Basics

F. Di Lodovico c

Particle Physics

Units in Particle
Physics

Basics Sub-atomic
Particles
Elementary Particles Properties Antiparticles

Particle
Interactions

F. Di Lodovico c 1
1 School
of Physics and Astrophysics
Queen Mary University of London

EPP, SPA6306
 Basics
Outline
F. Di Lodovico c

Particle Physics

Units in Particle
Physics
Particle Physics Sub-atomic
Particles

Antiparticles
Units in Particle Physics Particle
Interactions

Sub-atomic Particles

Antiparticles

Particle Interactions
 Basics
Units in Particle Physics
F. Di Lodovico c

Particle Physics
I Particle Physicists try to discover the fundamental Units in Particle
Physics
”Elementary Particles” that everything is made of and
Sub-atomic
what forces bind these together Particles

Antiparticles
I Recreating the conditions just after the Big Bang
Particle
Interactions
 Basics
Hierarchy
F. Di Lodovico c
I Everyday objects are made of Molecules
Particle Physics
I Molecules are made of Atoms Units in Particle
I Atoms are made of Nuclei and Electrons Physics

Sub-atomic
I Nuclei are made of Protons and Neutrons Particles
I Protons and Neutrons are made of Quarks Antiparticles

I Quarks and Electrons are made of ??? Particle

Interactions
I Quarks and Electrons are ”Elementary Particles”
 Basics
Units in Particle Physics
F. Di Lodovico c

I Energy is measured in electron volts. Particle Physics

Units in Particle
I One electron volt (1 eV) is defined to be the energy Physics

gained by one electron when subjected to a potential Sub-atomic

Particles
difference of 1 Volt: 1eV = 1.6 × 10−19 J
Antiparticles
I Typical energy units are: 1 KeV (1 × 103 eV), 1 MeV Particle
(1 × 106 eV), 1 GeV (1 × 109 eV), 1 TeV (1 × 1012 eV). Interactions

I The relativistic energy-momentum equation:

E 2 = p 2 c 2 + m2 c 4 provides a relationship between
momentum, mass and energy. Treating the speed of
light c (3 × 108 ) as a unit we obtain the following units
for momentum and mass: eV /c and eV /c 2 ,
respectively.
I Comparing units of the relativistic equation we see the
c and and c 2 cancel:
[E (eV )]2 = [p(eV /c)]2 c 2 + [m(eV /c 2 )]2 c 4
 Basics
Units in Particle Physics
F. Di Lodovico c

Particle Physics

I Planck’s constant (h) is often given in eV : Units in Particle

Physics
6.63 × 10−34 J s = ( 1.6×10
1
−19 eV /J) × (6.63 × 10
−34 )J s
Sub-atomic
= 4.14 × 10−15 eV s Particles

Antiparticles
I In many cases in particle physics we set c = 1 and
Particle
~ = 1, but in this course we will not do this. Interactions

I Another frequently used unit is ~c:

−15 eVs
( 4.14×10
2π ) × (3 × 108 m/s) = 1.97 × 10−7 eV m
= (1.97 × 10 eV m) × (10−6 MeV ) × (1015 fm)
−7

= 197MeV fm
I Charge is measured in units of electronic charge (e)
where e = 1.6 × 10−19
I Cross-sections are measured in barns where
1barn = 1 × 10−28 m2
 Basics
Sub-atomic Particles
F. Di Lodovico c

Particle Physics

Units in Particle
Physics

Sub-atomic
I Most stable sub-atomic particles are the proton, Particles

neutron (nucleons) and electron. Antiparticles

Particle
I Study of the proton and neutron revealed other Interactions

less-stable particles.
I Particles grouped into two broad categories: leptons
(light-weight particles) and hadrons.
I Leptons are considered to be fundamental (not made of
other particles).
I Hadrons are considered not to be fundamental.
 Basics
Sub-atomic Particles
F. Di Lodovico c
The Hadrons
Particle Physics

Units in Particle
Physics

Sub-atomic
Particles
I The number of different types of leptons is small (6 Antiparticles
types). However, there are many hadrons. Particle
Interactions
I The hadrons can be further sub-divided into baryons
(heavy-weight particles) and mesons (middle-weight
particles).
I Baryons all have half-integer spin (e.g. p (spin 1/2),
∆+ (spin 3/2) etc).
I Mesons all have integer spin (e.g. π + (spin 0), ρ+ (spin
1) etc).
 Basics
Sub-atomic Particles
F. Di Lodovico c
Quarks and Leptons
Particle Physics

I The large number of hadrons suggests they are made Units in Particle
Physics
from a smaller number of particles (quarks). Sub-atomic
Particles
I So far, only 6 different types of quarks are needed to
Antiparticles
create all the observed hadrons.
Particle
Interactions
I No free quarks have been observed so far.
I The parallels between the quarks and leptons are quite
striking.
Generation
Charge First Second Third
Quark +2/3 u (up) c (charm) t (top)
Quark -1/3 d (down) s (strange) b (bottom)
Lepton −e e − (electron) µ− (muon) τ − (tau)
Lepton 0 νe (electron νµ (muon ντ (tau
neutrino) neutrino) neutrino)
 Basics
Sub-atomic Particles
F. Di Lodovico c
Quarks and Leptons
Particle Physics

Units in Particle
I All quarks have spin 1/2. Physics

I The masses of these basic building blocks are found to Sub-atomic

Particles
be: Antiparticles

Quarks Leptons Particle

Interactions
Type Mass (GeV) Type Mass (GeV)
u ∼ 0.002 e− 0.0005
d ∼ 0.005 µ − 0.105
s ∼ 0.104 τ− 1.78
c ∼ 1.27 νe ∼0
b ∼ 4.2 νµ ∼0
t ∼ 171 ντ ∼0
I Single quarks have never been observed. The masses of
the quarks are inferred from studies of particle
interactions.
 Basics
Sub-atomic Particles
F. Di Lodovico c
Quarks and Leptons
Particle Physics

Units in Particle
Physics

Sub-atomic
Particles

Antiparticles

Particle
Interactions

I The baryons are made of three quarks and the mesons

are made of a quark and antiquark.
I You will notice that the sum of the masses of a particles
constituent quark’s does not equal the measured mass
of the particle. The mediator of the strong force is
considered responsible for the larger, missing mass
which arises from quark-gluon and gluon-gluon
interactions in the particle.
 Basics
Antiparticles
F. Di Lodovico c

Particle Physics

Units in Particle
Physics
I Each particle has an antiparticle.
Sub-atomic
I An antiparticle has the same mass and spin as its Particles

corresponding particle, but opposite charge (and Antiparticles

Particle
quantum numbers). Interactions
I In some cases a neutral meson is its own antiparticle.
E.g the π 0 because it contains the same type of quark
and antiquark: uu.
I But, this is not true for all neutral mesons. E.g. the
K 0 (us) has antiparticle K 0 (us).
I Notation: the antiparticles are indicated by a bar on top
of the symbol of the particle.
 Basics
Antileptons
F. Di Lodovico c

Particle Physics

Units in Particle
Physics

Sub-atomic
Particles

I Each leptons has a distinct antilepton. Antiparticles

Particle
Generation Interactions

Charge First Second Third

+e e + (positron) µ+ (antimuon) τ + (antitau)
0 ν e (electron ν µ (muon ν τ (tau
antineutrino antineutrino antineutrino
 Basics
Antiquarks
F. Di Lodovico c

Particle Physics

Units in Particle
Physics
I The quarks also have a corresponding antiparticle with Sub-atomic
Particles
the same mass, spin and opposite charge.
Antiparticles

Quarks Antiquarks Generation Particle

Interactions
Type Charge Type Charge
u +2/3 u -2/3 First
d -1/3 d +1/3 First
s -1/3 s +1/3 Second
c +2/3 c -2/3 Second
b -1/3 b +1/3 Third
t +2/3 t -2/3 Third
 Basics
Some Common Hadrons
F. Di Lodovico c

Particle Physics

Units in Particle
Physics

Sub-atomic
I The proton baryon consists of the three quarks: u, u, d Particles
with a total charge of: Antiparticles
(+2/3) + (+2/3) + (−1/3) = +1. Particle
Interactions
I The neutron baryon consists of three quarks: u, d, d
with a total charge of: (+2/3) + (−1/3) + (−1/3) = 0.
I The π + meson consists of a quark and antiquark: u, d
with a total charge of (+2/3) + (−(−1/3)) = +1.
I The π − meson consists of a quark and antiquark: d, u
with a total charge of (−1/3) + (−(+2/3)) = −1.
 Basics
Particle Families
F. Di Lodovico c

Particle Physics

Units in Particle
Physics
I If we look at the tables of leptons and quarks in the Sub-atomic
previous slides we see something strange: Particles

I We only seem to need three generations of quarks or Antiparticles

leptons to describe all the particles we have detected so Particle

Interactions
far.
I We only need exactly the same number of generations
for quarks as for leptons.
I This is suggestive of a deep connection between quarks
and leptons that is yet to be understood.
I The particle physics experiments are currently probing
the theories that attempt to model this connection.
 Basics
Particle Interactions
F. Di Lodovico c

Particle Physics

Units in Particle
I We can view particle interactions in light of Newton’s Physics

Third Law: for every action there is an equal and Sub-atomic

Particles
opposite reaction. Antiparticles
I The repulsion between two electrons (the reaction) can Particle
be viewed as the exchange of a photon (the Interactions

intermediate vector boson) between the two electrons

(the action).
I One electron emits a photon towards other electron.
The net result is the first electron moves away from the
second.
I The other electron absorbs the photon. The net result
is the second electron moves away from the first.
I All particle interactions can be described by four forces.
 Basics
The Forces
F. Di Lodovico c

Particle Physics

Units in Particle
Physics

Sub-atomic
Particles

Antiparticles

Particle
Interactions

Force Intermediate Range Relative

Vector Boson Strength
Strong gluon 10−15 m 1
Electromagnetic photon Infinite ∼ 10−2
Weak W ±, Z 0 10−18 m ∼ 10−6
Gravity graviton Infinite ∼ 10−39
 Basics
Particle Interactions
F. Di Lodovico c
The Forces
Particle Physics

Units in Particle
Physics
I All force strengths are relative to that of the strong Sub-atomic
Particles
force.
Antiparticles
I The strong force extends to approximately the size of Particle
Interactions
the nucleus.
I There are theories that assume all forces were originally
were unified.
I So far, theory has successfully unified the
electromagnetic and weak forces.
I Although gravity is experienced by all particle
interactions it’s effect is so tiny compared to
experimental precision it is usually ignored.
 Basics
Particle Interactions
F. Di Lodovico c
Range of Forces
Particle Physics

Units in Particle
Physics
I The range of the force is related to the energy that the Sub-atomic
intermediate vector boson can borrow from one particle Particles

and give to the other via the Heisenberg Uncertainty Antiparticles

Principle: ∆E ∆t ∼ ~. Particle
Interactions
I We know that the velocity c = ∆x/∆t, hence we know
that the range, ∆x is related to the Energy of the
intermediate particle by: ∆x ∼ ~c/∆E
I Assuming the energy borrowed is equivalent to the mass
M of the particle we have: ∆x ∼ ~c/Mc 2 .
I Using this relation we can estimate the mass of the W
to be around 80GeV/c2 and the photon, which we know
is massless, to have an infinite range.
 Basics
Quantum Numbers
F. Di Lodovico c
Fermions and Bosons
Particle Physics

Units in Particle
Physics

Sub-atomic
I From quantum mechanics we know that two particles Particles
can exist in either a symmetric (S) or anti-symmetric Antiparticles

(A) state. Particle

Interactions
ψS = √12 (ψ1 (A)ψ2 (B) + ψ2 (B)ψ1 (A))
ψA = √1 (ψ1 (A)ψ2 (B) − ψ2 (B)ψ1 (A))
2
I Interchanging particles 1 → 2 and 2 → 1 has no effect
on the symmetric state, but the antisymmetric state
changes sign.
I If the two particles are in the same state (ie A = B)
then the antisymmetric state disappears.
 Basics

F. Di Lodovico c

I Particles with an antisymmetric wave-function are called Particle Physics

fermions. They have half-integer spin. Particles with a Units in Particle

Physics
symmetric wave-function are called bosons. They have Sub-atomic
integer spin. Particles

Antiparticles
I All hadrons and leptons can be classified as bosons or
Particle
fermions. Interactions

I Fermions obey the Pauli Exclusion principle: no two

fermions can exist can occupy the same quantum
mechanical state.
I When constructing particles from quarks we need to be
careful to take account of the Pauli exclusion principle
(we will come back to this when we talk about quark
colour).
 Basics
Particle Physics and Cosmology
F. Di Lodovico c

I Particles produced in man-made accelerators are also Particle Physics

visible in the Universe. Units in Particle
Physics
I In fact, much of the early work in particle physics used Sub-atomic
particles produced by cosmological events. Particles

Antiparticles
I Some of the more stable particles present in the
Particle
Universe were created very early in the Universe. Interactions

Studying these particles helps us to understand the

origins of the Universe.
I The universe can be modeled as a gas with the energy
of all matter in the Universe related to the temperature:
E ∼ kT , where k is the Boltzmann constant (8.6 × 105
eV/K.
I There is an inverse relationship between energy and
time, hence there is an inverse relationship between
time and temperature. The closer we are to the
Big-Bang the hotter the Universe is.
 Basics
Probing the Early Universe
F. Di Lodovico c

Particle Physics

Units in Particle
Physics

Sub-atomic
Particles

Antiparticles

Particle
Interactions

I The LHC currently operates at ∼ 14 TeV which

corresponds to a time of < 10−14 s before the Big-Bang.