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Background of Partition (1850s-1905)

Announcement of Partition (1905)
Swadeshi Movement (1905-08)

Govt of India Act (1909)

Annulment of Partition (1909)

BACKGROUND OF THE PARTITION (1850s - 1905)

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The primary motive behind the 1905 partition of Bengal was the growing restlessness of the Bengali middle classes, seeking
political rights that the British were unwilling to grant. Concerned about the emergence of Bengali nationalism among these middle-
class individuals, the British Empire feared a potential challenge to their rule in the Indian subcontinent. The concept of the 'middle class'
gained importance globally after the 1500s, notably during the French and Industrial Revolutions. Before these events, kings and the
wealthy controlled society, offering limited opportunities. The middle class emerged as societies grew, encompassing professions like
businesspeople, teachers, lawyers, and clerks. In the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution, the middle class struggled for
political rights despite their contributions. The Industrial Revolution also increased the need for business skills, leading to the
establishment of business schools in the late 19th century, contributing to the formation of a middle class in Bengal, albeit relatively
small within the British Raj's center.
During the British Empire's rule in India, educated Bengali middle-class individuals, influenced by Western political ideas like
the French Revolution, began demanding more rights within the British Empire due to discriminatory practices. They sought increased
political rights but weren't advocating complete independence, influenced by the memory of the 1857 uprising. In response, the British
Empire employed a strategic approach, acknowledging their concerns but advising against anger, revolution, or freedom demands.
Instead, they proposed the creation of the Indian National Congress in 1885 to address grievances within set boundaries. Meanwhile,
Bengali Hindus, especially from upper castes, actively engaged in Western and British education, learning English, pursuing employment,
and participating in commercial activities. However, their upward mobility was limited by the racist nature of the British Empire and
colonial logic, which restricted colonial subjects' advancement within the colonial administration.

Revivalism and Communalism

Let's talk about a big change that will affect future events—the first division of Bengal. In Bengal, especially among higher-caste Hindus,
people are getting into Western education, jobs, and money-making opportunities. They're also adopting Western ways like wearing Western clothes
and doing things like smoking and drinking. Some conservative and religious folks in Bengali Hindu society are worried about these changes, and
it's leading to a thing called religious revivalism. This isn't just happening in Bengal; it's also going on in Bombay (now Mumbai), where Marathi-
speaking people live. They're dealing with similar issues as their middle class emerges. To deal with this, there are plans to get more people
involved. One way is by publicly celebrating the Ganapati festival, dedicated to the elephant-headed God Ganapati. This festival used to be a private
affair for rich upper-caste Hindus, but now they're making it public to include more people. Another thing they're doing is celebrating the life of the
legendary Maratha ruler, Shivaji. Initially, these celebrations were open to everyone, including Hindus and Muslims. But some people are twisting
things and saying Shivaji hated Muslims because he opposed the Mughals. However, historical evidence shows that Shivaji had Muslim soldiers,
friends, and officials in his army and administration. There's no proof that he discriminated against Muslims in the places he ruled. His conflicts with
the Mughal Emperors were more about politics than religious differences.

However, such distorted beliefs in India lead to exclusion of Muslims and discourage Hindus from participating in each other's
celebrations. This bias contributes to religious revivalism with an anti-Muslim tone, giving rise to communalism – a divisive sentiment between
religious communities in Bengal and the Indian subcontinent. Communalism, influenced by the French Revolution, emphasizes religious identity
above all else, leading to conflicts and divisions in society. In the late 19th century, a renewed interest in Hindu practices, particularly cow worship,
emerged. Cow protection groups advocated for the reverence of cows, significant in Hinduism. The issue mainly affected Hindus and Muslims in
the meat industry. Despite efforts to ban cow slaughter through legal means, British courts ruled against it in the late 1880s, sparking the first
Hindu-Muslim clashes on the matter. The British government, aiming to avoid religious conflicts, accepted the court's decision but didn't directly
intervene. The issue initially didn't concern middle-class and aristocratic Muslims, as they didn't consume cow meat, and it involved various groups
beyond just Muslims. Cow protection groups sought legal action, not rebellion, targeting vulnerable meat traders and butchers.

ANNOUNCEMENT OF THE PARTITION (1905)

In Bengal, Bengali Muslims, having distanced themselves from active engagement with the British Empire, might be perceived
as a minority. However, the 1872 census surprised the British government by revealing that Bengali Muslims constitute a significant
majority in eastern Bengal, mainly engaged in farming. Recognizing the rising political awareness among Bengali Hindus and their
demands for rights, the British government strategically decides to ally with Bengali Muslims and create a division from Hindus through
partition. To gain support for the partition of Bengal, British Viceroy Curzon held meetings with Bengali Muslims in eastern Bengal. He
assured them that supporting the partition would grant them influence not experienced since earlier times. Bengali Muslims saw the
partition as an opportunity to have their own Colonial Province where they would be the majority, with promises from the British
government for educational institutions and resources. Some important Bengali Muslims changed their minds about opposing the
partition because the British Empire tempted them with money. The Nawab of Dhaka, for instance, initially wanted to resist the partition
but accepted it later for personal gains, like a loan he didn't have to pay back. Only a few educated Bengali Muslims were against the
partition.
It's essential to know that not only Hindus opposed the partition of Bengal. The Brahmo Samaj, a Hindu reformist group, did,
but other people from diverse backgrounds also joined the opposition. The Brahmo Samaj aimed to reform Hinduism, advocating for
women's rights and education. They opposed the partition, seeing it as a divisive move that would harm the region's progress and unity.
However, it is important to note that the partition didn't make East Bengal independent; it meant the administrative separation into two
provinces—Eastern Bengal and Assam in the East, and Bengal and Bihar in the West. The British government, citing administrative
challenges as a reason, argued that Bengal had become too difficult to govern effectively by the early 1900s. However, the claim of
Bengal's unwieldiness is now considered inaccurate, given the expansive reach of the British Empire in 1900. The real motive behind the
partition was to quell the growing political unrest among the educated Bengali middle class. It was a strategic move to undermine
nationalist sentiments by dividing the population along religious lines, resulting in East Bengal with a Muslim-majority population and
West Bengal with a Hindu-majority population.
SWADESHI MOVEMENT (1905-1908)
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* Initial Phase
Rumors about Bengal's division spread among the middle and upper classes, leading to resistance against British rule. The
official announcement on October 16, 1905, sparked the Swadeshi movement—a significant protest advocating self-reliance and the
boycott of British goods. This movement, crucial for Indian independence, went through different phases. Initially, the middle and upper
classes organized protests, but realizing limited impact, leaders expanded it to include workers, farmers, and peasants. However, facing
challenges and contradictions, armed resistance was not feasible due to gun restrictions. Instead, the focus shifted to boycotting British
goods, despite the region's prior deindustrialization.Then the Swadeshi movement aimed to produce homemade goods, but Bengal's
deindustrialized condition made them likely to be of poor quality and expensive. While the affluent could afford expensive local or
imported goods, ordinary people, like farmers and factory workers, faced a dilemma. They had to choose between cheaper, higher-
quality British products or pricier, inferior Swadeshi goods. Economic realities often led them to opt for the former, challenging the
Swadeshi movement's goal of promoting indigenous industries and self-reliance.

* Violent Phase
In the next phase, the Swadeshi movement experiences a split. While one faction continues to progress and perspective
individuals like Rabindranath Tagore recognize the discussed problems and advocate for a step back to reassess the situation. They
propose a focus on building self-reliant industries, establishing arbitration courts and village councils, and fostering understanding
between urban and rural communities.Rabindranath Tagore, for example, initiated Shanti Niketan, or the Abode of Peace School, started
by his father. Figures like him stress the importance of communicating with farmers and peasants, explaining the goals of the
nationalist anti-colonial movement and the sacrifices they might need to make, considering the significant Muslim population among
the farmers in eastern Bengal. In stepping aside, Rabindranath provides space for the movement to continue. Notably, upper-class and
aristocratic supporters of the Swadeshi movement began to withdraw, recognizing the challenges and risks of opposing the British Raj.
This led to the emergence of more radical middle-class leaders, including Aurobindo Ghosh, who became a prominent figure in the
Swadeshi movement and remained influential until its eventual defeat. Coming from a wealthy and influential Bengali family in England,
Aurobindo Ghosh undergoes a transformation from a pro-British Empire stance to a dedicated Bengali nationalist and anti-colonialist.
His financial resources enable him to start publishing his newspapers, such as "Jugantor" (meaning "The New Era" in English), where he
expresses his nationalist views.

Tensions formed as the British Empire opposed the boycott and anti-partition movement. They supported those against the
boycott, protecting shopkeepers who sold British goods. Swadeshi activists, pushing for the boycott, became more aggressive, leading
to clashes. The British used police and forces to suppress the Swadeshi movement, angering leaders like Aurobindo Ghosh, who now
sought complete removal of the British Empire. This sentiment had been growing, especially in Marathi-speaking areas of Bengal. Secret
societies, called "samitis," emerged, funded by wealthy nationalists. They aimed to recruit and train youth in nationalist ideologies,
including weapon use for future resistance and lessons on historical events of the French Revolution, the Italian Wars of Independence,
and Ireland’s anti-colonial struggles against the British Empire. However, challenges included the use of religious imagery, discouraging
Muslim participation, and struggles in effectively communicating goals to workers and farmers, despite advice from leaders like
Rabindranath Tagore.

Khudiram’s Attack

Meanwhile, the British Empire grew harsher towards Swadeshi activists. A British judge publicly whipped a young Bengali
child for supporting the Swadeshi movement, enraging Aurobindo Ghosh and nationalists. In response, Aurobindo authorized his
brother, Barindra Kumar Ghosh, to form the 'New Era' revolutionary group within their secret society. This group aimed to target British
officials and their local collaborators. In 1908, Bengali revolutionaries Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki targeted the British magistrate
responsible for the child's whipping by throwing a bomb at his carriage. This bold act was a rare open armed resistance against British
rule, challenging their assumed authority since 1857. The British dismantled the first New Era group, capturing and punishing its
members. Aurobindo's attempt to control the Indian National Congress in 1907 failed, and the Congress pledged loyalty to the British
Empire in 1908, losing public support. Despite dissatisfaction with British officials, the strong reaction to Bengal's partition led the British
government to reconsider its actions.

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT (1909)

Morley-Minto Reforms
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The British government introduced the Government of India Act of 1909, often called the Morley-Minto Reforms, as a
response to demands for political reforms and representation. These reforms granted the right to elections, but it was limited to a small
group of educated men who paid taxes and owned property. Despite the expansion of legislative councils in some provinces, real
decision-making power remained with British officials. The Act also established separate electorates for different religious
communities, deepening communal divisions instead of promoting unity. This fell short of satisfying Indian nationalist aspirations for
greater autonomy and genuine representation.Under the 1909 Act, separate electorates for Hindus and Muslims were introduced,
allocating separate seats for each community in the Imperial Council. Out of 27 electable seats, eight were designated for Muslims
based on population size and minority status.

ANNULMENT OF THE PARTITION (1911)

The British government, responding to discontent from the Bengal partition, reversed it in 1911, reuniting Bengal and East
Bengal into one province. Simultaneously, the British government shifted the capital from Calcutta to Delhi, in the former Mughal Empire
region. This move aimed to diminish Bengal's influence on the Indian subcontinent, a goal initially intended by Lord Curzon. However,
Bengal remained important, albeit with reduced influence.

Required Readings:

1. Ahmed, A. F. Salahuddin, “Religious and Social Reform Movements in the

Nineteenth Century”, in A. F. Salahuddin Ahmed and Chowdhury, Bazlul Mobin
(eds.), Bangladesh, National Culture, and Heritage: An Introductory Reader (Dhaka:
Independent University Bangladesh, 2004), pp. 144-160

4. British India: 1857-1911 2. Bose, Sugata, and Ayesha Jalal, Modern South Asia: History, Culture and Political
Economy (New York and London: Routledge, 2004), pp. 60-67

3. Banerjee-Dube, Ishita, A History of Modern India (New York: Cambridge University

Press, 2014), Chapter 3

4. Schendel, Willem van, A History of Bangladesh (New York: Cambridge University

Press, 2009), pp. 77-78

I did not find two pdfs – If you find, kindly mail me