Applied Thermodynamics

Aneesh Vijay Kale

Research Scholar
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
me19d703@smail.iitm.ac.in

Aneesh Vijay Kale

 Topics: Steam and Gas Turbines

Types, Impulse and Reaction principles, velocity diagrams, work done

and efficiency-optimal operating conditions, compounding and
governing.
Gas turbine cycle analysis-open and closed cycle. Performance and its
improvement-Regenerative, Intercooled, Reheated cycles and their
combination.

Aneesh Vijay Kale

 Steam Turbine

A steam turbine is a prime mover in which rotating

shaft work is developed by a steadily flowing fluid.

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Parts of Steam Turbine

The steam turbine contains two parts:

1. nozzles, and
2. moving curved blades.

The high vel. steam jet coming out of

nozzle impinges on curved blades, and
the steam glides tangentially on curved
blades fixed on the periphery of moving
wheel.

Aneesh Vijay Kale

Working of Steam Turbine
The work is produced by changing
momentum of steam as it passes
through a rotor of turbine . The change
in angular momentum of steam causes
the torque on the rotor, thus the rotor
spins. Thus, steam turbine is a
rotodynamic machine.

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Applications of Steam Turbine

Power Plant

Ships

Aneesh Vijay Kale Submarines

Force on moving blade

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Rankine Cycle
Process 1–2: Reversible adiabatic expansion in turbine
Process 2–3: Constant-pressure heat rejection in condenser
Process 3–4: Reversible adiabatic compression in feed pump
Process 4–1: Constant-pressure heat addition in the boiler

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Simple Impulse Turbine
• Complete expansion of steam (from boiler
pressure to condenser pressure) takes place
in stationary nozzles, the enthalpy drops
and kinetic energy of steam increases,
which is converted in to shaft work.
• The steam passes on moving blades at
constant pressure, but with gradual
reduction in its velocity. P1=P2
• Absolute velocity of steam coming out the
nozzles is ~1050 m/s. If this high-velocity
steam jet is used on a single row of blades,
the rotor speed may reach as 30,000 rpm,
which is too high.
• Steam leaving moving blade is also at high
velocity, thus involves a loss of energy,
known as carry-over loss or leaving loss. In
De laval turbine, exit velocity ~3.3% of the
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nozzle outlet velocity.
 𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑟1 + 𝑢
𝑣2 = 𝑣𝑟2 + 𝑢
Since steam does not expand in moving blades,
relative velocities are equal in absence of any
frictional effects. If there is friction then:
𝑣𝑟2 = 𝑘 ∗ 𝑣𝑟1
k is called the blade velocity constant (k~0.7 to 0.9)

Aneesh Vijay Kale

 • Vw: Tangential component (with direction of rotation)
is called whirl velocity (responsible for useful work).
• Vf: Axial (vertical) component is called axial or flow
velocity, (allows the flow of steam across the wheel)

Force on Blade:

Rate of work done

Torque:
Aneesh Vijay Kale
In a single-stage impulse turbine, energy supplied to the blades equals kinetic energy of entering steam

= specific enthalpy drop of steam in nozzle

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 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒
=
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒

Aneesh Vijay Kale

Optimum Operating Conditions From Blade Velocity Diagram

The work done per kg of steam in a single stage impulse turbine:

For absence of friction and symmetrical blades:

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Optimum Blade Speed Ratio
α is constant: between 15° and 30°
• If α=0 then axial flow component, vf=0
But vf is essential for steam flow over blades
• If α inc then work done on blade dec
• If α inc surface area of blade dec → frictional losses dec

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Reaction Turbine
Moving blades have converging steam passage. When
steam passes over the moving blades, it expands with
a drop in steam pressure and increase in kinetic
energy. Steam jet leaves the moving blades with
higher velocity than it enters blades. Higher velocity
steam jet coming out of moving blades, reacts on the
blades and causes them to rotate in opposite
direction.

Aneesh Vijay Kale

Impulse-Reaction Turbine
• Steam does not expand completely in
stationary nozzle, but it expands in the fixed
as well as moving blades, both acting as
nozzles.
• Pressure falls continuously as steam flows
over fixed and moving blades of each stage.
Steam velocity increases in each set of fixed
blades while it decreases in moving blades.
• There are rows of moving blades attached to
rotor and an equal number of fixed blades
attached to casing. Thus these are referred
as rotor blades and stator blades.

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• Due to the fixed blades at the entrance, the steam is
admitted for the whole circumference and there is a full
admission. There is a tapered rotor with progressively
increasing blade height.
• In reaction turbine, axial thrust is considerable due to
pressure difference of either sides of moving blades.
Dummy pistons and thrust bearings are used to balance
this axial thrust.
• Effect of expansion of steam on moving blade is to
increase relative velocity at the exit. Therefore, Vr2>Vr1.

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 Degree of Reaction
𝐸𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑠
⋀=
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒ℎ𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

Aneesh Vijay Kale

 Total enthalpy drop for a stage (Δhm + Δhf) is equal to work done by steam

Velocity of flow is generally constant while the steam passes over blade ring:

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⋀ is a measure of proportion of work done by the reaction effect. For simple impulse
turbine, ⋀ = 0, no enthalpy drop in moving blades.

Aneesh Vijay Kale

 Parsons Turbine
The Parson turbine developed 7 .5 kW running at 17000 rpm.

Blade velocity u can also be written as:

A reaction turbine with ⋀ = 0.5 will have moving and fixed blades of same shape. Inlet
and outlet velocity diagram are symmetrical.

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Optimum Blade Speed Ratio

Kinetic energy supplied to the fixed blades +

Kinetic energy supplied to the moving blades

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The blade height of a particular stage can be determined by continuity equation

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Impulse and Reaction Turbine
Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine
In an impulse turbine, the steam In the reaction turbine, first, the
flows through the nozzle and strike steam flows through the guide
on the moving blades. mechanism and then flows
through the moving blades.
Steam strikes on the buckets with The steam glides over the
kinetic energy. moving blades with both
pressure and kinetic energy.
During the flow of steam through During the flow of steam
moving blades, its pressure through moving blades its
remains constant. pressure reduces.
The blades of impulse turbine are The blades of reaction turbine
symmetrical. are not symmetrical.

Aneesh Vijay Kale

 Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine
While gliding over the blades the relative velocity of In reaction turbine, while gliding over the blades
steam remains constant. the relative velocity of steam increases.
For the same power developed, the number of stages For the same power developed, the number of
required is less. stages required is more.
The direction of steam flow is radial to the direction of The direction of steam flow is radial and axial to the
turbine wheel. turbine wheel.
It requires less maintenance work. It requires more maintenance work.
It is suitable for low discharge. It is suitable for medium and high discharge.
The steam may or may not be admitted to the whole The steam must be admitted over the whole
circumference. circumference.

Aneesh Vijay Kale

 Question
The steam leaves the nozzles of a single-row impulse turbine at 900 m/s. The nozzle
angle is 20° and blade angles are 30° at inlet and outlet. Calculate the blade velocity
and work done per kg of steam. Assume the flow over the blade is frictionless.

Given: v1 = 900 m/s, α = 20°, θ = ɸ = 30°

i. Draw a horizontal line and choose a point A

and draw a line AC inclined at 20° to the
horizontal line. Its length represents absolute
steam velocity of 900 m/s.
ii. Draw a vertical line CD through the point C. It
represents inlet flow velocity, vf1.

Aneesh Vijay Kale

iii. Draw a line BC through the point C making an angle of (90° - 30° =) 60° with
vertical line CD. Line BC will also make blade inlet angle of θ = 30° with
horizontal and will represents the relative velocity vr1 at inlet.
iv. Measure length of segment AB along horizontal line. Its magnitude represents
blade velocity u = 315 m/s.
v. Draw the line BE through the point B at angle of ɸ = 30° and length is equal to
vr1 = vr2
vi. Join A and E. Line AE represents absolute velocity of steam at exit.
vii. Draw a vertical line EF through point E to represent flow velocity vf2 at outlet.
viii. Measure the length of line FD = vw1+ vw2 =1062 m/s.

Work done per kg of steam

w = u*vw = 315 x 1062= 334530 J/kg = 334.53 kJ/kg

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 Condition for Axial Discharge
When blades of an impulse turbine are designed in such a way that steam leaves
blades at its tip at 90° to the direction of blade peripheral velocity u then the
turbine is called axial flow turbine. For an axial flow turbine, β = 0; v2 = vf2 and
vw2=0.
The power developed by axial flow turbine:

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 Question
A simple impulse turbine has a mean blade-ring diameter of 70 cm and runs at 3000
rpm. The speed ratio is 0.46 and the discharge is axial. The nozzle angle is 21° and
blade friction factor is 0.95. Determine (a) Blade angles, (b) Theoretical specific
power output.

Given: D= 70 cm, N=3000 rpm, β= 90°, α = 21°, k=0.95, s=0.46

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The velocity diagram can be constructed as follows:
i. Draw a horizontal line EF. Mark AB = u = 100 m/s.
ii. At point A, α = 21°, and v1= 239 m/s, draw a line
AC.
iii. Meet BC, it gives θ = 37.12°, inlet blade angle.
iv. Using centre B and radius BG = 0.95 BC, draw a
chord to cut vertical line AD at point D.
v. Meet BD, DA and CF.

Vw=224 m/s

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Velocity Compounding of Impulse Turbine
• Curtis turbine consists of a set of nozzles,
three rows of moving blades and two rows
of guide blades. Guide blades are arranged
between moving blades in reverse manner.
• Guide blades collect the steam coming out
of moving blades, adjust its direction of
motion and direct it on next row moving
blades. During the passage through guide
blades, there is no change in pressure and
velocity of steam.
• Velocity of steam jet is increased in nozzles
only and it drops gradually, after being
utilized successively by all rows of moving
blades till it is finally discharged to
condenser.
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v2f, βf, vr2f, φf, vw2f, vf2f are corresponding values at outlet of first row of moving
blades and inlet to first row stationary guide blades.
v1s, αs, vr1s, θs, vw1s, vf1s are corresponding values at inlet to second row of
moving blades.
v2s, βs, vr2f, φf, vw2f, vf2f are corresponding values at outlet of second row of
moving blades and inlet to second row stationary guide blades.
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Work done per kg of steam on first row of moving blades

Work done per kg of steam on second row of moving blades

Total work done per kg of steam on two-row wheel

Power output

total whirl velocity of first row of moving blades

total whirl velocity of second row of moving blades

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Pressure Compounding of Impulse Turbine
• Instead of expanding steam completely in a single
set of nozzles, expansion of steam is splitted into a
number of phases by arranging a number of moving
and fixed blades in series, thus the rotor speed is
obtained in practical range.
• Fixed blades act as nozzles. Steam expands equally
in all rows of fixed blades. Thus, this arrangement
can be viewed as a number of simple impulse
machines in series on same shaft, allowing exhaust
steam from one turbine to enter nozzle of the
succeeding turbine.
• steam velocity is much lower than simple impulse
and velocity compounded steam turbines, and thus
operation is salient and more efficient.
Aneesh Vijay Kale
 Question
In an impulse turbine, the steam issues from the nozzle with a speed of 600 m/s and
blade speed is 120 m/s. The velocity is compounded by passing the steam through a
ring of moving blades, through a ring of fixed blades and finally through a ring of
moving blades. The nozzle angle is 18° and the blade exit angles and relative velocity
coefficients are the following:

Find the diagram efficiency under these conditions and power output for steam flow
rate of 5 kg/s. What would be maximum possible diagram efficiency for given steam
inlet velocity and nozzle angle?

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 Given

(i) Draw a horizontal line AB equal to blade velocity u = 120 m/s to a convenient scale.
(ii) From the point A draw a line AC to represent v1f= 600 mis at angle α= 18° to
horizontal line.
(iii) Join the point B and C by a line BC to represent vr1f relative velocity at inlet.
(iv) From the point B, draw line BD equal to vr2f= 0.8*vr1f at an angle φ1f= 20°
(v) Join points A and D to represent absolute velocity of steam at exit of first stage.

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The second-row velocity diagram is also constructed in a similar manner.

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 Question
In a Parson reaction turbine, the angles of receiving tips are 35° and of discharging tips,
20°. The blade speed is 100 m/s. Calculate the tangential force, power developed,
diagram efficiency, and axial thrust of the turbine, if its steam consumption is 1 kg/min.

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i. Draw a horizontal line AB to some convenient
scale to represent to blade velocity u = 100 m/s.
ii. Through the point A, draw a line AC at an angle
of 20°.
iii. Through the point B, draw a line BC at an angle
of 35° which intersects at the point C.
iv. Measure length of AC = v1= 220 m/s and BC =vr1
= 130 m/s.
v. Through the point C, draw a vertical line CF to represent the flow velocity at inlet.
vi. Measure length of AF = vw1= 207 m/s.
vii. Since vr2 = v1 and α= θ; draw a line BD at angle of 20°.
viii. Join point A with a line AD, which will represent absolute velocity of steam at
outlet i.e., v2= 130 m/s.
ix. Draw a vertical line DE through point D to represent flow velocity vf2 at outlet.
x. Measure length of segment EA = vw2 = 107 m/s.

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 Governing
Objective of governing is to keep turbine speed fairly constant irrespective of load.

Throttle Governing
• In throttle governing, pressure of steam is reduced by passing steam through a
restricted passage like partially opened steam stop valve in order to maintain
speed of turbine constant at part load.
• It is most widely used on small turbines, because of its low initial cost and
simple mechanism.
• Two types:
Simple centrifugal governor for throttle governing
Servomotor-controlled throttle governing

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 • As load on turbine decreases,
turbine shaft speed increases. With
increase in speed, flying ball of
governor flies apart and raises
sleeve which operates a lever
through fulcrum and actuates main
valve to close partially and reduce
mass flow rate of steam.
• Pressure of steam is reduced at
turbine entry. Energy availability is
reduced. Further, if used at low
loads, turbine efficiency is drastically
reduced.

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• Steam consumption rate, ms (kg/h) is linearly
proportional to turbine load. Linear line on graph
is Willan 's line.

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Nozzle Control Governing
• Nozzles are grouped in sets of two, three and
more groups and each set of nozzles is
controlled by a separate valve.
• When load on turbine dec., required no. of
nozzles can be shut off.
• Nozzle control affects 1st stage of turbine
only. Other stages remain unaffected.
• Mass flow rate of steam is regulated rather
than regulating steam pressure. It has
advantage of using steam at full boiler
pressure and reduction in steam
consumption rate at part loads.

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By-Pass Governing • With steam turbines that are designed to work
at economic load, it is desirable to have full
admission of steam in high-pres stages.
• At maximum load, which is greater than
economic load, additional steam required could
not pass through 1st stage since additional
nozzles are not available.
• By-pass regulation allows for this in a turbine
which is throttle governed, by means of a 2nd by-
pass valve in 1st stage. This valve opens when
throttle valve has opened a definite amount.
• Steam is by-passed through 2nd valve to a lower
stage in turbine. When by-pass valve operates, it
is under the control of the turbine governor.
Supplies of steam in lower stages increase work
output in these stages.
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Regeneration

• In Rankine cycle it is observed that condensate

which is at a fairly low temperature has an
irreversible mixing with hot boiler water and this
results in a decrease of cycle efficiency.
• Regeneration: Bleed some low-pressure steam from
turbine and mix it with feed water in a heat
exchanger called Feed water heater. It improves the
cycle efficiency by 4-5%.

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• Heating process in boiler tends to become reversible.
• Thermal stresses set up in boiler are minimized as
temperature ranges in boiler are reduced.
• The thermal efficiency is improved because average
temperature of heat addition to the cycle is increased.
• Blade height is less due to reduced amount of steam
passed through low-pressure turbine stages.
• A small size condenser is required.
• Plant becomes more complicated.
• Addition of heaters greater maintenance is required.

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 Question
A steam turbine is fed with steam having an enthalpy of 3100 kJ/kg. It moves out of the
turbine with an enthalpy of 2100 kJ/kg. Feed heating is done at a pressure of 3.2 bar with
steam enthalpy of 2500 kJ/kg. The condensate from a condenser with an enthalpy of 125
kJ/kg enters into the feed heater. The quantity of bled steam is 11200 kg/h. Find the
power developed by the turbine. Assume that the water entering the feed heater is
saturated liquid at 3.2 bar and the heater is a direct mixing type. Neglect pump work.

Given: h1=3100 kJ/kg, h3=2100 kJ/kg

P2=3.2 bar, h2=2500 kJ/kg
h4=h5=125 kJ/kg
m=11200 kg/h
h2=hf2 @ 3.2 bar

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From Steam Tables: h2=hf2=570.9 kJ/kg

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Reheating
• For attaining greater thermal efficiencies
when initial pressure of steam was raised
beyond 42 bar, it was found that resulting
condition of steam after expansion was
increasingly wetter.
• It became necessary to reheat steam after
part of the expansion was over so that
resulting condition after complete expansion
fell within the region of permissible wetness.
• Steam exiting first turbine (i.e., high pressure
turbine) is fed into boiler and low pressure
high-temperature steam is fed into low
pressure turbine.

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• Primary object of superheating steam is to avoid too
much wetness at end of expansion.
• Maximum wetness in final condition of steam that
may be tolerated without any appreciable harm to
turbine blades is about 12%. Broadly each 1% of
moisture in steam reduces efficiency of that part of
turbine in which wet steam passes by 1% to 1.5%.
• Reheater may be incorporated in walls of main
boiler; it may be a separately fired superheater or it
may be heated by a coil carrying high-pressure
superheated steam.

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 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 = ℎ1 − ℎ5 + ℎ3 − ℎ2
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑡𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 = ℎ4 − ℎ5

Thermal efficiency without reheating is

5
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• There is an increased output of the turbine.
• Erosion and corrosion problems in steam turbine are eliminated/avoided.
• There is an improvement in the thermal efficiency of turbines.
• Reheating requires more maintenance.

Reheat Factor
Ratio of cumulative isentropic enthalpy
drop to isentropic enthalpy drop from
initial pressure to final pressure is called
reheat factor.

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 Question
Steam at a pressure of 15 bar and 250 °C is expanded through a turbine at first to a
pressure of 4 bar. It is then reheated at a constant pressure to the initial temperature of
250 °C and is finally expanded to 0.1 bar. Using a Mollier chart, estimate the work done per
kg of steam flowing through the turbine and the amount of heat supplied during the
process of reheating. Compare the work output when the expansion is direct from 15 bar
to 0.1 bar without any reheat. Assume all expansion processes to be isentropic.

Given: T1= 250 °C, P1= 15 bar

P2= 4 bar
T3=T1=250 °C
P3=0.1 bar

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Thank You

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