CLARENDON COLLEGE, INC.

Roxas, Oriental Mindoro

Tel fax: (043)289-705 / admin@clarendonph.com

HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT

Subject EARTH SCIENCE
Grade level – Section/Class/Strand 11 – FE DEL MUNDO/STEM
11 – GREGORIO Y. ZARA/STEM
Teacher GILBERT E. GONZALES
Duration WEEK 20: JANUARY 17 – 21, 2022
Chapter No. & Title CHAPTER 2: EARTH MATERIALS AND PROCESSES
Reference Materials EARTH SCIENCE, REFRAN.TOLENTINO, VIBAL INC.
Lecture Materials Format PRINTED, AND PDF

Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

 Identify common rock forming minerals using their physical and chemical properties[S11/12ES-Ib-5]
a) Define mineral[S11/12ES-Ib-5.1]
b) Classify the different properties of minerals[S11/12ES-Ib-5.2]

EARTH MATERIALS AND PROCESSES

The Earth so far has been the only planet where life exists. It is but a very tiny fraction of the entirety that
exists in this universe. For a layman, one can imagine that what every living thing needs is already contained in the box
that is our planet. Humans, for instance, has been inhabiting the planet for thousands of years with each civilization that
rose made use of materials readily found in nature. From the food, air, and water to keep us alive, all materials came
from and processed in this planet.
In this chapter, we will have a deeper understanding of the materials and processes that occur within the Earth
(how they are transformed and converted from one form to another). We will have closer look on the different geologic
phenomena that reflects how the earth is constantly changing itself, why it happens, and project these processes into the
future.
MINERALS AND ROCKS
Have you seen rocks close enough to ever wonder what they are made of? Because, believe it or not, the rocks
that you see are actually made up of crystalline materials we call minerals. But what are minerals? Are they the same as
the minerals we get from food in order to grow and perform bodily functions (Or in any case, is MINERAL WATER
different?)? In this section, we will discuss what minerals are and understand their role in the formation of rocks, the
processes that lead to their formation, and their importance in our everyday lives.
MINERALS
Take a look at things you see every day. What items do you think are considered minerals? To put simply: A mineral is
a naturally occurring, inorganic, homogenous solid with definite chemical composition and ordered internal/crystalline
structure.
1. A mineral is Naturally-Occurring
A mineral should be naturally-occurring with respect to its formation. It should be made by natural processes
without the aid of any organism. In the case of laboratory studies, any material that is formed in laboratories or
artificial conditions is not considered a mineral.
The key to understanding minerals is the fact that they are not made some common rock-forming by artificial
means. We should be able to differentiate a mineral from any other synthetic material because of this definition.
 Shells are the remains of living organisms. A mineral is inorganic and should not come from the remains of organisms. Minerals should
occur in the solid state. Before they are mined for commercial and industrial purposes, sulphur, a native element mineral (minerals composed of
one element only), exits volcanic sources through the precipitation of gases on the surface. The gas carrying sulphur is not considered a mineral.
Diamond and graphite are minerals made from the element Carbon. Despite their similarities in chemical composition, diamond is known as one
the hardest mineral known to man while graphite is one of the softest. Diamonds come from deep parts of the mantle where pressure is extremely
high. Graphite, on the other hand, is a common metamorphic mineral formed from lower temperature and pressure conditions.

2. A mineral is Inorganic
The process to produce a mineral by natural means is extended further by making sure that no organic material (or
what was once part of an organism) be considered a mineral. This would mean that bones, shells, teeth, and other
hard parts of an organism are not minerals.
3. A mineral is a homogenous solid
By saying that a mineral is a homogenous solid, we should be able to see something that is uniform in appearance
and is in the solid state of matter. This property of minerals is very important especially when dealing with
materials in other states of matter such as liquids and gases.
Note: After this discussion, can we still consider mineral water a mineral?
4. A mineral has a definite chemical composition
So far, the definition of a mineral has been focused on physical attributes. Hence, a mineral must also possess
uniformity in its chemical composition. This means that a material, if we are to call it a mineral, should have
definite chemical constituents. No confusion should be made regarding this criterion-which means that if we assign
a material composed of one atom of Iron and 2 atoms of Sulfur (FeS2) with the mineral name Pyrite, it should be
known that all mineral identified as Pyrite should be composed of Iron and Sulfur in that ratio.
There are, however, instances where we allow minerals to share a common chemical composition. These minerals
are considered Polymorphs. For example, the most famous set of polymorphous minerals would be graphite and
diamond. Graphite is the gray mineral used in your pencils (often mistakenly called the ‘lead’ of the pencil) while
diamond is the hardest mineral known to man. Both graphite and diamond are made up of Carbon. The only
difference between the two minerals is how the carbon atoms are arranged (which we will discuss in the next
criterion).
5. A Mineral has an ordered internal/crystalline structure
What do we mean by crystalline? For a layman, a crystal is something that possesses beautiful planar facets or
faces that are often associated with cut or polished gems. This is actually a little deviant from what
crystallographers define as crystalline.
A crystalline material is something that has its elemental components arranged in an ordered fashion. This means
that the material repeats this order in a three-dimensional framework that can extend virtually into infinity.
Note: Knowing whether a material is crystalline or not would require sophisticated methods such as involving the
use of X-Rays (see XRD in Glossary) and will have to be discussed in other chapters.
MINERALOIDS
Any material which passes most of the criteria (but not all) we have set can be considered a mineraloid. Most
of the time, mineraloids are naturally-occurring, inorganic, homogenous solids with definite chemical compositions but
with ordered internal structure. Examples of mineraloids would be volcanic glass and opal.
MINERAL PROPERTIES
Because your mineral now possesses properties that are more or less unique from any other mineral, identification now
is easier. This section will discuss properties of minerals that will help you identify them.
1. Color
Have you ever wondered why minerals differ in color? As soon as you are presented with a mineral sample, the
first thing you will notice is most likely the color.
Color is the perceived wavelength of light that bounced off from the material and is detected by our eyes. Most of the
time, composition dictates what color/hue the mineral will take. But for some, the crystalline structure will also play a
role.
 There are instances where color becomes a diagnostic property of a mineral. Diagnostic means that the mineral
will only exhibit a single color regardless of where it came from. It should be noted that most minerals show a wide
range of colors depending on the impurities that are present in it (Read Gems and Minerals section).
2. Streak
Streak is the color of a mineral in powdered form. Minerals show color differently when ground into fine powder. This
is because the presence of smooth surfaces of compact crystals sometimes reflects light differently compared to a
powdered mass.
In most cases, minerals will show streak color equivalent to its normal massive color. But in rare cases, the streak color
will differ from its compact form.
An example would be the mineral Pyrite (FeS2) or also known as Fool's Gold. In hand specimens, pyrite exhibits
brassy yellow color closely resembling the mineral, Gold (hence, the term 'fool's gold'). But upon getting the streak,
pyrite will show greenish black color while gold will remain yellow in color. Now, how cool is that to differentiate
gold from fool's gold?

Pyrite and Gold will both appear metallic and yellow in color (upper left and right). The streak of pyrite, however, will be greenish black while
gold will remain to have a yellow streak
3. Luster
Luster is the behavior of light as it is reflected by the surface of a mineral. In the description of luster, minerals
are characterized as being Metallic or Non-Metallic.
Minerals having metallic luster reflects light similar to a polished metal. This does not necessarily mean that a
mineral has metallic elements in its o composition.
Non-metallic minerals, on the other hand, are characterized by luster different from the metallic ones. Often,
materials that closely resemble the luster of the mineral will suffice for description purposes. There are many
descriptive terms to choose from including pearly (looks like the surface of a pearl), waxy (like the surface of a candle),
vitreous (like clear or stained glass), and silky (like silk cloth).

(left) Gold mineral having a good metallic luster. (Middle) A collection of vitreous minerals showing good transparency and translucency. (Right)
The mineral Bauxite (an aluminium ore) having dull to earthy luster.
The Moh's Scale of Hardness. Diamond is the hardest mineral in the list because it can scratch all the other minerals with lower hardness. Talc is
the softest mineral with a hardness of 1.
4. Hardness
Hardness is the resistance of a mineral to scratching. It should be noted that scratching is different from
breaking (which is under a different property we will discuss later). In determining hardness, the mineral is tested by
scratching the surface with a measurable amount of force. The minimum force applied on the surface before showing
evidence of deformation/ scratching will be the hardness of the mineral.
In the physical world, one cannot simply quantify or measure the force that is presented upon an object using
the naked eye. In order to simplify things, we use a standard scale (Moh's Scale of Hardness) in relating the hardness of
a mineral with a set of minerals with known hardness.
The Moh's hardness is rather easy to use to get the relative hardness of a mineral. Using different minerals with
set hardness (1-10; 10 being the hardest), the unknown mineral should be scratched by a harder mineral. For example,
the mineral Quartz has Moh's Scale Hardness of 7. It should be noted that any mineral with a hardness of less than 7
will be easily scratched by Quartz. In the same way, any mineral with hardness higher than 7 cannot be scratched by
Quartz.
Mineral Mohs Hardness
Talc 1
 Gypsum 2
Calcite 3
Fluorite 4
Apatite 5
Feldspar 6
Quartz 7
Topaz 8
Corundum 9
Diamond 10
In the absence of the representative minerals represent above, we still determine the relative hardness of a mineral
using common household item. The table below shows the equivalent Moh’s Scale Hardness of some items.
Material Hardness
Fingernail 2.5
Copper Coin 3.5
Steel Knife 5.5
Streak Plate 6.5

5. Cleavage
Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to break along particular directions. This breakage happens along zones of
weakness within the crystal structure of the mineral. When force is applied on the mineral, it tends to separate on
regions where the bonding is relatively weaker.
Note: The presence of cleavage in a mineral is independent of its hardness. Even diamond exhibits cleavage.

The mineral Galena (PbS) showing perfect cubic cleavages (breaks in 3 directions like ice cubes). The mineral Muscovite with cleavage in one
direction (breaks into flakes like pages of a book).
Cleavage is described as Perfect, Good, Fair, or Poor. This is dependent on how sharp or defined the planes where the
mineral split. In cases where there is no observable planar cleavage, the mineral is said to have Fracture. Question: In
terms of bond strength, how would you describe minerals having no cleavage?

Volcanic glass (Obsidian) showing conchoidal fracture.

6. Other properties
Minerals show a wide range of physical properties that are essential in order to help us identify them. Several other
properties that can help us in identification include the following:

a. Magnetism - The tendency of a mineral to be attracted to a magnet. The definition of magnetic in physics
might be confusing for some readers. In a simple, geologic sense, any mineral that shows attraction to a
standard magnet is considered magnetic.
 The mineral Magnetite (hence, the name), with chemical formula Fe₂O4, is considered a magnetic mineral
because it shows attraction when exposed to a magnet.

Volcanic glass (Obsidian) showing conchoidal fracture. Magnetite (Fe304), because of its magnetic properties, is able to attract fine iron as
shown in this figure.
Fluorite under normal light and under ultraviolet light.
b. Fluorescence – Some minerals, when exposed to certain wavelengths of light, will glow or appear to release a
certain light. This phenomenon is known as fluorescence. The most common fluorescent mineral known is
Fluorite. Fluorite shows fluorescence under ultraviolet light.

c. Reaction to chemicals – Minerals, because of their definite chemical compositions, will react at certain
conditions to different chemicals presented to them. The most common test is called the acid test wherein
dilute (usually, 10% by volume) hydrochloric acid (HCl) is allowed to react with a mineral. Because HCI is a
strong acid, minerals composed of basic components such as carbonates (CO2) will readily react with the acid
to form neutral salts. One particular mineral called Calcite (CaCO₂) forms bubbles of carbon dioxide (CO₂)
when a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid (HCI) is poured on its surface. The formation of gas bubbles from this
reaction is also known as effervescence.

d. Taste – Some minerals will exhibit taste like salty, sweet, or bitter. It should be noted, however, that a large
portion of minerals are also not safe to eat (hence, taste is often not used for the identification of minerals).
There are a few minerals that are identifiable with their taste such as the mineral Halite (NaCl). Halite is
similar to your ordinary table salt, only naturally produced (as in the case of where we get sea salt nowadays).
e. Odor – Certain minerals give off distinct smell similar to some spices (e.g. garlic) or industrial materials (e.g.
fireworks). Again, it should be noted that some minerals may cause harmful effect once they get into our
bodies (from inhaling or tasting the substance). A particular mineral called Sulfur (S) smells like rotten eggs.
There are other properties that will help identify minerals in nature such as piezoelectric property
(producing current when under pressure) and specific gravity (density of the mineral over the density of water).
These additional properties are often used to segregate minerals from one another when most of the properties
listed above are almost similar to form a distinction. A good geologist would understand that these properties
are just macroscopic (observations using the naked eye) and that there are other tests to know the identity of
minerals (e.g. chemical tests and microscopy).
REMINDER
Output/s to be submitted ACTIVITY WORKSHEET IN EARTH SCIENCE FOR WEEK 20
Deadline of Submission JANUARY 24, 2022
Outputs
Mode of Submission Write your answer on the activity worksheet provided. Submit at Clarendon
College

Prepared:
GILBERT E. GONZALES
Teacher

Approved:
HAZEL P. PALAPUS
Principal
 ACTIVITY WORKSHEET IN EARTH SCIENCE FOR WEEK 20
Name: Teacher:

I. MULTIPLE CHOICE(Written Work)

Directions: Match column A and column B. Write your answer on the space provided before each number.
A B
1. It is being described as perfect, A. Opal
good, fair, or poor. B. Color
2. It is the tendency of a mineral to C. Streak
break along particular directions. D. Luster
3. It is the resistance of a mineral to E. Hardness
scratching. F. Cleavage
4. It is the behaviour of light as it is G. Magnetism
reflected by the surface of mineral. H. Fluorescence
5. It is the color of a mineral in I. Diamond
powdered form. J. Talc
6. It is the perceived wavelength of
light that bounced off from the materials and
is detected by our eyes.
7. It is the tendency of a mineral to be
attracted to magnet.
8. It is the softest mineral with a
hardness of 1.
9. It is the hardest mineral because it
can scratch all the other minerals with lower
hardness.
10. It is a mineraloid from the
precipitation of silica – rich solutions.