which can be beneficial to the company’s and Australia’s economy.
- Impact on society
Food and food production influence the way we live, and vice versa. The changing lifestyles
of Aussies and societal behaviours affect food production and food choices. Multiculturalism
in Australia is growing, therefore enhancing a more multicultural diet for all ethnicities and
races. Lifestyle changes play a major role in the foods we choose, a more active and faster
paced lifestyle that more Aussies choose convenience foods, like Up ‘n’ Go’s.
Working conditions vary due to the nature of the job, the level of employment and level of
operation. In a physical sense, you may be required to wear coats and glasses in a lab, be
exposed to cold working in a butcher shop or the elements, like wind, sun or rain if working
outdoors, such as a fruit picker.
- Advisory groups
Governments are advised by independent organisations on the development of policies and
legislation. This can be in the form of business groups (Australian Dairy Corporation), groups
that advise specific issues (National Heart Foundation), an independent body that is able to
make and change laws relating to food (FSANZ) and a group that protects local food supply
against contamination (AQIS)
- FSANZ
An independent legislative body established by Food Standards Australia and New Zealand
Act 1991, standardizes food laws.
o FSANZ:
Develops standards for what is in our food
Develop food labelling laws
Set standards on food safety issues
Develops risk assessment policies for imported food
o Product recall
FSANZ has responsibility for product recall, each business within the food industry
must have an overall product recall management plan in place. Recalls may happen
because of toxic chemicals, foreign bodies or harmful micro-organisms.
o Codes of practice
FSANZ develops non-binding agreements that businesses in a certain sector are encouraged
to follow. This allows consumers to make informed choices via nutrient claims on labels and
ads, etc
- Trade Policy
The policy of free trade aims to remove trade barriers concerning imports and
exports. This is done by:
o Reducing tariffs
o Raising quotas
o Eliminating subsidies
o Establishing Free trade agreements with other countries
Imports – allow for greater competition in the marketplace and increased variety for
the consumer. An increase in imports often come because of shortfall in local
production. E.g. imported bananas after plantations are affected in cyclones.
Australia’s multicultural society reflects the demand for ethnic and specialty foods.
Exports – increases the global market share of profits that can come back to
Australia, beneficial to Australia’s economy.
- Legislation
FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IMPORTED FOOD CONTROL HACCAP
ACT 1991 ACT 1992
Conducts domestic and Ensures compliance of TRADE PRACTICES ACT
foreign compliance in order imports with Australian food - Restrictive trade
to protect valuable FSANZ standards practices
resources. This includes o Misuse of market
catch limits to avoid power
overfishing and regulations
on fishing method to assure FEDERAL o Exclusive dealings
o Resale price
sustainability maintenance
EXPORT CONTROL ACT 1982 o Price
Protects Australia’s animal, discrimination
GENE TECHNOLOGY ACT 2001
plant and human health - Unreasonable conduct
The gene technology act regulates
status while maintaining - Consumer protection
dealings with genetically modified
market access for exports of - Compensation of
foods, in order to protect the health
food and other products. defective goods
and safety of individuals, and also
aims to protect the environment.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HEALTH ACT
FERTILISERS ACT 1985 AND SAFTEY ACT 2000 Regulated by each state or
Ensures unsafe levels of heavy metals and other Protects the health, safety territory. Covers:
soil contaminants do not contaminate food. IT and welfare of people at - Personal hygiene
also covers protection of exported food work. Employers have to - General sanitary
products to comply with containment levels. follow a code of practice conditions
which helps reduce work- - Pest control
FOOD ACT 2003 related accidents. - Management of
Enforces food standards and hygiene infectious disease
regulations in the food industry. This - Storage, slaughter
deals with areas such as false STATE and sale of meat.
description, unlawful practices and false
advertising.
PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT OPERATIONS ACT 1997
Applies to the noise produced during food processing and is
enforced by the environment protection authority.
LOCAL
CODES FOR INSPECTION OF FOOD AND
APPOINTEMNET OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH FOOD PREMISES
OFFICERS (EHOs) Local councils form their own codes for
An environmental health officer can be appointed as inspection of food and food premises. The
food surveillance officer aligned with the Food Act. code covers the regularity of inspection by
The officer is responsible for routine inspection of all officers and exemption of any food premises.
food premises in the local area.
CODES FOR CONSTRUCTION AND ALTERATION OF FOOD PREMISES
Formed by individual councils. This covers:
- Building materials used in food premises
- Instillation guidelines for fixtures and equipment such as ovens and refrigerators, toilets, ventilation and
windows.
- Legislative requirements for packaging and labelling
The Food Standards Code sets labelling standards to ensure consumers are provide
with corrects information and safe food through proper packaging. Other acts
include:
o The State Trade Measurement Act enforces correct labelling of weight of
food
o The Trade Practices Act ensures that imported foods have the correct
country of origin on the label and prohibits misleading and deceptive
conduct.
- Food labelling
Food labelling focuses on 3 areas:
o Statements or words that must appear on a label
o Statements or words that must not appear on a label
o Statements or words that may appear on a label under certain
circumstances
Labelling legislation requires that:
o Labels must be of legible, of uniform size and in English
o Labels are accurate e.g. strawberry yogurt must actually contain
strawberries
o Labels must have manufacturers address
o Major allergens are identified
o A nutritional panel is required
o Food additives are to be listed by its class name followed by specific name
o Ingredients must be in descending order
Restrictions on labels:
o No misleading trade names
o No false nutritional claims or ones that don’t adhere to food code
guidelines
o No words, statements or designs which could be interpreted as advice of
medical nature
o ‘Health’ cannot be used in the name of any food
FOOD MANUFACTURE – TERM 2
Heating
o Conduction – direct contact with a hot surface e.g. frying
o Convection – the movement of hot liquid around the food e.g. boiling
o Radiation – a heat source directly above it heats the food without touching it
e.g. baking
o HTST – High temp, short time. Food is heated to a high temp quickly in order
to destroy pathogenic bacteria e.g. pasteurisation of milk
o UHT – Ultra heat treatment. Used to make milk that doesn’t need
refrigerating, milk is heated to 140˚C to kill all heat resistant bacteria.
Cooling – reduction of temperature, slows down activity of microorganisms and
enzymes, therefore slows food spoilage. E.g. blast chillers, refrigerator
Freezing – used to change water content into ice, making it impossible for
microbial growth or enzyme activity.
o Air blast freezers – cold air at high velocities e.g. meats
o Plate freezers – food freezes with direct contact to plate e.g. fish
o Tunnel freezers – quick freezing, food is moved through a tunnel and
blast frozen. E.g. used on high volume products
o Immersion/snap freezing – bringing a product into contact with a low
temp refrigerant, like liquid nitrogen. E.g. berries
Evaporation – changing the liquid in a food to a steam or vapour. E.g. tomato
juice into paste, oven, industrial, evaporator
Dehydration – reduces the moisture content of a food which limits microbial
growth. Most fruits and vegetables are blanched prior to preserve colour and
deactivate surface enzymes.
o Cabinet drying – placing product on wooden trays in a confined space
with circulating hot air. Fruits, vegetables, herbs.
o Tunnel drying – product travels on an automated system that dries the
product. Fruits, vegetables, meats.
o Sun drying – food is left in the sun to dry, slow, labour intensive process.
E.g. tomatoes.
o Spray drying - liquid products are dried through an atomiser, producing a
powder or fine product, e.g. instant coffee
Production systems used in the manufacture of food, e.g. small scale, large scale,
manual, automated, computerised
Large scale – Used in large production operations, utilises a production line which
includes raw material inspections, storage and distribution and the actual
process of making the product. This produces large volumes in short times.
Small scale – Used on a domestic level, less complex in operation. Commonly a
household or small business level.
Manual – A worker is physically manipulating the product, more common in
small scale production as is time consuming and unrealistic for large quantities
and high chance of error in production.
Automated - Machines handle and control the processing, from raw materials to
the final product. An efficient, controlled process that minimises error.
Computerised – Sensors are used to undergo more complex production systems,
allows computers to respond to variations in raw materials and conditions.
Flow Diagrams – A method of visually representing the food production process. This allows
the process to be analysed for effectiveness and CCP can be identified.
: Operation – Operations are when raw materials are deliberately changed, physically or
chemically E.g. peeling an apple
Inspection – The product is compared to a standard. E.g. recording pasteurization
temperature
Transportation – Move materials from one place to another. E.g. fork-lifting apple
pallets
D Delay – conditions don’t allow next step of process to occur, or next production step that
doesn’t happen immediately. E.g. shortcomings in process design, wait for yeast react
Storage – The product is kept under controlled conditions before selling. E.g. canned
beans on shelf
2 symbols are used when 2 operations are carried out at once. E.g. Inspect the product
while being baked
Food safety is a major quality assurance issue, quality management strategies and OHS
techniques are used to ensure safety of food for consumers and work conditions for
workers.
OH&S – manufacturers need to be aware of potential accidents for workers, which means
by law, they must:
Instruct or train about safety issues
Provide well maintained equipment
Provide a safe environment, in line with the Occupational Health and
Safety act 2000. E.g. washrooms, lighting, ventilation, first aid, etc.
Employees must comply with OH&S too:
Take care of the health and safety of themselves and others
Wear correct PPE
Use equipment as instructed, in a safe manner
Provide notification of accidents.
Preservation
Reasons for preserving foods, e.g. safety, acceptability, nutritive value, availability
and economic viability
Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food to stop or slow spoilage,
therefore allowing food to last longer.
Reasons for preservations
Safety – Ensures food is safe and free from harmful microorganisms that can cause illness
Availability – Makes perishable foods available all year round, greater diet variety
Acceptability – Keeps food in an acceptable state for the consumer, reducing food waste
Nutritional value – retains nutritional value
Economic viability – achieves economic viability for producers by reducing seasonal
fluctuations in availability.
Causes of food deterioration and spoilage (MEE):
— Microbial contamination (mould, yeast and bacteria)
Yeasts, viruses, mould and bacteria can all cause food to spoil, may be pathogenic which
means they have potential to make consumers ill, therefore need to be controlled.
Microorganisms favour warm and moist conditions, when conditions are optimal, they
multiply. E.g. mouldy bread, slimy meat.
— Environmental factors (infestation, oxygen, light and water)
Insects and rodents can cause infestations, therefore spoiling food via bacteria
transmission (rats in fresh produce). Contaminated water may also be a cause of food
spoilage (bacteria can transfer when washing produce), as is over exposure to oxygen
(can cause enzymatic reactions). Light can also be another factor (light exposure causes
chemical build-up on the skin of potatoes, they can begin to sprout)
— Enzymatic activity
Enzymes are found in fruits, vegetables and meats, it is a substance produced by a living
organism and don’t affect the safety of the food. In fruits and vegetables, it causes over
ripening and loss of turgor due to tissue decomposition. E.g. apple turning brown
production facilities
Production facilities vary in size, scale and technologies based on the scale of the
business, and large companies usually combine a mix of production technologies,
primarily automated. Bigger the production facilities > more produce > more profit.
Mass production – simple procedures, usually the assembly of premade
components and uses advanced technology.
Continuous production – 24/7 production. Used by multinational companies
Batch production – smaller quantities, small/household scale. Low production
volumes, low efficiency and relatively high costs
One-off production – commissioned pieces, usually small/home business.
financial position
Affects the machinery and equipment that can be bought, as well as the company’s
ability to compete in the marketplace. Financial includes assets, cash flow, market share,
interest rates, product range etc. Having a strong financial position is a massive
advantage.
company image
Public perception of the company is important in ensuring consumers engage with
products. This can be enhanced through marketing, campaigns, partnerships, labelling,
market availability etc. Companies should consider consequences before changing its
image, for example a home brand company entering the luxury market is unlikely to do
well and have a poor perception.
societal changes including increasing ageing population, single person households and
longer working hours
Ageing population > more foods being designed to cater to older people e.g. easy to
open packaging, softer, easier to chew foods.
Longer working hours > people are looking for quick and easy meals to prepare at
home (microwave meals, meal kits) and foods to eat on the go (snack bars and pre-
cut fruit cups)
Single person households > increase in single serve meals, heat and eat options.
market research
Asking consumers their needs/wants, asking what they already like. They draw
conclusions from data received
Data from research includes collection of internal data, market intelligence, market
research, and assessment of current operations
Market research on a particular market segment provides info on market size,
demographics, geographic location, reasons for buying, shopping times, shopping
method, product popularity, brand loyalty
Research conducted through face to face or telephone surveys, discussion
groups/focus groups, field reports (observing sales, competitor strategies,
competitor shares). This is primary research
Research can also be from published research (secondary research), e.g. other
organisations, universities
product specifications
Accurate, comprehensive description of what manufacture plans to deliver in
product
It’s a benchmark/standard for consumers, listing raw materials and ingredients,
quantity of each for specific batch size, source of raw materials, and raw material
constraints under Aussie Food Standards
Also describes packaging dimensions, materials, labelling, storage conditions
feasibility study
Establishes whether idea is profitable
Financial feasibility
o Determines if company will achieve a break-even point (when sales balance
expenses)
o Market research reduces chance of being too optimistic/underestimating
sales
Technical feasibility
o Ability of company to make new product using existing resources: raw
materials, workspace, human resources, equipment
o It includes: Availability of ingredients (ingredients at good price, steady
supply, correct quality), any new processes and new machinery, time and
money obtaining ingredient approval, processes ensuring microbiological
safety
development of a prototype
Trial product
Extensive experiments carried out for safety, which ensures consistent production,
and to assess variables that may affect finished product. E.g. packaging materials
that need to withstand production process
After food technologists’ experiment to produce ‘best’ product, recipe is batch sized
testing product prototype, e.g. sensory evaluation, consumer testing, packaging tests,
storage trials
Few products make it to final testing stage, it’s tested in the labs
The new product needs to be tested to determine if it satisfies food standards
Packaging tests determine shelf life under various storage conditions, package
strength, and other characteristics specific to the product. E.g. carton boxes should
withstand physical stress and temperature effects
Consumer Tests with focus groups often prompt changes to the product. Tests can
also be public for a limited time to determine sales
Marketing plans
product planning
Introduction is the most intense and costly, requiring
lots of marketing and promotion, growth is where sales
grow rapidly, in maturity the market share becomes
stable, growth may slow down and the competition is
more intense, and in decline, sales decline and income
decreases, causing companies to make radical changes
and new developments in order to stay relevant.
Examples of failed products: Vegemite chocolate, Coke life, Heinz e.g. squirt ketchup
price structure
The product price depends on what the target market is prepared to pay. Certain
characteristics of a target market include; age, gender, socioeconomic level, family size and
education.
It is assumed the lower the price, the higher the demand. To encourage more people to buy
the product, the product price must be lower than the competitors.
Penetration Pricing: The product price is below that of competitors for long enough to
obtain a foothold (secure position) in the market.
When is it used?
When a company enters a new market segment for the first time, when a me-too product is
being launched or when it is hoped that the product will be around for long time.
Price Skimming: A product is sold at a relatively high price at first, and the price falls over
time.
When is it used?
New-to-the world or line extension that has no other competition.
The only one on the market and without a substitute.
‘Positioned’ as an exclusive, high-status brand. Consumers assume that a high price
means high quality.
Not expected to have a long-life cycle.
Competitive Pricing (aka status quo pricing): The price is set to match that of the
competition.
When is it used?
Used by market leaders (a company selling the largest quantity of a particular product) and
at places like Paddy’s Market where all the fruit and vegetable sellers charge much the same
price for their goods.
Distribution refers to the process of moving the product from the producer to the
consumer.
1. Warehousing: Depending on the location of customers, warehouses can be located
at one central place or in different parts of the State and/or country.
2. Materials Handling: This refers to the forklifts, conveyor belts and other methods
that move the cartons of product from the storage area to pallets ready for shipping.
3. Inventory Control: Relates to checking stock. This is essential because it ensures the
quality of the product and quick filling of orders. Holding too much stock is expensive.
4. Order Processing: This involves the handling and filling of orders, processing of
accounts and collection of credit payments. When stock is low, it is automatically re-
ordered.
5. Transportation: The type of transportation used - air, water, rail, road - depends
on the type of product, the distances to be covered and the nature of the product.
promotional program
Promotion includes advertising, personal selling, publicity and public relations, sales
promotions (sales, in store tasting, product giveaways)
Advertising can take the form of magazines, newspapers, radio, tv, signage, social media,
point of purchase signage and packaging.
Sales promotions and demos include coupons, free samples, contests, cash back offers.
Gondola ends are located at the ends of isles in hotspots, often with sale products. Off
locations displays are also sales promotion, e.g. meat seasonings and sauces displayed next
to cuts of meats.
Promotional activities include a salesperson assisting a person to choose one product over
another (personal selling), using media and influencers to promote a product (publicity) and
sponsorships of teams, schools, charities as a way to create a positive public image (public
relations)
Under nutrition - One or more nutrients are lacking in the diet, e.g. carbohydrates
containing fibre, minerals or water. Conditions linked to this include anorexia nervosa,
bulimia nervosa, diverticulitis, anaemia, osteoporosis.
Condition Cause Physical Effects Economic Effects
Anorexia Psychological disorder that ○ Muscle wastage ○ Expensive rehabilita
Nervosa involves extreme self- ○ Abnormally low body weight centres
induced weight loss through ○ Absence of consecutive ○ Counselling
restricted eating and menstrual cycle ○ Medication
excessive exercise. Can be ○ Low blood pressure ○ Hospitalisation
caused by: ○ Anaemia
○ Peer/media influence ○ Fainting
○ Low self-esteem ○ Nutritional deficiency
○ Existing mental health
issues
Bulimia Psychological disorder that ○ Side effects from frequent ○ Expensive rehabilita
Nervosa involves binge eating, vomiting: centres
commonly followed by self- - tooth decay ○ Counselling
induced vomiting, misuse of - burns from stomach acid to ○ Medication
laxatives or excessive throat, gums and mouth ○ Hospitalisation
exercise. Can be caused by: ○ Nutritional deficiency
○ Peer/media influence
○ Low self-esteem
○ Existing mental health
issues
While there are many individual costs, the costs for society include:
Strain on the health system: Increased need for hospital beds, private beds,
psychological services, rehab services and community services
Workplaces: Loss of productivity when workers have to take time off sick
Educational costs: Increased costs to educate about diseases and disorders
Downstream costs: more money is being directed downstream, instead of upstream on
prevention.
Government allowances: More people will rely on government allowances and
subsidies.
the role of the individual, community groups, the food industry, government
organisations and private agencies in promoting health
Government – Poor food choices not only harm the individual, but the health care system,
therefore it is more cost effective to promote healthy eating than deal with the
consequences financially. This may look like:
Writing policies and strategic plans outlining priorities – e.g. Australian dietary
guidelines, Nutrition strategy and action plan
Implementing health promotion campaigns – e.g. Australian guide to healthy
eating
Developing and funding preventative programs, such as addressing high cost of
fresh food in remote areas
Liaising with other govt. organisations – FSANZ, the national Health & Medical
Research Council, Aust. Institute of Health & Welfare
Health NSW - “We support the executive and statutory roles of the NSW Minister for
Health and Medical Research and monitor the performance of the NSW public health
system, known as NSW Health. Our vision is for everyone in NSW Health to work together to
achieve “Healthy People - now and in the future”.
Our goals are to:
keep people healthy
provide the health care that people need
deliver high quality services and
manage health services well.”
Food Industry – There is increasing competition for market share, therefore companies will
only manufacture healthy foods if consumers want them. Food regulations assist in the
control of labelling, food safety and use of particular processes or ingredients that affect the
health of consumers. Food retailers may be involved in marketing to help inform their
customers about heathy eating.
Community groups and private agencies – Community group example: The Heart
Foundation
They are dedicated to reducing the impact of CVD, with key focus areas including helping
Australians to achieve a healthy weight, to identify warning signs of heart attack and help
Australians to have improved access to prevention and treatments. Their tick of approval on
certain foods help guide shoppers to healthier foods.
Private agencies and community groups shape consumer perception and guide the food
industry. They watch manufacturers’ products and claims then publish the information to
the public, e.g. Australian Consumers Association uses Choice Magazine. Public voice is also
spread to companies, e.g. genetic engineering, healthy foods.
Individual – Consumers have the ultimate responsibility over their choices, regardless of the
advisory from the government and the food industry. Their own education, geography, SES
and the availability of products will have significant influence over the foods bought. It is up
to the consumer to interpret food labels/advertising etc with care as they may be
misleading.
Companies respond to the everchanging consumer demand as ultimately the consumers are
the ones buying the product, so if what they want is there, they will buy it, and the company
makes money and gains market share. More commonly, NMF and FF are becoming a part of
consumer demands because of their positive influence on health. Some examples of
consumer demands include:
Low fat milk
Vitamin/mineral enriched juices (e.g. calcium added to OJ)
Fibre enriched cereals
Protein enriched breads
Reduced sugar in sweets – e.g. cakes and lollies with lower levels of fat/sugar
FF and NMF foods that meet the dietary concerns of consumers – vegan, vego, halal,
kosher etc.
Leaner meat cuts
the role of ‘active non-nutrients’ in the diet, e.g. phytochemicals, probiotics and fibre
Active non-nutrients – not essential for life but can enhance the functioning of the body or
contribute to the promotion of good health.
Fibre - Fibre is found only in plant foods and includes a variety of gels, gums and
indigestible carbs that swell and absorb moisture in your gut, making for softer
faecal matter. Keeps the gut healthy by stimulating the muscle contractions
(peristalsis) that keep the gut contents moving effectively. The contents of your
body moves through quicker, reducing the time that toxins are in contact with gut
cells. May reduce cell damage and protect against some types of cancers. Fibre acts
as fuel for beneficial bacteria to multiply, protecting against infection and producing
substances that the body can use, such as vitamin K and some B group vitamins.
o Soluble fibre – the type that dissolves in the gut, digested by bacteria in the
colon. Helps aid the feelings of satiety, slowing the rate that the stomach
empties. Can help to reduce cholesterol levels. Found in peas, oats, apples,
citrus fruits, beans, barley.
o Insoluble fibre – remains mostly unchanged in the gut, it is the main
promoter of movement through the gut and helps protect cells from
damage. Found in beans, whole wheat products, nuts, cauliflower
Antioxidants – Antioxidants are phytochemicals. There are at least 8000 different
naturally occurring antioxidants in fruits, vegetables and other plant sources. The
most significant are vitamin E, vitamin C, beta-carotene and other carotenoids.
Antioxidants are widely used as ingredients in dietary supplements for health
purposes, i.e. neutralizing free radical action thus preventing cancers, controlling
cholesterol levels, improving cardiovascular health
o Flavonoids and carotenoids – the colour compounds found in fruit and veg
o Vitamin E – the most involved in controlling blood cholesterol levels. Acts to
stop low density-lipoproteins from breaking apart and depositing cholesterol
along blood vessels. e.g. nuts, seeds, vegetable oils, leafy greens.
Phyto-oestrogens – Category of phytochemicals, a substance converted by bacteria
in the gut to a hormone-like compound which can mimic oestrogen. Many benefits,
especially for women in menopause as it can reduce symptoms. Improved CV health
as they can stop the oxidisation of LDL, assist in the reduction of cancer risks
stimulated by sex hormones (breast, prostate cancer). The most significant sources
are isoflavonoids – found in fruit, nuts, seeds and vegetables, with the most
powerful source being soybeans and lignans – found in grains and seeds, the most
prominent source is linseeds.
Omega-3 Fatty acids - Omega-3 fatty acids can be converted to hormone-like
substances called prostaglandins that are directly involved with the correct
functioning of the cardiovascular system. The prostaglandins that are in omega-3
have anti-inflammatory properties, helping to reduce CVD by reducing the
formation of clots in the blood stream, protecting against rhythm disorders, helping
correct blood vessel function. Important in brain function. Fish and fish oils are the
best sources, comprised of DHA and EPA (docosahexaenoic acid and
eicosapentaenoic acid), while plant sources mostly provide ALA (alpha linolenic
acid), such as canola oil, sunflower seed oil and flaxseed oil.
Probiotics – The name for beneficial gut flora that help us maintain good health and
contributes to the nutrition of gut cells. Probiotics are added to foods to promote
good health, as normal gut flora cannot be used as probiotics as it wouldn’t survive
the journey to the colon. Sources of probiotics include yogurt and Yakult.
Food allergy – When the body responds to a specific protein (allergen) and
incorrectly identifies it as a dangerous foreign protein. Antibodies are then produced
to fight this ‘dangerous’ protein, causing a reaction that is anything between mild
and life threatening. Common allergies include – peanuts, shellfish, tree nuts, gluten,
dairy, eggs, wheat and soy. Symptoms may look like wheezing, coughing, swelling of
the airways, rash, stomach pain. Skin prick testing is used to confirm an allergy, a
controlled amount of a certain substance thought to trigger the reaction is used in a
skin prick to test the reaction. If this fails, a food challenge can commence, where
the individual consumes the suspected allergen in a controlled environment and the
reaction is observed. FSANZ requires all products to outline allergens or possible
traces to ensure safety for consumers.
Food intolerance – different to an allergy as the response does not involve the
immune system and the body is not reacting to a single protein, but to other
chemicals found widely in a variety of foods, sometimes requiring a large amount to
trigger a reaction. It occurs when a person has difficulty digesting a particular food.
Sometimes a food intolerance may be triggered by food chemicals.
o Salicylates - Group of chemicals found in all plant foods - many fruits and
vegetables, spices, herbs, nuts, tea, coffee. Also used as an additive in foods
and used in eucalyptus and peppermint flavoured products.
o Amines - Group of chemicals that are found in cheeses, processed meats,
beer and wines. Also found in some fruit, vegetables (bananas, tomatoes,
avocadoes) and also in chocolate.
o Glutamate - One of the amino acids. Found naturally in plants and animals. It
provides part of the savoury flavour in foods such as; mushrooms, tomatoes
and tomato products, cheeses, soy sauce and meat extracts. Also used as
monosodium glutamate (MSG) and used as a flavour enhancer in many snack
foods and in Asian cooking.
Symptoms include hives, rashes, sinus pain, abdominal cramping, nausea, flatulence,
constipation, headaches, dizziness, diarrhoea. To manage this, individuals are placed
on an elimination diet, where they consume bland foods that do not contain
substances likely to create a reaction, then a food challenge is done to identify the
cause. Management involves reducing the consumption of the offending product.
Lactose intolerance – difficulty digesting lactose, the main carbohydrate in milk. It is
a disaccharide that is broken into monosaccharides in the gut.
lifestyle and the effect of cultural and social practices on nutritional status
Lifestyle choices play a critical role in an individual’s health.
Exercise – energy intake must be balanced with energy expenditure. An excessive
energy intake/inadequate expenditure will result in the body storing excess energy
as fat. Improvements in technology have led to more passive recreation, contributing
to Australia’s largely sedentary lifestyle. On the other end of the scale, excessive
exercise can be extremely damaging, potentially causing damage to skeletal joints,
depletion of iron stores, increased cancer risk and extreme weight loss/nutritional
deficiencies.
Alcohol - Alcohol is toxicity to body tissues, damaging the liver, pancreas and brain.
Over-consumption of alcohol contributes to weight gain due to its high energy
content, and metabolising the alcohol depletes the body of important nutrients.
Over-consumption of alcohol can also be associated with aggression, violent crime
and relationship problems, proving to be detrimental to more than physical health.
Culture and religion - Australia is a multicultural society, therefore the dietary
patterns of individuals may be vastly different depending on cultural background.
Christianity Avoid eating meat on Good Friday
Jewish Orthodox Jewish people avoid eating dairy and meat in the same meal, don’t drink alcohol,
adhere to cultural dietary law – kosher. Only eat cow, goat, sheep, chicken, turkey, duck and
only will consume if slaughtered as per kosher requirements and the removal of animal blood
through salting or roasting.
Muslim Abstain from food and drink during the day during the holy month of Ramadan, then celebrate
the end of Ramadan with a feast. Avoid consuming pork and pig, do not drink alcohol.
Many of the social practices of today’s society revolve around food, sharing food is a symbol
of harmony and friendliness. The choice of menu will determine the nutritional value of the
meal, e.g. at a children’s party there will be lots of lollies, cakes and other ‘junk’ foods,
whereas a dinner with work friends may be a specific cuisine, such as Asian, or may involve
healthier choices. The type and place of social environment determines the nutritional
status of food available.
media and ethical issues related to advertising practices on food consumption such
as the promotion of ‘health’ foods and ‘fast’ foods
The food industry uses the media for many reasons:
- increase brand awareness
- shape consumer perceptions of their needs/wants
- guide consumer product choices and buying patterns.
Ethical issues – Continual debate about the impact of junk food advertising on childhood
and adult obesity. The greatest concern is the affect it has over children, who are less
educated on how to make sound nutritional decisions. Advertisers make use of happy
characters, bright and fun colours, etc to appeal kids. Misleading messages may be included,
such as advertising ice-cream as ‘high in calcium’, which it is, but it is also high in sugars and
saturated fats. McDonald’s promotes their children’s meals with a bag of apples, but
purposely doesn’t address the saturated fats, sugars and salt content of their meals.
Cross-Promotion: A company will advertise a product through association with another non-
food-related product, such as; TV show, film sporting event.
Product Placement: Food advertising can be strategically placed in TV shows and films,
promoting the product simply by its presence and association with the show.
Ultimately it is up to the individual - or, in the case of a young child, their parent or guardian
to make sensible choices concerning their food and diet. Advertisers have the responsibility
to be honest about the product, and to be clear about the nutritional advantages and
disadvantages of a product. It is unethical for advertisers to lie, which is why advertisements
will often highlight the positive points about a product and avoid addressing the negatives.
Promotion of health foods - Companies used fortified foods as a way of making their
products more competitive. Many companies are creating line extensions in the form of
functional foods to meet the demands of consumers. Defining ‘health food’ is difficult
because there are no legal requirements on the use of the word ‘health’, ‘healthy’ or
‘natural’ in food labelling. Consumers are left to interpret these terms in their own way.
FSANZ also permits food companies to include statements about their nutritional value of
their products. Companies cannot make any reference to how the product can cure or
prevent disease. For example; a company claim that their bottle of milk contains calcium,
however, cannot say it will prevent osteoporosis.
Promotion of fast foods - Australians eat, on average, 4 meals per week that have been
prepared outside the home. Many of these meals consist of fast foods. The major
multinational fast food companies devote a large part of their huge annual promotional
budget to advertising in the mass media. McDonalds Australia spends $55 mil on advertising
a year.