AUSTRALIAN FOOD INDUSTRY – TERM 1

 Sectors of the AFI

- The Agri-Food Chain
The Agri-Food chain refers to the production and supply of food for a customer, with all links
on the chain affecting either, therefore an issue in one sector affects other sectors due to
the flow on affect.
E.g. Sour and small strawberries > manufacturers must modify to accommodate > caterers
may have to substitute for a better tasting ingredient > retailers may drop prices due to low
sales, therefore affecting the income of all parties involved in production.

The sectors of the agri-food chain include:

- Agriculture and Fisheries – beginning of chain
o Involves the cultivation of land to produce crops, of animals or of cold-
blooded aquatic species.
o Plays a large role in Australia’s economy and export market
o E.g. wheat, fruit, meat, fish, oysters
- Food processing and manufacture – altering raw materials
o Value adding – processing of goods to increase selling price > enhances
economic value of Australia’s food industry
o Value added foods increase employment opportunities and increase
revenue
o Processes have become mechanised to ensure no error and that
processes are economically viable
o E.g. Bread, cakes, muesli bars, yogurt
- Food retail – sale of foods
o One-stop shop supermarkets, stocking a large, diverse range, according to
consumer trends, are the most popular.
o Technological advancements such as online shopping, self-serve and
delivery assist in meeting consumer needs.
o Ready-to-eat meals meet the needs of the busy consumer lifestyle
o E.g. Uber eats (delivery), Woolworths (supermarket store), Lite n Easy
(ready-to-eat)
- Food service and catering – commercial food production and service
o Trends reveal Australians are eating 1 in 4 meals away from home
o Foods available in institutions such as hospitals, prisons and boarding
schools are non-commercial meals.
o Commercial enterprises such as restaurants, clubs and take-away shops
make a profit from the sales of their food items.
o Catering is often used in a variety of social situations such as functions
and parties where food is prepared for them.
 Emerging Technologies in the AFI
Developments in the AFI are driven by technological advancements, company growth,
local and global events (e.g. war) and the everchanging consumer demand.
- Genetically modified foods
o The process of modifying the genetic material of plants or animals in order
to improve the characteristics.
o Genetically engineering food is an ethical and controversial issue, as
concern has been expressed about its interference with nature and
animal rights.
o E.g. genetically engineered grapes used in winemaking are able to be
picked without drying and discolouration.
o Genomics is the science of gene mapping, which allows for more specific
and controlled breeding as gene maps can be used to select partners.
o Transgenic meats are being developed, for example growth hormones are
inserted into pigs to make them leaner, which reaches their market rate
faster.
- Emerging technologies in packaging
o Technological advancements have meant packaging is becoming more
environmentally friendly and cost efficient.
o E.g. biodegradable packaging, compostable packaging
- Ecologically sustainable production methods
o Organic farming is agriculture that does not deplete natural resources and
does not use harmful, artificial substances that cumulate in the
environment.
 Organically farmed foods are free from pesticides, herbicides,
growth hormones and fertilizers.
 During the processing foods are not treated with synthetic
chemicals and cannot be genetically modified.
 This often results in a lower yield, due to lack of pest control, and
a more expensive product, due to lower productivity.
 There are strict standards in place to classify a product as organic.
- Emerging technologies in food production
o Sensors
 Crop sensors – help distribute correct amounts of fertilizer to
areas of crop
 Optical crop sensors/drones – able to view crop health (often
using infrared light)
o Technological food
 Genetically designed foods – the formation of new strains of food
in order to better address biological and physical needs
 In-Virto meat – A flesh product that genetically engineered and
has never been a part of a complete, living animal. Made in a lab.
o Automation
 Agricultural robots – Automate processes like picking, harvesting,
ploughing, weeding etc.
  Precision Agriculture – Satellite imagery and advanced sensors
allow farmers to optimise returns and preserve resources

o Engineering
 Vertical Farming – allows growth in suburban settings, space
conscious. Uses natural light and is energy efficient, all year-round
crop.

Emerging Technology Risks Benefits

Sustainable packaging
Food retail and Food
Service and Catering
Genetically Modified Foods
Agriculture and fisheries
- May not offer the same level
of protection as plastic
- More expensive to use, will
drive up retail prices
- Risk of food spoilage and
disease due to level of
protection
- Controversial > unethical
- Little is known about long
term affects and safety as it is
relatively new
- Can trigger allergic reactions
- Some researchers link GMO
foods to cancer
- Can cause a resistance to
some antibiotics in humans
- Issues with outcrossing
- Disposable in a sustainable
manner
- Biodegradable packaging
returns nutrients to the soil
- Domestic or industry use
- Can help reduce waste
management cost, carbon
footprint and greenhouse
emissions
- Better taste, look or feel
- Crops have better resistance to
disease and damage = larger
yield
- Enhanced nutrition

 Operation of organisations within the AFI

- Levels of operation
Level Description Example
Household Home produced or manufactured Home grown fruit sold
products
Small Business Often family business or partnership, Local Bakery
often 20 staff members or less
Large Business Operates across the state or country Coles
Multinational Worldwide company McDonalds

- Research and Development

The process used to create new products, driven by the need to create to meet consumer
demands and win market share. CSIRO is involved in undertaking significant food research in
cooperation with the government. Large or multinational companies have teams devoted to
R&D.

- Quality assurance
Quality assurance is the responsibility of every person involved with the production of a
food product. All foods are checked against a standard during production to ensure safety.
Quality control is measuring characteristics, comparing to standards, and acting on any
differences that occur. Quality assurance (whole company) is the ultimate aim of quality
control (individual/part of company) – all parts of company working together to maintain
consistency of quality products.

HACCAP is Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points which is an international approach to

quality assurance.

- Consumer influences
The AFI is responding the everchanging needs of consumers with the production of food
which can be:
o Varied in cost, from generic to gourmet > Caters to people of all
socioeconomic status
o Single serve products > caters to single people or those living alone
o Microwave meals > caters to those who are looking for a premade meal or
quick meal
o Ready to eat meals > Caters to busy lifestyles and those wanting to eat on
the go
o Nutritionally enhanced (functional foods) > Caters to consumer health
issues
The demand for increased convenience has led to more flexible shopping hours and self-
serve options.

- Impact on environment
The AFI has played a largely negative role in impacting the environment, causing waterway
pollution from chemical runoff, which can cause poisoning of animals and other plants.
Erosion, land exhaustion, food and water wastage, packaging waste and salinity are all
issues stemming from the AFI, along with issues in the transport of food such as emissions
and heavy use of fossil fuels.

- Impact on economy
The AFI is the largest manufacturing industry in Australia, as well as the largest employer in
the country. Australia has a large presence in exporting, which is beneficial to our economy
in the money it brings into the country and the large international presence it holds. Food
accounts for nearly 50% of all retailing turn over in Australia.

While the AFI employs a large percentage of Australians, the new and ever improving
presence of technology is slowly reducing jobs in the physically demanding all sectors of the
AFI. While also being a negative, technology is opening up new doorways for new jobs in
new areas, such as R&D, which can be beneficial to the company’s and Australia’s economy.

- Impact on society
Food and food production influence the way we live, and vice versa. The changing lifestyles
of Aussies and societal behaviours affect food production and food choices. Multiculturalism
in Australia is growing, therefore enhancing a more multicultural diet for all ethnicities and
races. Lifestyle changes play a major role in the foods we choose, a more active and faster
paced lifestyle that more Aussies choose convenience foods, like Up ‘n’ Go’s.

- Career opportunities and working conditions

An increase in technology, such as mechanisation, automation and computerisation has led
to less physical labour, creating safer jobs. Careers in the AFI vary in a level from unskilled,
like a fruit picker, to highly skilled, like a food technologist. Equal employment opportunities
are part of any employment contract, which covers maternity/paternity leave,
discrimination etc.

Working conditions vary due to the nature of the job, the level of employment and level of
operation. In a physical sense, you may be required to wear coats and glasses in a lab, be
exposed to cold working in a butcher shop or the elements, like wind, sun or rain if working
outdoors, such as a fruit picker.

 Policy and legislation

Policy the strategies put in place by governments to improve all aspects of living, for
example, Trade policy.
Legislation is a law passed by government that describes what can and cannot be done in
specific situations. In the food industry, food legislation is on 3 government levels – local,
state and federal. An example is the federal Trade practices act 1974.

- Advisory groups
Governments are advised by independent organisations on the development of policies and
legislation. This can be in the form of business groups (Australian Dairy Corporation), groups
that advise specific issues (National Heart Foundation), an independent body that is able to
make and change laws relating to food (FSANZ) and a group that protects local food supply
against contamination (AQIS)

- FSANZ
An independent legislative body established by Food Standards Australia and New Zealand
Act 1991, standardizes food laws.
o FSANZ:
 Develops standards for what is in our food
 Develop food labelling laws
 Set standards on food safety issues
 Develops risk assessment policies for imported food

o Australian food standard code

A tool used to publish approved standards, which outlines a general list of standards food
producers must follow. This includes:
 Labelling and advertising
 Use by dates
 Nutritional info, including food additives, allergens and foreign objects

o Product recall
 FSANZ has responsibility for product recall, each business within the food industry
must have an overall product recall management plan in place. Recalls may happen
because of toxic chemicals, foreign bodies or harmful micro-organisms.

o Codes of practice
FSANZ develops non-binding agreements that businesses in a certain sector are encouraged
to follow. This allows consumers to make informed choices via nutrient claims on labels and
ads, etc

- Australian Quarantine Inspection Service (AQIS)

Part of the Agriculture and fishery sector. AQIS is responsible for:
o Protecting Australian primary producers and the community from exotic
pests and disease
o Inspects legally imported plants and animals – sea and airports
o Negotiates national and international agreements
o Checks quarantine status of travellers – sea and airports
o Provide export certification so products can compete in global markets.

 Government policies and legislation

- National health and nutrition policies
These policies provide strategic direction and coordinated action on public health
and nutrition issues. This includes:
o Prevention of overweight and obesity
o Increasing the consumption of fruit and vegetables
o Improving nutrition of vulnerable groups – ATSI
 National Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islander Nutrition Strategy
and Action Plan

- Trade Policy
The policy of free trade aims to remove trade barriers concerning imports and
exports. This is done by:
o Reducing tariffs
o Raising quotas
o Eliminating subsidies
o Establishing Free trade agreements with other countries

Imports – allow for greater competition in the marketplace and increased variety for
the consumer. An increase in imports often come because of shortfall in local
production. E.g. imported bananas after plantations are affected in cyclones.
Australia’s multicultural society reflects the demand for ethnic and specialty foods.

Exports – increases the global market share of profits that can come back to
Australia, beneficial to Australia’s economy.
 - Legislation
FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IMPORTED FOOD CONTROL HACCAP
ACT 1991 ACT 1992
Conducts domestic and Ensures compliance of TRADE PRACTICES ACT
foreign compliance in order imports with Australian food - Restrictive trade
to protect valuable FSANZ standards practices
resources. This includes o Misuse of market
catch limits to avoid power
overfishing and regulations
on fishing method to assure FEDERAL o Exclusive dealings
o Resale price
sustainability maintenance
EXPORT CONTROL ACT 1982 o Price
Protects Australia’s animal, discrimination
GENE TECHNOLOGY ACT 2001
plant and human health - Unreasonable conduct
The gene technology act regulates
status while maintaining - Consumer protection
dealings with genetically modified
market access for exports of - Compensation of
foods, in order to protect the health
food and other products. defective goods
and safety of individuals, and also
aims to protect the environment.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HEALTH ACT
FERTILISERS ACT 1985 AND SAFTEY ACT 2000 Regulated by each state or
Ensures unsafe levels of heavy metals and other Protects the health, safety territory. Covers:
soil contaminants do not contaminate food. IT and welfare of people at - Personal hygiene
also covers protection of exported food work. Employers have to - General sanitary
products to comply with containment levels. follow a code of practice conditions
which helps reduce work- - Pest control
FOOD ACT 2003 related accidents. - Management of
Enforces food standards and hygiene infectious disease
regulations in the food industry. This - Storage, slaughter
deals with areas such as false STATE and sale of meat.
description, unlawful practices and false
advertising.
PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT OPERATIONS ACT 1997
Applies to the noise produced during food processing and is
enforced by the environment protection authority.
LOCAL
CODES FOR INSPECTION OF FOOD AND
APPOINTEMNET OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH FOOD PREMISES
OFFICERS (EHOs) Local councils form their own codes for
An environmental health officer can be appointed as inspection of food and food premises. The
food surveillance officer aligned with the Food Act. code covers the regularity of inspection by
The officer is responsible for routine inspection of all officers and exemption of any food premises.
food premises in the local area.
CODES FOR CONSTRUCTION AND ALTERATION OF FOOD PREMISES
Formed by individual councils. This covers:
- Building materials used in food premises
- Instillation guidelines for fixtures and equipment such as ovens and refrigerators, toilets, ventilation and
windows.
- Legislative requirements for packaging and labelling
The Food Standards Code sets labelling standards to ensure consumers are provide
with corrects information and safe food through proper packaging. Other acts
include:
o The State Trade Measurement Act enforces correct labelling of weight of
food
o The Trade Practices Act ensures that imported foods have the correct
country of origin on the label and prohibits misleading and deceptive
conduct.

- National Packaging Covenant

Established in 1999. Designed to:
o Reduce environmental impacts stemming from the disposal of used
packaging
o Conserve resources through improved design and production processes
o Facilitate the re-use and recycling of used packaging materials.
Producers must sign a covenant that demonstrates their undertaking.

- Food labelling
Food labelling focuses on 3 areas:
o Statements or words that must appear on a label
o Statements or words that must not appear on a label
o Statements or words that may appear on a label under certain
circumstances
Labelling legislation requires that:
o Labels must be of legible, of uniform size and in English
o Labels are accurate e.g. strawberry yogurt must actually contain
strawberries
o Labels must have manufacturers address
o Major allergens are identified
o A nutritional panel is required
o Food additives are to be listed by its class name followed by specific name
o Ingredients must be in descending order
Restrictions on labels:
o No misleading trade names
o No false nutritional claims or ones that don’t adhere to food code
guidelines
o No words, statements or designs which could be interpreted as advice of
medical nature
o ‘Health’ cannot be used in the name of any food
 FOOD MANUFACTURE – TERM 2

Production and processing of food

 Quality and quantity control in the selection of raw materials for food processing
Food manufacture is the process of converting raw materials into a final food product by
using physical and chemical processes.
Raw materials are broken into 4 areas:
 Ingredients e.g. flour and yeast
 Materials e.g. steam and water
 Additives e.g. colours and flavours
 Packaging e.g. plastic and paper
Food manufacturers spend a lot of money on raw materials and strict specifications are put
in place to avoid contamination and waste. This includes descriptions of raw materials,
sampling method for material, testing specified characteristics and taking action, either
accepting or rejecting the material based on whether it meets the specifications.

 Role of food additives in the manufacturing process

Functions of food additives:
 Improve stability, shelf life and sensory characteristics
 Adapt foods to provide for special dietary needs
Examples:
 Flavour – restore flavour and odours lost through processing
 Thickeners – make food thicker
 Vegetable gums – impart consistency and texture
 Antioxidants – prolong shelf life by preventing oxidation
FSANZ controls the use of additives, and additives must appear on the product labels and
numbers are used as a code if names are too long.

 Characteristics of equipment used in different types of production and the factors

influencing their selection
Systems are mainly automated, equipment may differ depending on scale, from domestic
to industrial.
 Separation – can be chemical or physical.
o Sieving – shaking a product through mesh to separate larger particles. E.g.
stones from cereal grains, filtration systems and sieves
o Sedimentation – passing a liquid through a filter so solid particles are
removed. E.g. cheese curd from water, centrifuge, cheese cloth
o Centrifuging – product is separated into different weights using a spinning
bowl. E.g. pulp from orange juice, centrifuge
 Grinding and milling – used to reduce a product in size by grinding or breaking
up. Used to make raw materials easier to handle, more suitable for the final
product or to make a new product. E.g. grinding peanuts to make peanut butter,
mortar and pestle, computerised mills
  Mixing – used to evenly distribute a raw material throughout a product. E.g.
mixing flour using a wooden spoon, high pressure mixer

 Heating
o Conduction – direct contact with a hot surface e.g. frying
o Convection – the movement of hot liquid around the food e.g. boiling
o Radiation – a heat source directly above it heats the food without touching it
e.g. baking
o HTST – High temp, short time. Food is heated to a high temp quickly in order
to destroy pathogenic bacteria e.g. pasteurisation of milk
o UHT – Ultra heat treatment. Used to make milk that doesn’t need
refrigerating, milk is heated to 140˚C to kill all heat resistant bacteria.
 Cooling – reduction of temperature, slows down activity of microorganisms and
enzymes, therefore slows food spoilage. E.g. blast chillers, refrigerator
 Freezing – used to change water content into ice, making it impossible for
microbial growth or enzyme activity.
o Air blast freezers – cold air at high velocities e.g. meats
o Plate freezers – food freezes with direct contact to plate e.g. fish
o Tunnel freezers – quick freezing, food is moved through a tunnel and
blast frozen. E.g. used on high volume products
o Immersion/snap freezing – bringing a product into contact with a low
temp refrigerant, like liquid nitrogen. E.g. berries
 Evaporation – changing the liquid in a food to a steam or vapour. E.g. tomato
juice into paste, oven, industrial, evaporator
 Dehydration – reduces the moisture content of a food which limits microbial
growth. Most fruits and vegetables are blanched prior to preserve colour and
deactivate surface enzymes.
o Cabinet drying – placing product on wooden trays in a confined space
with circulating hot air. Fruits, vegetables, herbs.
o Tunnel drying – product travels on an automated system that dries the
product. Fruits, vegetables, meats.
o Sun drying – food is left in the sun to dry, slow, labour intensive process.
E.g. tomatoes.
o Spray drying - liquid products are dried through an atomiser, producing a
powder or fine product, e.g. instant coffee

 Production systems used in the manufacture of food, e.g. small scale, large scale,
manual, automated, computerised
 Large scale – Used in large production operations, utilises a production line which
includes raw material inspections, storage and distribution and the actual
process of making the product. This produces large volumes in short times.
 Small scale – Used on a domestic level, less complex in operation. Commonly a
household or small business level.
  Manual – A worker is physically manipulating the product, more common in
small scale production as is time consuming and unrealistic for large quantities
and high chance of error in production.
 Automated - Machines handle and control the processing, from raw materials to
the final product. An efficient, controlled process that minimises error.
 Computerised – Sensors are used to undergo more complex production systems,
allows computers to respond to variations in raw materials and conditions.

Flow Diagrams – A method of visually representing the food production process. This allows
the process to be analysed for effectiveness and CCP can be identified.

: Operation – Operations are when raw materials are deliberately changed, physically or
chemically E.g. peeling an apple
Inspection – The product is compared to a standard. E.g. recording pasteurization
temperature
Transportation – Move materials from one place to another. E.g. fork-lifting apple
pallets
D Delay – conditions don’t allow next step of process to occur, or next production step that
doesn’t happen immediately. E.g. shortcomings in process design, wait for yeast react
Storage – The product is kept under controlled conditions before selling. E.g. canned
beans on shelf
2 symbols are used when 2 operations are carried out at once. E.g. Inspect the product
while being baked

 Quality management considerations in industrial practices to achieve safe foods for

public consumption, e.g. hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP); work
health and safety and hygiene
Quality management – aims to control all aspects of production and produce a quality food
product.
Quality control – done individually/in parts in the company; measuring characteristics,
comparing them to standard, and act on any differences, to satisfy consumers and their
safety
Quality assurance – quality assurance aims to achieve quality control. This is done by all
parts of the company working together to maintain the quality of the product.

Food safety is a major quality assurance issue, quality management strategies and OHS
techniques are used to ensure safety of food for consumers and work conditions for
workers.

HACCAP – a quality management technique that identifies potential hazards

1. Assess hazards – a hazard is any situation in which a food is contaminated and may
harm the consumer. Fresh poultry contains salmonella bacteria so can’t store with
vegetables
2. Identify critical control points (CCP) – a CCP is a point in the production process
where a hazard can be controlled or reduced. These points are determined by
 drawing up a flow chart of every production step, storage, packaging and dispatch,
then identifying where potential hazards exist
3. Set standards for each CCP – the aim is to minimize hazard occurrences. I.e. correct
storage temperatures, time a product can be cooked at certain temperature
4. Monitor CCP – all trained employees record measurements of the product at the
critical point, and compare them to standards to determine any inconsistencies
5. Have clear procedures if standards are not met
6. Keep records to identify variations from a standard – records have to be simple to
complete and easy to access
7. Assess system – involves checking the records making any updates or changes
required. Often an outside inspector undertakes this verification.

OH&S – manufacturers need to be aware of potential accidents for workers, which means
by law, they must:
 Instruct or train about safety issues
 Provide well maintained equipment
 Provide a safe environment, in line with the Occupational Health and
Safety act 2000. E.g. washrooms, lighting, ventilation, first aid, etc.
Employees must comply with OH&S too:
 Take care of the health and safety of themselves and others
 Wear correct PPE
 Use equipment as instructed, in a safe manner
 Provide notification of accidents.
Preservation
 Reasons for preserving foods, e.g. safety, acceptability, nutritive value, availability
and economic viability
Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food to stop or slow spoilage,
therefore allowing food to last longer.
Reasons for preservations
Safety – Ensures food is safe and free from harmful microorganisms that can cause illness
Availability – Makes perishable foods available all year round, greater diet variety
Acceptability – Keeps food in an acceptable state for the consumer, reducing food waste
Nutritional value – retains nutritional value
Economic viability – achieves economic viability for producers by reducing seasonal
fluctuations in availability.
 Causes of food deterioration and spoilage (MEE):
— Microbial contamination (mould, yeast and bacteria)
Yeasts, viruses, mould and bacteria can all cause food to spoil, may be pathogenic which
means they have potential to make consumers ill, therefore need to be controlled.
Microorganisms favour warm and moist conditions, when conditions are optimal, they
multiply. E.g. mouldy bread, slimy meat.
— Environmental factors (infestation, oxygen, light and water)
Insects and rodents can cause infestations, therefore spoiling food via bacteria
transmission (rats in fresh produce). Contaminated water may also be a cause of food
spoilage (bacteria can transfer when washing produce), as is over exposure to oxygen
(can cause enzymatic reactions). Light can also be another factor (light exposure causes
chemical build-up on the skin of potatoes, they can begin to sprout)

— Enzymatic activity
Enzymes are found in fruits, vegetables and meats, it is a substance produced by a living
organism and don’t affect the safety of the food. In fruits and vegetables, it causes over
ripening and loss of turgor due to tissue decomposition. E.g. apple turning brown

 Principles behind food preservation techniques, including temperature control and

restriction of moisture, exclusion of air and pH
Temperature control – Micro-organisms grow or produce toxins in specific temperature
ranges; therefore, the appropriate high or low temperatures are used to preserve food.
E.g. freeing, chilling, UHT, sterilisation
Restriction of moisture – the amount of water in a product will determine whether an
organism can grow. E.g. smoking, drying, salting, freeze-drying
Exclusion of air – most organisms need the presence of oxygen to grow and not allowing
food to come into contact with micro-organisms in aseptic conditions. E.g. vacuum
packaging, aseptic packaging.
PH – Most pathogenic microbes will not tolerate certain pH levels (commonly below 4.2)
e.g. adding acid, fermentation

 Preservation processes, including canning, drying, pasteurising, freezing and

fermenting
 Canning/bottling – aims to heat the food to the point where commercial sterility is
achieved but the food is still edible.
o Aseptic canning – foods are heated first then placed in sterile container and
closed, allows for more even heating.
o Conventional canning – foods are placed in the container, sealed then
heated.
 Blanching – immersing vegetables in boiling water to destroy enzyme activity and
pathogenic microorganisms.
 Pasteurisation - Kills most heat sensitive microorganisms. They heat food to 72
degrees C. for 15 seconds (HTST). Anymore/less will alter the taste. Products include
milk, juice, beer, wine.
 UHT (ultra-heat treated) - Gives longer life. Food products are heated to 140
degrees C. for a 3-5 seconds to kill ALL heat resistant bacteria. The taste changes but
does not require refrigeration. Products include milk, gravy, custard, stock
 Fermentation - Uses alcohol or acid to cease microorganism growth. E.g. cheese, soy
sauce, yoghurt, wine, beer, spirits
 Chilling - The most common form of preservation. Chilling SLOWS the growth of
microorganisms and enzyme activity – it does not have an effect on the number of
bacteria present. Bacteria will be reactivated when the food is back to room
temperature or will slow even more when at lower temperatures.
  Freezing - Slow freezing kills up to 80% of microorganisms. Upon thawing, the
remaining 20% reactivate. The taste is altered slightly. In a frozen state the
microorganisms are in a solid block and do not move. To ensure minimum activity
temperature should be at least -18 degrees. Sometimes blanching is used to limit
enzymatic activity in vegetables
 Chemical Preservatives - These are food additives. Chemicals depend on food type.
Results microorganisms not growing or ‘retarding’, or if concentration high enough
they will die. Important to use correct amount and type to achieve desired effect
 Drying - Is any method that decreases the amount of water in a food product, such
as evaporating water. Only 5-6% of water remains. Bacteria need more than 25% to
survive and reproduce. Adding salt and sugar draws water away from the flesh of the
food product. E.g. pasta, 2-minute noodles, dried fruits
 Freeze Drying - Expensive process, but it produces a quality product. The food also
changes slightly. Product is quickly frozen, then placed on shallow trays, ice crystals
then sublimate in vacuum and gently heated environment, leaving dehydrated
particles. E.g. coffee, tea, soup, dried milk

Packaging, storage and distribution

 Functions of packaging and types of materials available
Functions of Packaging
 Contains the product – important in distribution and storage
 Protects the product – consumers unlikely to accept tampered product. Horizontal
and vertical impacts are dangerous. Packaging must protect against all damage
(stacking, environmental)
 Preserves the product – packaging must decrease risk of contamination of product,
i.e. moisture
 Informs the consumer and markets product – identifies product, product’s features,
etc.
 Provides convenience and handling – e.g. microwavable containers
Types of packaging
 Cans – are cheap and the most common material in food industry. Good protection
and prevents undesirable moisture gains/losses. Easy to handle, stacked easily, long
shelf life, impact resistant
o Steel cans for solid and semi-solid foods, aluminium for drinks.
o Thin layer of tin acts as a barrier between steel and food in most foods.
Lacquer or plastic sometimes need to prevent reactions between food and tin
coating. Dented cans may have microscopic holes therefore air/microbes can
enter, or damaged lacquer may cause metal to react with food, causing food
deterioration
 Glass – has become lightweight and thinner over the years. It’s an inert material and
does not chemically react with the food. It’s very strong but fragile, impermeable
 and non-porous, transparent therefore can see what’s inside, can be shaped. Easily
breakable in the production process and once with the consumer
 Paper and Cardboard – E.g. paper bags, moulded cartons, paperboard bricks,
composite containers, folding cartons. Can be made into a variety of shapes and
thicknesses. Can be placed with additional materials. E.g. plastic and aluminium.
Greaseproof papers are barrier to unwanted odours and moisture; waxed papers are
non-toxic, inert and tasteless
 Rigid Plastic – PVC and PETP. E.g. oil, cordial, soft drink containers. Lightweight and
strong containers, high impact resistance, lots of shapes and sizes, relatively cheap,
transparent
 Flexible Plastic – e.g. snack food containers, cereal bags, meat and vegetable
coverings, cling wrap. They are flexible and are lightweight, making it suitable for
specific products
 Aluminium Foils – foil is less than 0.15mm thick so it’s quite fragile and needs to be
joined to another material for strength (lamination). It’s very flexible by itself, light,
adds to product value

 Current developments in packaging, including active packaging; modified atmosphere

packaging; sous vide
 Active packaging – the use of sachets or films either to remove or add gasses to the
package headspace, reducing microbial reactions and keeping food fresher for
longer.
 Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) - produces a gas mix that maximizes shelf
life. First form of packaging is where the headspace is filled with gas/gases required
to maintain the product’s shelf life. E.g. nitrogen in chip packets. Second form is
where packaging film allows movement of gases and water in and out of package.
E.g. ‘breathing’ broccoli to Japan where oxygen is let in and carbon dioxide out
 Sous vide (vacuum cooking/packaging) - perishable food cooked, then rapidly
chilled, vacuum packed, stored at low temperature. New materials are being used,
such as nylon, to further extend shelf life when frozen

 Storage conditions and distribution systems at various stages of food manufacture

Storage - the action of storing a food item for further use
Distribution – the transport, handling and storage of food products from the
manufacturing facility to the point of sale
During manufacture storage takes place:
 After raw materials arrive e.g. controlled atmosphere storage of fruits and
vegetables
 When a product is held while it changes e.g. bread rising
 Awaiting distribution
Dry storage – below 24˚C with controlled humidity
Cold storage – 0˚C to 5˚C – raw materials or manufactured product
Freezer storage – -18˚C to -30˚C

FOOD PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT– TERM 2

Factors which impact on food product development
 External factors (macro-environment) that impact on food product development,
including the:
 economic environment
Economy can heavily impact FPD. New products work best when consumers have high
income and when the economy is successful.
 Recession - Occurs when the economy of a country declines, resulting in less
disposable income, lower capacity to pay for goods and services, and decreased
employment. Consumers purchase less foods, opt for cheaper fast-food outlets, less
willing to try new foods, therefore product development declines, running costs
increase and profits decline, which is bad for business.
 Expansion - Occurs when the economy grows in terms of production, employment
opportunities and introduction of new products. Decrease in unemployment, levels
of prosperity increase, consumer spending increase.
 Boom - Occurs when consumers spend more money, eat at better restaurants and
try more new products. It is when a country’s economy grows too fast. Companies
are more confident in their expansion, new businesses appear, low unemployment,
interest rates may raise.
 Contraction - Occurs in the economic cycle with effects similar to, however, less
severe than those during a recession. Disposable income, consumer spending,
business, spending and new product development are all affected.
 political environment
Manufacturers, producers and distributors are all subject to regulations and laws by
local, state and federal gov, prominently by the federal body FSANZ which controls food
regulation. Pressures from overseas can affect domestic manufacturers, like tariff
barriers, trade restrictions and factors relating to food inspection, food quality.
 ecological environment
Concerns about pollution, land degradation and waste disposal. This causes consumer
concerns about recycling, biodegradability of packaging, atmospheric and waterway
pollution and use of pesticides and waste disposal. Companies use ecological concerns as
marketing strategies in order to increase marketability.
 technological environment
Changes in science and technology affect the development of products. This includes using
UHT, MAP, genetic engineering, food additives, fat and sugar replacements and GM foods.

 Internal factors (micro-environment) that impact on food product development,

including:
 personnel expertise
Personnel may include:
 production staff
  financial staff
 marketing staff
 management staff
 product testing and quality assurance testing
 R&D staff
Staff need to be multi-skilled, which means that staff can work in multiple areas and
greater flexibility within operations. Staff should have more specialised knowledge,
experience and training in a specific area but have a wider knowledge in other general
areas. Examples include:
 Production workers need to be able to work with technology to manufacture new
products
 Marketing staff must have versatility to be able to promote different products to
different people
 Quality assurance staff need to develop specifications for new raw materials and
quality standards for new products

 production facilities
Production facilities vary in size, scale and technologies based on the scale of the
business, and large companies usually combine a mix of production technologies,
primarily automated. Bigger the production facilities > more produce > more profit.
 Mass production – simple procedures, usually the assembly of premade
components and uses advanced technology.
 Continuous production – 24/7 production. Used by multinational companies
 Batch production – smaller quantities, small/household scale. Low production
volumes, low efficiency and relatively high costs
 One-off production – commissioned pieces, usually small/home business.

 financial position
Affects the machinery and equipment that can be bought, as well as the company’s
ability to compete in the marketplace. Financial includes assets, cash flow, market share,
interest rates, product range etc. Having a strong financial position is a massive
advantage.

 company image
Public perception of the company is important in ensuring consumers engage with
products. This can be enhanced through marketing, campaigns, partnerships, labelling,
market availability etc. Companies should consider consequences before changing its
image, for example a home brand company entering the luxury market is unlikely to do
well and have a poor perception.

Reasons for and types of food product development

 drivers of the development of food products:
Trends are a big driver. Current trends include:
 Australia’s ageing population
 Eating outside the home more
 Multicultural society
  More environmental awareness
 More home delivered meals
 Awareness of health and health issues increasing
Market segment – a categorisation of Australian consumers into different groups by criteria
including age, economic status and cultural tradition.

 market concerns such as health, dietary considerations and the environment

Health and dietary considerations – functional foods are increasing, promote various
aspects of consumer health and better cater to allergies and intolerances. E.g. gluten free
alternatives, vitamin enriched juice.
Environment – manufacturers change packaging in response to environmental concerns
about pollution, recyclables, biodegradability etc. E.g. mount franklin water – 100% recycled
plastic.

 consumer demands such as convenience foods and cost

Consumers want convenient foods at a low price, therefore opting for on-the-go foods, like
Up & Go or Belvita breakfast biscuits instead of a meal at home. This reflects trends in
Australia. Other consumer demands include dietary preferences (vegan, vego), organically
grown foods and local grown foods.

 societal changes including increasing ageing population, single person households and
longer working hours
 Ageing population > more foods being designed to cater to older people e.g. easy to
open packaging, softer, easier to chew foods.
 Longer working hours > people are looking for quick and easy meals to prepare at
home (microwave meals, meal kits) and foods to eat on the go (snack bars and pre-
cut fruit cups)
 Single person households > increase in single serve meals, heat and eat options.

 technological developments such as processing equipment and packaging materials

Advancements can be:
 Novel ingredients – using fat and sugar replacements or fibre supplements e.g.
stevia, and indigenous or bush foods, e.g. emu, crocodile
 Processing equipment – UHT, HTST. Extend shelf life, making products more
marketable.
 Packaging – active packaging, modified atmospheric packaging (MAP). Allows for
greater shelf life, more convenience, extended quality of product.
Examples – GMO, organic farming, hydroponics, free range eggs

 company profitability such as increasing market share

In order for a company to become more profitable and increase market share, they must:
 Develop new products
 Become more automated
 Use cheaper ingredients
 Utilise aggressive marketing
 Find new markets for existing products
 types of food product development:
 line extensions
Line Extensions are food products which are changed in some way. For example; new
flavour, package size, package features, colour, health and diet-related variations.
Why do companies bring in line extensions?
 Market share is declining
 Consumer demands
 New market segments
 Increases product lifecycle – keeps company relevant
 New technology and ingredients
Example – vegemite, vegemite shapes, cheeseymite, vegemite chocolate (not always a
positive response)
 me toos
Copy of an existing product.
Type 1 – manufacturer creates a me too in order to compete with the original product.
This relies heavily on advertising, e.g. Pepsi and coke
Type 2 – manufacturer creates a cheaper or more generic version of a company’s
product. E.g. Coles or Woolworths home brand.
 new to world
Completely new and different to pre-existing products, hasn’t been on the market
before. Often derived from new ingredients (indigenous foods, food additives) and new
technologies (GM foods, domestic appliances).
Example – meat free meat products

Steps in food product development

 design brief based on project aims and development criteria:
Design Brief identifies what consumers want and how much they’re willing to pay, and constraints
on the producer when developing the new product (such as financial, processing, product,
marketing).
 idea generation and screening
 Brainstorming, even the most ridiculous ones
 Ideas come from market research or any employee
 Ideas based on intuition, culinary knowledge, artistic expression. Not technology
 Screening is selecting the best idea, based on how it fits into company’s constraints
 Screening check lists include ability to achieve goals, potential for profit, enough
money to cover all expenses, ability to meet specific requirements (e.g. shelf life for
military)

 market research
 Asking consumers their needs/wants, asking what they already like. They draw
conclusions from data received
 Data from research includes collection of internal data, market intelligence, market
research, and assessment of current operations
 Market research on a particular market segment provides info on market size,
demographics, geographic location, reasons for buying, shopping times, shopping
method, product popularity, brand loyalty
 Research conducted through face to face or telephone surveys, discussion
groups/focus groups, field reports (observing sales, competitor strategies,
competitor shares). This is primary research
 Research can also be from published research (secondary research), e.g. other
organisations, universities

 product specifications
 Accurate, comprehensive description of what manufacture plans to deliver in
product
 It’s a benchmark/standard for consumers, listing raw materials and ingredients,
quantity of each for specific batch size, source of raw materials, and raw material
constraints under Aussie Food Standards
 Also describes packaging dimensions, materials, labelling, storage conditions

 feasibility study
 Establishes whether idea is profitable
 Financial feasibility
o Determines if company will achieve a break-even point (when sales balance
expenses)
o Market research reduces chance of being too optimistic/underestimating
sales
 Technical feasibility
o Ability of company to make new product using existing resources: raw
materials, workspace, human resources, equipment
o It includes: Availability of ingredients (ingredients at good price, steady
supply, correct quality), any new processes and new machinery, time and
money obtaining ingredient approval, processes ensuring microbiological
safety

 production process development

 Converting factory to make new product, may be slightly altering or complete
change
 Factory layout must meet health and safety obligations, while ensuring productivity
 Companies should always expect problems in any situation and react accordingly
through quality control (checking to detect variations, ensuring everything follows
plan)
 Refer to production process flow charts and diagrams

 development of a prototype
  Trial product
 Extensive experiments carried out for safety, which ensures consistent production,
and to assess variables that may affect finished product. E.g. packaging materials
that need to withstand production process
 After food technologists’ experiment to produce ‘best’ product, recipe is batch sized

 testing product prototype, e.g. sensory evaluation, consumer testing, packaging tests,
storage trials
 Few products make it to final testing stage, it’s tested in the labs
 The new product needs to be tested to determine if it satisfies food standards
 Packaging tests determine shelf life under various storage conditions, package
strength, and other characteristics specific to the product. E.g. carton boxes should
withstand physical stress and temperature effects
 Consumer Tests with focus groups often prompt changes to the product. Tests can
also be public for a limited time to determine sales

Marketing plans
 product planning
Introduction is the most intense and costly, requiring
lots of marketing and promotion, growth is where sales
grow rapidly, in maturity the market share becomes
stable, growth may slow down and the competition is
more intense, and in decline, sales decline and income
decreases, causing companies to make radical changes
and new developments in order to stay relevant.

Reasons for product failure:

 Wrong market – e.g. hard candies for old people
 Bad timing of launch – e.g. global pandemic
 No point of difference between existing products – e.g. making two of the same
products just with different packaging
 Poor product positioning – e.g. an unauthentic, copy-cat, pre-existing product that
isn’t useful, marketed as something that is the opposite as all the above.

What to do with a failed product:

 Sell it to another company
 Discontinue the product
 Revise marketing strategies
 Decrease manufacture and distribution.

Examples of failed products: Vegemite chocolate, Coke life, Heinz e.g. squirt ketchup
 price structure
The product price depends on what the target market is prepared to pay. Certain
characteristics of a target market include; age, gender, socioeconomic level, family size and
education.
It is assumed the lower the price, the higher the demand. To encourage more people to buy
the product, the product price must be lower than the competitors.

Penetration Pricing: The product price is below that of competitors for long enough to
obtain a foothold (secure position) in the market.
When is it used?
When a company enters a new market segment for the first time, when a me-too product is
being launched or when it is hoped that the product will be around for long time.

Price Skimming: A product is sold at a relatively high price at first, and the price falls over
time.
When is it used?
 New-to-the world or line extension that has no other competition.
 The only one on the market and without a substitute.
 ‘Positioned’ as an exclusive, high-status brand. Consumers assume that a high price
means high quality.
 Not expected to have a long-life cycle.

Competitive Pricing (aka status quo pricing): The price is set to match that of the
competition.
When is it used?
Used by market leaders (a company selling the largest quantity of a particular product) and
at places like Paddy’s Market where all the fruit and vegetable sellers charge much the same
price for their goods.

 place and distribution system

Place refers to where the product will be sold geographically and to the kinds of outlet in
which it will be sold.
Intensive distribution: Products are available at every possible outlet. E.g. chocolate bars –
servos, grocery stores, online, vending machines etc.
Selective distribution: Wide, but not intensive distribution – E.g. cheeses available at delis,
but not Coles and Woolworths
Exclusive distribution: Limited supply is sold in specific outlets, usually expensive – E.g.
handmade chocolates at a boutique

Distribution refers to the process of moving the product from the producer to the
consumer.
1. Warehousing: Depending on the location of customers, warehouses can be located
at one central place or in different parts of the State and/or country.
2. Materials Handling: This refers to the forklifts, conveyor belts and other methods
that move the cartons of product from the storage area to pallets ready for shipping.
3. Inventory Control: Relates to checking stock. This is essential because it ensures the
quality of the product and quick filling of orders. Holding too much stock is expensive.
4. Order Processing: This involves the handling and filling of orders, processing of
accounts and collection of credit payments. When stock is low, it is automatically re-
ordered.
5. Transportation: The type of transportation used - air, water, rail, road - depends
on the type of product, the distances to be covered and the nature of the product.

 promotional program
Promotion includes advertising, personal selling, publicity and public relations, sales
promotions (sales, in store tasting, product giveaways)

Advertising can take the form of magazines, newspapers, radio, tv, signage, social media,
point of purchase signage and packaging.

Sales promotions and demos include coupons, free samples, contests, cash back offers.
Gondola ends are located at the ends of isles in hotspots, often with sale products. Off
locations displays are also sales promotion, e.g. meat seasonings and sauces displayed next
to cuts of meats.

Promotional activities include a salesperson assisting a person to choose one product over
another (personal selling), using media and influencers to promote a product (publicity) and
sponsorships of teams, schools, charities as a way to create a positive public image (public
relations)

CONTEMPORARY NUTRITION ISSUES – TERM 3

Diet and health in Australia
 physical effects and economic costs of malnutrition (under and over nutrition)
and diet related disorders
Malnutrition – where one or more nutrients are not supplied to the body in correct
amounts
Over nutrition – Diet contains an excess of one or more nutrients, including fat,
carbohydrates and protein. Conditions linked to this include obesity, dental caries,
hypertension, type 2 diabetes, CVD.

Condition Causes Physical Effects Economic Effects

Obesity - ○ Hormones, which change ○ Excess energy is stored in ○ Cost of hospital
When one’s how the body stores or adipose tissue (fat) treatment
energy intake burns energy ○ Extra workload for the heart ○ Surgery
is greater than ○ Genetic factors affecting ○ Fatigue as the body requires ○ Medicine
their how the body stores or more energy to do simple tasks ○ Toll on ability to wo
expenditure. burns energy ○ Joint mobility issues ○ Absenteeism
 63% of adults ○ Individual’s activity level.
are ○ Psychological factors such
overweight, as the comfort food brings
25% of ○ Environmental factors
children. such as geographical
location and financial
abilities will also be a factor
in obesity.
Hypertension ○ Excess sodium can cause
– High blood an imbalance of water in
pressure. 32% body cells, so the body
of adults have retains water, causing the
this heart to pump blood under
pressure. Blood circulation
becomes less efficient.
Dental Caries ○ Poor dental practices
– tooth decay. ○ Diet high in sugar
○ Acids caused by sugar
reacting with bacteria cause
tooth enamel to dissolve.
Cardiovascular ○ Hardening of the arteries
Disease (arteriosclerosis) is caused
by a collection of fat
(cholesterol) along artery
walls, restricting blood flow
to the heart.
○ Can increase risk of developing
diabetes (2), gall bladder disease,
CVD, respiratory disease.
○ Heart failure ○ Cost of hospital
○ Stroke treatment
○ Kidney disease ○ Surgery
○ Aneurysm ○ Medicine
○ Brain Haemorrhage ○ Toll on ability to wo
○ Absenteeism
○ Bad breath ○ Cost of dental treat
○ Toothaches e.g. filings, crowns
○ Tooth loss ○ Cost of medication
○ Difficulty chewing
○ Heart attack – caused by ○ Most expensive in
restricted oxygen supply to the of amount of people
heart suffering x associated
○ Stroke – can occur if blockage to costs
the brain ○ Extensive time off w
○ Expensive surgery a
medications

Under nutrition - One or more nutrients are lacking in the diet, e.g. carbohydrates
containing fibre, minerals or water. Conditions linked to this include anorexia nervosa,
bulimia nervosa, diverticulitis, anaemia, osteoporosis.
Condition Cause Physical Effects Economic Effects
Anorexia Psychological disorder that ○ Muscle wastage ○ Expensive rehabilita
Nervosa involves extreme self- ○ Abnormally low body weight centres
induced weight loss through ○ Absence of consecutive ○ Counselling
restricted eating and menstrual cycle ○ Medication
excessive exercise. Can be ○ Low blood pressure ○ Hospitalisation
caused by: ○ Anaemia
○ Peer/media influence ○ Fainting
○ Low self-esteem ○ Nutritional deficiency
○ Existing mental health
issues
Bulimia Psychological disorder that ○ Side effects from frequent ○ Expensive rehabilita
Nervosa involves binge eating, vomiting: centres
commonly followed by self- - tooth decay ○ Counselling
induced vomiting, misuse of - burns from stomach acid to ○ Medication
laxatives or excessive throat, gums and mouth ○ Hospitalisation
 exercise. Can be caused by: ○ Nutritional deficiency
○ Peer/media influence
○ Low self-esteem
○ Existing mental health
issues

Osteoporosis ○ Long term deficiency of ○ Weakened bones – more ○ Medical care

calcium susceptible to fractures and ○ Supplementation
○ Insufficient intake of breaks ○ Physical
calcium ○ Reduction of bone mass therapy/exercise
○ Physical inactivity ○ Poor posture specialist
○ Menopause
○ Poor bone structure

While there are many individual costs, the costs for society include:
 Strain on the health system: Increased need for hospital beds, private beds,
psychological services, rehab services and community services
 Workplaces: Loss of productivity when workers have to take time off sick
 Educational costs: Increased costs to educate about diseases and disorders
 Downstream costs: more money is being directed downstream, instead of upstream on
prevention.
 Government allowances: More people will rely on government allowances and
subsidies.

 nutritional considerations for specific groups

Specific groups:
- Adolescent girls – protein, iron, calcium, high energy diet
- Elderly – calcium, low energy diet, higher water intake, high fibre
- Aboriginal and Torres strait islanders – social disadvantage – better education
needed, better health and nutritional outcomes in all areas
- Diabetics – low sugar, low GI,
- Athletes – high protein, high carb, supplementation
- Vegetarians and vegans – protein, supplementation

 the role of the individual, community groups, the food industry, government
organisations and private agencies in promoting health
Government – Poor food choices not only harm the individual, but the health care system,
therefore it is more cost effective to promote healthy eating than deal with the
consequences financially. This may look like:
 Writing policies and strategic plans outlining priorities – e.g. Australian dietary
guidelines, Nutrition strategy and action plan
 Implementing health promotion campaigns – e.g. Australian guide to healthy
eating
 Developing and funding preventative programs, such as addressing high cost of
fresh food in remote areas
  Liaising with other govt. organisations – FSANZ, the national Health & Medical
Research Council, Aust. Institute of Health & Welfare
Health NSW - “We support the executive and statutory roles of the NSW Minister for
Health and Medical Research and monitor the performance of the NSW public health
system, known as NSW Health. Our vision is for everyone in NSW Health to work together to
achieve “Healthy People - now and in the future”.
Our goals are to:
 keep people healthy
 provide the health care that people need
 deliver high quality services and
 manage health services well.”

Food Industry – There is increasing competition for market share, therefore companies will
only manufacture healthy foods if consumers want them. Food regulations assist in the
control of labelling, food safety and use of particular processes or ingredients that affect the
health of consumers. Food retailers may be involved in marketing to help inform their
customers about heathy eating.

Community groups and private agencies – Community group example: The Heart
Foundation
They are dedicated to reducing the impact of CVD, with key focus areas including helping
Australians to achieve a healthy weight, to identify warning signs of heart attack and help
Australians to have improved access to prevention and treatments. Their tick of approval on
certain foods help guide shoppers to healthier foods.
Private agencies and community groups shape consumer perception and guide the food
industry. They watch manufacturers’ products and claims then publish the information to
the public, e.g. Australian Consumers Association uses Choice Magazine. Public voice is also
spread to companies, e.g. genetic engineering, healthy foods.

Individual – Consumers have the ultimate responsibility over their choices, regardless of the
advisory from the government and the food industry. Their own education, geography, SES
and the availability of products will have significant influence over the foods bought. It is up
to the consumer to interpret food labels/advertising etc with care as they may be
misleading.

 the production/manufacture of nutritionally modified foods to meet consumer

demand including a range of functional foods such as fortified foods
Nutritionally modified foods are foods that have been altered in a relatively simple way to
improve their nutritional characteristics. This may look like adding fibre, protein or other
beneficial nutrients, or removing fat, sodium or sugar. E.g. low-fat yogurt, high protein
bread, added fibre cereals.
Functional foods are foods that have benefits beyond those provided by the basic nutrients
in foods, weather naturally occurring or added during manufacture. E.g. Yakult – a probiotic
yogurt containing beneficial bacteria.
Categories of NMF and FF:
1. Simple or more basic, where essential nutrients (such as vitamins or minerals) have
been added, or something has been removed (fat, sodium)
 2. Foods with added active non nutrients e.g. probiotics, fibre
3. Foods that naturally contain beneficial substances other than the essential nutrients,
e.g. dietary fibre or antioxidants.

Companies respond to the everchanging consumer demand as ultimately the consumers are
the ones buying the product, so if what they want is there, they will buy it, and the company
makes money and gains market share. More commonly, NMF and FF are becoming a part of
consumer demands because of their positive influence on health. Some examples of
consumer demands include:
 Low fat milk
 Vitamin/mineral enriched juices (e.g. calcium added to OJ)
 Fibre enriched cereals
 Protein enriched breads
 Reduced sugar in sweets – e.g. cakes and lollies with lower levels of fat/sugar
 FF and NMF foods that meet the dietary concerns of consumers – vegan, vego, halal,
kosher etc.
 Leaner meat cuts

 the role of ‘active non-nutrients’ in the diet, e.g. phytochemicals, probiotics and fibre
Active non-nutrients – not essential for life but can enhance the functioning of the body or
contribute to the promotion of good health.
 Fibre - Fibre is found only in plant foods and includes a variety of gels, gums and
indigestible carbs that swell and absorb moisture in your gut, making for softer
faecal matter. Keeps the gut healthy by stimulating the muscle contractions
(peristalsis) that keep the gut contents moving effectively. The contents of your
body moves through quicker, reducing the time that toxins are in contact with gut
cells. May reduce cell damage and protect against some types of cancers. Fibre acts
as fuel for beneficial bacteria to multiply, protecting against infection and producing
substances that the body can use, such as vitamin K and some B group vitamins.
o Soluble fibre – the type that dissolves in the gut, digested by bacteria in the
colon. Helps aid the feelings of satiety, slowing the rate that the stomach
empties. Can help to reduce cholesterol levels. Found in peas, oats, apples,
citrus fruits, beans, barley.
o Insoluble fibre – remains mostly unchanged in the gut, it is the main
promoter of movement through the gut and helps protect cells from
damage. Found in beans, whole wheat products, nuts, cauliflower
 Antioxidants – Antioxidants are phytochemicals. There are at least 8000 different
naturally occurring antioxidants in fruits, vegetables and other plant sources. The
most significant are vitamin E, vitamin C, beta-carotene and other carotenoids.
Antioxidants are widely used as ingredients in dietary supplements for health
purposes, i.e. neutralizing free radical action thus preventing cancers, controlling
cholesterol levels, improving cardiovascular health
o Flavonoids and carotenoids – the colour compounds found in fruit and veg
o Vitamin E – the most involved in controlling blood cholesterol levels. Acts to
stop low density-lipoproteins from breaking apart and depositing cholesterol
along blood vessels. e.g. nuts, seeds, vegetable oils, leafy greens.
 Phyto-oestrogens – Category of phytochemicals, a substance converted by bacteria
in the gut to a hormone-like compound which can mimic oestrogen. Many benefits,
especially for women in menopause as it can reduce symptoms. Improved CV health
as they can stop the oxidisation of LDL, assist in the reduction of cancer risks
stimulated by sex hormones (breast, prostate cancer). The most significant sources
are isoflavonoids – found in fruit, nuts, seeds and vegetables, with the most
powerful source being soybeans and lignans – found in grains and seeds, the most
prominent source is linseeds.
 Omega-3 Fatty acids - Omega-3 fatty acids can be converted to hormone-like
substances called prostaglandins that are directly involved with the correct
functioning of the cardiovascular system. The prostaglandins that are in omega-3
have anti-inflammatory properties, helping to reduce CVD by reducing the
formation of clots in the blood stream, protecting against rhythm disorders, helping
correct blood vessel function. Important in brain function. Fish and fish oils are the
best sources, comprised of DHA and EPA (docosahexaenoic acid and
eicosapentaenoic acid), while plant sources mostly provide ALA (alpha linolenic
acid), such as canola oil, sunflower seed oil and flaxseed oil.
 Probiotics – The name for beneficial gut flora that help us maintain good health and
contributes to the nutrition of gut cells. Probiotics are added to foods to promote
good health, as normal gut flora cannot be used as probiotics as it wouldn’t survive
the journey to the colon. Sources of probiotics include yogurt and Yakult.

 the role of supplements in the diet

Come in a variety of forms – tablets, gels, capsules, powders and in foods such as
bars or balls. Supplementation has increased due to busier lifestyles, greater
disposable incomes and an increase in health consciousness.
The use of supplementation is heavily debated, as often people don’t actually need
them.
 Vitamin supplements – Vitamin deficiencies are rare in Australia, which calls
us to question the use of these supplements. Water soluble vitamins (C and B
complex) when consumed in excess are excreted through urine with little
effect, whereas fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) can be stored in body fat and
build up to toxic levels. Very few people need vitamin supplements, the most
prominent being pregnant women, who need to increase their intake of iron
to avoid neural tube defects. scientific evidence suggests there is no benefit
to taking vitamin E, vitamin C or beta-carotene supplements.
 Mineral supplements - There is some evidence of mineral deficiency in
Australia, such as iron, iodine and calcium. Mineral supplementation can be
dangerous as the body stores most minerals and requires small amounts for
day to day processes. Excess consumption may cause constipation/diarrhoea.
Iron supplementation may be necessary for those who cannot consume the
recommended amount of iron - common in women, athletes and non-meat
eaters, who are most at risk of anaemia. Those with a dairy allergy, are
lactose intolerant or the elderly, who are at a heightened risk of
osteoporosis/fragile bones may need calcium supplementation.
Cons of supplementation
 Many supplements aren’t necessary if you
are consuming a balanced diet
 Self-diagnosis regarding the need for
supplements can be dangerous, e.g. excess
fat-soluble vitamins such as vitamin A can
be toxic and prevent calcium absorption
 Excessive intake of protein can cause weight
gain rather than muscle if consumed in
excess or not used in conjunction with
exercise
 Expensive
 Lack of research into long term effects
Pros of supplementation
 Can bring positive feelings – placebo affect
 Good for those with a deficiency or
requirement for specific vitamins/minerals –
anaemics (iron), dairy allergy (calcium), elderly
(calcium), pregnant women (folate)
 Assists in meeting nutritional needs regarding
lifestyle choices, non-meat eaters (iron) etc.
 Monitored by FSANZ to ensure products are
safe

Influence on nutritional status

 health and the role of diet in the development of conditions, including obesity,
diabetes, cardiovascular disease, food sensitivity/intolerance/allergies
 Food sensitivity – Some people experience adverse reactions after consuming a
specific food product. This may be either a food allergy or a food intolerance.

 Food allergy – When the body responds to a specific protein (allergen) and
incorrectly identifies it as a dangerous foreign protein. Antibodies are then produced
to fight this ‘dangerous’ protein, causing a reaction that is anything between mild
and life threatening. Common allergies include – peanuts, shellfish, tree nuts, gluten,
dairy, eggs, wheat and soy. Symptoms may look like wheezing, coughing, swelling of
the airways, rash, stomach pain. Skin prick testing is used to confirm an allergy, a
controlled amount of a certain substance thought to trigger the reaction is used in a
skin prick to test the reaction. If this fails, a food challenge can commence, where
the individual consumes the suspected allergen in a controlled environment and the
reaction is observed. FSANZ requires all products to outline allergens or possible
traces to ensure safety for consumers.

 Food intolerance – different to an allergy as the response does not involve the
immune system and the body is not reacting to a single protein, but to other
chemicals found widely in a variety of foods, sometimes requiring a large amount to
trigger a reaction. It occurs when a person has difficulty digesting a particular food.
Sometimes a food intolerance may be triggered by food chemicals.
o Salicylates - Group of chemicals found in all plant foods - many fruits and
vegetables, spices, herbs, nuts, tea, coffee. Also used as an additive in foods
and used in eucalyptus and peppermint flavoured products.
o Amines - Group of chemicals that are found in cheeses, processed meats,
beer and wines. Also found in some fruit, vegetables (bananas, tomatoes,
avocadoes) and also in chocolate.
o Glutamate - One of the amino acids. Found naturally in plants and animals. It
provides part of the savoury flavour in foods such as; mushrooms, tomatoes
and tomato products, cheeses, soy sauce and meat extracts. Also used as
monosodium glutamate (MSG) and used as a flavour enhancer in many snack
foods and in Asian cooking.
 Symptoms include hives, rashes, sinus pain, abdominal cramping, nausea, flatulence,
constipation, headaches, dizziness, diarrhoea. To manage this, individuals are placed
on an elimination diet, where they consume bland foods that do not contain
substances likely to create a reaction, then a food challenge is done to identify the
cause. Management involves reducing the consumption of the offending product.
Lactose intolerance – difficulty digesting lactose, the main carbohydrate in milk. It is
a disaccharide that is broken into monosaccharides in the gut.

 Diabetes - Type 1 diabetes is an incurable auto-immune disease where the body’s

immune system destroys cells within the pancreas, the organ in which insulin is
created. There is no known cause for type 1 diabetes nor is it a reflection of lifestyle
choices, but there is a strong link to it being hereditary. Type 2 diabetes is reflective
of poor lifestyle and food choices, along with being hereditary. This condition
develops over a longer period of time, insulin resistance starts, causing an inability
manage blood glucose levels. There is no cure for diabetes, but can be effectively
managed through lifestyle modifications, such as more frequent exercise, diet
changes and stopping smoking, along with medications. If not managed correctly,
complications can arise, which is when this condition can become life threatening.
Both conditions present with similar symptoms; excessive thirst, frequent urination,
blurred vision, frequent feelings of lethargy, mood swings, headaches and frequent
hunger. The management of diabetes is through insulin monitoring, frequent
exercise, diet changes – not consuming foods high in sugar, high-GI foods (cause
blood sugar spike), eating fresh foods etc.

 lifestyle and the effect of cultural and social practices on nutritional status
Lifestyle choices play a critical role in an individual’s health.
 Exercise – energy intake must be balanced with energy expenditure. An excessive
energy intake/inadequate expenditure will result in the body storing excess energy
as fat. Improvements in technology have led to more passive recreation, contributing
to Australia’s largely sedentary lifestyle. On the other end of the scale, excessive
exercise can be extremely damaging, potentially causing damage to skeletal joints,
depletion of iron stores, increased cancer risk and extreme weight loss/nutritional
deficiencies.
 Alcohol - Alcohol is toxicity to body tissues, damaging the liver, pancreas and brain.
Over-consumption of alcohol contributes to weight gain due to its high energy
content, and metabolising the alcohol depletes the body of important nutrients.
Over-consumption of alcohol can also be associated with aggression, violent crime
and relationship problems, proving to be detrimental to more than physical health.
 Culture and religion - Australia is a multicultural society, therefore the dietary
patterns of individuals may be vastly different depending on cultural background.
Christianity Avoid eating meat on Good Friday
Jewish Orthodox Jewish people avoid eating dairy and meat in the same meal, don’t drink alcohol,
adhere to cultural dietary law – kosher. Only eat cow, goat, sheep, chicken, turkey, duck and
only will consume if slaughtered as per kosher requirements and the removal of animal blood
through salting or roasting.
Muslim Abstain from food and drink during the day during the holy month of Ramadan, then celebrate
the end of Ramadan with a feast. Avoid consuming pork and pig, do not drink alcohol.
Many of the social practices of today’s society revolve around food, sharing food is a symbol
of harmony and friendliness. The choice of menu will determine the nutritional value of the
meal, e.g. at a children’s party there will be lots of lollies, cakes and other ‘junk’ foods,
whereas a dinner with work friends may be a specific cuisine, such as Asian, or may involve
healthier choices. The type and place of social environment determines the nutritional
status of food available.

 media and ethical issues related to advertising practices on food consumption such
as the promotion of ‘health’ foods and ‘fast’ foods
The food industry uses the media for many reasons:
- increase brand awareness
- shape consumer perceptions of their needs/wants
- guide consumer product choices and buying patterns.
Ethical issues – Continual debate about the impact of junk food advertising on childhood
and adult obesity. The greatest concern is the affect it has over children, who are less
educated on how to make sound nutritional decisions. Advertisers make use of happy
characters, bright and fun colours, etc to appeal kids. Misleading messages may be included,
such as advertising ice-cream as ‘high in calcium’, which it is, but it is also high in sugars and
saturated fats. McDonald’s promotes their children’s meals with a bag of apples, but
purposely doesn’t address the saturated fats, sugars and salt content of their meals.

The Advertising Standards Board (ASB) is an Australian organisation in place to monitor to

and respond to inappropriate advertising. On August 1st, 2009, they launched a new
initiative that established stricter rules for fast-food advertising.
Fast food companies; Can no longer advertise free toy offers and can no longer use their
licensed characters unless the meal they are advertising met specific nutrition
criteria.

Cross-Promotion: A company will advertise a product through association with another non-
food-related product, such as; TV show, film sporting event.
Product Placement: Food advertising can be strategically placed in TV shows and films,
promoting the product simply by its presence and association with the show.

Ultimately it is up to the individual - or, in the case of a young child, their parent or guardian
to make sensible choices concerning their food and diet. Advertisers have the responsibility
to be honest about the product, and to be clear about the nutritional advantages and
disadvantages of a product. It is unethical for advertisers to lie, which is why advertisements
will often highlight the positive points about a product and avoid addressing the negatives.

Promotion of health foods - Companies used fortified foods as a way of making their
products more competitive. Many companies are creating line extensions in the form of
functional foods to meet the demands of consumers. Defining ‘health food’ is difficult
because there are no legal requirements on the use of the word ‘health’, ‘healthy’ or
‘natural’ in food labelling. Consumers are left to interpret these terms in their own way.
FSANZ also permits food companies to include statements about their nutritional value of
their products. Companies cannot make any reference to how the product can cure or
prevent disease. For example; a company claim that their bottle of milk contains calcium,
however, cannot say it will prevent osteoporosis.

Promotion of fast foods - Australians eat, on average, 4 meals per week that have been
prepared outside the home. Many of these meals consist of fast foods. The major
multinational fast food companies devote a large part of their huge annual promotional
budget to advertising in the mass media. McDonalds Australia spends $55 mil on advertising
a year.

Positive impact of media Negative impact of media

Promotion of health foods and subsequently
good health
Promotion of healthy programs – ADG, milo
cricket
Increased awareness of health issues
Heavy advertising on energy-dense fast foods
Misleading or purposefully confusing information
Promotion of snack foods contributing to a
grazing lifestyle
Use of slim or photoshopped models contributes
to the misrepresentation of health – skinny isn’t
healthy, healthy is healthy.