IGCSE Science Revision

Contents
Part 1: Motion .................................................................................................................................................. 3

P1.1. Length and time .................................................................................................................................. 3
P1.2. Motion .................................................................................................................................................. 4
P1.3. Mass and weight .................................................................................................................................. 9
P1.4. Density................................................................................................................................................ 11
P1.5. Forces ................................................................................................................................................. 14
P1.1.1. Effects of forces .......................................................................................................................... 14
P1.5.2 Turning effect .............................................................................................................................. 18
P1.5.3 Centre of Mass ............................................................................................................................. 21
P1.5.4. Pressure ....................................................................................................................................... 22
Part 2: Work, energy and power .................................................................................................................. 23
P2.1. Work .................................................................................................................................................. 23
P2.2. Energy ................................................................................................................................................ 25
P2.3. Power.................................................................................................................................................. 30
P2.4. Energy resources ............................................................................................................................... 31
Part 3: Thermal Physics ................................................................................................................................ 33
P3.1. Simple kinetic molecular model of matter...................................................................................... 33
P3.2. Pressure changes ............................................................................................................................... 40
P3.3. Matter and thermal properties ........................................................................................................ 40
P3.4. Measurement of temperature .......................................................................................................... 42
P3.5. Thermal processes............................................................................................................................. 45
P3.5.1. Conduction .................................................................................................................................. 45
P3.5.2. Convection .................................................................................................................................. 46
P3.5.3. Radiation ..................................................................................................................................... 47
P3.5.4. Consequences of Energy Transfer ............................................................................................ 50
Part 4: Properties of waves, including light and sound .............................................................................. 51
P4.1. General wave properties .................................................................................................................. 51
P4.2. Light ................................................................................................................................................... 57
P4.2.1. Reflection of Light ...................................................................................................................... 57
P4.2.2. Refraction of Light ..................................................................................................................... 59
P4.2.3. Thin converging lens .................................................................................................................. 63
P4.3. Electromagnetic spectrum ............................................................................................................... 67
P4.4. Sound ................................................................................................................................................. 71
Part 5: Electricity and magnetism ................................................................................................................ 76
P5.1. Simple phenomena of magnetism .................................................................................................... 76
P5.2. Electrical quantities .......................................................................................................................... 79
P5.2.1. Electric charge ............................................................................................................................ 79
P5.2.2. Current, potential difference and electromotive force (e.m.f.) .............................................. 81
P5.2.3. Resistance .................................................................................................................................... 85
Part 6: Electric circuits .................................................................................................................................. 87
P6.1. Circuit diagrams ............................................................................................................................... 87
P6.2. Series and parallel circuits ............................................................................................................... 88
P6.3. Electrical energy ............................................................................................................................... 93
P6.4. Dangers of electricity ........................................................................................................................ 94
Part 7: Electromagnetic effects ..................................................................................................................... 95
P7.1. Magnetic effect of an electric current ............................................................................................. 95
P7.2. Force on a current-carrying conductor .......................................................................................... 97
P7.3. D.C. motor ......................................................................................................................................... 98
P7.4. Electromagnetic induction ............................................................................................................... 99
P7.5. A.C.Generator ................................................................................................................................... 99
P7.6. Transformer .................................................................................................................................... 101
Part 8: Atomic physics ................................................................................................................................. 103
P8.1. The nuclear atom ............................................................................................................................ 103
P8.2. Radioactivity.................................................................................................................................... 105
P8.2.1. Characteristics of the three kinds of emission ....................................................................... 105
P8.2.2. Detection of radioactivity ........................................................................................................ 109
P8.2.3. Radioactive decay ..................................................................................................................... 110
P8.2.4. Half-life...................................................................................................................................... 112
P8.2.5. Safety precautions .................................................................................................................... 114
IGCSE Science Revision
Part 1: Motion
P1.1. Length and time
1. Use and describe the use of rules and measuring cylinders to find a length or a volume
- Rulers can be used to measure small distances of a few cm. They are able to measure to the nearest
mm
A ruler can measure small distances to the nearest mm

- When measuring larger distances (of a few metres) a tape measure is more appropriate or, when
measuring even larger distances, a trundle wheel
Trundle wheels can be used to measure large distances

- Measuring cylinders can be used to measure the volume of liquids or, by measuring the change in
volume, the volume of an irregular shape
Measuring cylinders can be used to determine the

volume of a liquid or an irregular shaped solid
2. Understand that a micrometer screw gauge is used to measure very small distances
- When measuring very small distances (less than a centimetre) a micrometer is the most appropriate
instrument
Micrometers can be used to measure very small distances
- Micrometers can measure distances to the nearest 1/100th of a mm
3. Use and describe the use of clocks and devices, both analogue and digital, for measuring an interval
of time
- Stop-clocks and stopwatches can be used to measure time intervals
- An important factor when measuring time intervals is human reaction time. This can have a significant
impact upon measurements when the measurements involved are very short (less than a second)
4. Obtain an average value for a small distance and for a short interval of time by measuring multiples
(including the period of a pendulum)
- Suppose you have to measure the thickness of a sheet of paper. The thing that you are trying to measure
is so small that it would be very difficult to get an accurate answer
- If, however, you measure the thickness of 100 sheets of paper you can do so much more accurately.
Dividing your answer by 100 will then give an accurate figure for the thickness of one sheet
- This process of taking a reading of a large number of values and then dividing by the number, is a
good way of getting accurate values for small figures, including (for example) the time period of a
pendulum – measure the time taken for 10 swings and then divide that time by 10
P1.2. Motion
total distance
1. Define speed and calculate average speed from
total time
- Speed (measured in metres per second) is the distance moved by an object each second
- The average speed of an object is given by the equation:
- You can rearrange the equation with the help of the formula triangle:
Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

2. Distinguish between speed and velocity
- Velocity is a similar quantity to speed, but includes a direction (the direction of travel) as well as its
value (its magnitude)
- Two objects can have equal speeds but might have opposite velocities (if they are travelling in opposite
directions)
change of velocity
3. Define and calculate acceleration using
total time
- Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity: In other words, how much the velocity of an object
changes by every second
- Acceleration is given by the equation:
(Where u is the initial velocity of an object and v is its final velocity)

- You can rearrange this equation with the help of the formula triangle:
- The units of acceleration are m/s2, which mean the same thing as m/s/s - the change in velocity (in
m/s) every second
• Exam Tip:
Marks are often available for giving the correct unit, even if your answer is incorrect. You must,
however, give an answer (even if it’s just a guess): giving a unit without an answer will not gain
you any marks.
4. Plot and interpret a speed–time graph and a distance–time graph
 Distance-Time Graphs
- A distance-time graph shows how the distance of an object (from a point) varies over time:
Graphs showing how the distances travelled by three objects vary over time
- A horizontal line means stationary
- A straight line means constant speed
- If the gradient increases the object is speeding up (accelerating)
- If the gradient decreases the object is slowing down (decelerating)
- If the line is going down, the object is moving backwards
- The speed of an object is given by the gradient of the line:

• Exam Tip:
When you come across any graph, look carefully at what is plotted on each axis and think for a while
about what the graph is showing you. Distance-time graphs are also known as position-time graphs or
displacement-time graphs. Don’t be fooled by these different names: they describe the same kind of
things
 Velocity-Time Graphs
- A Velocity-time graph shows how the velocity (or speed) of an object changes over time
Graph showing how the velocity (speed) of an object changes over time
- If the line is horizontal, the velocity is constant (no acceleration)
- If the line slopes upwards then the object is accelerating (speeding up)
- If the line goes down then the object is decelerating (slowing down)
5. Calculate acceleration from the gradient of a speed–time graph
- The acceleration of an object is given by the gradient of the graph:
Graph showing how acceleration can be determined from gradient

- Lines that slope downwards have negative gradients and so can be said to have negative
accelerations: This is the same thing as a deceleration
- If the gradient of the line changes then the acceleration of the body must be changing:
o A line with constant gradient represents constant acceleration (linear motion)
o A curved line represents changing acceleration – either decreasing (if the gradient gets smaller)
or increasing (if the gradient gets large)
• Exam Tip:
Remember to include units when giving your answers. The units of acceleration, for example, are
m/s2
6. State that the acceleration of free fall g for a body near to the Earth is constant
- In the absence of air resistance, all objects fall with the same acceleration, regardless of their mass
- This acceleration is equal to the gravitational field strength and is approximately 10 m/s2 near the
Earth’s surface
- So long as air resistance remains insignificant, the speed of a falling object will increase at a steady
rate, getting larger the longer it falls for.
In the absence of air resistance objects fall with constant acceleration

- When a parachutist jumps out of an aeroplane, two main forces act:
o Weight (the force of gravity)
o Air resistance
Diagram showing how the changing forces on a skydiver

- Initially the air resistance is very small. There is a downwards unbalanced force and the skydiver
accelerates
- As the skydiver speeds up, the air resistance increases
- Eventually the air resistance balances the weight and so the skydiver travels at a constant speed -
terminal velocity
- When the parachute is opened the increase air resistance on the parachute creates an upwards
unbalanced force, making the parachuting the slow down
Graph showing how the velocity of a skydiver changes during the descent
• Exam Tip:
The force of gravity on an object is called weight. If asked to name this force make sure you use
this word: Don’t refer to it as “gravity” as this term could also mean gravitational field strength and
so would probably be marked wrong. Likewise, refer to the upward force as air resistance or drag.
The terms wind resistance and air pressure mean different things and so would also be marked wrong.
P1.3. Mass and weight
1. Distinguish between mass and weight
- Mass (measured in kilograms, kg) is related to the amount of matter in an object
- Weight (measured in newtons, N) is the force of gravity on a mass
- The size of this force depends on the gravitational field strength (often called gravity, g, for short)
Weight = mass x gravitational field strength
W=mxg
2. Know that the Earth is the source of a gravitational field

- The value of g (the gravitational field strength) varies from planet to planet
- On Earth:
Diagram showing the gravitational field strengths of the planets in our solar system
3. Describe, and use the concept of, weight as the effect of a gravitational field on a mass
- The weight (and hence mass) of two objects can be compared using a balance
A balance can be used to compare two different weights

4. Recognise that g is the gravitational force on unit mass and is measured in N/ kg
- The Earth has a gravitational field around that causes objects to have weight. The field extends far out
into space – it’s what keeps the Moon in its orbit around the Earth. The farther you go from the Earth,
the weaker is its field.
- As we have seen, close to the Earth’s surface, the field causes a force of 10 N on each kg of an object’s
mass. So we can say that g, the gravitational field strength, is 10 N per kilogram:
g = 10 N/kg
- Far from Earth, the value of g is less than 10 N/kg and, on other planets or moons, g has a diferent
value
6. Demonstrate understanding that weights (and hence masses) may be compared using a balance
- Mass has two significant effects in Physics:
o The mass of an object’s opposed any attempt to change that object’s motion
The greater the mass of an object, the more difficult it is to speed it up, slow it down or change
its direction
This property of mass is sometimes referred to as inertia
o Mass is also the source of an object’s weight – the force of gravity on a mass
The greater the mass, the greater the weight
P1.4. Density
m
1. Recall and use the equation ρ =
V
- Density is the mass per unit volume of a material:
o Objects made from low-density materials typically have a low mass, whilst similar-sized objects
made from high-density materials have a high mass
(Think of how heavy a bag full of feathers is compared to a similar bag full of metal)
- Density is related to mass and volume by the following equation:
(Note: The greek letter ρ is used to mean density)


- The units of density depend on what units are used for mass and volume:
o If the mass is measured in g and volume in cm3, then the density will be in g/cm3
o If the mass is measured in kg and volume in m3, then the density will be in kg/m3
2. Describe an experiment to determine the density of a liquid and of a regularly-shaped solid and
make the necessary calculation
- In general, an object will float in a liquid if the average density of that object is less than the density
of the liquid it is placed in
- Water, for example, has a density of about 1 g/cm3
o If an object has a density of less than 1 g/cm3 then it will float in water
o If an object has a density that is greater than 1 g/cm3 then it will sink in water
Diagram showing the relationship between an object's density and its ability to float in water
- To measure the density of an object, we must measure its mass and volume and then use the following
equation:
- The mass of an object can be measured quite simply by placing it on a top pan balance
You ought to state that you will ‘zero’ the balance before using it
Always zero a top pan balance before taking any measurements

- In the case of a liquid, the liquid must be placed in a container, the mass of which should be measured
both when it is empty and when it contains the liquid:
o The mass of the liquid will be the difference between the two values
- The volume can be determined in a couple of ways:
• Regular shapes (e.g. cubes, spheres, cylinders):

- The width (and length) can be measured using a ruler or a pair of digital calipers
- To make the measurements accurate, several measurements should be taken between different faces
or points on the circumference, and an average taken
When measuring the width (or diameter) take several readings between different points and take an average
- The volume can then be calculated using an appropriate equation:
(Note: When measuring the width of a sphere or cylinder, divide the measurement by two to find the
radius)
3. Describe the determination of the density of an irregularly shaped solid by the method of
displacement and make the necessary calculation
- The volume can be found using a Eureka can:
Placing an object in a full Eureka can will displace water equal to its volume
- Fill the Eureka can with water
- Place an empty measuring cylinder below its spout
- Now carefully lower the object into the Eureka can (use a piece of string, perhaps)
- Measure the volume of displaced water in the measuring cylinder
- Alternatively, the object can be placed in a measuring cylinder containing a known volume of liquid,
and the change in volume then measured
When an irregular solid is placed in a measuring cylinder, the level of the liquid will rise by an amount
equal to the volume of the solid
- Once the mass and volume of the shape is known, its density can be calculated
P1.5. Forces
P1.1.1. Effects of forces
1. Describe how forces may change the size, shape and motion of a body
- When forces are applied to materials, the size and shape of the material can change
- The method below describes a typical procedure for carrying out an investigation into the properties
of a material
An experiment to measure the extension of a spring

- Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram
- A single mass (0.1 kg, 100g) is attached to the spring, with a pointer attached to the bottom, and the
position of the spring is measured against the ruler
- The mass (in kg) and position (in cm) are recorded in a table
- A further mass is added and the new position measured
- The above process continues until a total of 7 masses have been added
- The masses are then removed and the entire process repeated again, until it has been carried out a total
of three times, and averages can then be taken
- Once measurements have been taken:
o The force on the spring can be found by multiplying the mass on the spring (in kg) by 10 N/kg
(the gravitational field strength)
o The extension of the spring can be found by subtracting the original position of the spring from
each of the subsequent positions
2. Plot and interpret extension–load graphs and describe the associated experimental procedure
- Finally, a graph of extension (on the y-axis) against force (on the x-axis) should be plotted
A graph of force against extension for a metal spring

3. State Hooke’s law and recall and use the expression F = k x, where k is the spring constant
- Hooke’s law states that:
o The extension of a spring is proportional to the applied force
(where k is the spring constant, which represents how stiff a spring is)
- Many other materials (such as metal wires) also obey Hooke’s law
- Hooke’s law is associated with the initial linear (straight) part of a force-extension graph
- Objects that obey Hooke’s law will return to their original length after being stretched
- If an object continues to be stretched it can be taken past the limit of proportionality (sometimes
called the elastic limit). At this point the object will no longer obey Hooke’s law and will not return to
its original length
The spring on the right has been stretched beyond the limit of proportionality
• Exam Tip:
A relationship is said to be proportional if the graph is a straight line going through the origin.If
a graph is a straight line but does not go through the origin the relationship is said to be linear.
5. Recall and use the relationship between resultant force, mass and acceleration, F = ma
- When an unbalanced (resultant) force acts on an object, it can affect its motion in a number of ways:
o The object could speed up
o The object could slow down
o The object could change direction
A resultant force can cause an object to speed up, slow down or change direction
---- Acceleration ----

- Force, mass and acceleration are related by the following equation:
force = mass × acceleration
f=m×a

- The greater the force, the greater the acceleration (for a given mass)
- For a given force, the smaller the mass the greater the acceleration
• Exam Tip:
If you are trying to find the acceleration check that you know both the unbalanced (resultant) force
and the mass of the object. If you don’t, you might need to calculate the acceleration using a different
equation.
6. Understand friction as the force between two surfaces which impedes motion and results in heating
- Friction is a force that opposes the motion of an object caused by the contact (rubbing) of two
surfaces. It always acts in the opposite direction to the direction in which the object is moving
Friction opposes the motion of an object

- Friction (including air resistance) results in energy loss due to the transfer of energy from kinetic to
internal (heat)
• Exam Tip:
The resultant force is sometimes also known as the net force or the unbalanced force. Avoid
referring to air resistance as wind resistance or air pressure – these are incorrect terms and will lose
you marks if you use them when you actually mean air resistance.
7. Recognise air resistance as a form of friction
- Air resistance (sometimes called drag) is a form of friction caused by a body moving through the air
8. Find the resultant of two or more forces acting along the same line
- When several forces act on a body, the resultant (overall) force on the body can be found by adding
together forces which act in the same direction and subtracting forces which act in opposite directions:
Diagram showing the resultant forces on three different objects

9. Recognise that if there is no resultant force on a body it either remains at rest or continues at
constant speed in a straight line
- When the forces acting on a body are balanced (i.e. there is no resultant force), the body will either
remain at rest or continue to move in a straight line at a constant speed
When the forces acting on a body are balanced the body will remain at rest or continue to travel at a
constant speed in a straight line
P1.5.2 Turning effect

1. Describe the moment of a force as a measure of its turning effect, and give everyday examples
- A moment is the turning effect of a force
- Moments occur when forces cause objects to rotate about some pivot
- The size of the moment depends upon:
o The size of the force
o The distance between the force and the pivot
- The moment of a force is given by the equation:
Moment = Force × perpendicular distance from the pivot
- Moments have the units newton centimetres (N cm) or newton metres (N m), depending on whether
the distance is measured in metres or centimetres
Diagram showing the moment of a force causing a block to topple
- Some other examples involving moments include:
o Using a crowbar to prize open something
o Turning a tap on or off
o Opening or closing a door
3. Recognise that, when there is no resultant force and no resultant turning effect, a system is in
equilibrium
- The term “equilibrium” means that an object keeps doing what it’s doing, without any change
- Therefore:
o If the object is moving it will continue to move (in a straight line)
o If it is stationary it will remain stationary
o The object will also not start or stop turning
- The above conditions require two things:
o The forces on the object must be balanced (there must be no resultant force)
o The sum of clockwise moments on the object must equal the sum of anticlockwise moments
(the principle of moments)
When the forces and moments on an object are balanced, the object will remain in equilibrium
- If the above two conditions are met, then the object will be in equilibrium
4. Apply the principle of moments to the balancing of a weightless beam about a pivot
- The principle of moments states that:
o For a system to be balanced, the sum of clockwise moments must be equal to the sum of
anticlockwise moments
Diagram showing the moments acting on a balanced beam

- In the above diagram:
o Force F2 is supplying a clockwise moment;
o Forces F1 and F3 are supplying anticlockwise moments
- Hence:
F2 x d2 = (F1 x d1) + (F3 x d3)
5. Apply the principle of moments to different situations
- The principle of moments doesn’t just apply to seesaws – it is important in many other situations as
well such as, for example, a shelf:
To prevent the shelf from collapsing, the

support must provide an upward moment
equal to the downward moment of the vase
P1.5.3 Centre of Mass
1. Perform and describe an experiment to determine the position of the centre of mass of a plane lamina
- The centre of mass of an object (sometimes called the centre of gravity) is the point through which
the weight of that object acts
- For a symmetrical object of uniform density (such as a symmetrical cardboard shape) the centre of
mass is located at the point of symmetry:
The centre of mass of a regular shape can be found by symmetry

- When an object is suspended from a point, the object will always settle so that its centre of mass
comes to rest below the pivoting point
- This can be used to find the centre of mass of an irregular shape:
Diagram showing an experiment to find the centre of mass of an irregular shape

- The irregular shape (a plane laminar) is suspended from a pivot and allowed to settle
- A plumb line (lead weight) is then held next to the pivot and a pencil is used to draw a vertical line
from the pivot (the centre of mass must be somewhere on this line)
- The process is then repeated, suspending the shape from two different points
- The centre of mass is located at the point where all three lines cross
2. Describe qualitatively the effect of the position of the centre of mass on the stability of simple objects
- An object is stable when its centre of mass lies above its base
The object on the right will topple, as its centre of mass is no longer over its base
- If the centre of mass does not lie above its base, then an object will topple over
- The most stable objects have a low centre of mass and a wide base
The most stable objects have wide bases and low centres of mass
P1.5.4. Pressure
- Pressure is the concentration of a force:
o If a force is spread over a large area it will result in a small pressure
o If it is spread over a small area it will result in a large pressure
When you push a drawing pin, it goes into the surface (rather than your finger) because the force on the
surface is more concentrated
- Pressure is related to force and area by the equation:


- The units of pressure depend on the units of area:
o If the area is measured in cm2 (and the force in N), then the pressure will be in N/cm2
o If the area is measured in m2 (and the force in N), then the pressure will be in N/m2
- Pressure can also be measured in pascals, Pa
1 Pa is the same as 1 N/m2
Part 2: Work, energy and power

P2.1. Work
1. Relate (without calculation) work done to the magnitude of a force and distance moved in the
direction of the force
- Energy is the capacity of something to do work
- Work is done whenever a force acts on an object that moves (or is moving) in the direction of the
force
o The greater the force, the greater the work
o The larger the distance moved, the larger the work
Work is done when a force is used to move an object a distance
- Whenever any work is done, energy gets transferred (mechanically) from one form to another
- The amount of energy transferred (in joules) is equal to the work done (also in joules)
energy transferred (J) = work done (J)
- Usually, if a force acts in the direction that an object is moving then the object will gain energy
- If the force acts in the opposite direction to the movement then the object will lose energy
2. Recall and use W = Fd = ΔE
- The amount of work that is done if related to the size of the force and the distance moved by the object
in the direction of the force:
work done = force × distance moved
W = F× d

- The units of work are joules (J) (the same as the units of energy), but can also be given as newton
metres (Nm)
P2.2. Energy
1. Demonstrate an understanding that work done = energy transferred
- Energy is the capacity of something to do work:
o If something contains a store of energy it is able to do work
o If something does not store energy then it will not work
2. Demonstrate understanding that an object may have energy due to its motion (kinetic energy, KE)
or its position (potential energy, PE) and that energy may be transferred and stored
- The law of conservation of energy states that:
o Energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only change from one form to another
- What this means is that the total amount of energy in a closed system remains constant, although how
much of each form there is may change
- Some examples:
o A falling object (in a vacuum): Gravitational potential energy → Kinetic energy
o A gas cooker: Chemical → Internal (Heat)
o An LED (Light Emitting Diode): Electrical → Light
3. Give and identify examples of changes in kinetic, gravitational potential, chemical potential, elastic
potential (strain), nuclear, thermal, light, sound and electrical energy that have occurred as a result of
an event or process
- Many processes involve several steps before energy ends up in its final form
- For example:
A fossil fuel power station takes chemical energy (the fuel) and uses it to produce electrical energy, but
the individual steps are:
Chemical → Internal (heat) → Kinetic (steam) → Kinetic (turbine and generator) → Electrical
- Energy can exist in a number of forms
For your IGCSE examination you are expected to know about the following:
4. Recall and use the expressions KE = ½mv2 and gravitational potential energy (GPE) = mgh or
change in GPE = mgΔh
- The gravitational potential energy (GPE) of an object is the energy it has due to its height in a
gravitational field:
o If an object is lifted up it will gain GPE
o If it falls, it will lose GPE
Gravitational potential energy: The energy an object has when it is lifted up

- The GPE of an object is related to its mass (m), height (h) and the gravitational field strength (g):
- The gravitational field strength (g) on the Earth is approximately 10 N/kg

(You will always be told this value in your examination paper)
---- Kinetic Energy ----
- The kinetic energy (KE) of an object is the energy it has as a result of its speed
Kinetic energy: the energy an object has when it is moving

- It is related to the mass (m) and speed (v) of the object by the equation:
(Note: In the above equation only the speed is squared – not the mass or the ½)
Worked example showing how GPE transfers to KE

5. Recognise that energy is transferred during events and processes, including examples of transfer by
forces (mechanical working), by electric currents (electrical working), by heating and by waves
- In addition to the six forms of energy mentioned above, there are four ways in which energy can be
transferred from one form to another:
7. Show a qualitative understanding of efficiency

- Whenever energy is transferred from one form to another, some of that energy is usually wasted and
is transferred away from the system, usually in the form of heat or waves (light and sound)
Whenever energy is transformed, some of the original energy usually ends up in an unwanted (wasted) form
- An efficient system is one where most of the energy going into that system ends up in the form that is
wanted
Eg. An LED light bulb is efficient because most of the electrical energy (90%) ends up as light
- An inefficient system is one where most of the energy ends up in forms that weren’t wanted
Eg. An old incandescent light bulb is inefficient because only a small amount of the electrical energy
(5%) ends up as light
Sankey diagrams comparing modern and old light bulbs

- The efficiency of a system is the percentage of energy transferred from the original store that
ends up in the intended form
- Efficiency can be calculated using the following equation:
- Efficiency can also be written in terms of power) the energy per second):
P2.3. Power
1. Relate (without calculation) power to work done and time taken, using appropriate examples
- Machines, such as car engines, transfer energy from one form to another every second
- The power of a machine is the rate at which the machine transfers energy
o The greater the rate at which energy is transferred, the greater the power
Two identical cars accelerating to the same final speed will both gain the same amount of energy. But if one
of them reaches that speed sooner, it will have a greater power
- Because work done is equal to energy transferred, the power is also equal to the rate of doing work
2. Recall and use the equation P = ΔE /t in simple systems, including electrical circuits
- Power is the amount of energy transferred (or work done) every second.
- Power, work and time are related by the following equation:

- The unit of power is the watt (W), which is the same as a joule per second (J/s)
• Exam Tip:
Think of power as “energy per second”. Think of it this way will help you to remember the
relationship between power and energy - “Watt is the unit of power?”
P2.4. Energy resources
1. Distinguish between renewable and non-renewable sources of energy
Renewable Resources Non-renewable Resources
Depletion
Renewable resources cannot be depleted over

Non-renewable resources deplete over time
time
Sources
Renewable resources include sunlight, water,

Non-renewable energy includes fossil fuels
wind and also geothermal sources such as hot
such as coal and petroleum.
springs and fumaroles
Environmental Impact
Most renewable resources have low carbon Non-renewable energy has a comparatively
emissions and low carbon footprint higher carbon footprint and carbon emissions.
Cost
The upfront cost of renewable energy is high. For

instance, Generating electricity using Non-renewable energy has a comparatively
technologies running on renewable energy is lower upfront cost.
costlier than generating it with fossil fuels
Infrastructure Requirements
Infrastructure for harvesting renewable energy is Cost-effective and accessible infrastructure is

prohibitively expensive and not easily accessible available for non-renewable energy across
in most countries. most countries
Area Requirements
Requires a large land/ offshore area, especially

Comparatively lower area requirements
for wind farms and solar farms
2. Describe how electricity or other useful forms of energy may be obtained

- Energy resources are large banks of energy that can be transferred into a form that can be used by
society, such as electrical energy
- The table below gives a brief description of the main energy resources, along with the form of energy
contained in that resource
3. Give advantages and disadvantages of each method in terms of renewability, cost, reliability, scale
and environmental impact
- All energy resources have advantages and disadvantages associated with them
- Some points to note:
o A renewable energy resource is one that is replenished at a faster rate than the rate at which it
is being used
As a result of this, renewable energy resources cannot run out
o A reliable energy resource is one that can produce energy at any time
Non-reliable resources can only produce energy some of the time (e.g. when it’s windy)
4. Understand that the Sun is the source of energy for all our energy resources except geothermal,
nuclear and tidal
- Most of our energy resources on the Earth come from the Sun:
o The Sun heats up the atmosphere, creating wind and producing waves
o Water evaporated by the Sun falls as rain, filling up reservoirs
o Plants grown using sunlight form the basis for fuels – both biofuels and fossil fuels
- The Sun’s energy is produced by through the process of nuclear fusion in its core
o Nuclear fusion involves the collision (and bonding) of hydrogen nuclei to form helium nuclei,
releasing nuclear energy in the process
- Some forms of energy, however, do not come from the Sun
These include:
o Geothermal – this comes from heat produced in the Earth’s core
o Nuclear – this comes from elements which make up a small proportion of the Earth’s crust
o Tidal – this comes (mainly) from the gravitational attraction of the moon
Part 3: Thermal Physics

P3.1. Simple kinetic molecular model of matter
1. State the distinguishing properties of solids, liquids and gases
- Matter can exist in one of three different states:
Diagram showing the 3 states of matter in terms of shape and volume
- Solids
o Solids have a definite shape (they are rigid)
o Solids have a definite volume
- Liquids
o Liquids have no definite shape – they are able to flow, and will take the shape of a container
o Liquids have a definite volume
- Gases
o Gases have no definite shape – they will take the shape of their container
o Gases have no fixed volume – if placed in an evacuated container they will expand to fill the
container. They are also highly compressible
2. Relate the properties of solids, liquids and gases to the forces and distances between the molecules
and to the motion of the molecules
- In a solid:
o The molecules are held in place by strong intermolecular bonds
o These bonds prevent the molecules from moving, giving the solid its rigid shape and fixed
volume
- In a liquid:
o The molecules have enough energy that they are able to break the bonds between them
o The bonds are still there, but they no longer hold the molecules in place
o As a result, the molecules can move around (by sliding past each other) allowing the liquid to
flow
- In a gas:
o The molecules are now moving around randomly at high speeds
o The molecules have broken the bonds between them: They are widely separated with no long-
range forces binding them together
o As a result the molecules are able to move freely and so the gas can flow freely
o Because of the large spaces between the molecules (along with the absence of long-range forces)
the gas can easily be compressed and is also able to expand
3. Describe qualitatively the molecular structure of solids, liquids and gases in terms of the
arrangement, separation, and motion of the molecules
Diagram showing the arrangement and motion of different states of matter

- In a solid:
o The molecules are very close together and arranged in a regular pattern
o The molecules vibrate about fixed positions
- In a liquid:
o The molecules are still close together (no gaps) but are no longer arranged in a regular pattern
o The molecules are able to slide past each other
- In a gas:
o The molecules are widely separated - about 10 times further apart in each direction
o The molecules move about randomly at high speeds
4. Describe qualitatively the pressure of a gas and the temperature of a gas, liquid or solid in terms of
the motion of its particles
- The molecules in a gas move around randomly at high speeds
- The temperature of a gas is related to the average speed of the molecules:
The hotter the gas, the faster the molecules move
Gas molecules move about randomly at high speeds

- As the molecules move around, they collide with the surface of nearby walls
- Each collision applies a force across the surface area of the walls
- Pressure is the force per unit area:
and hence a pressure will be exerted on those walls
6. Show an understanding of Brownian motion (the random motion of particles in a suspension) as
evidence for the kinetic molecular model of matter
- When small particles (such as pollen or smoke particles) are suspended in a liquid or gas, the particles
can be observed through a microscope moving around in a random, erratic fashion
Brownian Motion: the erratic motion of small particles when observed through a microscope
- This movement is called Brownian Motion
- This motion is caused by molecules in the gas (or liquid) colliding at high speeds with the small
particles
Gas molecules move at high speeds, collide with larger particles, giving them a little nudge
- These collisions give the particles a little nudge, causing them to change their speed and directions
randomly, each time they are struck by a molecule
- This effect provides important evidence concerning the behaviour of molecules in gases
7. Show an appreciation that massive particles may be moved by light, fast-moving molecules
- The small particles observed in Brownian motion are significantly bigger than the molecules that
cause the motion
- The molecules are able to affect the particles in this way because they are travelling at very high
speeds (much higher than the particles) and so have a lot of momentum, which they transfer to the
particles when they collide
8. Use and describe the use of thermometers to measure temperature on the Celsius scale
- A liquid-in-glass thermometer consists of a thin glass capillary tube containing a liquid that expands
with temperature
- At one end of the tube is a glass bulb, containing a larger volume of the liquid which expands when
heated, moving into the narrower tube
- A scale along the side of the tube allows the temperature to be measured based on the length of liquid
within the tube
As the bulb is heated, the liquid expands and moves along the capillary tube
9. Describe melting and boiling in terms of energy input without a change in temperature
- A change of state refers to a substance changing its state between solid, liquid or gas
The various changes of state between solids, liquids and gases

10. State the meaning of melting point and boiling point, and recall the melting and boiling points for
water
- Usually, when a substance is heated its temperature increases
- However, whilst a substance changes its state (from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas) the
temperature of that material remains constant, even though energy is still being added
When a substance changes state, its temperature remains constant, even though it is still gaining (or losing)
internal energy
- This happens because the energy is being used to break the bonds between the molecules instead of
increasing the kinetic energy of the molecules (and hence the temperature)
- When a substance turns from gas to liquid (condensation) or from liquid to solid (solidification) the
opposite happens:
The temperature remains constant whilst the bonds reform (giving out energy in the process)
- The melting point and boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which that substance
changes state
11. Distinguish between boiling and evaporation
- Boiling and Evaporation both refer to a change in state from liquid to gas, however:
o Boiling occurs at a fixed temperature and happens throughout the liquid
o Evaporation can occur at any temperature and happens from the surface of the liquid
Evaporation occurs when higher energy molecules near the surface of a liquid escape and become a gas.
This can occur at any temperature
12. Describe condensation and solidification.
- Condensation is when a gas changes to a liquid.
- As a gas loses heat energy, they also lose kinetic energy, causing them to move slower. Their
intermolecular forces of attraction become more significant, pulling the molecules together and
allowing them to form weak bonds until they form a liquid.
- A pretty common example of condensation is when your mirror steams up after a shower.
- Solidification, or freezing, is when a liquid changes to a solid.
- As liquids lose energy, their molecules slow down and form more intermolecular bonds with one
another. They become locked in place, and thus, they form a solid.
13. Explain evaporation in terms of the escape of more-energetic molecules from the surface of a liquid
- Liquids absorb heat from their surroundings and the sun. This increases their kinetic energy. At the
surface of the liquid, a few molecules eventually gain enough kinetic energy to overcome the
intermolecular forces surrounding it and escape as a gas. This process is evaporation.
- Note that evaporation is a superficial process – it only occurs on the surfaces of liquids, unlike
vaporisation, which can occur anywhere within the liquid (that’s why bubbles of gas form when we
boil water).
14. Relate evaporation to the consequent cooling of the liquid
- During evaporation, the most energetic molecules escape into the atmosphere, carrying away their
energy with them. This means there is less total energy left in the liquid.
- As temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the liquid, and there is less kinetic energy,
the temperature of the liquid also falls, and thus, the liquid cools.
15. Demonstrate an understanding of how temperature, surface area and draught over a surface
influence evaporation
- The higher the temperature, the greater the rate of evaporation. As the temperature increases, more
energy is supplied to the liquid molecules, allowing more surface molecules to gain enough energy to
escape the liquid at a time.
- As the surface area increases, so does the rate of evaporation. This is because more of the liquid is
exposed to the atmosphere, so there are more surface molecules that can absorb the surrounding energy
and eventually escape.
- Increased air flow also increases evaporation. When wind blows across the surface of the liquid, the
airborne liquid particles are swept away. This decreases the humidity in that region, allowing more
molecules to dissipate into the air.
P3.2. Pressure changes
1. Describe qualitatively, in terms of molecules, the effect on the pressure of a gas of:
– a change of temperature at constant volume
– a change of volume at constant temperature
- A higher temperature means the gas molecules move faster and have more collisions.
- As the gas molecules will collide with the surface of their container more and at a higher speed, the
total force they apply on the container will increase. Pressure is the force applied on a surface per unit
area, so the gas pressure increases. Note that this is true when the volume is constant – if the volume
increases, then the molecules have to travel further to hit the container, reducing the number of
collisions. This could nullify the effect of the temperature on pressure.
- The opposite is true when the temperature falls at a constant volume – molecules move slower, so
fewer collisions and the collisions are less forceful, so the pressure falls.
P3.3. Matter and thermal properties
1. Describe qualitatively the thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases at constant pressure
- The molecules in a solid are close together and arranged in a regular pattern.
- The molecules in a liquid are close together and are irregularly arranged.
- Gas molecules are far apart and randomly arranged.
2. Explain in terms of the motion and arrangement of molecules, the relative order of the magnitude
of the expansion of solids, liquids and gases
- When considering thermal expansion, gases expand the most, followed by liquids, and solids expand
the least. This is because gases have the weakest intermolecular forces of attraction, allowing their
molecules to move the furthest apart, and solids have the strongest intermolecular forces, limiting the
range of motion of the particles.
3. Identify and explain some of the everyday applications and consequences of thermal expansion
- We often use hot water to warm up the lid of a jar. This expands the lid (metals expand more than
glass), making it easier to remove.
- Liquid in thermometers expand and contract as the temperature changes. The volume of the liquid at
a given temperature is how we read the temperature off of a thermometer.
- Overhead cables have to be slack so that on cold days when they contract, they won’t snap or detach.
- Expansion joints – these are found on most large bridges. They look like two metal combs, their teeth
interlocking, and have small gaps between each other. When heat causes the bridge to expand, the two
sides of the expansion joint move towards each other. As the temperature cools, they gradually retract.
This gives the bridge room for expansion and contraction, preventing the cracking/ deformation of the
bridge. The expansion joints have interlocking ‘teeth’ because this minimizes the bump that
motorcyclists feel as they ride over it.
- Bimetallic strips in thermostats. This requires a little more explanation, so I’ve written a paragraph
about it below.
• Thermostats are devices used to adjust the temperature of a heating or cooling system.
• In order to understand how they work, you’ll need to know a little about expansion coefficients.
• Thermal expansion is expressed, in numbers, as the change in length, area, or volume per unit
temperature change.
• For wires, as the cross-sectional area is often tiny and thus negligible, we don’t have to concern
ourselves with calculating the area or volume change – we can just measure the change in length
of the wire per unit temperature change. This value would be the coefficient of linear expansion,
• For sheets, such as metal sheets, its thickness is negligible when compared to its area, so we
don’t have to calculate its volume change. We normally use the change in area per unit
temperature. This is the coefficient of superficial expansion.
• For other substances, like materials in 3D shapes, or liquids or gases, we use the coefficient of
cubical expansion. This is the change in area per unit temperature change.
• Bimetal thermostats have a bimetallic strip. This is a strip in which there are two metals, with
different coefficients of linear expansion, placed side by side. Therefore, when the strips warm
up, one of the metals linearly expand more than the other, causing the bimetallic strip to bend.
When it becomes hot enough, the strip bends enough to close the circuit, and the air conditioner
turns on, cooling down the room. Once the room has reached the desired temperature, the strip
slowly unbends, opening the circuit and turning off the air conditioner. The same mechanism
can be used for heaters – when it is warm, the strip bends away from the circuit, and is it grows
colder, the strip straightens out until it closes the circuit and the heater can turn on again.
• When you adjust the temperature on a thermostat, you’re adjusting how far the bimetal strip has
to bend/ straighten out to close the gap.
P3.4. Measurement of temperature
1. Describe how a physical property that varies with temperature may be used for the measurement of
temperature, and state examples of such properties
- When a substance is heated, some of its physical properties can change
- These properties include things such as:
• The volume (and density) of the substance
• The electrical resistance of the substance
- If these properties change in a well-defined way, by measuring the property you can determine the
temperature
- In order to build a thermometer based on one of these properties, you need to start by measuring the
property at some well-defined fixed points
- A fixed point is a temperature at which some easily identifiable change occurs, such as the melting of
ice (at 0 °c) or the boiling of pure water (at 100 °c)
Ice melts and water boils at well-defined temperatures (fixed points) which may be used to calibrate
thermometers
- These fixed points allow you to know the temperature without having to measure it directly
- Usually two fixed points are used:
• The lower fixed point: The melting temperature of ice
• The upper fixed point: The boiling temperature of pure water
- Once a property (such as electrical resistance) has been measured at these two fixed points, the values
of that property at other temperatures can be worked out
Measuring some property at two fixed points allows you to then work out the temperature for other
values of that property
2. Demonstrate understanding of sensitivity, range and linearity
- The above description has made a big assumption about the way in which the property changes with
temperature: That it does so at a steady rate
- Properties that change in this way are said to be linear, and linearity is a very useful property for
something to have as it makes it easy to work out the relationship between that thing and the temperature
- Other important properties when designing a device such as a thermometer include:
• Sensitivity – if the thing you are measuring changes significantly when the temperature
changes, it makes it easier to detect small changes in temperature: Your thermometer is more
sensitive
• Range – What are the lowest and highest temperatures the thermometer can measure? If a
liquid-thermometer is too short, there may not be enough room for the liquid to expand into
3. Describe the structure of a thermocouple and show understanding of its use as a thermometer for
measuring high temperatures and those that vary rapidly
- A thermocouple consists of two different types of wire attached together
- When the joint between the two wires is heated, a potential difference (voltage) is created between
the two wires
- The greater the temperature, the greater the potential difference
A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar wires connected together

- Thermocouples are not as sensitive as liquid-in-glass thermometers, but because the metals have high
melting points, they can be used to measure very high temperatures
- Thermocouples are also very responsive to rapidly changing temperatures
4. Recognise the need for and identify fixed points
- Before it can be used, a thermometer must be calibrated (ºC marks need to be put on it).
- To do that, we need to mark the fixed points.
• Lower fixed point or “Ice point”: temperature of pure melting ice
• Upper fixed point or “Steam point”: temperature of steam above pure boiling water at standard
pressure (Remember!! 100 kPa)
- Then, we calculate the scale:
5. Describe and explain how the structure of a liquid-in-glass thermometer relates to its sensitivity,
range and linearity
- The liquids used in liquid-in-glass thermometers are chosen for their thermal expansion properties:
• They expand linearly with temperature
• They expand significantly, giving them greater sensitivity
• They have low freezing points and high boiling points, allowing them to be used over a
greater range of temperatures
- Sensitivity is another word for precision. Anything that makes it easier to detect small changes in
temperature increases the precision, or sensitivity of a liquid thermometer
- Some of the factors which increase sensitivity are:
• Using a thermometer with a smaller glass bulb, as a smaller bulb contains less liquid and
therefore, absorbs heat in a shorter time
• Using a narrow tube, as a small change in volume results in the liquid moving a larger distance
along the tube
• Using a glass bulb with a thinner wall, as heat can be transferred to the bulb more easily and
a small change in temperature can be more easily detected
6. Describe and explain the structure and action of liquid-in-glass thermometers
- A liquid-in-glass thermometer consists of a thin glass capillary tube containing a liquid that expands
with temperature
- At one end of the tube is a glass bulb, containing a larger volume of the liquid which expands when
heated, moving into the narrower tube
- A scale along the side of the tube allows the temperature to be measured based on the length of liquid
within the tube
As the bulb is heated, the liquid expands and moves along the capillary tube
P3.5. Thermal processes
P3.5.1. Conduction
1. Recognise and name typical good and bad thermal conductors
- Good Conductors
Materials that allow heat to pass through them easily are called good conductors of heat.
- Bad Conductors
Materials that do not conduct heat as easily and quickly as metals do are bad conductors.
2. Describe experiments to demonstrate the properties of good and bad thermal conductors
- A simple experiment to demonstrate the relative conducting properties of different materials can be
carried out using apparatus similar to that shown in the diagram below
The above apparatus consists of 4 different metal strips of equal width and length arrange around
an insulated circle
- Ball bearings can be stuck to each of the strips and equal distance from the centre, using a small
amount of wax
- The strips should then be turned upside down and the centre heated gently using a candle, so that each
of the strips is heated at the point where they meet
- When the heat is conducted along to the ball bearing, the wax will melt and the ball bearing will drop
- By timing how long this takes for each of the strips, their relative thermal conductivities can be
determined
3. Explain conduction in solids in terms of molecular vibrations and transfer by electrons
- When a substance is heated, the atoms start to move around (vibrate) more
- As they do so they bump into each other, transferring energy from atom to atom
Conduction: the atoms in a solid vibrate and bump into each other
- Metals are especially good at conducting heat as the delocalised electrons can collide with the
atoms, helping to transfer the vibrations through the material
P3.5.2. Convection
1. Recognise convection as the main method of energy transfer in fluids
- Convection is the main way that heat travels through liquids and gases (Convection cannot happen
in solids)
- Convection occurs when particles with more heat energy move and take the place of particles with
less heat energy. Because this process requires the movement of particles, it can only occur in liquids
or gases.
- It is more efficient than conduction (heat moves through the substance faster) and requires less energy
than radiation, so most of the heat is transferred by convection in liquids and gases.
2. Relate convection in fluids to density changes
- When a liquid (or gas) is heated:
• The molecules push each other apart, making the liquid/gas expand
• This makes the hot liquid/gas less dense than the surroundings
• The hot liquid/gas rises, and the cooler (surrounding) liquid/gas moves in to take its place
• Eventually the hot liquid/gas cools, contracts and sinks back down again
• The resulting motion is called a convection current
When a liquid or gas is heated, it becomes less dense and rises
3. Interpret and describe experiments designed to illustrate convection in liquids and gases (fluids)
- A simple demonstration of convection in liquids involves taking a beaker of water and placing a few
crystals of potassium permanganate in it, to one side, as shown in the diagram above
- When the water is heated at that side, the potassium permanganate will dissolve in the heated water
and rise along with the warmed water, revealing the convection current
Diagram showing an experiment with potassium permanganate to demonstrate convection

P3.5.3. Radiation
1. Recognise radiation as the method of energy transfer that does not require a medium to travel
through
- Radiation is the emission of energy.
- A lot of radiation travels as waves – examples include visible light, UV (Ultraviolet) light, X-rays,
gamma radiation, radio waves, etc.
- Radiation can travel through a vacuum – that’s how we, on Earth, manage to get the Sun’s warmth
and light despite being separated by the large vacuum of space. In other words, radiation doesn’t require
a medium.
- In the same way that light is radiated, heat can also be radiated. This makes radiation the only form
of heat transfer that does not need a medium – both conduction and convection use particles to transfer
heat energy from one place to the other.
2. Identify infrared radiation as the part of the electromagnetic spectrum often involved in energy
transfer by radiation
- All hot objects give off thermal radiation: the hotter they are, the more they emit
- Thermal radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum – infrared
- Thermal radiation is the only way in which heat can travel through a vacuum
It is the way in which heat reaches us from the Sun
- The electromagnetic spectrum is a spectrum of waves created by disturbances in both the electric
and magnetic field.
- This is the electromagnetic spectrum:
- Only a tiny part of the spectrum is visible to the naked human eye, and we call this part visible light.
The rest of the light on the spectrum is invisible to us, but can often be seen using different tools.
- Infra-red light is the part of the EM spectrum that is most involved in heat transfer.
3. Describe the effect of surface colour (black or white) and texture (dull or shiny) on the emission,
absorption and reflection of radiation
- The colour of an object affects how good it is at emitting and absorbing thermal radiation:
- Black objects are very good at absorbing thermal radiation (think about black leather seats in strong
sunshine) but also very good at emitting it (when it goes dark those seats cool down quickly)
- Shiny objects reflect thermal radiation and so absorb very little. They also emit very little, though,
and so take longer to cool down
An image of a hot object taken in both Infrared and visible light. The black surface emits more
thermal radiation (infrared) than the shiny surface
4. Interpret and describe experiments to investigate the properties of good and bad emitters and good
and bad absorbers of infrared radiation
- To demonstrate the absorption of thermal radiation:
• Take two conical flasks – one painted with silver paint, the other with black paint – and place
thermometers and bungs in them
• Measure and record their initial temperatures
• Place the two flasks an equal distance from an incandescent light bulb (a good source of
radiation) and switch the bulb on
• After a few minutes (between 2 and 5) switch the bulb off and record the new temperatures of
the flasks
(The black flask’s temperature should have increased by more
A black and a shiny beaker can be used to demonstrate the effect of colour upon the emission and
absorption of thermal radiation
- To demonstrate the emission of thermal radiation:
• Fill the shiny beakers with boiling water
• Once each beaker reaches a set temperature (e.g. 90 °c) start a stopwatch and allow it to cool
for a set amount of time (e.g. 10 minutes)
• After this time, take a new temperature measurement and record the change in temperature
(The black beaker should have cooled by slightly more than the shiny beaker, because it emitted
more thermal radiation)
P3.5.4. Consequences of Energy Transfer
1. Identify and explain some of the everyday applications and consequences of conduction, convection
and radiation
- Conduction
• The main means of thermal energy transfer in solids
• When heated, atoms vibrate more, knocking into each other and transferring energy from atom
to atom as a result
• Metals are excellent conductors; Non-metals are poor; Liquids and gases are very poor
• If a question mentions metals, the answer will probably have something to do with conduction
• Trapped air is a very good insulator of heat. Air is a gas and so is a poor conductor. Trapping
it prevents it from circulating and forming a convection current
- Convection
• The means of thermal energy transfer in liquids and gases
• When heated, a gas will expand and become less dense. This causes it to rise (a convection
current). Cooler (denser) gas falls, replacing the hot gas
• If a question refers to a liquid or gas (that isn’t trapped) then convection currents will probably
form
• Heat sources placed at the bottom of things will generally create convection currents.
Likewise, cooling units placed high up will cool any rising air, causing it to sink again
- Radiation
• The only way in which heat can travel through a vacuum
• Thermal radiation is heat transfer by infrared (part of the electromagnetic spectrum)
• Black objects are good at emitting and absorbing thermal radiation; shiny objects are poor at
emitting and absorbing it
• If a question refers to the colour of something (black, white or shiny) then the answer will
probably have something to do with thermal radiation
• If a piece of apparatus contains a vacuum then radiation will be the only way heat can travel
through that part of the apparatus
- Consequences Example Question
In many hot countries it is common for houses to produce hot water using solar panels
Diagram showing a section through a solar panel
Explain the features of the solar panel that help it heat the water efficiently
Answer:
- The thermal radiation (infrared) is able to pass through the glass sheet
- The black metal backing sheet absorbs the thermal radiation (sunlight)
- Being metal (an excellent conductor) it then conducts it into the copper pipes
- The copper pipes (also metal) then conduct the heat into the water
- The insulated material reduces the conduction of heat through the back of the panel, decreasing heat
loss
- The glass also traps air which is a good insulator, preventing heat loss due to conduction from the
front of the panel and preventing heat loss by convection (due to the air being trapped)
Part 4: Properties of waves, including light and sound

P4.1. General wave properties
1. Demonstrate understanding that waves transfer energy without transferring matter
- Waves transfer energy between points, without transferring matter:
• When a wave travels between two points, no matter actually travels with it: The points on the
wave simply vibrate back and forth about fixed positions
- For example, when a pebble is dropped into a pond, circular ripples move outward on the surface of the
water. Any object on the surface of the water (e.g. a leaf) would only bob up and down, not moved from
its position (because water waves are transverse waves- explained below).
2. Describe what is meant by wave motion as illustrated by vibration in ropes and springs and by
experiments using water waves
- Wave motion is the transfer of energy from one point to another. We can demonstrate this by hanging
an object on a stretched string and then sending a pulse down the string (by moving it up and down
quickly like a wave). When the pulse meets the suspended object, the object bobs up and down for a
moment, as shown below.
3. Use the term wavefront
- Two or more waves moving together have wavefronts
- Imaginary planes that cut across all of the waves connecting the point on adjacent waves which are
vibrating together
- Distance between one wavefront is equal to one wavelength
4. State the meaning of speed, frequency, wavelength and amplitude
- The wavelength of a wave is the distance from a point on one wave to the same point on the next wave.
Usually this is measured from the top of one wave to the top of the next wave
Wavelength is usually measured in metres (a distance)
- The amplitude of a wave is its height, measured from the middle of the wave to its top (or from the
middle to its bottom)
Diagram showing the amplitude and wavelength of a transverse wave
- The frequency of a wave is the number of waves passing a point (or being created or received) every
second - it is helpful to think of it as being the waves per second
- The units of frequency are hertz (Hz)
5. Distinguish between transverse and longitudinal waves and give suitable examples
- Waves can exist as one of two main types:
• Transverse
• Longitudinal
Transverse Waves
- For a transverse wave, the points along the wave vibrate at 90 degrees to the direction in which the wave
is moving (the direction of energy transfer)
- A ripple on a pond and a wave on a string are examples of this.
With a transverse wave, the vibrations are at 90 degrees to the direction of energy transfer
Longitudinal Waves
- For a longitudinal wave, the points along the wave vibrate in the same direction that the wave is moving
in
- Sound waves are an example.
With a longitudinal wave, the vibrations are parallel to the direction of energy transfer
6. Describe how waves can undergo:
– reflection at a plane surface
– refraction due to a change of speed
- When waves hit an object, such as a barrier, they can be reflected:
When waves reflect off a barrier, the angle of reflection, r, is equal to the angle of incidence, i
- When waves are reflection:
angle of incidence = angle of reflection
i=r
----
- When waves enter a different medium, their speed can change
- This effect is called refraction, and it can have two other effects:
• The wavelength of the waves can increase or decrease
• The waves can change direction
When water waves travel from deep areas to shallow areas they slow down
- If the waves slow down the waves will bunch together, causing the wavelength to decrease. The waves
will also start to travel closer to the normal
- If the waves speed up then they will spread out, causing the wavelength to increase. The waves will also
turn slightly away from the normal
7. Recall and use the equation v = f λ
- The speed of a wave (v) is related to the frequency (f) and wavelength (λ) by the equation:

8. Understand that refraction is caused by a change in speed as a wave moves from one medium to
another
- A wave refracts because the medium it is now travelling through has a different density, which causes
its speed to change. When this speed changes, the wavelength changes and consequently its direction
changes too.
- For example: when waves hit water, which has an uneven surface, it will refract. The water is denser
than air (water molecules are more closely packed together than air molecules), so the speed of the wave
decreases, and so does its direction.
9. Describe how waves can undergo diffraction through a narrow gap
- When waves pass through a narrow gap, the waves spread out
- This effect is called diffraction
Diffraction: when a wave passes through a narrow gap, it spreads out

- Diffraction, as shown above, only generally happens when the gap is smaller than the wavelength of the
wave
- As the gap gets bigger, the effect gradually gets less pronounced until, in the case that the gap is very
much larger than the wavelength, the waves no longer spread out at all
The size of the gap (compared to the wavelength) affects how much the waves spread out
- Diffraction can also occur when waves pass an edge
When a wave goes past the edge of a barrier, the waves can curve around the edge
10. Describe the use of water waves to demonstrate diffraction
- Diffraction can be demonstrated by placing
small barriers and obstacles in a ripple tank
and observing the path of the water waves as
they encounter the obstacles. The waves are
seen to pass around the barrier into the
regions behind it; subsequently the water
behind the barrier is disturbed.
The above wave effects may all be

demonstrated using a ripple tank
P4.2. Light
P4.2.1. Reflection of Light
1. Describe the formation of an optical image by a plane mirror and give its characteristics
- How do we see objects in the mirror? It is due to reflection (of light). Light rays will strike the mirror
and reflect off it into our eyes. The optical image formed will be:
• the same size as the object.
• Upright
• virtual – a real image is formed on a screen (or some other detector, like your eyes) when all of
the rays from a single point on an object strike a single point on a screen. A virtual image is
produced when rays of light come into our eyes and appear to come from an object, when in
reality, that object is not present at the apparent position of the source. So, due to the direction the
light rays come from, our brain makes us think that the object is in one place when in reality, it is
in another. The most common example of virtual images are reflections in plane mirrors – look at
the diagram below
• The image will be behind the plane of the mirror and the object will be in front; the distance
between the image and mirror will be equal to the distance between the object and mirror. This is
shown in the diagram.
2. Recall and use the law:
angle of incidence i = angle of reflection r recognising these angles are measured to the normal
- Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum – a family of transverse waves
- As with all wave, when light reflects:
Angle of incidence, i = angle of reflection, r

3. Perform simple constructions, measurements and calculations for reflection by plane mirrors
- When an object is placed in front of a mirror, an image of that object can be seen in the mirror
- The image:
• Is the same size as the object
• Is the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of it
• Is directly in line with the object
- The formation of this image can be understood by drawing a ray diagram
Diagram showing the formation of an image in a mirror by the reflection of light

- Light from the object hits the mirror, reflecting from it (i=r)
- To an observer, the reflected ray appears to have come from the right-hand side of the mirror
- The reflected ray can be traced back in this directions, forming a virtual ray
- This can be repeated for another ray travelling in a slightly different direction
- An image of the object will appear where these two virtual rays cross
- The type of image formed in the mirror is called a virtual image
- A virtual image is formed by the divergence of rays from the image, and cannot be projected onto a
piece of paper (because the rays don’t actually go through the image)
P4.2.2. Refraction of Light
1. Interpret and describe an experimental demonstration of the refraction of light
- When you put a pencil in a full glass of water, the submerged
pencil, when viewed from the side, seems to be bent in the
water. This is because the light rays bend when they enter a
different medium to the one they were originally travelling in
– in this example, they enter the air from the water. This
phenomenon is called refraction.
----
- In your examination you might be asked to write a method explaining how you might investigate the
refraction of light through different shaped blocks
- As part of this method you should describe:
• What equipment you need
• How you will use the equipment
• How you will trace the rays of light before, while and after they pass through the block
Diagram showing a ray box alongside three different shaped glass blocks
- Method:
1. Place the glass block on a sheet of paper, and carefully draw around the block using a pencil
2. Take a ray box and carefully aim the box so that a single ray of light passes through the block
3. Using a pencil, mark some points along the path of the ray:
• Before it reaches the block;
• Where it hits the block;
• Where it leaves the block;
• After it has left the block
4. Now remove the block from the paper and, using a ruler and pencil, draw straight lines
connecting points: a and b; b and c; c and d. The resulting line will show the path of the ray
5. Replace the block within its outline and repeat the above process for a ray striking the block at a
different angle
2. Recall and use the definition of refractive index n in terms of speed
- The refractive index (also known as refraction index or index of refraction) of a material is a
dimensionless number that describes how fast light travels through the material. It is defined as
c
n=
v
where c is the speed of light in vacuum and v is the phase velocity of light in the medium.
3. Use the terminology for the angle of incidence i and angle of refraction r and describe the passage of
light through parallel-sided transparent material
- When light enters a glass block, it slows down, causing it to change direction
- When it leaves the block it speeds up again, changing direction once more
Diagram showing the refraction of light as it passes through a rectangular block

- As the light enters the block it bends towards the normal line
(Remember: Enters Towards)
- When it leaves the block it bends away from the normal line
(Remember: Leaves Away)
sin i
4. Recall and use the equation for refractive index n =
sin r
- When light enters a denser medium (such as glass) it slows down and bends towards the normal
Diagram showing the angle of incidence, i, and the angle of refraction, r, of a ray of light entering a
glass block
- Snell’s law gives the relationship between the angle of incidence i, and the angle of refraction r:
where n is the refractive index of the material


- The refractive index is related to the speed of light in the material (which is less than its speed in a
vacuum):
- The refractive index is a number that is always bigger than 1 and is different for different materials (n is
about 1.5 for glass)
5. Describe internal and total internal reflection using ray diagrams
- When light is moving from a denser medium towards a less dense one, most of the light is refracted,
but a small amount of it can be internally reflected
- However, if the angle of the light is great enough then instead of being refracted, ALL of the light is
reflected
- This is called Total Internal reflection and happens when the angle of the incident ray is greater than
the critical angle for that material
Diagram showing refraction, the critical angle and total internal reflection
- Two conditions are necessary for total internal reflection to occur:
• The light must be going from a more dense medium towards a less dense one
- The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle
6. Give the meaning of critical angle
- The critical angle is the angle of incidence beyond which rays of light passing through a denser medium
to the surface of a less dense medium are no longer refracted but totally internally reflected.
- In other words, it is the angle between the incident ray and normal, when the refracted ray is parallel to
the medium’s surface.
- The critical angle, c, of a material is related to its refractive index, n
- The relationship between the two quantities is given by the equation:
- This can also be written as:
7. Describe and explain the action of optical fibres particularly in medicine and communications
technology
- Total internal reflection is also used to reflect light along optical fibres, allowing the high-speed
transmission of data on the internet
Light travelling down an optical fibre is reflected each time it hits the edge of the fibre
- Additionally, optical fibres can be used in medicine in order to see within the human body
Diagram showing the application of total internal reflection in medicine (using an endoscope)
P4.2.3. Thin converging lens
1. Describe the action of a thin converging lens on a beam of light
- A lens is a transparent object that causes the light that passes through it to refract. A converging lens
that is curved on both sides (there are two types of converging lens- concave and convex.)
- A converging lens causes the light rays that are travelling parallel to its principal axis to refract and
cross the principal axis at a fixed point called the focal point. (This is explained in more detail below).
- It should also be noted that converge is a word that describes the tendency of two lines to meet.
2. Use the terms principal focus and focal length
- When parallel rays of light (travelling parallel to the principal axis) pass through a lens, they are brought
to a focus at a point known as the principal focus
A converging lens brings parallel rays of light to a focus

- The distance of the principal focus from the lens is called the focal length, and depends on how curved
the lens is
3. Draw ray diagrams for the formation of a real image by a single lens
- Lenses can be used to form images of objects placed in front of them
- The location (and nature) of the image can be found by drawing a ray diagram:
Diagram showing the formation of a real image by a lens

1. Start by drawing a ray going from the top of the object through the centre of the lens. This ray
will continue to travel in a straight line
2. Next draw a ray going from the top of the object, travelling parallel to the axis to the lens. When
this ray emerges from the lens it will travel directly towards the principal focus
3. The image is found at the point where the above two rays meet
- The above diagram shows the image that is formed when the object is placed at a distance between one
focal length (f) and two focal lengths (2f) from the lens
4. Describe the nature of an image using the terms enlarged/same size /diminished and upright/ inverted
- The location (and nature) of the image can be found by drawing a ray diagram:
Diagram showing the formation of a real image by a lens

- In this case, the image is:
• Real
• Enlarged
• Inverted
- The following diagram shows what happens when the object is more distanced – further than twice the
focal length (2f) from the lens:
Diagram showing the formation of a real image by a lens with the object at distance
- In this case the image is:
• Real
• Diminished (smaller)
• Inverted
- If the object is placed at exactly twice the focal length (2f) from the lens:
Diagram showing the formation of a real image with the object at 2f

• Real
• Same size as the object
• Inverted
5. Describe the difference between a real image and a virtual image
- A real image and a virtual image are different forms of image. The main difference between real and
virtual images lies in the way in which they are produced. A real image is formed when rays converge,
whereas a virtual image occurs where rays only appear to diverge. Let us look at more differences between
real images and virtual images in this article.
- To obtain a real image the light source and the screen must be placed on the same plane. Real images
are obtained using a converging lens or a concave mirror. The size of the real image depends upon the
placement of the object.
- A virtual image is an upright image that is achieved where the rays seem to diverge. A virtual image is
produced with the help of a diverging lens or a convex mirror. A virtual image is found by tracing real
rays that emerge from an optical device backward to perceived or apparent origins of ray divergences.
Because the rays never really converge, a virtual image cannot be projected onto a screen.
6. Use and describe the use of a single lens as a magnifying glass
- If the object is placed closer to the lens than the focal length, the emerging rays diverge and a real image
is no longer formed
- When viewed from the right-hand side of the lens, the emerging rays appear to come from a point on
the left. This point can be found by extending the rays backwards (creating virtual rays)
- A virtual image will be seen at the point where these virtual rays cross
A virtual image is formed by the divergence of rays from a point

• Virtual
• Enlarged
• Upright
- Using a lens in this way allows it to be used as a magnifying glass
- When using a magnifying glass, the lens should always be held close to the object
P4.3. Electromagnetic spectrum
1. Describe the main features of the electromagnetic spectrum in order of frequency, from radio waves
to gamma-radiation (γ)
- Visible light, however, is just one small part of a much bigger spectrum: the electromagnetic spectrum
- The different parts of the spectrum have different names (and some different properties)
- These parts are shown in order below, going from the longest wavelength (and lowest frequency) to the
shortest wavelength (and highest frequency)
Visible light is just one small part of a much bigger spectrum: The electromagnetic spectrum
2. State that all electromagnetic waves travel with the same high speed in a vacuum and approximately
the same in air
- All electromagnetic waves share several properties:
• They are all transverse
• They can all travel through a vacuum
• They all travel at the same speed in a vacuum
3. State that the speed of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum is 3.0 × 108m/s
- The speed of light, in a vacuum, is approximately 3 x 108 m/s
The speed of light in air is approximately the same
4. Describe typical properties and uses of radiations in all the different regions of the electromagnetic
spectrum including:
– radio and television communications (radio waves)
– satellite television and telephones (microwaves)
– electrical appliances, remote controllers for televisions and intruder alarms (infrared)
– medicine and security (X-rays)
----
- Electromagnetic waves have a large number of uses. The main ones are summarised in the table below
- Radio waves and microwaves

• These two parts of the spectrum share a lot of similarities and uses. Their main uses concern
wireless communication – in fact many things that people often assume use radio waves actually
use microwaves (e.g. WiFi, radar, mobile phones, satellite communications…)
• At very high intensity, microwaves can also be used to heat things: This is what happens in a
microwave oven
- Infrared
• Infrared is emitted by warm objects and can be detected using special cameras (thermal imaging
cameras). These can be used in industry, in research and also in medicine
• Many security cameras are capable of seeing slightly into the infrared part of the spectrum and
this can be used to allow them to see in the dark: Infrared lights are used to illuminate an area
without being seen, which is then detected using the camera
• Remote controls also have small infrared LEDs that can send invisible signals to an infrared
receiver on a device such as a TV
• Infrared travels down fibre optic cables more efficiently than visible light, and so most fibre optic
communication systems use infrared
- X-rays
• The most obvious use of x-rays is in medicine. X-rays are able to pass through most body tissues,
but are absorbed by the denser parts of the body, such as bones. When exposed to x-rays, bones
create a shadow which can be seen using a special x-ray detector or using photographic film
- Gamma rays
• Gamma rays are very dangerous and can be used to kill cells and living tissue
If the gamma rays are carefully aimed at cancerous tissue they can be very effective at killing it
Gamma rays can also be used to sterilise things by killing off the bacteria
5. Demonstrate an understanding of safety issues regarding the use of microwaves and X-rays
- Electromagnetic Waves can have some harmful side effects. In particular:
Microwaves
- High levels of microwaves can cause heating of internal organs. (Although there is no evidence that the
levels emitted by mobile phones or WiFi devices cause any harm)
X-Rays
- X-rays, Gamma rays and (to a lesser extent) ultra-violet are all ionising. This means that they can cause
harm to living tissues: killing cells or possibly mutating them or causing cancer
- Whilst the levels used in most medical x-rays pose a minimum risk, hospitals are careful to minimise
the amount of x-ray exposure that individuals (including hospital staff) receive
Uses and dangers of the electromagnetic spectrum
6. State the dangers of ultraviolet radiation, from the Sun or from tanning lamps
- Ultraviolet
• Ultraviolet is responsible for giving you a suntan, which is your body’s way of protecting itself
against the ultraviolet
• When certain substances are exposed to ultraviolet, they absorb it and re-emit it as visible light
(making them glow). This process is known as fluorescence
• Fluorescence can be used to secretly mark things using special ink – in fact most bank notes have
invisible fluorescent markings on them
• Fluorescent light bulbs also use this principle to emit visible light
P4.4. Sound
1. Describe the production of sound by vibrating sources
- Sound travels in the form of waves which are generated by vibrating particles.
2. Describe the longitudinal nature of sound waves

- Sound waves consist of vibrating molecules. They are a type of longitudinal wave
Sound waves are longitudinal: the molecules vibrate in the same direction as the energy transfer
3. Describe the transmission of sound waves in air in terms of compressions and rarefactions
- When a surface vibrates, it generates a sound wave.
- Let me explain it in more detail – as the surface pushes outwards, the air in front of it is pushed closer
to more air. This creates an area of compression. As the air collides with more air, that air then goes on
to collide with even more air, causing the area of compression to move – a wave of compression is
emitted.
- When the surface pulls back, it creates a small vacuum, and air rushes to fill up that space. This causes
a region of lower air density. We call it a rarefaction. More adjacent air rushes to fill the empty spaces,
causing the rarefaction to move out from the surface.
- In this way, the vibrating surface emits alternating waves of compression and rarefaction, which together
make up a sound wave.
- Overal, during the emission of a sound wave, air particles tend to vibrate back and forth around a fixed
point, parallel to the direction that the wave travels in. This means that a sound wave is a longitudinal
wave.
----
- Longitudinal waves consist of compression and rarefactions:
• A compression is a place where the molecules are bunched together
• A rarefaction is a place where the molecules are spread out
Diagram showing the compressions and rarefactions of longitudinal waves

4. State that the approximate range of audible frequencies for a healthy human ear is 20Hz to 20000Hz
- Humans can hear sounds between about 20 Hz and 20 000 Hz in frequency (although this range
decreases with age)
Humans can hear sounds between 20 and 20 000 Hz
- Ultrasound is the name given to sound waves with a frequency greater than 20 000 Hz
5. Show an understanding that a medium is needed to transmit sound waves
- Sound waves are produced from vibrating particles, so when there aren’t any particles (ie. there is no
medium), sound cannot be generated, eg. in outer space. So a medium is always needed for sound waves
to be transmitted.
6. Describe and interpret an experiment to determine the speed of sound in air, including calculation
- When giving your method, try and include the following things:
• List all of the apparatus that you will need
• Choose a suitable (realistic) distance over which you will measure the sound
• Describe how you will measure this distance
• Explain how you will produce a loud enough sound
• Explain how you will time the sound (and how the timer will be started and stopped)
• Explain how you will calculate the speed (give an equation)
• State that you will then repeat the experiment several times and take an average
- Three methods for carrying out this experiment are given below:
Method 1
Measuring the speed of sound directly between two points

1. Two people stand a distance of around 100m apart
2. The distance between them is measured using a trundle wheel
3. One of the people has two wooden blocks, which he bangs together above his head
4. The second person has a stopwatch which he starts when he sees the first person banging the
blocks together and stops when he hears the sound
5. This is then repeated several times and an average value is taken for the time
6. The speed of sound can then be calculated using the equation:
Method 2
Measuring the speed of sound using echoes

1. A person stands about 50m away from a wall (or cliff). This distance is measured using a trundle
wheel
2. The person claps two wooden blocks together and listens for the echo
3. The person then starts to clap the blocks together repeatedly, in rhythm with the echoes
4. A second person has a stopwatch and starts timing when he hears one of the claps and stops timing
20 claps later
5. The process is then repeated and an average time calculated
6. The distance travelled by the sound between each clap and echo will be (2 x 50) m
7. The total distance travelled by sound during the 20 claps will be (20 x 2 x 50) m
8. The speed of sound can be calculated from this distance and the time using the equation
Method 3
Measuring the speed of sound using an oscilloscope

1. Two microphones are connected to an oscilloscope and placed about 5 m apart
(This distance can be measured using a tape measure)
2. The oscilloscope is set up so that it triggers when the first microphone detects a sound, and the
time base is adjusted so that the sound arriving at both microphones can be seen on the screen
3. Two wooden blocks are used to make a large clap next to the first microphone
4. The oscilloscope is then used to determine the time at which the clap reaches each microphone,
and the time difference between them
5. This is repeated several times and an average time difference calculated
6. The speed can then be calculated using the equation.
7. Recognise that sound travels faster in liquids than gases and faster in solids than in liquids
- Sound travels at different speeds in different mediums:
• It travels fastest in solids
• Slowest in gases
8. Relate the loudness and pitch of sound waves to amplitude and frequency
- Amplitude: this is the maximum displacement of the particle from its equilibrium position. Assuming
the frequency remains constant, the higher the amplitude, the more energy the wave has. As a result, the
wave exerts more pressure on its surroundings, making it louder. Therefore, the higher its amplitude, the
louder the wave. The loudness of waves are measured in decibels (dB).
- Frequency: frequency is measured as the number of waves that pass a fixed point in space per second.
The unit of frequency measurement is Hertz (Hz for short). the higher the frequency, the faster the
pressure fluctuation. The human ear detects these fluctuations as pitch. Therefore, the higher the
frequency, the higher the pitch.
9. Describe how the reflection of sound may produce an echo
- An echo is a sound that is repeated because the sound waves are reflected back. Sound waves can bounce
off smooth, hard objects in the same way as a rubber ball bounces off the ground. Although the direction
of the sound changes, the echo sounds the same as the original sound. Echoes can be heard in small spaces
with hard walls, like wells, or where there are lots of hard surfaces all around. That is why echoes can be
heard in a canyon, cave, or mountain range. But sounds are not always reflected. If they meet a soft
surface, such as a cushion, they will be absorbed and will not bounce back.
- When a sound wave is reflected, its frequency and wavelength are still the same, only the direction is
different. So to a person, it is heard as another sound.
Part 5: Electricity and magnetism
P5.1. Simple phenomena of magnetism
1. Describe the forces between magnets, and between magnets and magnetic materials
- In the space around a magnet there is a magnetic field
- When two magnets are held close together, there will be a force between the magnets:
Opposite poles attract; like poles repel

- Magnetic materials (which are not magnets) will always be attracted to the magnet, regardless of
which pole is held close to it
- A magnet can only repel another magnet (This can be a useful test for a magnet)
2. Give an account of induced magnetism
- Magnetism can be induced (produced) in an metals which have magnetic properties (example: iron)
by simply placing the iron close to a strong magnet without touching. The iron will also have a south
and north pole and will attract the opposite pole of the magenet.
3. Draw and describe the pattern and direction of magnetic field lines around a bar magnet
- Magnetic field lines are a useful way of helping us to picture that field: Its strength and its direction
The magnetic field around a bar magnet

- Magnetic field lines obey a couple of rules:
• They always go from north to south ((indicated by an arrow midway along the line)
• They never touch or cross other field lines
4. Distinguish between the magnetic properties of soft iron and steel
- Steel (which is made from iron) is also a magnetic material due to its iron content but is harder to
magnetise and demagnetise, thus is called a hard iron. In contrast, iron is known as soft iron, since its
easy to magnetise and demagnetise.
- Soft iron (iron):
• Easy to magnetise
• Cannot retain magnetism in the absence of magnets, i.e. its magnetism can be turned on and off
by moving the magnet closer and farther from it. This property makes soft iron of more use in
electromagnets (explained below).
- Hard iron (steel):
• Hard to magnetise
• Retains magnetism even in the absence of magnets, which is why steel is used to make
permanent magnets whose magnetism will last a long time.
5. Distinguish between the design and use of permanent magnets and electromagnets
- Electromagnets are objects that become magnetic when electricity is flown through it. They are
temporary, as their magnetism can be turned on and off by switching an electrical circuit on and off.
- Permanent magnets’ magnetism cannot be turned on and off, they are permanently magnetised.
6. Describe methods of magnetisation to include stroking with a magnet, use of direct current (d.c.) in
a coil and hammering in a magnetic field
- Stroking method
A bar of steel can be magnetised by stroking it with a bar magnet. The domains become aligned, and a
N pole and a S pole are induced.
- Hammering
If a steel bar is placed so that it lies in the direction of the magnetic field lines of a strong magnet and
then hammered gently, the domains will begin to line up in the direction of the field. As they do, the
steel bar itself becomes magnetised. The effect can be increased by slightly heating the steel bar first.
- Electrical method
A bar of steel or iron can be magnetised by placing it in a coil of wire (solenoid). Passing a d.c. (direct
current) through the wire will magnetise the bar.
.
P5.2. Electrical quantities
P5.2.1. Electric charge
1. State that there are positive and negative charges
- Objects can be given one of two types of electric charge:
• Positive
• Negative
2. State that unlike charges attract and that like charges repel
- When two charged objects are brought close together, there will be a force between those objects
Like charges repel; opposite charges attract

- Remember:
• Opposite charges attract
• Like charges repel
3. Describe and interpret simple experiments to show the production and detection of electrostatic
charges by friction
- In your exam you will be expected to be able to explain how to give insulating materials a charge by
the process of friction and to describe how to demonstrate the charging of materials in this way
- Method:
• Suspend one of the insulating materials using a cradle and a length of string so that the material
can rotate freely
• Rub one end of the material using a cloth (in order to give it a charge)
• Now take a second piece of insulating material and charge that by rubbing with a cloth
• Hold the charged end of the second piece close to the charged end of the first piece:
o If the first piece rotates away (is repelled) from the second piece then the materials have
the same charge
o If the first piece moved towards (is attracted to) the second piece then they have opposite
charges
4. State that charging a body involves the addition or removal of electrons
- When a charged object is held close to a conductor, electrons in the conductor are able to move
towards (or away from) the charged object:
Negative electrons in the aluminium are attracted to the positive rod

- In the diagram above, electrons in the aluminium foil are attracted to the positively charged rod
- This causes the top of the foil to become negatively charged, whilst the bottom edge of it will be left
with a positive charge
- The attraction between the positive rod and the negative charges on the top surface of the foil will
cause the foil to be attracted to the rod
5. Describe an electric field as a region in which an electric charge experiences a force
- Just like how magnets have magnetic fields around them, electricity carrying wires have electric fields
around them. They are created when an electrically charged object is placed near another charged
object.
- Electric charges create electric fields in the regions surrounding them (Similar to the way in which
magnets create magnetic fields)
- The electric field is the region in which another charge will experience a force
- Fields lines always go away from positive charges and towards negative charges – they have the same
direction as the direction of the force on a positively charged particle at a point in that field
Electric fields are always directed away from positive charges and towards negative charges
- Some simple field patterns that you ought to know:
The electric field between two parallel plates The electric field between two opposite charges
6. Distinguish between electrical conductors and insulators and give typical examples
- Conductors are materials in which current can flow.
• Examples: copper, aluminum, gold and silver.
- Insulators cannot conduct electricity.
• Examples: glass, wood, paper, air and rubber.
P5.2.2. Current, potential difference and electromotive force (e.m.f.)
1. Demonstrate understanding of current, potential difference, e.m.f. and resistance
- Current
• When two oppositely charged conductors are connected together (by a length of wire), charge
will flow between the two conductors
Charge can flow between two conductors

• This flow of charge is called an electric current
o The greater the flow of charge, the greater the electric current
- Potential difference
• As charge flows around a circuit, energy is transferred to or from the charge
• The potential difference (voltage) between two points in a circuit is related to the amount of
energy transferred between those points in the circuit
• Potential difference is measure in volts (V)
The potential difference is the voltage across each component: 5 volts for the bulb (on the left) and
7 volts for the resistor (on the right)
- Electromotive Force (e.m.f)
• The Electromotive Force (EMF) is the name given to the Potential Difference (Voltage) of the
power source in a circuit
• The Electromotive Force (EMF) is measured in Volts (V)
The EMF is the voltage supplied by a power supply: 12 V in the above case
- Resistance
• Resistance is the opposition to current
o For a given potential difference:
The higher the resistance, the lower the current
2. State that current is related to the flow of charge
- Current is the flow of charge (electrons) within a circuit.
3. Show understanding that a current is a rate of flow of charge and recall and use the equation I=Q/t
- The current is the charge passing a point in a circuit every second (It is helpful to think of current
as the charge per second)
- Charge, current and time are related by the following equation:
- Where the symbols:

• Q stands for charge (measured in coulombs, C)
• I stands for current (measured in amps, A)

4. State that current in metals is due to a flow of electrons
- In a metal, current is caused by a flow of electrons
In metals, the current is caused by a flow of free (delocalised) electrons

- Electrons are negatively charged
- This means that the electrons flow from negative to positive
- Conventional current, however, is still defined as going from positive to negative
By definition, conventional current always goes from positive to negative (even though electrons go
the other way)
5. State that the potential difference (p.d.) across a circuit component is measured in volts
- The potential difference between two points in a circuit is the amount of energy transferred by
each unit of charge passing between those two points
- The unit of voltage, the volt (V), is the same as a joule per coulomb (J/C)
1 V = 1 J/C
- So, for example:
• If a bulb has a voltage of 3 V, every coulomb of charge passing through the bulb will lose 3 J
of energy
6. Use and describe the use of an ammeter and a voltmeter, both analogue and digital
- Current is measured using an ammeter
- Ammeters should always be connected in series with the part of the circuit you wish to measure the
current through
An ammeter can be used to measure the current around a circuit

----
- Potential difference can be measured using a voltmeter
- The voltmeter should be connected in parallel with the part of the circuits you want to measure the
potential difference of
Potential difference can be measured by connecting a voltmeter between two points in a circuit
7. State that the electromotive force (e.m.f) of an electrical source of energy is measured in volts
- The EMF of a power supply (measured in volts, V) is the amount of energy (measured in joules, J)
supplied to each coulomb of charge passing through that power supply
- Think of the EMF as being the energy per coulomb.
8. Show understanding that e.m.f. is defined in terms of energy supplied by a source in driving charge
around a complete circuit
- Well, learn that definition.
P5.2.3. Resistance
1. State that resistance = p.d./ current and understand qualitatively how changes in p.d. or resistance
affect current
- To find the resistance of a component, set up a circuit like the one shown below
A circuit to determine the resistance of a component

- The power supply should be set to a low EMF (voltage) to avoid heating the component – 1 or 2 volts
is typically enough
- Measurements of the potential difference and current should then be taken from the voltmeter and
ammeter respectively
- Finally, these readings should be substituted into the following equation:
2. Sketch and explain the current–voltage characteristic of an ohmic resistor and a filament lamp
- As the potential difference (voltage) across a component is increased, the current in the
component also increases
- The precise relationship between voltage and current can be different for different types of
components and is shown by an IV graph:
IV graphs for a resistor and a filament lamp

- The IV graph for a resistor is very simple:
• The current is proportional to the potential difference
- This is because the resistor has a constant resistance
- For a lamp the relationship is more complicated:
• The current increases at a proportionally slower rate than the potential difference
- This is because:
• The current causes the filament in the lamp to heat up
• As the filament gets hot its resistance increases
• This opposes the current, causing it to increase at a slower rate
3. Recall and use the equation R = V/ I
- Potential difference, current and resistance are related by the following equation:
V
V = IR ⇔ R =
I

• The unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω)
4. Recall and use quantitatively the proportionality between resistance and length, and the inverse
proportionality between resistance and cross-sectional area of a wire
- As electrons pass through a wire, they collide with the metal ions in the wire
Electrons collide with ions, which resist their flow

- The ions get in the way of the electrons, resisting their flow
- If the wire is longer, each electron will collide with more ions and so there will be more resistance:
The longer a wire, the greater its resistance
- If the wire is thicker (greater diameter) there is more space for the electrons and so more electrons can
flow:
The thicker a wire, the smaller its resistance
The length and width of the wire affect the resistance

- The resistance of a wire is proportional to its length
- This means that if the length of a wire is doubled, its resistance will double
- The resistance of a wire is inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area
- This means that is the cross-sectional area of a wire is doubled, its resistance will halve
- Cross-sectional area is proportional to the diameter squared. This means that if the diameter is
doubled, the cross-sectional area will quadruple, causing the resistance to drop to a quarter.
Part 6: Electric circuits

P6.1. Circuit diagrams
1. Draw and interpret circuit diagrams containing sources, switches, resistors (fixed and variable),
lamps, ammeters, voltmeters and fuses (Symbols for other common circuit components will be provided
in questions.)
- The diagram below shows the various circuit symbols that could be used in circuit diagrams. You will
be expected to know what each one is
You are expected to be able to recognise and draw the above symbols
P6.2. Series and parallel circuits
1. Understand that the current at every point in a series circuit is the same
- A series circuit consists of a string of two or more components, connected end to end:
Diagram showing two bulbs connected in series

- In a series circuit the current is the same at all points
The current is the same at all points in a series circuit

2. Calculate the combined resistance of two or more resistors in series
- When two or more components are connected in series:
• The combined resistance of the components is equal to the sum of individual resistances
When several components are connected in series, their combined resistance is equal to the sum of
their individual resistances
3. Recall and use the fact that the sum of the p.d.s across the components in a series circuit is equal to
the total p.d. across the supply
- When several cells are connected together in series, their combined EMF is equal to the sum of their
individual EMFs
The total EMF of these cells is equal to the sum of their individual EMFs
- In a series circuit, the sum of potential differences across the components is equal to the total EMF of
the power supply
In a series circuit the components share the EMF of the power supply
4. State that, for a parallel circuit, the current from the source is larger than the current in each branch
- A parallel circuit consists of two or more components attached along separate branches of the circuit
Diagram showing two bulbs connected in parallel

- The advantages of this kind of circuit are:
• The components can be individually controlled, using their own switches
• If one component stops working the others will continue to function
- In a parallel circuit, the current splits up - some of it going one way and the rest going the other
- This means that the current in each branch will be smaller than the current from the power supply
5. Recall and use the fact that the current from the source is the sum of the currents in the separate
branches of a parallel circuit
- The current from the source, of a parallel circuit, is the sum of the separate branches in the circuit.
The current breaks up and take the easiest path first, with some flowing along each parallel branch and
re-combining when the branches meet again.
6. State that the combined resistance of two resistors in parallel is less than that of either resistor by
itself
- When resistors are connected in parallel, the combined resistance decreases and is less than the
resistance of any of the individual components
- If two resistors of equal resistance are connected in parallel, then the combined resistance will halve
The above resistors will have a combined resistance of 2 Ω − half the value of each resistor
7. Calculate the combined resistance of two resistors in parallel
- The total resistance of the resistors in a parallel circuit can be calculated by using any of these equation
(R1 is resistor 1, R2 is resistor 2 and so on):
8. State the advantages of connecting lamps in parallel in a circuit

- Why are some circuits connected in parallel, when a series circuit is much more easier and requires
lesser amount of wire? Let’s look at the advantages of a parallel circuit, in the instance of lighting bulbs:
• the voltage across each bulb will be the same, so every bulb will be equally bright
• each component is independent of other. In a series circuit, if one component breaks down, the
entire circuit will be affected. But in a parallel circuit, there are multiple paths for the current to
flow.
• Each component can be independently controlled by a switch. In a series circuit, one switch
controls every component. In a parallel circuit, you can connect switches parallel for component
in different branches, to turn them off or on.
9. Draw and interpret circuit diagrams containing NTC thermistors and light-dependent resistors
(LDRs)
The symbol for a thermistor

- A thermistor is a type of resistor (a thermal resistor) which changes its resistance when it is heated
up:
• As a thermistor gets hotter, its resistance decreases
• As it gets colder, its resistance increases
The resistance through a thermistor is dependent on the temperature of it

---- LDRs ----
The resistance through an LDR is dependent on the intensity of light falling on it

- An LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) is a type of resistor which changes its resistance when light is
shone on it:
• When more light is shone on an LDR its resistance decreases
• If an LDR is covered up (reducing the light hitting it) its resistance increases.
- Note: The symbol for an LDR is often drawn with a circle going around it
Diagram showing an LDR circuit
10. Describe the action of NTC thermistors and LDRs and show understanding of their use as input
transducers
- A thermistor is a temperature dependent resistor which means that its resistance varies
with the temperature of the surrounding. It’s resistance reduces when more heat is
applied and vice versa. It is used in fire alarms, where a high temperature, indicating a
fire, causes the resistance to reduce and more current to flow, activating the alarm. In an
automatic air conditioning system, when the room is warm, the resistance drops to
activate the cooling. It’s symbol is:
- An LDR or a light dependent resistor, where the resistance decreases when light
intensity increases. It’s used in burglar alarms, where if a light is turned on, the resistance
of the LDR drops and current flows to activate an alarm. It is also used by photographers
for automatic shutter control based on the lighting of the surrounding. The symbol for
an LDR is:
- Both thermistors and LDRs are called transducers since they convert energy from one form to another.
Thermistors convert heat energy into sound energy (in the fire alarm example) and LDrs convert light
energy into sound energy (in the case of the burglar alarm)
P6.3. Electrical energy
1. Recall and use the equations P = IV and E = Ivt
- As electricity passes around a circuit, energy is transferred from the power source to the various
components (which may then transfer energy to the surroundings)
• As charge passes through the power supply it is given energy
• As it passes through each component it loses some energy (transferring that energy to the
component)
The current transfers electrical energy from the power source and to the components
- The amount of electrical energy used by a component or appliance depends upon three things:
• The current
• The potential difference
• The amount of time the device is used for
- The energy transferred can be calculated from the equation:
energy transferred = current × potential difference × time
E=I×V×t
where the unit of energy is the joule (J)
- Power is the rate of energy transfer (the amount of energy transferred per second)
- The power of an electrical component (or appliance) is given by the equation:
Power = Current × potential difference
P = I×V

- The unit of power is the watt (W), which is the same as a joule per second (J/s)
- Note that the above equation is related to the equation for energy – after all, power is just energy per
second, and so:
energy transferred = power × time = current × potential difference × time
E=P×t=I×V×t
P6.4. Dangers of electricity
1. Identify electrical hazards including:
– damaged insulation
– overheating of cables
– damp conditions
- Mains electricity is potentially lethal – potential differences as small as 50 volts can pose a serious
hazard to individuals
Signs, like the above, warn of the risk of electrocution

- Common hazards include:
• Damaged Insulation – if someone touches an exposed piece of wire, they could be subjected
to a lethal shock
• Overheating of cables – Passing too much current through too small a wire (or leaving a long
length of wire tightly coiled) can lead to the wire overheating. This could cause a fire or melt
the insulations, exposing live wires
• Damp conditions – If moisture comes into contact with live wires, the moisture could conduct
electricity either causing a short circuit within a device (which could cause a fire) or posing an
electrocution risk
2. State that a fuse protects a circuit
- A fuse is a safety device designed to cut off the flow of electricity to an appliance if the current
becomes too large (due to a fault or a surge)
The circuit symbol for a fuse - take care not to confuse this with a resistor
- Fuses usually consist of a glass cylinder which contains a thin metal wire.
- If the current in the wire becomes too large:
• The wire heats up and melts
• This causes the wire to break, breaking the circuit and stopping the current
3. Explain the use of fuses and choose appropriate fuse ratings
- Fuses come in a variety of sizes (typically 3A, 5A and 13A) - in order to select the right fuse for the
job, you need to know how much current an appliance needs
- If you know the power of the appliance (along with mains voltage), the current can be calculated using
the equation:
- The fuse should always have a current rating that is higher than the current needed by the appliance,
without being too high - always choose the next size up
- Example:
• Suppose an appliance uses 3.1 amps
o A 3 amp use would be too small - the fuse would blow as soon as the appliance was
switched on
o A 13 amp fuse would be too large - it would allow an extra 10 amps to pass through the
appliance before it finally blew
o A 5 amp fuse would be an appropriate choice, as it is the next size up
Part 7: Electromagnetic effects

P7.1. Magnetic effect of an electric current
1. Describe the pattern of the magnetic field (including direction) due to currents in straight wires and
in solenoids
- When there is a current in a wire, a magnetic field is created around the wire
Diagram showing the magnetic fields around a current-carrying wire

- The magnetic field lines form concentric circles around the wire
- The direction of the field is given by the right-hand grip rule:
When the thumb is pointing in the direction of the current, the fingers will curl in the direction of
the field
- When a wire is looped into a coil, the magnetic field lines circle around each part of the coil, passing
through the centre of it
Diagram showing the magnetic field around a flat circular coil

- A solenoid is a long coil
- The magnetic field around a solenoid look the same as the magnetic field around a bar magnet:
The magnetic field around a solenoid (a long coil) is identical to the magnetic field of a bar magnet
- One end of the solenoid behaves like the north pole of a magnet; the other side behaves like the
south pole
2. Describe the effect on the magnetic field of changing the magnitude and direction of the current
- The direction of a magnetic field is defined as being:
• The direction of the force on the north pole of a magnet placed at that point
- The strength and direction of the field depend on the size and direction of the current:
• If the current is increased, the field will get stronger
• If the direction of the current is changed, the direction of the field will change
- The strength of the magnetic field is related to the distance between the field lines:
• As the field lines spread out, the field gets weaker
- The field lines around a wire get further apart the further they are from the wire
P7.2. Force on a current-carrying conductor
1. Describe an experiment to show that a force acts on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic
field, including the effect of reversing:
– the current
– the direction of the field
- The size of the induced EMF is proportional to the rate at which the field lines are cut:
• If the field lines are cut at a faster rate, the EMF will increase
- This can be achieved by:
• Moving the wire (or magnet) faster
• Using a stronger magnet (increasing the number of field lines)
• Adding more turns to a coil (assuming a coil is being used, and not just a wire)
2. State and use the relative directions of force, field and current
- To predict the direction of the force, current or fields we can use Fleming’s left-hand rule:
- The force is always directed at 90 degrees to both the field and the current
- The direction of the force on a current-carrying wire can be worked out by using the left-hand rule:
The left-hand rule can help you figure out the direction of the force on a current-carrying wire
- Start by pointing your First Finger in the direction of the (magnetic) Field
- Now rotate your hand around the first finger so that the seCond finger points in the direction of
the Current
- The THumb will now be pointing in the direction of the THrust (the force)
P7.3. D.C. motor
1. State that a current-carrying coil in a magnetic field experiences a turning effect and that the effect
is increased by:
– increasing the number of turns on the coil
– increasing the current
– increasing the strength of the magnetic field
- The simple d.c. motor consists of a coil in a uniform magnetic field:
The simple d.c. motor

- When there is a current in the coil, the magnets exert a turning effect on the coil, causing it to rotate
- The force supplied by a motor can be increased by:
• Increasing the current in the coil
• Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
• Adding more turns to the coil
2. Relate this turning effect to the action of an electric motor including the action of a split-ring
commutator
- When a current passes through the coil:
• The current creates a magnetic field around the coil,
• which interacts with the field of the magnets,
• exerting a force on the coil,
• in accordance with the left-hand rule
• This pushes one side of the coil up and the other side down, causing it to spin
- The commutator:
• Reverses the direction of the current in the coil every half turn
• This reverses the direction of the forces, which keeps the coil spinning
P7.4. Electromagnetic induction
1. Show understanding that a conductor moving across a magnetic field or a changing magnetic field
linking with a conductor can induce an e.m.f. in the conductor
- When a conductor (such as a metal wire) is moved through a magnetic field, it cuts through the field
lines, inducing an EMF in the wire
As the wire moves downwards, it cuts through field lines, inducing an EMF in the wire
- A similar effect occurs if a magnet is pushed into, or taken out of a coil:
• As the magnet moved through the coil, the field lines cut through the turns on the coil
• This induces an emf in the coil
When the magnet enters the coil, the field lines cut through the turns, inducing an EMF
- More generally, whenever the magnetic field passing through a loop of wire changes, an EMF is
induced
2. State the factors affecting the magnitude of an induced e.m.f.
- The size of the induced EMF is proportional to the rate at which the field lines are cut:
• If the field lines are cut at a faster rate, the EMF will increase
- This can be achieved by:
• Moving the wire (or magnet) faster
• Using a stronger magnet (increasing the number of field lines)
• Adding more turns to a coil (assuming a coil is being used, and not just a wire)
P7.5. A.C.Generator
1. Distinguish between direct current (d.c) and alternating current (a.c)
- An alternating current (a.c.) is one that continuously changes its direction, going back and forth
around a circuit
- A direct current (d.c.) is one that is steady, constantly going the same way around a circuit, from
positive to negative
Two graphs showing the variation of current with time for alternating current and direct current
- Electric cells (batteries) produce direct current (d.c.)
- Mains electricity is an alternating current
2. Describe and explain the operation of a rotatingcoil generator and the use of slip rings
- A generator looks very similar to a motor, but instead of connecting it to a power supply, the coil is
spun by some mechanical process which then produces electricity
When a coil is spun in a magnetic field, a voltage is induced between the ends of the coil
- As the coil rotates, it cuts through the field lines
- This induces an EMF between the end of the coil (which could then create a current)
- The size of this EMF could be increased by:
• Turning the coil faster
• Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
• Adding more turns to the coil
- Slip rings, attached to the ends of the coil, transfer the current to metal brushes whilst allowing the
coil to rotate freely
3. Sketch a graph of voltage output against time for a simple a.c. generator
- The A.C. generator creates an alternating current, varying in size and direction as the coil rotates
• The induced EMF is greatest when the coil is horizontal, as in this position it cuts through the
field at the fastest rate
• The EMF is smallest when the coil is vertical, as in this position it will not be cutting through
field lines
Diagram showing how the current varies with the position of the coil
P7.6. Transformer
1. Describe the construction of a basic transformer with a soft-iron core, as used for voltage
transformations
- A transformer is an electrical device that can be used to increase or decrease the voltage of an
alternating current
(Transformers only work with a.c.)
A transformer consists of two coils of wire wrapped around a soft iron core
2. Describe the principle of operation of a transformer
- When an alternating current is supplied to the primary coil, a changing magnetic field is produced by
the primary coil
- This field passes through the soft iron core and through the secondary coil
- The changing field in the secondary coil induces an EMF
- This EMF is also alternating and has the same frequency as the original current
3. Use the terms step-up and step-down
- A step-up transformer increases the voltage of a power source
- A step-up transformer has more turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil
- A step-down transformer decreases the voltage of a power source
- A step-down transformer has fewer turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil
4. Recall and use the equation: (Vp /Vs ) = (Np /Ns ) (for 100% efficiency)
- The output voltage of a transformer depends on the number of turns on each of the coils as well as the
input voltage:
(The ratio of the voltages is equal to the ratio of the number of turns)
5. Describe the use of the transformer in high-voltage transmission of electricity
- When an electricity grid needs to supply electricity to many different places, a high current is needed;
however this results in a lot of heat energy being lost.
So the grid transmits electricity at a low current by increasing the voltage.
- Since a high voltage is dangerous to use in homes, transformers are used to step down this power
supply, making it safe to use.
So electricity is transmitted at high voltage and supplied to homes and buildings at low voltage.
6. Recall and use the equation: Ip.Vp = Is.Vs (for 100% efficiency)
- Although transformers can increase the voltage of a power source, due to the law of conservation of
energy, they cannot increase the power output
(Increasing the voltage decreases the current, and vice-versa)
- If a transformer if 100% efficient:
(Where IP and IS are the currents in the primary and secondary coils)
- Hence, if the voltage is increased by some factor, the current must decrease by the same factor
7. Explain why power losses in cables are lower when the voltage is high
- Energy is lost as heat when a current is run through a wire. From the equation P = I * V we know that
voltage and current are inversely proportional
If the voltage is high, the current is low, resulting in lesser energy loss.
Part 8: Atomic physics
P8.1. The nuclear atom
1. Describe the composition of the nucleus in terms of protons and neutrons
- Atoms are made up of three different particles:
Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus of an atom

The properties of each of these particles is shown in the table below:
2. Use the terms proton number Z and nucleon number A

- The atom shown in the above diagram can also be represented using an atomic symbol:
Atomic symbols, like the one above, describe the constituents of nuclei
- The top number is called the nucleon number, A, and is equal to the total number of particles (protons
and neutrons) in the nucleus
- The lower number is called the proton number, Z, and is equal to the total number of protons in the
nucleus
• (Note: Chemists refer to the nucleon number as the mass number, and the proton number as
the atomic number)
- When given an atomic symbol, you can figure out the total number of protons, neutrons and electrons
in the atom:
• Protons: The number of protons is equal to the proton number
• Electrons: Atoms are neutral, and so in a neutral atom the number of negative electrons must
be equal to the number of positive protons
• Neutrons: The number of neutrons can be found by subtracting the proton number from the
nucleon number
- The term nucleon is used to mean a particle in the nucleus – ie. either a proton or a neutron
- The term nuclide is used to refer to a nucleus with a specific combination of protons and neutrons
3. Use and explain the term isotope
- Although all atoms of the same element always have the same number of protons (and hence
electrons), the number of neutrons can vary:
The three atoms shown above are all forms of hydrogen, but they each have different numbers of
neutrons
- The number of neutrons in an atom does not affect the chemical properties of an atom, only its mass.
Such atoms are called isotopes:
• Isotopes are atoms (of the same element) that have equal numbers of protons but different
numbers of neutrons
A
4. Use and interpret the term nuclide and use the nuclide notation Z X
- Atomic symbols are written in a specific notation called AZX notation
Atomic symbols, like the one above, describe the constituents of nuclei
- The top number A represents the nucleon number or the mass number
• Nucleon number (A) = total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
- The lower number Z represents the proton or atomic number
• Proton number (Z) = total number of protons in the nucleus
- Note: In Chemistry the nucleon number is referred to as the mass number and the proton number as
the atomic number. The periodic table is ordered by atomic number
P8.2. Radioactivity
P8.2.1. Characteristics of the three kinds of emission
1. Describe the random nature of radioactive emission
- Radiation consists of high energy particles (or waves) emitted from the nucleus of an unstable atom
Unstable nuclei decay by emitting high energy particles - radiation

- There are three (main) types of radiation: alpha (α) particles, beta (β−) particles, or gamma (γ) rays
- Radiation is emitted randomly
• This means that, although we understand why some nuclei emit radiation, it is impossible to
predict exactly when a nucleus will emit radiation
2. Identify alpha (α)-, beta (β)- and gamma (γ)- emissions by recalling
– their nature
– their relative ionising effects
– their relative penetrating abilities
(β+ are not included: β-particles will be taken to refer to β–)
- Alpha (α) particles are high energy particles made up of 2 protons and 2 neutrons (the same as a
helium nucleus).
• They are usually emitted from nuclei that are too large
- Beta (β−) particles are high energy electrons emitted from the nucleus (even though the nucleus
does not normally contain any electrons)
• They are usually emitted by nuclei that have too many neutrons
- Gamma (γ) rays are high energy electromagnetic waves
• They are emitted by nuclei that need to lose some energy
- If these particles hit other atoms, they can knock out electrons, ionising the atom
When radiation passes close to atoms, it can knock out electrons, ionising the atom
- Ionisation can cause chemical changes in materials, and can damage or kill living cells
The nature and properties of the different types of radiation are summarised in the table below
- Note that when you go down the table, the range and penetration increase, but the ionisation
decreases
Diagram showing the penetrative abilities of alpha (α) particles, beta (β−) particles, and gamma (γ)
rays. Note how some of the gamma rays are able to penetrate the lead
3. Describe the deflection of α-particles, β-particles and γ-rays in electric fields and in magnetic fields
- Because of their charges, alpha and beta particles can be deflected by electric and magnetic fields
Alpha and Beta particles can be deflected by electric fields

- Because they have opposite charges, alpha and beta particles are deflected in opposite directions
- Beta is deflected by more than alpha, because beta particles have a much smaller mass
- Gamma is not deflected because gamma rays have no charge
Alpha and Beta particles can also be deflected by magnetic fields

Diagram showing an experiment to find the type of radiation being emitted by a source
4. Recognise the general term ionising radiation can be used to describe radioactive emissions
- Alpha is by far the most ionising form of radiation
• Alpha particles leave a dense trail of ions behind them, affecting virtually every atom they meet
• Because of this they quickly lose their energy and so have a short range
• Their short range makes them relatively harmless if handled carefully, but they have the
potential to be extremely dangerous if the alpha emitter enters the body
- Beta particles are moderately ionising
• The particles create a less dense trail of ions than alpha, and consequently have a longer range
• They tend to be more dangerous than alpha because they are able to travel further and penetrate
the skin, and yet are still ionising enough to cause significant damage
- Gamma is the least ionising form of radiation (although it is still dangerous)
• Because Gamma rays don’t produce as many ions as alpha or beta, they are more penetrating
and have a greater range
• This can make them hazardous in large amounts
5. Describe and explain examples of practical applications of α-, β- and γ-emissions
- Radioactivity has a large number of uses in both medicine and industry, some of which are listed
below
- Measuring the thickness of materials:
Beta particles can be used to measure the thickness of thin materials such as paper, cardboard or
aluminium foil
• As a material moves above a beta source, the particles that are able to penetrate it can be
monitored using a detector
• If the material gets thicker more particles will be absorbed, meaning that less will get through
• If the material gets thinner the opposite happens
• This allows the machine to make adjustments to keep the thickness of the material constant
• Note: Devices like this use beta radiation because it will be partially absorbed by the material
If alpha particles were used all of them would be absorbed and none would get through
If gamma were used almost all of it would get through and the detector would not be able to
sense any difference if the thickness were to change
- Tracers
• Tracers are radioactive isotopes that can be added to some fluid so that the flow of that fluid
can be monitored
• Tracers have numerous uses in both medicine and industry:
o In medicine tracers can be added to the blood to check blood flow around the body and
search for blockages (blood clots)
o In industry tracers may be added into an oil pipeline in order to check for any leaks
• In all cases:
o The amount used is kept to a minimum to reduce people’s exposure to radiation
o Isotopes are chosen that have short half-lives of around a few hours: long enough to
carry out the procedure, but not so long that they cause long-term harm
o Gamma radiation is used as it is highly penetrating (you can detect it) and low ionising
(minimising harm)
- Radiotherapy
• Radiotherapy is the name given to the treatment of cancer using radiation (Chemotherapy is
treatment using chemicals)
• Although radiation can cause cancer, it is also highly effective at treating it
• Radiation can kill living cells. Some cells, such as bacteria and cancer cells, are more susceptible
to radiation than others
• Beams of gamma rays are directed at the cancerous tumour (Gamma rays are used because they
are able to penetrate the body, reaching the tumour)
• The beams are moved around to minimise harm to healthy tissue whilst still being aimed at the
tumour
- Sterilisation
• Medical instruments are sterilised by exposing them to gamma rays
• The gamma rays kill bacteria on the instruments and destroy viruses
• Gamma rays are far more effective at killing bacteria than either boiling water or chemical
treatment and are able to penetrate the instruments reaching areas that may otherwise not be
properly sterilised
P8.2.2. Detection of radioactivity
1. Demonstrate understanding of background radiation
- Background radiation is the radiation that is always present around us in the environment
Background radiation is the radiation that is present all around in the environment
- Although most background radiation is natural, a small amount of it comes from artificial sources,
such as medical procedures (including X-rays)
• (Radiation from Nuclear Power come to less than 0.1% of the total)
- Levels of background radiation can vary significantly from place to place
2. Describe the detection of α-particles, β-particles and γ-rays
- When radiation passes close to an atom, it knocks out electrons, ionising the atom
- Radiation detectors work by detecting the presence of these ions or the chemical changes that they
produce
- Examples of radiation detectors include:
• Photographic film (often used in badges)
• Geiger-Muller (GM) tubes
• Ionisation chambers
• Scintillation counters
• Spark counters
A Geiger-Muller tube (or Geiger counter) is a common type of radiation detector

P8.2.3. Radioactive decay
1. State the meaning of radioactive decay
- Some isotopes are unstable - usually because of their large size or because the number of protons
and neutrons within them are out of balance
- As a result, these isotopes will decay - emitting little chunks (radiation) in order to reduce their size
or bring them back into balance
Unstable nuclei decay by emitting high energy articles - radiation

- When an isotope emits radiation, the constitution of its nucleus (the number of protons and neutron)
changes
- As a result, the isotope will change into a different element
2. Use word equations to represent changes in the composition of the nucleus when particles are emitted
---- Alpha Emission ----
- An alpha particle consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons
• (It is emitted from large unstable nuclei)
- When an alpha particle is emitted from a nucleus:
• The nucleus loses 2 protons: The proton (atomic) number decreases by 2
• The nucleus loses 4 particles (nucleons) in total: The nucleon (mass) number decreases by 4
- Equation for alpha emission:
- Nuclear equations, just like chemical equations, balance:

• The sum of the upper (mass) numbers on the left of each equation should equal the sum on the
right
• The sum of the lower (atomic) numbers should also balance
---- Beta Emission ----
- A beta particle is a high energy electron emitted from the nucleus
- It is emitted when a neutron in the nucleus suddenly changes into a proton - an electron is created
in order to balance the positive charge of the proton
• (Note: The electron is created at the moment of decay - it is not present in the neutron
beforehand)
- When a beta particle is emitted from a nucleus:
• The number of protons in the nucleus increases by 1:The proton (atomic)
number increases by1
• The total number of particles in the nucleus remains the same The nucleon (mass) number
doesn’t change
A beta particle is emitted when a neutron turns into a proton, emitting an electron
- Equation for beta emission:
- Note that the beta particle is given an atomic number of -1 in the above examples
• This is because the atomic number is being used to measure charge in this case:
• Protons, being positive particles, have positive atomic numbers
• Electrons, being negative, have a negative number
3. Use nuclide notation in equations to show α- and β-decay
- Equation for alpha emission:
- Equation for beta emission:
P8.2.4. Half-life
1. Use the term half-life in simple calculations which may involve information in tables or decay curves
- As an isotope decays, the number of nuclei of that isotope that remain will decrease
- As a consequence of this, the activity of that isotope will also decrease over time
- The half-life of an isotope is the time taken for the activity of that isotope (or the number of
original nuclei) to drop to half of its initial value
- Every time one half-life passes, the activity (and the number of nuclei) will fall by half
Graph showing the change in activity of an isotope over time and its radioactive half-life
- Different isotopes have different half-lives and half-lives can vary from a fraction of a second to
billions of years in length
- As mentioned above, every time one half-life passes the activity (and number of nuclei remaining)
halves
• However, the activity (and number of nuclei) will never quite drop to zero
---- Measuring Half-life ----
To find the half-life of an isotope:
- If given some data showing how the activity (or number of nuclei) changes over time:
• Plot a graph of this data (with time on the x-axis)
• Add a smooth best fit curve (the curve should get closer to, but never quite reach, the x-axis)
• Look at the original activity (where the line crosses the y-axis) and halve it
• Go across from the halved value (on the y-axis) to the best fit curve, and then straight down to
the x-axis
(It’s a good idea to draw lines showing this on your graph)
• The point where you reach the x-axis should be the half-life
Use graphs like the one above to work out the half-life of an isotope
- IF you are given just two pieces of data (along with a time) – say the initial and final activity of an
isotope:
• Start by figuring out how many times you have to halve the initial activity to get to the final
activity
• This number will be the number of half-lives that have passed
• Divide the time by the number of half-lives to figure out the value of one half-life
- Example:
An isotope has an initial activity of 120 Bq. 6 days later it’s activity is 15 Bg. The number of half-lives
that have passed is:
120/2 = 60  60/2 = 30  30/2 = 15
We had to halve 120 three times to get to 15, and so three half-lives have passed. Therefore each half-
life must be:
6 days/3 = 2 days
P8.2.5. Safety precautions
1. Recall the effects of ionising radiations on living things
- When radiation passes close to atoms the radiation can knock out electrons, ionising the atom
When radiation passes close to an atom it can knock electrons out of the atom, giving the atom a
charge
- Ionisation can cause chemical changes in materials
- If these chemical changes occur in living cells it can damage the cell and:
• Cause mutations
• Cause a cell to become cancerous
• Kill the cell
2. Describe how radioactive materials are handled, used and stored in a safe way
Radioactivity warning sign

- The risks associated with handling radioactive sources can be minimised by following a few simple
procedures:
• Store the sources in lead-lined boxes and keep at a distance from people
• Minimise the amount of time you handle sources for and return them to their boxes as soon as
you have finished using them
• During use, keep yourself (and other people) as far from the sources as feasible. When handling
the sources do so at arm’s length, using a pair of tongs
- (Note: When using tongs, gloves and safety specs are usually unnecessary when handling radioactive
materials, unless there is a risk of the material leaking on to things)

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Contents

Part 1: Motion .................................................................................................................................................. 3

A ruler can measure small distances to the nearest mm

Trundle wheels can be used to measure large distances

Measuring cylinders can be used to determine the

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

(Where u is the initial velocity of an object and v is its final velocity)

- The speed of an object is given by the gradient of the line:

Graph showing how acceleration can be determined from gradient

In the absence of air resistance objects fall with constant acceleration

Diagram showing how the changing forces on a skydiver

2. Know that the Earth is the source of a gravitational field

A balance can be used to compare two different weights

(Note: The greek letter ρ is used to mean density)

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

Always zero a top pan balance before taking any measurements

• Regular shapes (e.g. cubes, spheres, cylinders):

An experiment to measure the extension of a spring

A graph of force against extension for a metal spring

---- Acceleration ----

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

Friction opposes the motion of an object

Diagram showing the resultant forces on three different objects

P1.5.2 Turning effect

Diagram showing the moments acting on a balanced beam

To prevent the shelf from collapsing, the

The centre of mass of a regular shape can be found by symmetry

Diagram showing an experiment to find the centre of mass of an irregular shape

- Pressure is related to force and area by the equation:

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

Part 2: Work, energy and power

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

Gravitational potential energy: The energy an object has when it is lifted up

- The gravitational field strength (g) on the Earth is approximately 10 N/kg

Kinetic energy: the energy an object has when it is moving

Worked example showing how GPE transfers to KE

7. Show a qualitative understanding of efficiency

Sankey diagrams comparing modern and old light bulbs

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

Renewable Resources Non-renewable Resources

Renewable resources cannot be depleted over

Renewable resources include sunlight, water,

The upfront cost of renewable energy is high. For

Infrastructure for harvesting renewable energy is Cost-effective and accessible infrastructure is

Requires a large land/ offshore area, especially

2. Describe how electricity or other useful forms of energy may be obtained

Part 3: Thermal Physics

Diagram showing the arrangement and motion of different states of matter

Gas molecules move about randomly at high speeds

The various changes of state between solids, liquids and gases

A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar wires connected together

Diagram showing an experiment with potassium permanganate to demonstrate convection

Part 4: Properties of waves, including light and sound

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

Diffraction: when a wave passes through a narrow gap, it spreads out

The above wave effects may all be

Angle of incidence, i = angle of reflection, r

Diagram showing the formation of an image in a mirror by the reflection of light

Diagram showing the refraction of light as it passes through a rectangular block

where n is the refractive index of the material

Use the formula triangle to help you rearrange the equation

- This can also be written as:

A converging lens brings parallel rays of light to a focus