COMPOSITE MATERIALS

A composite material is a material which is produced from two or more

constituent materials. These two components display considerably diverse
physical and/or chemical characteristics. Merging the two or more basic
materials creates a new material with features different from the single
constituents.

Composite materials are composed of individual basic materials, the matrix

(aka “binder”) and the reinforcement.

The Matrix phase embeds, surrounds, and supports the reinforcements by

preserving their relative locations. The Reinforcements contribute their specific
physical and mechanical assets, thus enhancing the properties of the matrix.

▪ Matrix phase

The primary phase, having a continuous character, is called matrix. Matrix is

usually more ductile and less hard phase. It holds the dispersed phase and
shares a load with it.

▪ Dispersed (reinforcing) phase

The second phase (or phases) is embedded in the matrix in a Discontinuous

form. This secondary phase is called dispersed phase. Dispersed phase is usually
stronger than the matrix, therefore it is sometimes called Reinforcing phase

Some common composite materials include:

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 • Ceramic matrix composite: Ceramic spread out in a ceramic matrix.
These are better than normal ceramics as they are thermal shock and
fracture resistant

• Metal matrix composite: A metal spread throughout a matrix

• Reinforced concrete: Concrete strengthened by a material with high

tensile strength such as steel reinforcing bars

• Glass fibre reinforced concrete: Concrete which is poured into a glass

fibre structure with high zirconia content

• Translucent concrete: Concrete which encases optic fibres

• Engineered wood: Manufactured wood combined with other cheap

materials. One example would be particle board. A speciality material like
veneer can also be found in this composite

• Plywood: Engineered wood by gluing many thin layers of wood together

at different angles

• Engineered bamboo: Strips of bamboo fibre glued together to make a

board. This is a useful composite due to the fact it has higher compressive,
tensile and flexural strength than wood

• Parquetry: A square of many wood pieces put together often out of

hardwood. It is sold as a decorative piece

• Wood-plastic composite: Either wood fibre or flour cast in plastic

• Cement-bonded wood fibre: Mineralised wood pieces cast in cement. This

composite has insulating and acoustic properties

• Fibreglass: Glass fibre combined with a plastic which is relatively

inexpensive and flexible

• Carbon Fibre reinforced polymer: Carbon fibre set in plastic which has a
high strength-to-weight ratio

• Sandwich panel: A variety of composites that are layered on top of each

other

• Composite honeycomb: A selection of composites in many hexagons to

form a honeycomb shape.

• Papier-mache: Paper bound with an adhesive. These are found in crafts

• Plastic coated paper: Paper coated with plastic to improve durability. An

example of where this is used is in playing cards

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 • Syntactic foams: Light materials created by filling metals, ceramics or
plastics with microballoons. These ballons are made using either glass,
carbon or plastic.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES I (BASED ON MATRIX MATERIAL)

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)

Metal Matrix Composites are composed of a metallic matrix

(aluminum, magnesium, iron, cobalt, copper) and a dispersed ceramic
(oxides, carbides) or metallic (lead, tungsten, molybdenum) phase.

MMC have high strength and stiffness, as well as metal can withstand higher
temperature than polymeric materials.

Properties

• High Tensile Strength

• High Specific Gravity
• High Toughness (For Large diameter Fiber)
• High Creep Resistance
• High Elastic Modulus

Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC)

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Ceramic Matrix Composites are composed of a ceramic matrix and embedded
fibers of other ceramic material (dispersed phase).

CMC have high melting point temperature, high compressive strength, good
strength at elevated temperature and excellent resistance to oxidation.

Properties

•High strength

•Hardness

•High service temperature

•Chemical inertness

•Low density

Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

Polymer Matrix Composites are composed of a matrix

from thermoset (Unsaturated Polyester, Epoxiy(EP))
or thermoplastic (Polycarbonate (PC), Polyvinylchloride, Nylon, Polysterene) and
embedded glass, carbon, steel or Kevlar fibers (dispersed phase).

Polymer matrix composites have several advantages over metal and ceramic
matrix composites, such as low density, high extensibility, high shock absorption
capacity, low cost for fabrication etc. Therefore, polymer matrix composites are
more popular than metal and ceramic matrix composite.

Properties

•Ease of Fabrication

•Lower cost

•Polymer phase increases

– Elastic Modulus

– Yield Strength

– Tensile Strength

– Creep Resistance

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS II(BASED ON REINFORCING MATERIAL

STRUCTURE)

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Particulate Composites

Particulate Composites consist of a matrix reinforced by a dispersed phase in

form of particles.

1. Composites with random orientation of particles.

2. Composites with preferred orientation of particles.-

Dispersed phase of these materials consists of two-dimensional flat

platelets (flakes), laid parallel to each other.

Fibrous Composites

1. Short-fiber reinforced composites. Short-fiber reinforced composites

consist of a matrix reinforced by a dispersed phase in form of
discontinuous fibers (length < 100*diameter).

I. Composites with random orientation of fibers.

II. Composites with preferred orientation of fibers.

2. Long-fiber reinforced composites. Long-fiber reinforced composites

consist of a matrix reinforced by a dispersed phase in form of continuous
fibers.

I. Unidirectional orientation of fibers.

II. Bidirectional orientation of fibers (woven).

Laminate Composites

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When a fiber reinforced composite consists of several layers with different fiber
orientations, it is called multilayer (angle-ply) composite.

History of Composites

• The use of composite materials dates back to ancient Egypt, Turkey, and
Mesopotamia, where civilizations combined natural materials such as
straw to reinforce mud and clay in bricks and pottery.
• The concept of a laminated structure making use of fibre orientations is
also suggested to have originated in ancient Egypt in 3400 BCE in the form
of plywood.
• In the 1200s, the Mongols were credited as having developed the first
composite bow, using a sandwich structure made of animal bone,
ligaments, wood, pine resin, and other natural materials.
• Advanced composites are relatively new with their history originating in
the early 1900s with the development of artificial plastics and
thermosetting resins such as Bakelite in the USA.
• It wasn't until the 1930s, however, with the first industrial processes for
making glass fibres, that fibre reinforced polymers (FRPs) were born. World
War II promoted the production of FRPs, which led to the introduction of
glass fibre reinforced polymers (GFRPs) being used in airplanes,
automobiles, boat hulls, and even surfboards.
• In the late 1950s and early 1960s carbon and aramid fibres were
introduced to the world, with breakthroughs in research occuring in the
USA, UK, and Japan.
• Owing to their attractive strength-to-weight properties, the aerospace
industry began adopting carbon fibre reinforced polymers (CFRPs) and
has since led in the advancement of composite material design and
manufacturing.

In 2009, Boeing unveiled the 787 Dreamliner, a commercial airliner

comprising of 80% composites by volume.

GENERAL PROPERTIES:

• High Strength-to-weight ratio

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 • Corrosion Resistance
• Wear Resistance
• Greater fatigue Life
• Low electrical conductivity
• Anisotropic
• Lower cost
• Easy processing
• Covers almost all application areas

Advantages of Composite Materials

• Low costs compared to metals

• Design flexibility
• Resistance to a wide range of chemical agents
• Low weight
• Durability
• Electric insulation

Applications

• Space crafts: antenna structures, radar, rocket engines, satellite structures,

solar reflectors, etc.
• Aircrafts: airfoil surfaces, compressor blades, engine bay doors, fan
blades, flywheels, helicopter transmission structures, jet engines, rotor
shafts in helicopters, turbine blades, turbine shafts, wing box structures,
etc.
• Automobiles: abrasive materials, bearing materials, electrical machinery,
engine parts (bearing materials, connecting rod, crankshafts, cylinder,
piston, etc.), pressure vessels, truss members, cutting tools, electrical
brushes, etc.
• Wind turbine blades: wind turbine blades of carbon-wood epoxy
composites.
• Cemented carbide: usual cemented carbides are based on

Tungsten carbide(WC) - cutting tools , wire drawing dies, rock drilling bits

Titanium carbide(TiC), - high-temperature applications such as gas turbine

nozzle vanes, cutting tools for steels, valve seats, thermocouple protection
tubes, torch tips,

Chromium carbide (Cr3C2)- Earing seal rings, valve liners, spray nozzles .

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

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 There are three types of composite manufacturing processes: Open molding,
Closed molding and Cast polymer molding. There are a variety of processing
methods within these molding categories, each with its own benefits.

1.Open Molding

Composite materials (resin and fibers) are placed in an open mold, where
they cure or harden while exposed to the air. Tooling cost for open molds is
often inexpensive, making it possible to use this technique for prototype and
short production runs.

A) Hand Lay-Up

Hand lay-up is the most common and least expensive open-molding

method because it requires the least amount of equipment.

Gel coat is first applied to the mold using a spray gun for a high quality
surface. When the gel coat has cured sufficiently, roll stock fiberglass
reinforcement is manually placed on the mold. The laminating resin is applied
by pouring, brushing, spraying, or using a paint roller.

Subsequent layers of fiberglass reinforcement are added to build laminate

thickness. Low density core materials such as end-grain balsa, foam, and
honeycomb, are commonly used to stiffen the laminate. This is known as
sandwich construction.

Simple, single cavity molds of fiberglass composites construction are

generally used.This process is used to make both large and small items,
including boats, storage tanks, tubs and showers.

B) Spray-Up

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 Spray-up, or chopping, is an open mold method similar to hand lay-up in its
suitability for making boats, tanks, transportation components, and tub/shower
units in a large variety of shapes and sizes.

Gel coat is first applied to the mold and allowed to cure. Continuous strand
glass roving and initiated resin are then fed through a chopper gun, which
deposits the resin-saturated “chop” on the mold.

The laminate is then rolled to thoroughly saturate the glass strands and
compact the chop. Additional layers of chop laminate are added as required
for thickness.

Roll stock reinforcements, such as woven roving or knitted fabrics, can be

used in conjunction with the chopped laminates.

Simple, single cavity molds of fiberglass composites construction are generally

used.

This process is used for making boats, tanks, transportation components, and
tub/shower units in a large variety of shapes and sizes.

C) Filament Winding

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Filament winding is an automated open molding process that uses a rotating
mandrel as the mold. The male mold configuration produces a finished inner
surface and a laminate surface on the outside diameter of the product.

1. Tows of fibre are passed through a bath of resin.

2. The fibre and resin are wound onto a mandrel, rotating at a specified
rate.

3. The feed is spread across the length of the mandrel through a fibre-
feeding machine.

4. The filament is laid in a set, predetermined pattern specified to the final

product.

5. The laminate is cured on the mandrel, once an adequate number of

layers have been applied.

6. The moulded product is taken off the mandrel.

2.Closed Molding

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 In closed-molding, raw materials (fibers and resin) cure inside a two-sided
mold or within a vacuum bag (shut off from air). Closed-molding processes
are usually automated and require special equipment, so they’re mainly
used in large plants that produce huge volumes of material.

A) VACUUM BAG MOLDING

Vacuum bag molding improves the mechanical properties of open-mold

laminates. This process can produce laminates with a uniform degree of
consolidation, while at the same time removing entrapped air, thus reducing
the finished void content.

In the simplest form of vacuum bagging, a flexible film (PVA, nylon, mylar, or
polyethylene) is placed over the wet lay up, the edges are sealed, and a
vacuum is drawn.

Pulling a vacuum from within the bag uses atmospheric pressure to eliminate
voids and force excess resin from the laminate. The addition of pressure
further results in high fiber concentration and provides better adhesion
between layers of sandwich construction.

Molds are similar to those used for conventional open mold processes.

B) VACUUM INFUSION

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 Vacuum infusion can produce laminates with a uniform degree of
consolidation, producing high strength, lightweight structures.

The reinforcement and core materials are laid-up dry in the mold by hand,
providing the opportunity to precisely position the reinforcement.

When the resin is pulled into the mold the laminate is already compacted;
therefore, there is no room for excess resin.

Vacuum infusion enables very high resin-to-glass ratios and the mechanical
properties of the laminate are superior.

Vacuum infusion is suitable to mold very large structures.

Molds are similar to those used for conventional open mold processes.

C) PULTRUSION

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 Pultrusion is a continuous process for the manufacture of products having
a constant cross section, such as rod stock, structural shapes, beams,
channels, pipe, tubing, fishing rods, and golf club shafts.

Continuous strand glass fiber, carbon fiber or basalt fiber roving, mat,
cloth, or surfacing veil is impregnated in a resin bath and then pulled
(therefore the term pul-trusion) through a steel die by a powerful tractor
mechanism.

The steel die consolidates the saturated reinforcement, sets the shape of
the stock, and controls the fiber/resin ratio. The die is heated to rapidly
cure the resin.

Hardened steel dies are machined and include a preform area to do the
initial shaping of the resin-saturated roving.

The latest pultrusion technology uses direct injection dies, in which the
resin is introduced inside the die, rather than through an external resin
bath.

D) Centrifugal Casting

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 In centrifugal casting, reinforcements and resin are deposited against the
inside surface of a rotating mold. Centrifugal force holds them in place
until the material cures or hardens.

Centrifugal casting is used to produce hollow parts (like pipes with two
smooth surfaces).

It’s especially well-suited for producing structures with large diameters,

such as pipes for oil and chemical industry installations and chemical
storage tanks.

Centrifugal casting is increasingly being used to produce telephone,

street light and other poles.

Advantages of centrifugal casting include a finished exterior surface and

containment of volatiles during processing.

E) Continuous Lamination

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 Continuous lamination is used to make flat or corrugated sheets and
panels for products used in truck and RV sidewalls, road signs, skylights,
building panels and electrical insulating materials.

Typically, high output machines up to 10 feet (3 meters) wide combine

reinforcement and resin on plastic film that is pulled through the process. A
second plastic film is applied over the reinforcement and resin to allow mixing
and exclusion of air that is usually accomplished by compaction rollers.

Cure is completed in an oven. Panels are automatically trimmed to width

and cut to length. Corrugated sheet is produced by forming shoes which hold
the compacted sheet in the required shape during cure.

Polyester and acrylic modified polyesters (for improved water resistance)

are the primary resins for continuous lamination.

3.Cast Polymer Molding

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 A mixture of resin and fillers are poured into a mold (typically without
reinforcements) and left to cure or harden. These molding methods sometimes
use open molding and sometimes use closed molding.

A) Gel Coated Cultured Stone Molding

Gel coat is a specialized polyester resin that is formulated to provide a

cosmetic outer surface on a composite product, and to provide weather-
ability for outdoor products. Gel coat consists of a base resin and additives.

• Marble: The natural marble look is reproduced by formulating a matrix using

calcium carbonate filler. In some cases, other fillers or combinations of fillers
may be used. Resin, initiator, filler, and pigment are mixed to form a solid-
color matrix..
• Onyx: The process of manufacturing cultured onyx is similar to that of
cultured marble, except alumina trihydrate (ATH) filler is used. The cultured
onyx matrix generally has a higher resin content compared with cultured
marble, and the combination of materials creates a translucent appearance
• Granite: The cultured granite appearance is created by blending colored
chips into the resin matrix. These chips can be made from cultured marble
castings, thermoplastics, or even actual granite stone that has been ground
into particles. The cultured granite matrix usually consists of polyester resin,
initiator, colored chips, and ATH filler.

B) Solid Surface Molding

Solid surface products (also known as densified products) consist of
a cast matrix without a gel-coated surface. A vacuum can be used to remove
entrapped air in the matrix. Solid surface products offer limitless design styles.

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Engineered stone refers to cast products that combine natural stone materials
with polymer casting resins. These products, by virtue of the actual stone in the
matrix, are the hardest and most durable product of all consumer-grade cast
polymer products.

Features include: high heat resistance, low thermal expansion, and good stain or
scratch resistance. The engineered stone matrix bonds relatively large sized
particles (compared with fillers) of natural stone with a thermoset resin.

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