34 CHAPTER 2
E
Figure 2.1 Quartz
­Crystals Well-developed
quartz crystals found near
Hot Springs, Arkansas. (Photo
by BOL/TH FOTO/AGE fotostock)
Matter and Minerals
arth’s crust and oceans are home to a wide vari-
ety of useful and essential minerals. Most peo-
ple are familiar with the common uses of many
basic metals, including aluminum in beverage cans,
copper in electrical wiring, and gold and silver in jew-
elry. But some people are not aware that pencil “lead”
contains the greasy-feeling mineral graphite and that
bath powders and many cosmetics contain the mineral
talc. Moreover, many do not know that dentists use
drill bits impregnated with diamonds to drill through
tooth enamel or that the common mineral quartz is the
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2.1 Minerals: Building Blocks of Rock List the main characteristics that
an Earth material must possess to be considered a mineral and describe each.
We begin our discussion of Earth materials with an overview
of mineralogy (mineral = mineral, ology = the study of) be-
cause minerals are the building blocks of rocks. In addition,
humans have used minerals for both practical and decorative
purposes for thousands of years (Figure 2.1 ). Flint and chert
were the first minerals to be mined; they were fashioned into
weapons and cutting tools. Egyptians began mining gold, sil-
ver, and copper as early as 3700 b.c. By 2200 b.c., humans had
discovered how to combine copper with tin to make bronze,
a strong, hard alloy. Later, a process was developed to extract
iron from minerals such as hematite—a discovery that marked
the decline of the Bronze Age. During the Middle Ages, min-
ing of a variety of minerals became common, and the impetus
for the formal study of minerals was in place.
source of silicon for computer chips. In fact, practi-
cally every manufactured product contains materials
obtained from minerals.
In addition to rocks and minerals having economic
uses, all the processes that geologists study are in
some way dependent on the properties of these basic
Earth materials. Events such as volcanic eruptions,
mountain building, weathering and erosion, and even
earthquakes involve rocks and minerals. Conse-
quently, a basic knowledge of Earth materials is es-
sential to understanding all geologic phenomena.
The term mineral is used in several different ways. For ex-
ample, those concerned with health and fitness extol the ben-
efits of vitamins and minerals. The mining industry typically
uses the word to refer to anything taken out of the ground,
such as coal, iron ore, or sand and gravel. The guessing game
known as Twenty Questions usually begins with the question
“Is it animal, vegetable, or mineral?” What criteria do geolo-
gists use to determine whether something is a mineral?
Defining a Mineral
Geologists define mineral as any naturally occurring inor-
ganic solid that possesses an orderly crystalline structure
and a definite chemical composition that allows for some
variation. Thus, Earth materials that are classified as miner-
als exhibit the following characteristics:
1. N
 aturally occurring. Minerals form through
natural geologic processes. Synthetic ­materials—
meaning those produced in a laboratory or
by human intervention—are not considered
minerals.
2. Generally inorganic. Inorganic crystalline solids,
such as ordinary table salt (halite), that are found nat-
urally in the ground are considered minerals. (Organic
compounds, on the other hand, are generally not.
Sugar, a crystalline solid like salt but that comes from
sugarcane or sugar beets, is a common example of
such an organic compound.) Many marine animals se-
crete inorganic compounds, such as calcium carbon-
ate (calcite), in the form of shells and coral reefs. If
these materials are buried and become part of the
rock record, geologists consider them minerals.
3. Solid substance. Only solid crystalline sub-
stances are considered minerals. Ice (frozen
water) fits this criterion and is considered
a mineral, whereas ­liquid water and water
vapor do not. The exception is mercury,
 2.1 Minerals: Building Blocks of Rock 35

which is found in its liquid form Figure 2.2 Arrangement

Na+ Cl– B. Basic building of Sodium and Chloride
in nature.
4. Orderly crystalline structure. Cl– Na+ block of the Ions in the Mineral
mineral halite. ­Halite The arrangement of
Minerals are crystalline sub-
atoms (ions) into basic build-
stances, which means their ing blocks that have a cubic
atoms (ions) are arranged in shape results in regularly
an orderly, repetitive manner A. Sodium and chlorine ions. shaped cubic crystals.
(Figure 2.2 ). This orderly (Photo by Dennis Tasa)
packing of atoms is reflected in
regularly shaped objects called
crystals. Some naturally occur-
ring solids, such as volcanic
glass (obsidian), lack a repeti-
tive atomic structure and are
not considered minerals.
5. Definite chemical com-
position that allows
for some variation.
Minerals are chemi-
cal compounds having D. Crystals of the mineral halite. C. Collection of basic building
compositions that can blocks (crystal).
be expressed by a chemical
formula. For example, the common mineral quartz has Granite
(Rock) SmartFigure 2.3
the formula SiO2, which indicates that quartz consists Most Rocks Are Aggre-
of silicon (Si) and oxygen (O) atoms, in a ratio of gates of Minerals Shown
one-to-two. This proportion of silicon to oxygen is here is a hand sample of
true for any sample of pure quartz, regardless of its the igneous rock granite and
origin. However, the compositions of some minerals three of its
vary within specific, well-defined limits. This occurs major con-
stituent min-
because certain elements can substitute for others of
erals.
similar size without changing the mineral’s internal (Photos by E. J.
structure. Tarbuck)

What Is a Rock?
In contrast to minerals, rocks are more loosely
­defined. Simply, a rock is any solid mass
of mineral, or mineral-like, matter that
occurs naturally as part of our planet.
Most rocks, like the sample of granite
shown in Figure 2.3 , occur as aggre-
gates of several different minerals. The Quartz Hornblende Feldspar
term aggregate implies that the minerals are (Mineral) (Mineral) (Mineral)
joined in such a way that their individual properties
are retained. Note that the different minerals that make up largely by the chemical composition and crystalline structure
granite can be easily identified. However, some rocks are of the minerals contained within them, we will first consider
composed almost entirely of one mineral. A common ex- these Earth materials.
ample is the sedimentary rock limestone, which is an im-
pure mass of the mineral calcite. 2.1 CONCEPT CHECKS
In addition, some rocks are composed of nonmineral
1 List five characteristics an Earth material must have in order
matter. These include the volcanic rocks obsidian and pum- to be considered a mineral.
ice, which are noncrystalline glassy substances, and coal, 2 Based on the definition of mineral, which of the following
which consists of solid organic debris. materials are not classified as minerals and why: gold,
Although this chapter deals primarily with the nature water, synthetic diamonds, ice, and wood?
of minerals, keep in mind that most rocks are aggregates of 3 Define the term rock. How do rocks differ from minerals?
minerals. Because the properties of rocks are determined

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36 CHAPTER 2 Matter and Minerals

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2.2 Atoms: Building Blocks of Minerals
Compare and contrast the three primary particles contained in atoms.

When minerals are carefully examined, even under opti- difference, assume that on a scale where a proton has the
cal microscopes, the innumerable tiny particles of their mass of a baseball, an electron has the mass of a single
internal structures are not visible. Nevertheless, scien- grain of rice.
tists have discovered that all matter, including minerals, Both protons and electrons share a fundamental prop-
is composed of minute building blocks called atoms—the erty called electrical charge. Protons have an electrical
smallest particles that cannot be chemically split. Atoms, charge of +1, and electrons have a charge of −1. Neu-
in turn, contain even smaller particles—protons and neu- trons, as the name suggests, have no charge. The charges
trons located in a central nucleus that is surrounded by of protons and electrons are equal in magnitude but op-
electrons (Figure 2.4 ). posite in polarity, so when these two particles are paired,
the charges cancel each other out. Since matter typically
contains equal numbers of positively charged protons and
Properties of Protons, Neutrons, negatively charged electrons, most substances are electri-
cally neutral.
and Electrons In illustrations, electrons are sometimes shown orbit-
ing the nucleus in a manner that resembles the planets
Protons and neutrons are very dense particles with almost
of our solar system orbiting the Sun (see Figure 2.4A).
identical masses. By contrast, electrons have a negligi-
However, electrons do not actually behave this way. A
ble mass, about 1/2000 that of a proton. To illustrate this
more realistic depiction shows electrons as a cloud of
negative charges surrounding the nucleus (see Figure
2.4B). Studies of the arrangements of electrons show
Figure 2.4 Two Models of that they move about the nucleus in regions called prin-
an Atom A. Simplified view of Protons (charge +1) cipal shells, each with an associated energy level. In
an atom consisting of a central addition, each shell can hold a specific number of elec-
Neutrons (charge 0)
nucleus composed of protons trons, with the outermost shell generally containing va-
and neutrons encircled by high- Electrons (charge –1)
lence electrons that interact with other atoms to form
speed electrons. B. This model
of an atom shows spherically chemical bonds.
shaped electron clouds (shells) Most of the atoms in the universe (except hydrogen
surrounding a central nucleus. Electron and helium) were created inside massive stars by nuclear
The nucleus contains virtually fusion and released into interstellar space during hot, fiery
all of the mass of the atom. The supernova explosions. As this ejected material cooled, the
remainder of the atom is the newly formed nuclei attracted electrons to complete their
space occupied by negatively
atomic structure. At the temperatures found at Earth’s sur-
charged electrons. (The relative Nucleus
sizes of the nuclei shown are face, all free atoms (those not bonded to other atoms) have
greatly exaggerated.) a full complement of electrons—one for each proton in the
A.
nucleus.

Electron cloud Elements: Defined by Their Number

of Protons
The simplest atoms have only 1 proton in their nuclei,
whereas others have more than 100. The number of pro-
tons in the nucleus of an atom, called the atomic number,
determines its chemical nature. All atoms with the same
number of protons have the same chemical and physical
Nucleus properties. Together, a group of the same kind of atoms
is called an e­ lement. There are about 90 naturally occur-
ring elements, and several more have been synthesized in
the laboratory. You are probably familiar with the names
B. of many elements, including carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen.
All carbon atoms have six protons, whereas all nitrogen
 2.2 Atoms: Building Blocks of Minerals 37

Tendency to
lose outermost Noble gases
electrons are inert
to uncover full because
outer shell Tendency outer shell
to gain is full
Atomic number
Tendency to fill electrons
5 Symbol of element
1 Vertical columns outer shell by to make full
B sharing electrons outer shell
VIII A
H contain elements 10.81 Atomic weight
1.0080 Boron 2
Hydrogen with similar Name of element He
properties. 4.003
IA II A III A IV A VA VI A VII A Helium

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be Step-like line B C N O F Ne
6.939 9.012 divides metals 10.81 12.011 14.007 15.9994 18.998 20.183
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
from nonmetals.
11 Tendency to lose electrons 13 14 16 17 18
12 15
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.990 24.31 26.98 28.09 30.974 32.064 35.453 39.948
Sodium Magnesium III B IV B VB VI B VII B VIII B IB II B Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.102 40.08 44.96 47.90 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.71 63.54 65.37 69.72 72.59 74.92 78.96 79.909 83.80
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 (99) 101.1 102.90 106.4 107.87 112.40 114.82 118.69 121.75 127.60 126.90 131.30
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon

55 56 #57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba TO Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.91 137.34 178.49 180.95 183.85 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.09 197.0 200.59 204.37 207.19 208.98 (210) (210) (222)
Cesium Barium #71 Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon

87 88 #89
Fr Ra TO 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
(223)
Francium
226.05
Radium #103 La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
138.91 140.12 140.91 144.24 (147) 150.35 151.96 157.25 158.92 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04 174.97
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thullium Ytterbium Lutetium

Metals 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lw
Metalloids (227) 232.04 (231) 238.03 (237) (242) (243) (247) (249) (251) (254) (253) (256) (254) (257)
Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
Nonmetals
Lanthanide series
Actinide series

Figure 2.5 Periodic Table of the Elements

atoms have seven protons, and all oxygen atoms have eight
protons.
Elements are organized so that those with similar proper-
ties line up in columns, referred to as groups. This arrange-
ment, called the periodic table, is shown in Figure 2.5 .
Each element has been assigned a one- or two-letter symbol.
The atomic numbers and masses for each element are also A. Gold on quartz B. Sulfur C. Copper
shown on the periodic table. Figure 2.6 These Are
Atoms of the naturally occurring elements are the basic among the Few Minerals
building blocks of Earth’s minerals. Most elements join with That Are Composed of a
atoms of other elements to form chemical compounds. 2.2 Concept Checks Single Element (Photos by
Therefore, most minerals are chemical compounds com- Dennis Tasa)
1 List the three main particles of an atom and explain how
posed of atoms of two or more elements. These include the they differ from one another.
minerals quartz (SiO2), halite (NaCl), and calcite (CaCO3). 2 Make a simple sketch of an atom and label its three main
However, a few minerals, such as native copper, diamonds, particles.
sulfur, and gold, are made entirely of atoms of only one ele- 3 What is the significance of valence electrons?
ment (Figure 2.6 ).

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