Presentation Be Stars

The life cycles of viscous decretion
disks around Be stars: fundamental

disk parameters in the SMC
Leandro Rocha Rı́mulo
Departamento de Astronomia
Instituto de Astronomia, Geofı́sica e Ciências Atmosféricas
Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil
19 June 2017
Leandro R. Rı́mulo — Jun 19th , 2017 Dynamical viscous decretion disks 1/49
Introduction
Small Magellanic Cloud (Credits: Davide De Martin)
Introduction
Massive stars (M & 8M )
The main components of the

visible Universe and our
main sources of information
about it!
Harder to form and
short-lived;
The main sources of
luminosity in the spiral arms
and their supernovae are
responsible for the chemical
enrichment of the Universe;
HR-Diagram of 23000 nearby stars.
(Credits: http://www.atlasoftheuniverse.com)
Introduction
Be stars
3M . M . 17M ,
non-supergiant;
“Spectrum has, or
had at some time,
Balmer lines in
emission” ⇒
circumstellar
material;
Are not rare!
Represent 10% to a
few dozens of the B
typed stars
(depending on
region)
The seven main stars of the Pleiades cluster.
(Credits: http://www.astrosurf.com/buil/us/bestar.htm)
Introduction
Be stars
Understanding of Be stars leaped in
the last 10 years (advances in
observing and computational
techniques).
Disk-like (polarization,
spectrointerferometry);
double-peaked emission ⇒
essentially rotating disk;
the disk is completely ionized
and devoid of dust ⇒
chemically simpler than the
YSO disks!
Near-Keplerian (V/R
Schematic view of a Be star.
variations and
(Rivinius et al., 2013A&ARv..21...69R)
spectrointerferometry)
Introduction
Be stars
Light curve of 28 CMa, over 33 years.
(M. Ghoreyshi, priv. comm.)
Be stars are quite variable in several timescales.

The disk is fed by injections of matter from the central star.
Be stars with disk are active. Be stars without disk are inactive.
Introduction
Be stars are fast rotators
The fastest rotators

among non-degenerate
stars.
Rotation is described by
veq
W = vorb ;
All Be stars:
W & 0.7
hW i = 0.81 ± 0.12
Fast rotation reduces geff
at the equator and, thus,
must be fundamentally
W = 0.62 vs
W = 0.90.
linked to the matter
Evolutionary tracks (Z = 0.014). ejection episodes.
(Rivinius et al., (Georgy et al.,
2013A&ARv..21...69R) 2013A&A...553A..24G)
Introduction
Be stars are fast rotators
Two proposed mechanisms for

the rotation of Be starsa
1 core contraction +
internal AM
redistribution = enhance
Ωsurf
Be stars are
natural outcomes
of fast rotators at
the ZAMS
2 enhancement of Ωsurf by
mass transfer from
W = 0.62 vs binary companion
W = 0.90.
Evolutionary tracks (Z = 0.014). a
Ekström et al. 2008A&A...478..467E;
(Rivinius et al., (Georgy et al., Georgy et al. 2013A&A...553A..24G
2013A&ARv..21...69R) 2013A&A...553A..24G)
Introduction
Therefore,
With their gaseous disks and fast rotation, Be stars turned
out to be fundamental laboratories to test the physical
mechanisms relevant for the upper main sequence!
Introduction
The Viscous Decretion Disk (VDD)
The VDD is the only theory
capable of describing the
observed features of the disks of
Be stars.
VDDs are accretion disks
with an inner source of mass
and AM.
The “Be mechanism”
(pulsation?) puts
material in orbit near
the stellar equator;
Scheme of the VDD.
The viscous
mechanism
(Porter & Rivinius, 2003PASP..115.1153P)
(magnetorotational
instability - MRI?)
diffuses part of that
material outwards.
Introduction
The steady-state VDD has been successful in modeling the
observables of Be stars.
Example:
VDD model of ζ Tau.
(Carciofi et al., 2009A&A...504..915C)
Introduction

But... Several Be stars are far from steady-state.
Examples of OGLE light curves showing complex activity.1
1
Mennickent et al., 2002A&A...393..887M
Introduction
But... Several Be stars are far from steady-state.
A precious fraction of light curves of Be stars show bumps and dips and
clear inactive phases.1
1
Mennickent et al., 2002A&A...393..887M
Introduction

The bumps and dips resemble
Bump (pole-on): the photometric predictions of
simple dynamical VDDs with
on/off mass injection rates.
Dip (edge-on):
Theoretical bump.
(Haubois et al., 2012ApJ...756..156H)
Introduction
The α parameter is an important and largely unknown physical
parameter!
Realization: The α viscosity parameter is the main responsible
for the timescale of the variations!
Carciofi et al., 2012ApJ...744L..15C estimated, for the first
time, α ≈ 1 for a Be disk (recently revisited to α ≈ 0.21).
First determination of α for a Be star.
Leandro R. Rı́mulo — Jun 19th

(Carciofi et, 2017
al., 2012ApJ...744L..15C)
Dynamical viscous decretion disks 13/49
Introduction
The realization that the light curves of Be stars offer

the key for measuring α directly provided the main
motivation of this work.
This thesis studies the two main ingredients of the VDD:

The “Be mechanism”: the source of mass and angular
momentum at the base of the disk
The viscous mechanism, which is responsible for the
diffusion of mass and angular momentum outwards,
creating the gaseous disk.
A study of the dynamical
VDD
HDUST image of the VDD of ζ Tau (in 2.16µm).
(Carciofi et al., 2009A&A...504..915C)
A study of the dynamical VDD
Physical description of the VDD
∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρv) = S , Mass continuity equation
∂t
and

∂v
ρ + v · ∇v = F ∗ − ∇P + ∇ · W , Equation of motion
∂t
∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρv) = S , Mass continuity equation
∂t
and

∂v
ρ + v · ∇v = F ∗ − ∇P + ∇ · W , Equation of motion
∂t
Assuming a thin and axisymmetric disk

F ∗ = −ρ GM
r2
r̂ (circumstellar disk)
kT
P = c2s ρ, where c2s = µmH (ideal gas)
WRφ = −αP (viscosity parameter)

1 !
∂Σ 2 ∂ R 2 ∂ 2 2 S
= αcs R Σ +Σ ⇐ SINGLEBE
∂t R ∂R GM ∂R ρ

1 !
∂Σ 2 ∂ R 2 ∂ 2 2 S
= αcs R Σ +Σ ⇐ SINGLEBE
∂t R ∂R GM ∂R ρ
Be mechanism:

S δ(R − Rinj )
Σ = Ṁinj (t)
ρ R
Torque-free inner and outer boundaries:

Σ(Req , t) = Σ(Rout , t) = 0
Example of dynamical VDD producing complex light curves:
1 !
∂Σ 2 ∂ R 2 ∂ 2 2 δ(R − Rinj )
= αcs R Σ + Ṁinj (t) , Req < R < Rout
∂t R ∂R GM ∂R R
1. Timescale and time parameters
Realization: With the scaling in time and spatial dimensions of the disk
equation, it is possible to generate dynamical models independent of
the stellar and disk parameters M , Req , Teff and α(t). They are left to
be determined by the observations.
1 !
∂Σ 2 ∂ R 2 ∂ 2 2 δ(R − Rinj )
1. Timescale and time parameters
Realization: With the scaling in time and spatial dimensions of the disk
equation, it is possible to generate dynamical models independent of
the stellar and disk parameters M , Req , Teff and α(t). They are left to
be determined by the observations.
1 !
∂Σ 2 ∂ R 2 ∂ 2 2 δ(R − Rinj )
Assuming isothermal disk and α(R, t) = α(t):
( ! )
δ(R̃ − R̃inj )

∂Σ 1 2 ∂ 1 ∂
τ (t)Ṁinj (t)
⇒ = R̃ 2 R̃2 Σ + 2
, 1 < R̃ < R̃out
∂t τ (t) R̃ ∂ R̃ ∂ R̃ 2πReq R̃
where R̃ = R/Req and

3 12 2
1 Req vorb
τ (t) = , timescale parameter
α(t) GM c2s
and τ̃ (t) is the time parameter, such that dτ̃ = dt/τ (t)
2. The problem of R̃inj

!
δ(R̃ − R̃inj )

∂Σ 2 ∂ 1 ∂ 2 τ (τ̃ )Ṁinj (τ̃ )
= R̃
2 R̃ Σ + 2
, 1 < R̃ < R̃out
∂ τ̃ R̃ ∂ R̃ ∂ R̃ 2πReq R̃
⇒ We don’t have direct means for measuring Rinj !
2. The problem of R̃inj

!
δ(R̃ − R̃inj )

∂Σ 2 ∂ 1 ∂ 2 τ (τ̃ )Ṁinj (τ̃ )
= R̃2 R̃ Σ + 2
, 1 < R̃ < R̃out
∂ τ̃ R̃ ∂ R̃ ∂ R̃ 2πReq R̃
⇒ We don’t have direct means for measuring Rinj !

Based on the steady-state solution of the VDD:

Req 1

2πReq Σ0 (τ̃ ) = Ṁinj (τ̃ ) R̃inj 2 − 1
τ (τ̃ )
where Σ0 is the asymptotic surface density, which means that
!
δ(R̃ − R̃inj )

∂Σ 2 ∂ 1 ∂
Σ0 (τ̃ )
⇒ = R̃ 2 R̃2 Σ + 1 , 1 < R̃ < R̃out
∂ τ̃ R̃ ∂ R̃ ∂ R̃ R̃inj 2 − 1 R̃
3. Relevant steady-state physical quantities

1
Req
2πReq Σ0 τ
2
= Ṁinj R̃inj − 1 : asymptotic surface density;
1

Req
−J˙std = Λ (GM Req ) 2 2πReq Σ0 τ
: steady-state stellar AM loss
rate
3. Relevant steady-state physical quantities

1
Req
2πReq Σ0 τ
2
= Ṁinj R̃inj − 1 : asymptotic surface density;
1

Req
−J˙std = Λ (GM Req ) 2 2πReq Σ0 τ
: steady-state stellar AM loss
rate
One long bump: −J˙std is a good measure of the

instantaneous stellar AM loss rate in
a dynamical disk!
4. The mass reservoir effect
The longer the build-up time, the larger is the external mass
reservoir ⇒ makes reaccretion appear slower.
New parameter: τ̃bu : the scaled build-up time.
A model grid of bumps
Alphacrucis cluster (IAG-USP) (Credits: http://jornal.usp.br)
Motivation: To extract from bumps/dips like these:
...all the relevant physical quantities for better understanding

the Be mechanism and the viscous mechanism.
Radiative transfer models of bumps

MCRT code HDUST;
Geneva tracksa :
Z, M, t/tMS , W →
Req , Teff , etc;
Grav. darkening
β b
(Tsurf ∝ geff ) ;
Absolute magnitudes in
4 standard filters: MB ,
Simulated frequency domain. MV , MR , MI .
a
Georgy et al. 2013A&A...553A..24G
b
Espinosa-Lara & Rieutord 2011A&A...533A..43E
Radiative transfer models of bumps
Table: Representative grid of photometric bumps

Star i [deg] Σ0 [g cm−2 ] τ̃bu
Star 1 00.0 0.30 00.15
Star 2 21.8 0.41 00.45
Star 3 31.0 0.56 00.75
38.2 0.75 01.50
44.4 1.01 02.25
50.0 1.37 03.00
55.2 1.85 04.50
60.0 2.50 06.00
64.6 09.00
69.1 15.00
73.4 30.00
77.6
81.8
85.9
90.0
Star Z M [M ] W t/tMS ατ [d]

Star 1 0.002 7 0.81 0.5 90.4
Star 2 0.002 11 0.81 0.5 103.3
Star 3 0.002 15 0.81 0.5 118.9
An empirical law for pole-on and edge-on

light curves
Motivation: Empirical formulas that are good approximations of the
simulated light curves allow an easy comparison between the real light
curves and the simulated light curves.
Build-up: Dissipation:

∞ 1 1
∆Xbu = ∆Xbu 1− ∆Xd = ∆Xd0
1 + (ξbu τ̃ )ηbu 1 + (ξd (τ̃ − τ̃bu ))ηd
h i
∞ 1−
Continuity condition: ∆Xd0 = ∆Xbu 1
1+(ξbu τ̃bu )ηbu
Examples of computed light curves and empirical law fittings:

∞ 1 1
∞
∆Xbu (Star, cos i, Σ0 )
Maximum excess
produced by the disk

∞ 1 1
ξbu (Star, cos i, Σ0 )

Regulates the rate of
photometric build-up
“Pole-on disks appear to
build-up faster”
Σ0 has little effect on ξbu

∞ 1 1
ξd (Star, cos i, Σ0 , τ̃bu )

photometric dissipation
dissipate faster”
“Denser disks appear to
dissipate slowly”
Reservoir effect: disks
with bigger τ̃bu appear
to dissipate slowly

∞ 1 1
ξd (Star, cos i, Σ0 , τ̃bu )

photometric dissipation
dissipate faster”
“Denser disks appear to
dissipate slowly”
Reservoir effect: disks
with bigger τ̃bu appear
to dissipate slowly
A fitting pipeline for bumps

∞ 1 1
2
as suggested by Ghoreyshi et al. 2017.

∞ 1 1
From τ̃ to t: We assume α(t) = αbu during build-up and

α(t) = αd during the dissipation2
3 12 2
αbu t−t

ατ
1
, t1 ≤ t < t2 Req vorb
τ̃ = −t1 , where ατ =
αbu t2ατ + αd t−t
ατ
2
, t ≥ t2 GM c2s
2
as suggested by Ghoreyshi et al. 2017.
1 Find a light curve of a Be star that contains at least one clear inactive
phase and one complete bump;
2 Subtract the magnitudes X∗ and describe the bump by ∆X(t);
∞
3 Fit the “bump equation” and obtain the parameters ∆Xbu , Cbu , Cd ,
t1 and t2 ;
∞
t1 and t2 ;
4 Transform the apparent magnitudes X∗ to absolute magnitudes MX∗ ;
∞
t1 and t2 ;
4 Transform the apparent magnitudes X∗ to absolute magnitudes MX∗ ;
5 Estimate the stellar parameters, the geometric parameter (cos i) and
the bump parameters (Σ0 , αbu , αd ) based on the measured
parameters and our grid of models.
Our approach: Fitting using MCMC
sampling
Spoilers:
sampling
Spoilers:
sampling
Spoilers:
Estimating fundamental disk
parameters with light curves
OGLE Warsaw Telescope (Las Campanas - Chile)
(Credits: http://naukawobiektywie.us.edu.pl/2014/galeria/zd27_3.jpg)
Estimating fundamental disk parameters
with light curves
OGLE II + III light curves from the SMC
Mennickent et al.a
selected ∼ 1000 light
curves of Be candidates
from OGLE
microlensing survey;
Bumps and dips roughly
correspond to their
type-1 and 2 light curves
(belong to early B stars
with circumstellar
emission - Paul et al.b ).
In this work, we selected
54 light curves with 81
OGLE II and OGLE III fields in the SMC
bumps.
(Wyrzykowski et al. 2011MNRAS.416.2949W)
a
Mennickent et al. 2002A&A...393..887M
b
Paul et al. 2012MNRAS.421.3622P
th
Leandro R. Rı́mulo — Jun 19 , 2017 Dynamical viscous decretion disks 36/49
with light curves
Example:
One bump of
SMC SC5 65500.
−2
Σ0 = 1.7+0.6
−0.4 g cm
αbu = 0.7+0.38
−0.34
αd = 0.26+0.13
−0.1
with light curves
Whole sample - Mass distribution
Our sample is biased
towards more massive stars!
Blue: distribution of M
for our sample;
Green: IMF weighed by
fraction of Be stars from
the SMCa
Possible reasons for bias:
Uncertainties
increase with
magnitude;
Galactic late Be stars
are less dense and
variable.
Leandro R. Rı́mulo — Jun 19th , 2017
a Dynamical viscous decretion disks 38/49
with light curves
Whole sample - Asymptotic surface density
Slight trend: Σ0
increases with M ;
Our sample is biased
towards high disk
density (in comparison
with Vieira et al.a ).
Our sample must represent
the upper limit for disk
densities in the SMC.
a
Vieira et al. 2017MNRAS.464.3071V
with light curves
Whole sample - Disk life cycles

The duration of the bumps
diminish towards massive
stars. This suggests that early
Be stars from the SMC are
more variable, just like the
Galactic ones.
with light curves
Whole sample - Viscosity parameter

First note: there was a
large variability in our
determinations of α.
hαbu i = 0.63+0.52
−0.39
and
hαd i = 0.29+0.61
−0.20 .
Agreement with
disks of dwarf
novae!
Disagreement
with usual models
with MRI
predictions!
with light curves
Whole sample - Angular momentum loss
Simultaneous
determinations of Σ0
and αbu allow the
determination of the
steady-state AM loss
rate −J˙std .
Typical −J˙std for our
dense disks are
∼ 5 × 1036 g cm2 s−2 .
Disagreement: Geneva
modelsa of early Be
stars predict AM loss
rates ∼ 10 times bigger
than the obtained by
our densest disks!
a
Granada et al. 2013A&A...553A..25G
th
Leandro R. Rı́mulo — Jun 19 , 2017 Dynamical viscous decretion disks 42/49
with light curves
Whole sample - Angular momentum loss

Granada et al.a showed
that reducing WMAX ,
they generate disks for
longer periods, but the
AM loss rates are
negligibly affected!
Therefore, our
results for AM
loss indicate that
their assumed
internal
coupling isn’t
too strong!
a
Granada et al. 2013A&A...553A..25G
Conclusions
OGLE Warsaw Telescope (Las Campanas - Chile)
(Credits: Ewa Zegler-Poleska)
Conclusions
Be stars can be selected from the bulk of surveys by their photometric

variability. Some precious! light curves present clear bumps/dips
and clear inactive phases, making them specially easy to model.
Conclusions

We presented a new method to model the bumps and dips from the
light curves. The method uses a time-scaled pre-computed grid
Be light curves, calculated using the alpha-disk theory and
non-LTE radiative transfer simulations.
Conclusions

We found two empirical laws that describe well the
simulated bumps and dips. They allowed simplification of
the fitting process.
Conclusions

The α parameter is the most important in controling the
observed rates of build-up and dissipation, but it is not the
only one. Other parameters (M , Req , cos i, Σ0 , etc.) are
also important and they must be estimated in order to
estimate α.
Conclusions

The α parameter is the most important in controling the
observed rates of build-up and dissipation, but it is not the
only one. Other parameters (M , Req , cos i, Σ0 , etc.) are
also important and they must be estimated in order to
estimate α.
We identified the “mass reservoir effect”, which can also
affect determinations of α.
Conclusions
We applied our pipeline to 54 selected light curves from the SMC
(low metallicity) containing 81 bumps/dips.
Conclusions
Fundamental parameters for individual stars had large
uncertainties;
Conclusions
uncertainties;
Study of the whole sample showed that we selected
early Be stars with the densest disks
(hΣ0 i = 1.44+1.01
−0.75 g cm
−2
);
Conclusions
uncertainties;
(hΣ0 i = 1.44+1.01
−0.75 g cm
−2
);
The most massive stars appear to be more variable;
Conclusions
uncertainties;
(hΣ0 i = 1.44+1.01
−0.75 g cm
−2
);
We measured α for the first time for a statistically
significant sample of Be stars.
Conclusions
uncertainties;
(hΣ0 i = 1.44+1.01
−0.75 g cm
−2
);
Viscosity during the build-up is frequently bigger than
+0.52
during dissipation (hαbu i = 0.63−0.39 and hαd i = 0.29+0.61
−0.20 ).
Conclusions
uncertainties;
(hΣ0 i = 1.44+1.01
−0.75 g cm
−2
);
+0.52
−0.20 ).
Determinations of α challenge models based on the MRI!;
Conclusions
uncertainties;
(hΣ0 i = 1.44+1.01
−0.75 g cm
−2
);
+0.52
−0.20 ).
We draw attention to the AM loss of Be stars and
measured AM loss rates for a statistically significant sample
of Be stars.
Conclusions
uncertainties;
(hΣ0 i = 1.44+1.01
−0.75 g cm
−2
);
+0.52
−0.20 ).
We draw attention to the AM loss of Be stars and
measured AM loss rates for a statistically significant sample
of Be stars.
Determinations of AM loss by Be stars challenge the
assumptions of internal coupling of AM in stellar
evolutionary models!
Perspectives
(Credits: Boris Dmitriev)

Perspectives
Observational perspectives
Modeling bumps/dips from the light curves of the LMC, selected by
Sabogal et al.3 . (Currently working!);
3
Sabogal et al. 2005MNRAS.361.1055S
Perspectives
Obtain spectroscopic and photometric data of Be stars with bumps
belonging to star clusters. Constraining stellar parameters will allow
better constraints on disk parameters! (SOAR proposal sent!);
3
Perspectives
Try to remove the bias of densest disks! The disks are brighter in
the IR. Why not combine OGLE-IV light curves (V and I bands)
with VISTA-VMC light curves (J, H, Ks bands)?
3
Perspectives
Extend our study to Galactic Be stars showing bumps/dips and
take advantage of the photometric surveys using smaller telescopes
(e.g., ASAS, HATNet, KELT, SuperWASP, etc.). Try to crossmatch
with GAIA distances. (Contact with KELT team has been made!);
3
Perspectives
Extend our study to Galactic Be stars showing bumps/dips and
take advantage of the photometric surveys using smaller telescopes
(e.g., ASAS, HATNet, KELT, SuperWASP, etc.). Try to crossmatch
with GAIA distances. (Contact with KELT team has been made!);
Polarimetry can constrain the inclination angle! Follow Galactic Be
stars with our polarimetric campaigns at OPD.
3
Perspectives
Theoretical perspectives
The determinations of α could be affected by our assumption of
isothermal disk! Adapt SINGLEBE and HDUST to operate in a
non-isothermal treatment of the disk evolution. (I’d love to
participate on that!)
4
Kee et al. 2016MNRAS.458.2323K
Perspectives
Try to adress (even with approximations) the problem of the
line-driven wind raised by Kee et al.4 . How important is the radiative
wind?
4
Perspectives
wind?
Can we collaborate with the Geneva team in adressing the
angular momentum lost by the stars, which is transported by the
disks?
4
Perspectives
wind?
Can we collaborate with the Geneva team in adressing the
angular momentum lost by the stars, which is transported by the
disks?
Can we collaborate with turbulence theoreticians in building a
VDD from MHD simulations?
4
Thank you!

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The life cycles of viscous decretion

disks around Be stars: fundamental

Leandro Rocha Rı́mulo

Small Magellanic Cloud (Credits: Davide De Martin)

Massive stars (M & 8M )

The main components of the

HR-Diagram of 23000 nearby stars.

Light curve of 28 CMa, over 33 years.

(M. Ghoreyshi, priv. comm.)

Be stars are quite variable in several timescales.

The fastest rotators

Two proposed mechanisms for

VDD model of ζ Tau.

(Carciofi et al., 2009A&A...504..915C)

The Viscous Decretion Disk (VDD)

Examples of OGLE light curves showing complex activity.1

The Viscous Decretion Disk (VDD)

(Haubois et al., 2012ApJ...756..156H)

First determination of α for a Be star.

Leandro R. Rı́mulo — Jun 19th

The realization that the light curves of Be stars offer

This thesis studies the two main ingredients of the VDD:

HDUST image of the VDD of ζ Tau (in 2.16µm).

(Carciofi et al., 2009A&A...504..915C)

Physical description of the VDD

Physical description of the VDD

Assuming a thin and axisymmetric disk

Physical description of the VDD

Physical description of the VDD

Torque-free inner and outer boundaries:

Example of dynamical VDD producing complex light curves:

Assuming isothermal disk and α(R, t) = α(t):

where R̃ = R/Req and

2. The problem of R̃inj

⇒ We don’t have direct means for measuring Rinj !

2. The problem of R̃inj

⇒ We don’t have direct means for measuring Rinj !

3. Relevant steady-state physical quantities

3. Relevant steady-state physical quantities

One long bump: −J˙std is a good measure of the

4. The mass reservoir effect

Alphacrucis cluster (IAG-USP) (Credits: http://jornal.usp.br)

Motivation: To extract from bumps/dips like these:

...all the relevant physical quantities for better understanding

Radiative transfer models of bumps

Table: Representative grid of photometric bumps

Star Z M [M ] W t/tMS ατ [d]

An empirical law for pole-on and edge-on

ξbu (Star, cos i, Σ0 )

ξd (Star, cos i, Σ0 , τ̃bu )

ξd (Star, cos i, Σ0 , τ̃bu )

A fitting pipeline for bumps

A fitting pipeline for bumps

From τ̃ to t: We assume α(t) = αbu during build-up and

OGLE Warsaw Telescope (Las Campanas - Chile)

Whole sample - Disk life cycles

Whole sample - Viscosity parameter

Whole sample - Angular momentum loss

OGLE Warsaw Telescope (Las Campanas - Chile)

(Credits: Ewa Zegler-Poleska)

Be stars can be selected from the bulk of surveys by their photometric

Be stars can be selected from the bulk of surveys by their photometric